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MASSEY UNIVERSITY

FINAL OPEN BOOK – OPEN WEB EXAM FOR

175.729 PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE

SEMESTER TWO 2020

Name: Sue Frankland

Student ID number: 16220086

This exam is made up of SIX (6) questions.

All questions are of equal value.

Students are required to select and answer THREE (3) QUESTIONS FROM THIS LIST

The due date is on 4th November, 5.00 pm,

by which date the exam should be submitted through Stream.

You will not be able to submit the final open-book open-web exam
past the due date.

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Select THREE (3) QUESTIONS FROM THE LIST OF SIX.

Clearly indicate the number of the question you are answering.

1. Identify and describe six types of cultural display rules. Discuss the importance of
understanding how and why these rules differ across cultures.

2. Define holistic thinking and analytic thinking. How might the concepts of
independence and interdependence relate to these cognitive processing styles?

3. Describe the psychosocial impacts of colonisation on cultural identity and how

effects may be transmitted across generations.

4. Schizophrenia is a universal syndrome. Discuss the accuracy of this statement.

5. Describe the concept of theoretical or construct equivalence. Why does this need
to be considered when conducting cross-cultural research?

6. Is Aotearoa New Zealand individualistic or collectivist? Provide a compelling

argument for your point of view.

++++++++

Q1 Identify and describe six types of cultural display rules. Discuss the
importance of understanding how and why these rules differ across
cultures.

In every culture, individuals grow up learning acceptable ways of how and when

to behave in a particular way, these are our cultural norms or display rules. We learn

these behaviours, mannerisms and gestures, early in life and they determine how we react

to specific stimuli or behave in specific situations (Matumo & Hwang, 2005). Research

suggests that the same six basic display rules are displayed by all cultures (Lindsay,

2020a). These are; deamplification, when someone minimises their emotions and

expresses less than what they feel (after an argument); amplification, when emotion is

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exaggerated and expressed as more than you feel (smiling when you feel like shouting);

neutralisation, showing zero emotion, making it hard to interpret (playing poker);

qualification, showing emotion but following with another emotion (smiling then crying);

masking to hide emotion (flight steward with an unruly passenger); and simulation when

showing emotion that you don’t feel at all (being happy when depressed) (Lindsay,

2020a) . These six display rules depict six different emotions; disgust, anger, fear,

sadness, happiness and surprise (Lindsay, 2020a). But as the majority of research

originates from North American studies (Lindsay, 2020a) and a mono-cultural view, can

universality be claimed? There may be some universality in emotional antecedents,

appraisal processes and expressions (Lindsay, 2020a), but there are equally important

cultural differences, such as how often an antecedent stimulates a response, or what

caused it (Lim, 2016). It has been found that individualistic cultures tend to display more

amplified emotions, such as excitement as opposed to collective cultures, who may be less

expressive (Lindsay, 2020a). We reveal our innermost emotional state through facial

expression and the basis of social interaction is the ability to accurately interpret them

(Pogosyan, 2016). We can express emotions verbally or non-verbally through body

language (crossed arms); facial expressions (scowling) or hand gestures (waving) (Roter

et al., 2006), but emotions are complex and multi-faceted and sometimes it is difficult to

understand them (Lindsay, 2020a) as they could be used either for self protective or pro-

social reasons. Expressions of emotion can have different meanings for different cultures

and not everybody interprets them in the same way (Lim, 2016), which illustrates the

importance of culture in understanding display rules. Individualistic cultures which are

generally western cultures, tend to have higher expressivity of emotion and display it

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more often and to a higher degree than collective cultures, who favour less expressivity,

and favour neutral or masked expressions (Lindsay, 2020a). The reason for this could be

that collectivism puts the harmony of the group above the preservation of self (Lindsay,

2020a). If more cultural subjectivity was applied to individual behaviour there may be

less confusion and unhappiness in the world. Our personal display rules and

understanding of them are mostly ingrained and automatic (Stai, 2020), yet we often tend

not to consider this when confronted with a different response to our own, which usually

results in various unexpected emotional responses, such as anger, unhappiness or surprise.

For example, my first husband was Italian, his parents had never learnt English. I without

thought would automatically display various facial and bodily expressions to various

emotions, whilst casually and calmly speaking with my husband. Initially I was quite

surprised when my husband informed me I was upsetting his mother, as she thought I

was being rude or angry purely from what she saw on my face, and how she interpreted it.

It made me very aware of displays of emotion to the point I found myself concertedly

displaying neutralisation when in the presence of my mother-in-law. I eventually learnt

Italian and once this happened she explained that my unconsidered expressions had a

totally different meaning to what she associated with the same expressions in Italian

culture. For example; when I placed my hand under my chin and then moved it away, it

was to express considered thought, to her it was quite a rude gesture, and meant that I was

saying I could care less about what was being said. Another example of the importance of

considering culture, was when I was dealing with African and non-African staff. There

was great tension between the marketing director and one of the safety auditors.

Eventually I asked the director why this is so. He explained that this individual was

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extremely rude as every time he called him in, the guy sat down without permission and

then looked at the floor, not speaking, making it extremely difficult to deal with him. I

explained, that as an African he was expressing deamplification as he needs to be

physically ‘lower’ than his elder, not make eye contact, and will only express his feelings

if given ‘permission’ by the ‘elder’, which was him, and that this cultural display was out

of respect not disrespect. I also recall how one Japanese client was visually shocked

when during a meeting, he offered his business card to an individual and the person

simply took it with one hand, didn’t not acknowledge it or offer any further response,

placing it in his pocket. Japanese culture dictates that respectfully, as part of the ritual, a

card is given with two hands and two hands should be used to receive the card, whilst face

to face, at the same time and once accepted should read the details and then display the

card on the meeting table. Placing it in a pocket is to say that you do not value the

importance of the card and the person, and considered disrespectful.

Display rules dictate how we handle any situation that requires displays of

emotions, whether sad or happy. Emotion plays such an integral part in our lives, that

understanding cultural similarities and differences of display rules, might help prevent

harmful miscommunication and/or negative outcomes. Being able to recognise these

similarities and differences in emotion may also help us better understand the different

paths people take to achieve health and well-being.

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REFERENCES
Lim, N. (2016). Cultural differences in emotion: differences in emotional arousal level between
the East and the West. 5(2). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imr.2016.03.004

Lindsay, N. (2020a). Emotional and Cultural Display Rules. Massey University, Auckland,
Lecture 15.
https://webcast.massey.ac.nz/Mediasite/Play/7b3481588a4c4d07aabb098d76607c591d

Lindsay, N. (2020b). Individualism and Collectivism. Cultural Realities, Topic 3: Lectures.

https://webcast.massey.ac.nz/Mediasite/Play/321737df2e2a4228a55cb746fce39b2e1d

Matumo, D., & Hwang, H.-S. (2005). Cultural Display Rules.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp126

Pogosyan, M. (2016). Emotion Perception Across Cultures. Psychology Today.

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/between-cultures/201610/emotion-perception-
across-cultures

Roter, D., Frankel, R., Hall, J., & Sluyter, D. (2006). The Expression of Emotion Through
Nonverbal Behavior in Medical Visits.
PMC. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1484830/

Singelis, T. M., Bond, M. H., Sharkey, W. F., & Lai, C. S. Y. (1999, 1999/05/01). Unpackaging
Culture’s Influence on Self-Esteem and Embarrassability: The Role of Self-Construals.
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(3), 315-341.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022199030003003

Stai, J. (2020). Culture and emotion. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds). DEF publishers.
https://nobaproject.com/modules/culture-and-emotion

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Q4. Schizophrenia is a universal syndrome. Discuss the accuracy of this

statement.
Schizophrenia, a severe brain disorder manifesting in symptoms such as hearing

voices and hallucinations and affecting men more than women (Torres, 2020). Sufferers

may also experience confusion, with disordered thought processes or bizarre behaviour

(Torres, 2020). According to classification systems, a diagnosis can only be made if

symptoms have been present for ≥ six months and after an examination by a psychiatrist

to rule out diseases which may mimic schizophrenia (Torres, 2020). It has been accepted

that genetics and environment are contributors to the aetiology of schizophrenia, with life

stressors also playing a role in symptom onset and disease course direction. In general,

schizophrenia has been studied from a western, mono-cultural, bio-medical perspective,

with researchers hunting for bio-markers to indicate onset and progression (Woo, 2019).

In western developed countries, it is thought only by medical treatment will symptoms

improve and recurrence diminished, as there is no cure (Torres, 2020). This ‘no cure’

claim is causing researchers to seek out more innovative, safer treatments, but still

focussed on the bio-medical aetiology of schizophrenia, with studies of genetics,

behaviour conditioning and advanced brain imaging (Torres, 2020). The known

neurobiological risk factors do not have sufficient predictive power for selecting

preventions in asymptomatic patients at risk, however; once the symptoms develop into

the five year prodome, the impending outbreak of the disease can be predicted with

accuracy (Klosterkotter et al., 2011). A classic example of hindsight as a ‘perfect science.

It is a complex disorder with many misconceptions such as; schizophrenia means split or

multiple personalities and little consensus on the universality of the disease or how much

it differs on core definitions and grouping by symptoms regarding cultural or contextual

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factors (Canino & Alegria, 2008). This is probably due to a lack of definite biological

markers, imprecise measurements and no benchmark for validating most psychiatric

conditions (Canino & Alegria, 2008). Schizophrenia studies are predominantly based on

western biomedical thinking and understanding. The discovery of psychopharmaceuticals

and functional neuroimaging advances have shown that aspects of psychiatric disorders

do have a biological basis, however; to fully understand psychiatry, the cultural context in

which it is practised needs to be considered (Hoschl, 2016). The influence exerted by

cultural specific systems of knowledge and power must be included, to accurately

diagnose and manage schizophrenic patients. Clinicians are urged to consider culture and

context in determining the manifestation of psychopathology, without imposing their

individual views (Canino & Alegria, 2008). Sufficient evidence supports cultural

background influences on every facet of an individual’s illness, (Karno & Jenkins, 1993).

A further concern is for the variation in classification systems, for example, higher

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is found using the American

Psychological Association’s DSM-IV compared to using the International Statistical

Class of Disease and Related Health Problems, 10th edition (ICD-10), developed by the

World Health Organisation (Canino & Alegria, 2008). Both these systems require

symptoms to be developmentally inappropriate, persistent and frequent, however; the

operational definitions of what the term means within cultural context, are not provided

by either of the two (Canino & Alegria, 2008). The problem is, this leaves the assessment

and interpretation decision to the clinician, creating uncertainty and inconsistency across

different studies. Risk factors alone cannot be used for prediction and prevention without

considering the holistic make-up of the client. It is felt that the label ‘schizophrenia’ has

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been socially constructed through ideological systems, none of which are empirical and to

date, with no definite evidence of the disease’s aetiology (Sarbin, 1991). Walker (1991),

suggests that psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia are nothing but linguistic

abstractions and they exist only by consensus, and persist only by convention. An

individual suffering schizophrenia in the western world, is seen as ‘sick’ or ‘mad’ but not

in most developing cultures. Laing (1964) comments that ‘The mad things done and said

by a schizophrenic will remain essentially a closed book if one does not understand their

existential context’. Psychiatry has found ways of linguistically contorting and confusing

lived experiences with ‘essential truths’ of its own (Walker, 2006) and Bill O’Hanlon

(1989) likens a client’s experience to cookie dough, vague and malleable and shaped by

the interpretation and language of the therapist.

Since schizophrenia is a disease of the mind, cultural context is important and can

have a serious impact on how it manifests. This is evident in that developing countries

experience more visual and acoustical symptoms, such as the Xhosa’s of South Africa

who experience culturally bound, persecutory delusions, triggered by intense fear of

witchcraft; and in South East Asia, similar symptoms are experienced with intense fear of

loss of fertility due to Koro (the perceived retraction of genitals into the body) (Lindsay,

2020). These conditions are real within their cultures and individuals experience pain and

physical symptoms which have no physiological basis (Hoschl, 2016). The West in

comparison, suffer more thought interruptions and removals. Interestingly, cultures who

value family more, have familial centred delusions and those cultures where religion is

important have religiously centred delusions (Klosterkotter et al., 2011). There is

growing understanding of cultural sensitivity in schizophrenia, highlighting how much

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our identities are dependent on the culture we grow up in. Another finding, is that

diseases such as diabetes and lung cancer are the same in both individualistic and

collectivist cultures such as North America and China, but not schizophrenia, which can

take extreme and different forms depending where the individual is from (Phillips, 2001).

Developing countries, when ‘hearing voices’, tend to have nicer voices than the western

experience, with Ghanaians and Indians reporting ‘voices’ being playful or entertaining

and Americans reporting theirs to be violent and threatening (Luhrmann, 2014). These

differences were explained by Luhrmann (2014), to be due to distinct social values;

Americans being more independent and individualistic and seeing their hallucinations as

invasions by strangers, whereas Ghanaian and Indian cultures with collectivistic values,

heard and accepted the voices of family and friends.

The term schizophrenia is now thought to be outdated with Professor Marius

Romme, the founder and principal theorist of the ‘Hearing Voices Movement’, claiming

the term is unscientific, stigmatising, has ‘outlived’ its once claimed usefulness and is

damaging to those individuals to whom the term is applied. There is an increasing

movement to replace it with suggestions like ‘altered perception’.

Schizophrenia is generally accepted as a universal syndrome but this subjective

stance may be more because of the Americanisation of the world’s understanding of

mental illness than fact. There are important bodies of evidence to suggest that mental

illnesses have never been the same worldwide, either in form or prevalence but ignited

and shaped by the ethos of time and place, with western countries seeing it as a disease

and most non-western societies understanding it and accepting it as part of natural

existence. There is good evidence to suggest that while ‘teaching’ the world to think like

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the west, they have created a western symptom repertoire (Watters, 2010) with cultural

contextual factors ignored by the spreading of western knowledge of mental illness in the

name of science. The answer to whether Schizophrenia is a universal syndrome is

subjective, but for me, the answer is No.

REFERENCES

Canino, G., & Alegria, M. (2008). Psychiatric diagnosis – is it universal or relative to culture? J
Child Psychology Psychiatry. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01854.x

Hoschl, C. (2016). In Schizophrenia across cultures.

https://institute.progress.im/en/content/schizophrenia-across-cultures

Karno, M., & Jenkins, J. H. (1993). Cross-Cultural Issues in the Course and Treatment of
Schizophrenia. Psychiatric Clinics, 16. https://doi.org/DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-
953X(18)30177-1

Klosterkotter, J., Schultze-Lutter, F., Bechdolf, A., & Ruhrmann, S. (2011). Prediction and
prevention of schizophrenia: what has been achieved and where to go next? World
Psychiatry. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00044.x

Lindsay, N. (2020). Cultural Influences I.

https://webcast.massey.ac.nz/Mediasite/Play/a1758109f26d42359ab3fe61e58c746b1d

Luhrmann, T. (2014). Hallucinatory 'voices' shaped by local culture, Stanford anthropologist

says. Stanaford News. https://news.stanford.edu/2014/07/16/voices-culture-luhrmann-
071614/

Phillips, M. R. (2001). Characteristics, experience, and treatment of schizophrenia in China.

Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181649/

Sarbin, T. R. (1991). The Social Construction of Schizophrenia. In: Flack W.F., Wiener M.,
Miller D.R. (eds) What Is Schizophrenia?. Springer, New York, NY.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9157-9_13

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Torres, F. (2020). What Is Schizophrenia? American Psychological Association.

https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/schizophrenia/what-is-schizophrenia

Walker, M. T. (2006). The Social Construction of Mental Illness

and its Implications for the Recovery Model. International Journal of Psychosocial
Rehabilitation. 10 (1), 71-87. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?
doi=10.1.1.689.5834&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Watters, E. (2010). The Americanization of Mental Illness. New York Magazine.

https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/magazine/10psyche-t.html

Woo, M. (2019). Eyes hint at hidden mental-health conditions. Nature.

https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01114-9

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Q6 Is Aotearoa New Zealand individualistic or collectivist? Provide a

compelling argument for your point of view.
Individualism and collectivism are probably the most studied feature of culture

(Singelis et al., 1999). Individualism happens when there is a predominance of personal

world perception, understanding, interpretation and behaviour focussed on the self

(Podsiadlowski & Fox, 2011); and collectivism occurs when the interdependent

perspective is prevalent within and characteristic of a group of people (Oyserman et al.,

2002). Collectivistic and Individualistic societies each have distinguishable and inherent

perspectives on life and the universe. This worldview is central to their cultural identity,

made up of shared assumptions, values and beliefs, learned from continuous interaction

and socialisation with other likeminded members of their ‘in-group’ (Lindsay, 2020).

Collectivistic groups are outwardly focussed in that they consider the good of others

before themselves, with an interdependent social construal (how a person primarily views

themselves); whereas Individualistic groups are inwardly focussed, with independent self

construal, and more concerned with what is good for the individual over the group

(Lindsay, 2020). Most western cultures are individualistic compared to Eastern and

African cultures who are more collectivistic. The concepts of individualism and

collectivism are generally seen as extreme dimensions on a continuum (Triandis & Suh,

2002), with distinct cultural patterns; however there are suggestions that individualism

and collectivism are neither extreme nor dichotomous but rather multi-dimensional, as

can be seen in the different behaviours of American individualists to Swedish

individualists, or Korean collectivists to the Israel Kibbutz collective system (Singelis et

al., 1995).

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There are few studies of individualism versus collectivism in Aoteoroa New

Zealand, but the general trend of opinion, is that it is an individualistic culture. According

to Oyserman et al., (2002), regardless of ethnic grouping, New Zealanders were higher in

individualism and lower in collectivism than other people in other regions of the world.

Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory analyses cultural values along four dimensions, and

assigns a numeric rating out of a total of 100. According to his

individualism/collectivism dimension analysis, which looks at the level of ‘I’

(independence) against ‘we’ (interdependence) of a country, Aoteoroa New Zealand

scored 79 in individualism. Putting this in context, China, an acknowledged collectivistic

society, scored 20 on the same scale. Apart from the results of these studies, New

Zealand’s dominant culture is predominantly one of western origin and generally follows

the principles of individualistic thinking, with 70.2% of the population identifying as New

Zealand European or other European ethnicity.

A culture is also determined collectivist or individualistic based on its business

patterns, ideologies and methodologies. Organisations that embrace a collectivistic

culture tend to focus on the greater good of the whole team and less on the individual and

their skills or achievements (Rasmussen, 2005). The expectations of such companies are

that employees will form part of a united group with equal opportunities such as a family

of farmers. Individualism in organisations however highlight and celebrate individuality

and each person’s skills and talents, such as American companies. Due to a decline in

union membership and collective bargaining, and a rise in employer-employee

bargaining, together with various legislative reforms such as individual employee rights

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(Rasmussen, 2005), New Zealand’s business world has moved from collectivism to

individualism.

The evidence may point to an individualistic culture dominant in Aoteoroa New

Zealand; however I am of the opinion that Aoteoroa New Zealand could be in the unique

position of being an individualistic society with horizontal and vertical cultural sub-

divisions as suggested by Singelis et al., (1995) in their attempts to assess cultural

orientation. They suggested that there are two other dimensions, namely horizontal

(focuses on equality) and vertical individualism (focuses on hierarchy) and horizontal and

vertical collectivism. Horizontal Individualism (HI) evaluates the extent to which an

individual strives to be unique without wanting special status; whereas Vertical

Individualism (VI) is the extent to which people strive to be different and want specials

status. Horizontal Collectivism (HC) assesses individuals who focus on interdependence

but do not submit easily to authority and Vertical Collectivism (VC) evaluates the extent

to which individuals highlight interdependence as well as competition with out-groups

(Singelis et al., 1995). Triandis (1995 contrasts the concept of one mindedness, claiming

that people develop their personal preferences and style from both individualistic and

collectivistic structures. With this in mind, I feel it should not be assumed that every

person in an individualistic culture is an individualist with the same applicable to

collectivistic individuals. Ample evidence to support this, was provided by Dutta-

Bergman and Wells (2002) in their study on within-culture variations regarding

individualism and collectivism. With many Māori interweaving between individualism

and collectivism, as seen in individuals who strive for success in the workplace

(individualistic) and adopt their cultural collectivism when at home or with their Iwi

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(collectivistic), maybe striving to label New Zealand as only either collectivistic or

individualistic may be a call for further research into other options.

REFERENCES

Lindsay, N. (2020). Individualism and Collectivism. Cultural Realities, Topic 3: Lectures.

https://webcast.massey.ac.nz/Mediasite/Play/321737df2e2a4228a55cb746fce39b2e1d

Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and
collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analysis. APA PsycNet.
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-00183-001

Podsiadlowski, A., & Fox, S. (2011). Collectivist Value Orientations among Four Ethnic Groups:
Collectivism in the New Zealand Context New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 40(1).
https://www.psychology.org.nz/journal-archive/Padsiadlowski.pdf

Rasmussen, E. (2005). From Collectivism to Individualism in New Zealand Employment

Relations. Researchgate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228652619_From_Collectivism_to_Individualis
m_in_New_Zealand_Employment_Relations

Singelis, T. M., Bond, M. H., Sharkey, W. F., & Lai, C. S. Y. (1999, 1999/05/01). Unpackaging
Culture’s Influence on Self-Esteem and Embarrassability: The Role of Self-Construals.
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(3), 315-341.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022199030003003

Singelis, T. M., Triandis, H. C., Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Gelfand, M. J. (1995, 1995/08/01).
Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of Individualism and Collectivism: A Theoretical and
Measurement Refinement. Cross-Cultural Research, 29(3), 240-275.
https://doi.org/10.1177/106939719502900302

Triandis, H. C., & Suh, E. M. (2002). Cultural Influences on Personality. Annual Review of
Psychology, 53(1), 133-160. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135200

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