56 MATHEMATICS

Chapter 3
MATRICES

™ The essence of Mathematics lies in its freedom. — CANTOR ™

3.1 Introduction
The knowledge of matrices is necessary in various branches of mathematics. Matrices
are one of the most powerful tools in mathematics. This mathematical tool simplifies
our work to a great extent when compared with other straight forward methods. The
evolution of concept of matrices is the result of an attempt to obtain compact and
simple methods of solving system of linear equations. Matrices are not only used as a
representation of the coefficients in system of linear equations, but utility of matrices
far exceeds that use. Matrix notation and operations are used in electronic spreadsheet
programs for personal computer, which in turn is used in different areas of business
and science like budgeting, sales projection, cost estimation, analysing the results of an
experiment etc. Also, many physical operations such as magnification, rotation and
reflection through a plane can be represented mathematically by matrices. Matrices
are also used in cryptography. This mathematical tool is not only used in certain branches
of sciences, but also in genetics, economics, sociology, modern psychology and industrial
management.
In this chapter, we shall find it interesting to become acquainted with the
fundamentals of matrix and matrix algebra.
3.2 Matrix
Suppose we wish to express the information that Radha has 15 notebooks. We may
express it as [15] with the understanding that the number inside [ ] is the number of
notebooks that Radha has. Now, if we have to express that Radha has 15 notebooks
and 6 pens. We may express it as [15 6] with the understanding that first number
inside [ ] is the number of notebooks while the other one is the number of pens possessed
by Radha. Let us now suppose that we wish to express the information of possession
 MATRICES 57

of notebooks and pens by Radha and her two friends Fauzia and Simran which
is as follows:
Radha has 15 notebooks and 6 pens,
Fauzia has 10 notebooks and 2 pens,
Simran has 13 notebooks and 5 pens.
Now this could be arranged in the tabular form as follows:
Notebooks Pens
Radha 15 6
Fauzia 10 2
Simran 13 5
and this can be expressed as

or
Radha Fauzia Simran
Notebooks 15 10 13
Pens 6 2 5
which can be expressed as:

In the first arrangement the entries in the first column represent the number of
note books possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively and the entries in the
second column represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran,
58 MATHEMATICS

respectively. Similarly, in the second arrangement, the entries in the first row represent
the number of notebooks possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively. The
entries in the second row represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia
and Simran, respectively. An arrangement or display of the above kind is called a
matrix. Formally, we define matrix as:
Definition 1 A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions. The
numbers or functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix.
We denote matrices by capital letters. The following are some examples of matrices:

⎡ 1⎤
⎡– 2 5 ⎤ ⎢2 + i 3 − 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡1 + x x3 3 ⎤
A=⎢ 0 5⎥ , B = ⎢ 3.5 –1 2 ⎥, C=⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ cos x sin x + 2 tan x ⎦
⎢3 ⎥ 5
⎣ 6 ⎦
⎢ 3 5 ⎥
⎣ 7 ⎦

In the above examples, the horizontal lines of elements are said to constitute, rows
of the matrix and the vertical lines of elements are said to constitute, columns of the
matrix. Thus A has 3 rows and 2 columns, B has 3 rows and 3 columns while C has 2
rows and 3 columns.
3.2.1 Order of a matrix
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n or simply m × n
matrix (read as an m by n matrix). So referring to the above examples of matrices, we
have A as 3 × 2 matrix, B as 3 × 3 matrix and C as 2 × 3 matrix. We observe that A has
3 × 2 = 6 elements, B and C have 9 and 6 elements, respectively.
In general, an m × n matrix has the following rectangular array:

or A = [aij]m × n, 1≤ i ≤ m, 1≤ j ≤ n i, j ∈ N
Thus the ith row consists of the elements ai1, ai2, ai3,..., ain, while the jth column
consists of the elements a1j, a2j, a3j,..., amj ,
In general aij, is an element lying in the ith row and jth column. We can also call
it as the (i, j)th element of A. The number of elements in an m × n matrix will be
equal to mn.
 MATRICES 59

$Note In this chapter

1. We shall follow the notation, namely A = [aij]m × n to indicate that A is a matrix
of order m × n.
2. We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are real numbers or
functions taking real values.

We can also represent any point (x, y) in a plane by a matrix (column or row) as

⎡ x⎤
⎢ y ⎥ (or [x, y]). For example point P(0, 1) as a matrix representation may be given as
⎣ ⎦

⎡ 0⎤
P = ⎢ ⎥ or [0 1].
⎣1 ⎦
Observe that in this way we can also express the vertices of a closed rectilinear
figure in the form of a matrix. For example, consider a quadrilateral ABCD with vertices
A (1, 0), B (3, 2), C (1, 3), D (–1, 2).
Now, quadrilateral ABCD in the matrix form, can be represented as

A B C D A⎡ 1 0⎤
⎡1 3 1 −1⎤ B⎢ 3 2 ⎥⎥
X=⎢ ⎥ or Y= ⎢
⎣ 0 2 3 2⎦ 2 × 4 C⎢ 1 3⎥
⎢ ⎥
D ⎣−1 2 ⎦ 4× 2

Thus, matrices can be used as representation of vertices of geometrical figures in

a plane.
Now, let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Consider the following information regarding the number of men and women
workers in three factories I, II and III
Men workers Women workers
I 30 25
II 25 31
III 27 26
Represent the above information in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix. What does the entry
in the third row and second column represent?
60 MATHEMATICS

Solution The information is represented in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix as follows:

⎡30 25⎤
A = ⎢⎢ 25 31⎥⎥
⎢⎣27 26 ⎥⎦
The entry in the third row and second column represents the number of women
workers in factory III.
Example 2 If a matrix has 8 elements, what are the possible orders it can have?
Solution We know that if a matrix is of order m × n, it has mn elements. Thus, to find
all possible orders of a matrix with 8 elements, we will find all ordered pairs of natural
numbers, whose product is 8.
Thus, all possible ordered pairs are (1, 8), (8, 1), (4, 2), (2, 4)
Hence, possible orders are 1 × 8, 8 ×1, 4 × 2, 2 × 4
1
Example 3 Construct a 3 × 2 matrix whose elements are given by aij = |i −3j |.
2

⎡ a11 a12 ⎤
Solution In general a 3 × 2 matrix is given by A = ⎢ a21 a22 ⎥ .
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ a31 a32 ⎥⎦
1
Now aij = | i − 3 j | , i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2.
2
1 1 5
Therefore a11 = |1 − 3 × 1| = 1 a12 = |1 − 3 × 2 | =
2 2 2
1 1 1
a21 = | 2 − 3 × 1| = a22 = | 2 − 3× 2 | = 2
2 2 2
1 1 3
a31 = | 3 − 3 × 1| = 0 a32 = | 3 − 3× 2 | =
2 2 2

⎡1 5⎤
⎢ 2⎥
⎢1 ⎥
Hence the required matrix is given by A = ⎢ 2⎥ .
⎢2 3⎥
⎢0 ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
 MATRICES 61

3.3 Types of Matrices

In this section, we shall discuss different types of matrices.
(i) Column matrix
A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.

⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3⎥
For example, A = ⎢ −1 ⎥ is a column matrix of order 4 × 1.
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢1/ 2 ⎦⎥
In general, A = [aij] m × 1 is a column matrix of order m × 1.
(ii) Row matrix
A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.

⎡ 1
For example, B = ⎢−
⎤
5 2 3⎥ is a row matrix.
⎣ 2 ⎦1× 4
In general, B = [bij] 1 × n is a row matrix of order 1 × n.
(iii) Square matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the number of columns, is
said to be a square matrix. Thus an m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix if
m = n and is known as a square matrix of order ‘n’.

⎡ 3 −1 0⎤
⎢3 ⎥
For example A = ⎢ 3 2 1 ⎥ is a square matrix of order 3.
⎢2 ⎥
⎢4 −1⎥⎦
⎣ 3

In general, A = [aij] m × m is a square matrix of order m.

$Note If A = [a ] is a square matrix of order n, then elements (entries) a , a , ..., a

ij 11 22 nn

⎡ 1 −3 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
are said to constitute the diagonal, of the matrix A. Thus, if A = ⎢ 2 4 −1⎥ .
⎢⎣ 3 5 6 ⎥⎦
Then the elements of the diagonal of A are 1, 4, 6.
62 MATHEMATICS

(iv) Diagonal matrix

A square matrix B = [bij] m × m is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non
diagonal elements are zero, that is a matrix B = [bij] m × m is said to be a diagonal
matrix if bij = 0, when i ≠ j.

⎡ −1.1 0 0⎤
⎡ −1 0 ⎤ ⎢
For example, A = [4], B = ⎢ ⎥ , C=⎢ 0 2 0⎥⎥ , are diagonal matrices
⎣ 0 2⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 3⎥⎦
of order 1, 2, 3, respectively.
(v) Scalar matrix
A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal,
that is, a square matrix B = [bij] n × n is said to be a scalar matrix if
bij = 0, when i ≠ j
bij = k, when i = j, for some constant k.
For example

⎡ 3 0 0⎤
⎡ −1 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
A = [3], B=⎢ ⎥, C=⎢ 0 3 0⎥
⎣ 0 −1⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 3⎦
are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
(vi) Identity matrix
A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zero
is called an identity matrix. In other words, the square matrix A = [aij] n × n is an
⎧1 if i = j
identity matrix, if aij = ⎨ .
⎩0 if i ≠ j
We denote the identity matrix of order n by In. When order is clear from the
context, we simply write it as I.
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎢0 1 0 ⎥
For example [1], ⎢ ⎥, ⎢ ⎥ are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3,
⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎢0 0 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
respectively.
Observe that a scalar matrix is an identity matrix when k = 1. But every identity
matrix is clearly a scalar matrix.
 MATRICES 63

(vii) Zero matrix

A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.
⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤
For example, [0], ⎢ ⎥, ⎢ ⎥ , [0, 0] are all zero matrices. We denote
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 ⎦
zero matrix by O. Its order will be clear from the context.
3.3.1 Equality of matrices
Definition 2 Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if
(i) they are of the same order
(ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, that is aij = bij for
all i and j.
⎡ 2 3⎤ ⎡ 2 3⎤ ⎡3 2⎤ ⎡ 2 3⎤
For example, ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥ are equal matrices but ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥ are
⎣ 0 1⎦ ⎣ 0 1⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
not equal matrices. Symbolically, if two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B.

⎡ x y ⎤ ⎡ −1.5 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
If ⎢ z a ⎥ = ⎢ 2 6 ⎥ , then x = – 1.5, y = 0, z = 2, a = 6 , b = 3, c = 2
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣b c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3 2 ⎥⎦

⎡ x + 3 z + 4 2 y − 7⎤ ⎡ 0 6 3y − 2 ⎤
⎢ −6 a −1 ⎥ ⎢
0 ⎥ = ⎢− 6 −3 2c + 2⎥⎥
Example 4 If ⎢
⎢⎣ b − 3 − 21 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2b + 4 − 21 0 ⎥⎦
Find the values of a, b, c, x, y and z.
Solution As the given matrices are equal, therefore, their corresponding elements
must be equal. Comparing the corresponding elements, we get
x + 3 = 0, z + 4 = 6, 2y – 7 = 3y – 2
a – 1 = – 3, 0 = 2c + 2 b – 3 = 2b + 4,
Simplifying, we get
a = – 2, b = – 7, c = – 1, x = – 3, y = –5, z = 2
Example 5 Find the values of a, b, c, and d from the following equation:
⎡ 2a + b a − 2b ⎤ ⎡ 4 −3⎤
⎢ 5c − d 4c + 3d ⎥ = ⎢11 24 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
64 MATHEMATICS

Solution By equality of two matrices, equating the corresponding elements, we get

2a + b = 4 5c – d = 11
a – 2b = – 3 4c + 3d = 24
Solving these equations, we get
a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 and d = 4

EXERCISE 3.1

⎡2 5 19 −7 ⎤
⎢ 5 ⎥
1. In the matrix A = ⎢ 35 −2 12 ⎥ , write:
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 1 −5 17 ⎦
(i) The order of the matrix, (ii) The number of elements,
(iii) Write the elements a13, a21, a33, a24, a23.
2. If a matrix has 24 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 13 elements?
3. If a matrix has 18 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 5 elements?
4. Construct a 2 × 2 matrix, A = [aij], whose elements are given by:

(i + j ) 2 i (i + 2 j )2
(i) aij = (ii) aij = (iii) aij =
2 j 2
5. Construct a 3 × 4 matrix, whose elements are given by:
1
(i) aij = | −3i + j | (ii) aij = 2i − j
2
6. Find the values of x, y and z from the following equations:

⎡ x + y + z ⎤ ⎡9 ⎤
⎡ 4 3⎤ ⎡ y z ⎤ ⎡x + y 2 ⎤ ⎡6 2 ⎤ ⎢ x + z ⎥ = ⎢5⎥
(i) ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ (ii) ⎢ =
xy ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 5 8 ⎥⎦
(iii) ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ x 5⎦ ⎣ 1 5⎦ ⎣5 + z ⎢⎣ y + z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 7 ⎥⎦
7. Find the value of a, b, c and d from the equation:
⎡ a − b 2 a + c ⎤ ⎡ −1 5 ⎤
⎢ 2a − b 3c + d ⎥ = ⎢ 0 13⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
 MATRICES 65

8. A = [aij]m × n\ is a square matrix, if

(A) m < n (B) m > n (C) m = n (D) None of these
9. Which of the given values of x and y make the following pair of matrices equal
⎡3x + 7 5 ⎤ ⎡0 y − 2 ⎤
⎢ y + 1 2 − 3 x ⎥ , ⎢8 4 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
−1
(A) x = , y =7 (B) Not possible to find
3
−2 −1 −2
(C) y = 7, x= (D) x = , y=
3 3 3
10. The number of all possible matrices of order 3 × 3 with each entry 0 or 1 is:
(A) 27 (B) 18 (C) 81 (D) 512
3.4 Operations on Matrices
In this section, we shall introduce certain operations on matrices, namely, addition of
matrices, multiplication of a matrix by a scalar, difference and multiplication of matrices.
3.4.1 Addition of matrices
Suppose Fatima has two factories at places A and B. Each factory produces sport
shoes for boys and girls in three different price categories labelled 1, 2 and 3. The
quantities produced by each factory are represented as matrices given below:

Suppose Fatima wants to know the total production of sport shoes in each price
category. Then the total production
In category 1 : for boys (80 + 90), for girls (60 + 50)
In category 2 : for boys (75 + 70), for girls (65 + 55)
In category 3 : for boys (90 + 75), for girls (85 + 75)

⎡80 + 90 60 + 50⎤
This can be represented in the matrix form as ⎢ 75 + 70 65 + 55⎥⎥ .
⎢
⎣⎢ 90 + 75 85 + 75 ⎦⎥