Chapter 2

Measurements and
Calculations
 Chapter 2
Table of Contents
2.1 Scientific Notation
2.2 Units
2.3 Measurements of Length, Volume, and Mass
2.4 Uncertainty in Measurement
2.5 Significant Figures
2.6 Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis
2.7 Temperature Conversions: An Approach to Problem
Solving
2.8 Density

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 Section 2.1
Scientific Notation

Measurement
• Quantitative observation.
• Has 2 parts – number and
unit.
▪ Number tells
comparison.
▪ Unit tells scale.

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 Section 2.1
Scientific Notation

• Technique used to express very large or very

small numbers.
• Expresses a number as a product of a number
between 1 and 10 and the appropriate power
of 10.

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 Section 2.1
Scientific Notation

Using Scientific Notation

• Any number can be represented as the
product of a number between 1 and 10 and a
power of 10 (either positive or negative).
• The power of 10 depends on the number of
places the decimal point is moved and in
which direction.

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 Section 2.1
Scientific Notation

Using Scientific Notation

• The number of places the decimal point is
moved determines the power of 10. The
direction of the move determines whether the
power of 10 is positive or negative.

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 Section 2.1
Scientific Notation

Using Scientific Notation

• If the decimal point is moved to the left, the
power of 10 is positive.
345 = 3.45 × 102
• If the decimal point is moved to the right, the
power of 10 is negative.
0.0671 = 6.71 × 10–2

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 Section 2.1
Scientific Notation

Concept Check

Which of the following correctly expresses

7,882 in scientific notation?

a) 7.882 × 104
b) 788.2 × 103
c) 7.882 × 103
d) 7.882 × 10–3

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 Section 2.1
Scientific Notation

Concept Check

Which of the following correctly expresses

0.0000496 in scientific notation?

a) 4.96 × 10–5
b) 4.96 × 10–6
c) 4.96 × 10–7
d) 496 × 107

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 Section 2.2
Units

Nature of Measurement
Measurement

• Quantitative observation consisting of two parts.

▪ number
▪ scale (unit)

• Examples
▪ 20 grams
▪ 6.63 × 10–34 joule·seconds

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 Section 2.2
Units

The Fundamental SI Units

Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation

Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol

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 Section 2.2
Units

Prefixes Used in the SI System

• Prefixes are used to change the size of the unit.

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 Section 2.3
Measurements of Length, Volume, and Mass

Length
• Fundamental SI unit of length is the meter.

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 Section 2.3
Measurements of Length, Volume, and Mass

Volume
• Measure of the amount
of 3-D space occupied
by a substance.
• SI unit = cubic meter
(m3)
• Commonly measure
solid volume in cm3.
• 1 mL = 1 cm3
• 1 L = 1 dm3

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 Section 2.3
Measurements of Length, Volume, and Mass

Mass
• Measure of the amount
of matter present in an
object.
• SI unit = kilogram (kg)
• 1 kg = 2.2046 lbs
• 1 lb = 453.59 g

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 Section 2.3
Measurements of Length, Volume, and Mass

Concept Check

Choose the statement(s) that contain improper

use(s) of commonly used units (doesn’t make
sense)?

▪ A gallon of milk is equal to about 4 L of milk.

▪ A 200-lb man has a mass of about 90 kg.
▪ A basketball player has a height of 7 m tall.
▪ A nickel is 6.5 cm thick.

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 Section 2.4
Uncertainty in Measurement

• A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain.

• A measurement always has some degree of
uncertainty (always last (most precise) digit
estimated).
• Record the certain digits and the first uncertain
digit (the estimated number).
• Digits of measurement termed Significant Figures

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 Section 2.4
Uncertainty in Measurement
Measurement of Length Using a Ruler
• The length of the pin occurs at about 2.85 cm.
▪ Certain digits: 2.85
▪ Uncertain digit: 2.85

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Section 2.4
Uncertainty in Measurement

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 Section 2.5
Significant Figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

1. Nonzero integers always count as significant
figures.
▪ 3456 has 4 sig figs (significant figures).

• There are three classes of zeros.

a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all the
nonzero digits. These do not count as significant
figures.
▪ 0.048 has 2 sig figs.

b. Captive zeros are zeros between nonzero

digits. These always count as significant figures.
▪ 16.07 has 4 sig figs.
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 Section 2.5
Significant Figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the
number. They are significant only if the number
contains a decimal point.
▪ 9.300 has 4 sig figs.
▪ 150 has 2 sig figs.

3. Exact numbers have an infinite number of

significant figures.
▪ 1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly.
▪ 9 pencils (obtained by counting).

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 Section 2.5
Significant Figures

Exponential Notation
• Example
▪ 300. written as 3.00 × 102
▪ Contains three significant figures.

• Two Advantages
▪ Number of significant figures can be easily indicated.
▪ Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or very small number.

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 Section 2.5
Significant Figures

Rules for Rounding Off

1. If the digit to be removed is less than 5, the
preceding digit stays the same.
▪ 5.64 rounds to 5.6 (if final result to 2 sig figs)

2. If the digit to be removed is equal to or greater

than 5, the preceding digit is increased by 1.
▪ 5.68 rounds to 5.7 (if final result to 2 sig figs)
▪ 3.861 rounds to 3.9 (if final result to 2 sig figs)

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 Section 2.5
Significant Figures

Rules for Rounding Off

2. In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits
through to the final result and then round off.
This means that you should carry all of the
digits that show on your calculator until you
arrive at the final number (the answer) and then
round off, using the procedures in Rule 1.

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 Section 2.5
Significant Figures

Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

1. For multiplication or division, the number of
significant figures in the result is the same as
that in the measurement with the smallest
number of significant figures.
1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381 ! 7.4

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 Section 2.5
Significant Figures

Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

2. For addition or subtraction, the limiting term is
the one with the smallest number of decimal
places.

23.445
+ 7.83
31.275 ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 31.28
Corrected

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 Section 2.5
Significant Figures

Concept Check

You have water in each graduated

cylinder shown. You then add both
samples to a beaker (assume that
all of the liquid is transferred).

How would you write the number

describing the total volume?
3.1 mL
What limits the precision of the total
volume?
1st graduated cylinder

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 Section 2.6
Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis

• Use when converting a given result from one

system of units to another.
1) To convert from one unit to another, use the equivalence
statement that relates the two units.
2) Choose the appropriate conversion factor by looking at the
direction of the required change (make sure the unwanted units
cancel).
3) Multiply the quantity to be converted by the conversion factor to
give the quantity with the desired units.
4) Check that you have the correct number of sig figs.
5) Does my answer make sense?

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 Section 2.6
Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis

Example #1
A golfer putted a golf ball 6.8 ft across a green. How many inches does
this represent?

• To convert from one unit to another, use the

equivalence statement that relates the two units.
1 ft = 12 in
The two unit factors are:
1 ft 12 in
and
12 in 1 ft

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 Section 2.6
Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis

Example #1
A golfer putted a golf ball 6.8 ft across a green. How many inches does
this represent?

• Choose the appropriate conversion factor by looking at

the direction of the required change (make sure the
unwanted units cancel).

12 in
6.8 ft × = in
1 ft

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 Section 2.6
Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis

Example #1
A golfer putted a golf ball 6.8 ft across a green. How many inches does
this represent?

• Multiply the quantity to be converted by the conversion

factor to give the quantity with the desired units.

12 in
6.8 ft × = 82 in
1 ft

• Correct sig figs? Does my answer make sense?

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 Section 2.6
Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis

Example #2
An iron sample has a mass of 4.50 lb. What is the mass of this sample
in grams?
(1 kg = 2.2046 lbs; 1 kg = 1000 g)

1 kg 1000 g
4.50 lbs × × = 2.04 × 103 g
2.2046 lbs 1 kg

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 Section 2.6
Problem Solving and Dimensional Analysis

Concept Check

What data would you need to estimate the money you

would spend on gasoline to drive your car from New York
to Los Angeles? Provide estimates of values and a
sample calculation.
Sample Answer:
Distance between New York and Los Angeles: 2500 miles
Average gas mileage: 25 miles per gallon
Average cost of gasoline: $3.25 per gallon

1 gal $3.25
2500 mi × × = $325
25 mi 1 gal
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 Section 2.7
Temperature Conversions: An Approach to Problem Solving

Three Systems for Measuring Temperature

• Fahrenheit
• Celsius
• Kelvin

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 Section 2.7
Temperature Conversions: An Approach to Problem Solving

The Three Major Temperature Scales

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 Section 2.7
Temperature Conversions: An Approach to Problem Solving

Converting Between Scales

TK = T C + 273 ! T C = TK − 273
!

TC =
!
(T F ! − 32 )
T F = 1.80 (T C ) + 32
! !

1.80

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 Section 2.7
Temperature Conversions: An Approach to Problem Solving

Exercise

The normal body temperature for a dog is

approximately 102oF. What is this equivalent to
on the Kelvin temperature scale?

a) 373 K
b) 312 K
c) 289 K
d) 202 K

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 Section 2.7
Temperature Conversions: An Approach to Problem Solving

Exercise

At what temperature does °C = °F?

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 Section 2.7
Temperature Conversions: An Approach to Problem Solving

Solution

• Since °C equals °F, they both should be the same value

(designated as variable x).
• Use one of the conversion equations such as:

TC =
!
(T F
! − 32 )
1.80
• Substitute in the value of x for both T°C and T°F. Solve
for x.

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 Section 2.7
Temperature Conversions: An Approach to Problem Solving

Solution

TC =
!
(T F ! − 32 )
1.80

x=
(x − 32 )
1.80

x = − 40

So –40°C = –40°F

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 Section 2.8
Density

• Mass of substance per unit volume of the

substance.
• Common units are g/cm3 or g/mL.

mass
Density =
volume

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 Section 2.8
Density

Measuring the Volume of a Solid Object by Water Displacement

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 Section 2.8
Density

Example #1
A certain mineral has a mass of 17.8 g and a volume of 2.35 cm3. What is
the density of this mineral?

mass
Density =
volume

17.8 g
Density =
2.35 cm3

3
Density = 7.57 g/cm
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 Section 2.8
Density

Example #2
What is the mass of a 49.6 mL sample of a liquid, which has a density of
0.85 g/mL?

mass
Density =
volume

x
0.85 g/mL =
49.6 mL

mass = x = 42 g

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 Section 2.8
Density

Exercise

If an object has a mass of 243.8 g and occupies

a volume of 0.125 L, what is the density of this
object in g/cm3?

a) 0.513
b) 1.95
c) 30.5
d) 1950

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 Section 2.8
Density

Concept Check

Copper has a density of 8.96 g/cm3. If 75.0 g of

copper is added to 50.0 mL of water in a
graduated cylinder, to what volume reading will
the water level in the cylinder rise?

a) 8.4 mL
b) 41.6 mL
c) 58.4 mL
d) 83.7 mL

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