Emily Dosal 

Professor Lawrence Hirschfield 

Childhood in Culture: Midterm 

22 October 2020 

Childhood in Culture: Midterm 

1. Describe the way good children make good parents. Give two examples from the 

readings. 

Good children are those that feel their unique personalities and distinctions are 

recognized in the home. It would be impossible to further describe what “good children” are 

and how they function without explaining how the parents co-foster this outcome of 

“goodness”. Bigler describes in his piece “How Parents Shape Development of Values in 

Children” that thought behavior and socialization go hand in hand, as the social process is 

bidirectional, therefore the environment the parents create in the home, as well as the 

behaviors they practice, become a regular influence on the child, especially in their earlier, 

formative years. This is even more true when the parents are presenting children with useful 

and relevant information, which they are more likely to digest over direct information or 

targeting of ideas that has no strong relevance or positive outcome. Children repeat 

information--despite the fact that they do carry more influence from their peer group and 

village over their parents, children take into account the environment that their parents have 

created for them and that they live in. With this in mind, children also adopt their values and 

cultural practices from their peer group. If these values are strong and supportive, it thus 

influences the home via the bidirectional social process, not only from the immediate 

exchange between parent and child but because the parents are apart of the larger 

community and peer group that the child is most influenced by. Harris uses the example of 
 Yanira, a six year old girl raised in the Amazonian social group The Matsigenka. Yanira 

develops calm and stability from the practices of the village, thus influencing her parents and 

home life with said stability. Harris argues that the nurture assumption is inherently false, 

and that nurture is not synonymous with environment. Therefore what makes good children 

are positive social practices and behaviors from the peer group and community, thus 

molding good parents by bringing those values to the home environment. 

2. Both Premack and Csibra & Gergely describe uniquely human practices of 

pedagogy. Describe both positions and highlight what makes them unique to 

humans. 

Csibra and Gergely take the position that children identify manners of action as new 

information when presented with an action leading to a final place or end result. When children are 

showed an action without being told the end context beforehand, they focus more so on the end 

result than the actions taken to arrive at said end result. Cisbra and Gergley demonstrate this via the 

example of the mouse going into the house. If the child is told beforehand that the mouse lives in 

the house, they digest the actions to getting to the house as new and relevant information. Csibra 

and Gergley note that natural pedagogy does tend to exist outside the Western world, although in 

different capacities and contexts (i.e Nigerian adults teaching children in rural areas certain 

performative tasks), as human communication is ostensive--humans not only communicate the 

message intended to influence but also that the message is “being intentionally communicated” 

(149). Infants engage in natural pedagogy through the expression of generalized knowledge from 

adults, and both infants and children expect to be taught generalized knowledge rather than specific 

episodic information. These actions are unique to humans because in the animal kingdom, Csibra 
and Gergely argue that there is no evidence suggesting non-humans share generalized knowledge 

with each other. Most if not all animal communication is in the direct interest of the other animal 

being communicated with--the vital information that pertains to the “here and now” (149). 

Furthermore, animals do not pass on generalized knowledge to other animals even after observing 

the few examples we have of slightly more “generalized” communication between animals (food and 

alarm calls). Animals do not exchange and teach each other general information that goes beyond 

the here and now like humans do--they are not concerned with developing complexity or higher 

innovation but rather completing the same, basic, biological functions in order to survive. 

Adaptation in animal species’ behavior develops over time as species adapt to various environments, 

but these new ways of performing basic biological tasks do not build complexity or are taught as 

new, generalized information with intention.  

Premack argues that human intelligence and pedagogy is unique in that humans contain 

variability, ex. “High on social skills but low on spatial” (309). This variability and modularity create 

the need for human intelligence to foster pedagogy, as humans are a naturally highly intelligent 

species, therefore generalized knowledge and concepts of innovation are passed on to other humans 

and future generations of humans. Premack argues that the pedagogue is aware of the ideal product 

looks like, thus providing superior feedback in order to continue this innovation. In addition to this, 

the pedagogue describes the purpose of said information, complimenting Csbira and Gergley’s 

argument that messages are intentionally communicated. Pedagogy increases the complexity of the 

group, leading to stronger and higher innovations. Human pedagogy differs from the animal 

kingdom, Premack argues, because we as humans have always been more complex than the ape we 

are closely related to, from standing up straight to stone tools to building fires. Pedagogical 

judgement relies heavily on the appearance of the product. Judgement itself is based solely on 
appearance while the efficiency of the product includes appearance but also further context about 

the workings and development of the product. Premack also notes that pedagogy is built on and 

exists upon social correction and constantly moving upwards. Human communication is always 

intended to build better, smarter, more efficient results, with the intention that this knowledge may 

be further developed and passed on to create the best final product and one even better in the 

future. 

3. Senghas et al. describe the development of Nicaraguan sign language. Why is this 

development important to our understanding of the acquisition of language among 

non-deaf children? 

Senghas’ study on the development of a new Nicaraguan sign language reflects on a child’s 

process to acquire new information in a language. Senghas’s study led to two conclusions on this 

process. Children approach learning languages with a “dissecting, segmental approach to bundles of 

information” (1781). This analyzed approach breaks down any other organizational patterns, as the 

child will dissect the bundle immediately and pull it apart to understand it whilst ignoring and 

predispositions about the language or its structuring. The bundle presented is what is going to be 

immediately analyzed. The second conclusion is that children have a predisposition for linear 

sequencing, even when it is possible to combine elements simultaneously. Senghas argues that this 

imprint of learning is seen in the development of languages, i.e sentences and phrases. Studying sign 

language also reflects on how non-deaf children use motion to communicate. Non-deaf children use 

motion in a more holistic way, creating shorter motions that holistically accompany the speech, 

resulting in manner and path expressed simultaneously . Deaf children who sign create movements 

based in gestural expression, imitating the actual motion of what they are speaking about. Senghas 
sites the example of the Nicaraguan child expressing in sign language the cat swallowing the bowling 

ball, creating two separate motions creating a sequence, creating manner and path sequentially. 

Additionally, observing children from before the mid 80s and how they learned NSL versus children 

in more recent years shows that there is a preadolescent sensitive period before adolescence, where 

children participate in a discrete, combinatorial system to learn language.   

4. White parents often believe that their preschool age children are colorblind. Describe 

how parents are mistaken about this and why they might be mistaken.  

It is problematic for white parents to teach preschool age children colorblindness 

because it teaches children to be hyper aware of skin color (as it is impossible for children to 

not notice and ignore skin color), and to feel ashamed and uncomfortable if they notice 

another child’s skin color. By teaching the children that all skin colors are not noticeable or 

relevant, children will inherently notice them and the social contexts that various skin tones 

are connected to, and thus feel wary and awkward about their own reaction and position in 

these social contexts. Children will learn about racism in other environments outside of the 

home, so parents are mistaken in that avoiding the conversation and insisting skin color is 

irrelevant only delays the child’s understanding of racial contexts. Colorblind socialization 

leads to white anxiety. Parents should instead teach their children about race and the social 

contexts earlier on so that they may be aware of their own behavior as well as others to 

foster a more comfortable, actually equal environment rather than ignoring the elephant in 

the room. 

5. Give two examples of how the community is more important than parents in shaping 

the beliefs of toddlers and preschoolers. 

teaches​ ​the child, therefore the child will come home and use the language learned at school. 

One prime example of this is the British child being sent to boarding school and adapting 

the language, cultural patterns and stereotypes of their peer group at boarding school, having 

little in common with their fathers back home. Alternatively, geneticists have found that the 

child may still adopt patterns and behaviors from the father, but ultimately language, culture 

and attitude will be adopted from the boarding school peer group over the parents at home.   

Powell and Spelke conducted experiments on infants observing heterogeneous 

conditions that determine how similar a subject is to the peer group actions they are familiar 

with. The study found that very young children acquire knowledge of stereotypes in social 

groups and expect others to conform to the actions and stereotypes of their social group. 

Particularly, the study found that infants possess early knowledge that social group members 

will or do act in similar ways, as well as make similar actions and choices.  

6. What do cooties and race have in common? 

Cooties, unlike race are a completely conceptual understanding--race is conceptual 

but more concrete as it refers to the physicality of someone’s makeup, in this case, skintone. 

The conceptual part of race comes with behavior, language, and understanding of attitude 

and stereotype. Cooties, like race, symbolize an inherent difference from one person to 

another. Cooties are a symbol of rejection, and race inherently, particularly in white Western 

concepts, is used as a term of rejection even in the most subtle ways. Cooties are caught 

from a person of a different race, or look (usually gender), therefore girls must be avoided in 

a boy’s mind because they contain “cooties” as part of their inherent gender makeup. The 
 girl did not necessarily “catch” it from anyone, but rather was naturally born with it just by 

being a girl. Race functions in the same way--people reject certain races and try to avoid 

them not because it’s necessarily contagious (although people do worry about certain 

stereotypical behaviors and language being “caught”), but because it is naturally apart of their 

makeup.  

7. Kohl analyses problems with the way Rosa Parks’ story is misrepresented in middle 

schooler’s textbooks. Describe three ways that these misrepresentations play into 

racist images of African Americans. 

Children learn from school textbooks that African Americans were slaves and come 

from lower class homes and professions. A girl, when asked about how she imagined Rosa 

Parks, described her as someone working miserable, hard, low end work as someone with a 

lack of work skills, creating a “Rosa the Tired” perception.  

Another problematic misinterpretation, in a 90s textbook still used today, is that 

Rosa Parks happened to be tired and angry on that particular day, thus rebelling against the 

bus rules. It rules out the event as a single moment of impatience rather than the result of 

impending and long term social inequality and racial violence.  

A third example is when one textbook described segregation as: “In those days, there 

was still segregation in parts of the United States” (37), suggesting that segregation no longer 

exists in the United States.  

8. Describe two experiments that demonstrate that infants have a moral sense. Discuss 

whether you believe that these experiments indicate that a moral sense is innate. 
 In Bloom’s book ​Just Babies: The Origins of Good and Evil,​ Bloom reflects on an 

experiment conducted with infants, in which a puppet show was shown with three characters. The 

middle puppet rolled a ball to the puppet on the right, who rolled it back to him. The middle puppet 

then rolls the ball to the puppet on the left, who runs away with it. When shown the three characters 

and asked to take a treat from each of them, the infant chose to take the treat from the naughty left 

puppet, signaling that the infant has a preference for the puppets who acted kindly versus someone 

who caused trouble and disruption. They also found that babies stared longer at the puppet that 

takes the ball. 

Another example Bloom cites is that of showing infants an animated video where 

one object helped another squeeze through a gap, or blocked the gap. The results showed that the 

babies viewed the helping acts as positive and the hindering acts as negative. 

These experiments showcase babies’ sensitivity to humans. Babies pay close 

attention to humans’ voices and actions, and get upset if a human stays still or stops expressing and 

showing interaction with the babies. Babies have a biological notion to be drawn to someone who 

gives attention and cares. If they witness someone taking attention or objects being shared away, , 

either with the ball or the space to get through, the baby understands this as a blockage of 

communication and ability. Infants are good at sharing--this is another example of a biological 

tendency for needing support, so when the object of support being shared is taken, the infant 

understands that the subject who took away the object of support is negative.  

 
 9. What is essentialism and why is it important to understanding beliefs about race? 

Give an example of essentialist beliefs in preschoolers.  

Essentialism is the idea that objects and classes of objects contain essential rather 

than just having accidental and random characteristics. Essentialism is important in understanding 

beliefs about race because race beliefs are inherently essential. They are not merely biological but 

social and cultural, and without recognizing the social and cultural context, race can be dismissed 

and not deemed relevant information, thus adding to racial social and political violence.  

Kelly et. al reflects on the “othering” that small children and infants contain 

preferences for faces that look similar to them, and have “preference-based classificatory 

judgements” as early as 3 months of age. Rhodes, Leslie and Tworek found that general language is 

a mechanism for social essentialist beliefs being transmitted to children, in addition to their inherent 

understanding of othering. The combination of these two learning functions in children develop an 

environment of essentialism in preschoolers based on how the parents transfer these languages in 

addition to what races may be acceptable or present in the child’s environment.