Module -2

THE GENESIS OF CRIME: Understanding Its Nature and Origin

Introduction:

This module will discuss the genesis of crime. It will give you a better
understanding of the nature and origin of crime. Moreover, it give you an idea on how a
theory will be created. Hence, there will be numerous theories will be discuss in this
module that will explain the different perspectives and approaches as to crime
causation.

I- MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES:

In this module, you will be able to:

1. understand the nature of crime causation and theory formulation;

2. define crime and criminal behavior;
3. examine crime causation and criminal behavior;
4. analyze the classification of crime;
5. appraise the modern criminological theories.

LESSON 1
Nature of Crime Causation: Defining Crime and Criminal Behavior, Understanding
Crime and Criminal Behavior and Theory Formulation

I- LESSON LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

In this lesson, you will be able to:

1. understand the nature of crime causation;

2. illustrate theory formulation in the study of crime causation;

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 3. define crime and criminal behavior;
4. examine the causes of crime and criminal behavior.

EXPLAIN: Nature of Crime Causation: Theory Formulation, Defining Crime and

Criminal Behavior, and Understanding Crime and Criminal Behavior

THE NATURE OF CRIME CAUSATION

The study on the nature of crime can be traced back since time immemorial
wherein any act by a person or even an animal which caused harm to any other person
is considered as a crime with a corresponding punishment. Throughout the years, it has
always been an issue to any part of the globe and it exist to any strata of every society.
This is the reason why many Social Scientists devoted their time in conducting research
in order to have a concrete answer as to why a person commits crime.

As pointed out by many, crime is a highly complex phenomenon; one cannot

view crime as a single perspective alone. Indeed, crime is a multi-factor, which explains
that it has no single cause but a combination of several factors. Hence, it is a given fact
that the nature of crime changes as the society and environment changes.

Several theories were developed; different perspectives exist, trying to explain

crime causation, its nature and the reason why it exists. Among those things, crime
causation has two of the most common concepts which is directly related with the study
of criminology, philosophy and law. These are FREEWILL & DETERMINISM.

On the other hand, the study of crime causation is a disciplinary interaction

among theories. As a result, there are five fields that are prominent in the study of crime
causation, namely: BIOLOGICAL, SOCIAL OR ENVIRONMENTAL,
PSYCHOLOGICAL, ECONOMIC, and POLITICAL.

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 1. Biological theories of crime focus on the following factors that influence
criminal behavior;

a. Physiological
b. Biochemical
c. Neurological
d. Genetic

2. Sociological and Environmental Theories - The following are the

sociological factors to crime causation;

a. Strain
b. Social Learning
c. Control

3. Psychological Theories – A more detailed psychological theory of crime

emphasizes the importance of motivation, inhibition, decision-making, and learning
processes and how it relate to biological, individual, family, peer, school, and
neighborhood factors. Accordingly, it focuses on these two types of crime factors that
look at individuals in the context of their social environment, to wit:

a. Family Influences
b. Individual Influences

4. Economic Theories – which explains that expected gains from crime, less
chance to be detected or arrested, and less chance to be convicted were among the
most identified factors to crime. However, economic theories to crime causation did not
clearly stated the multidisciplinary approach by looking into the different variables in
which an economist should try to considered such as: sex, age, intelligence, income,
education, and peer groups,

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 5. Political theories asserts that crime causation may be linked with political
ideology such as;

a. Conservatism
b. Liberalism
c. Radicalism

NOTE: These political ideologies caused people to commit crime due to contradictions
of their belief towards the government or the society as a whole. For example,
criminologists seem to associate biological and psychological theories more closely with
a conservative ideology and align some sociological and economic theories more
closely with a liberal or radical ideology. Consequently, any theory of crime can be
viewed as a political theory.

THEORY FORMULATION IN THE STUDY OF CRIME CAUSATION

The goal of criminological theory is to help one gain an understating of crime and
criminal justice. Theories cover the making and the breaking of the law, criminal and
deviant behavior, as well as patterns of criminal activity. Individual theories may be
either macro or micro. Theories can be used to guide policy making, and can be
evaluated on a number of criteria including: clarity, scope, parsimony, testability,
practical usefulness, and empirical validity.

General criminology considered Theoretical criminology as its subfield. This

subfield offers explanation to criminal behavior rather than simply describing its causes
and occurrence. Hence, theories are developed to explain every single aspect of crime
causation.

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 As Edwin Sutherland said, “The problem in criminology is to explain the
criminality of behavior. However, an explanation of criminal behavior should be a
specific part of general theory of behavior and its task should be to differentiate criminal
from noncriminal behavior.” Hence, theory formulation is one of the most important
aspects of being Criminologists. As a result there are many theories developed in order
to explain and understand crime.

However, in order to develop an empirically and scientifically valid theory, it must

be made of clearly stated propositions and suggests relationships, often causal,
between events and occurrences being studied.

An old Roman theory, for example, maintained that insanity was caused by lunar
influences and followed its cycles—hence the term lunacy. Theories provide us with
explanatory power, aiding our understanding of the phenomenon under study.

One of the methods in theory formulation is that so – called General Theory, it is

a method that tries to explain all forms of criminal behavior using a single approach.
Unfortunately, prominent Criminologists observed that this theory tend to be unclear and
lacking in justifiable general principle.

On the other hand, another method of formulating a theory is known as the Uni –
Causal Approach wherein the study of criminal behavior focused mainly on one
particular subject. This particular method was commonly used by many theorists in the
past in studying criminal behavior. Hence, Single or Unitary Cause- argued that crimes
is produced only by one factor or variable be they are social, biological or mental.

However, in the present time, modern theories in studying criminal behavior used
an Integrated Approach or a method which deals with multiple factors. As a result, it
asserts that crime is not a by-product of a single cause or factor but a combination of
several factors. Moreover, integrated approaches do not necessarily explain all
criminality, but is distinguished because it merges concepts drawn from different

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sources. However, it provides a wider explanatory power than narrower explanation to
crime causation.

There are two notable criminologists who give their stand on the use of an
Integrated Approach in studying crime:

➢ As noted criminologist Gregg Barak states, “An integrative criminology

seeks to bring together the diverse bodies of knowledge that represent the
full array of disciplines that study crime.”

➢ As criminologist Don C. Gibbons notes, “Criminologists have not managed

to articulate a large collections of relatively formalized arguments in a
general or integrated form.”

For a theory to be accepted social scientists insist that a theory must be;

1. consist of sets of clearly stated,

2. logically interrelated, and
3. measurable propositions.

It is sad to know, that most of the theories in criminology offers only a limited
applicability to other settings and rarely been integrated. Hence, this has been a
challenge of today’s young criminologist.

Theory and Prediction

Theory and prediction is intertwined although they have different functions yet,
the both tend to give answer to factors that contributes criminal behavior. Theory,
explains the process on how a certain factors cause criminal behavior while Prediction
as an educated guess tend to test the theory by carefully examining the process to the
outcome of series of events or cases.

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 Since different theories emphasize diverse processes in the causation of crime,
prediction studies should be able to test these theories. But many prediction studies
have been so separated from theory that they have not been concerned with testing
specific theories.

In order to relate prediction to theory the following must be observe;

➢ elaborate on the varying theories of criminal behavior;

➢ see to what extent these theories have been tested by prediction
techniques; and
➢ how these theories can aid in predicting criminal behavior.

Furthermore, on the different theories of criminal behavior, we shall consider;

➢ the sociological version which deals with criminality as a product of

learning and acculturation, and
➢ the individualistic versions which explain criminality in terms of distinct
personality traits.

DEFINING CRIME AND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

What is Crime?

The key to understand crime is to focus on the rudimentary attributes of a person

possessing criminal behavior rather on it particular crime itself. In legal perspectives,
crime is defined as acts committed or omitted punishable by law prohibited or
commanding the same.

Crime can be defined in many different ways and perspectives. Different

societies may opt to choose and define crimes differently base on how they viewed

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crime in every strata of society. However, in general, crime can simply be defined as the
violation of laws that are laid down by the ruling authority of the land. Sociology
speaking, crime is committed when the element of MENS REA (guilty mind) and
ACTUS REUS (illegal act) are present. There is mens rea when the act done is either
intentional or unintentional. Hence, in the context of mens rea, an act committed
through negligence, imprudence, lack of skill, and lack of foresight are included. On the
other hand, actus reus exist when the act committed causes harm or injury to another or
it is in violation of any existing laws.

However, while it is true that for a crime to exist, mens rea and actus reus must
be present; but in some cases crime can still exist even in the absence of mens rea and
it is in the case of Statutory Crime. This particular type of crime is considered as
punishable not because of the intention or is committed through negligence but because
a possible danger or injury must be prevented (E.g. traffic violations, health protocol
violation).

Here are some of the common definitions of crimes;

➢ An act or omission in violation of criminal law in its legal point.

➢ An anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the
norms of society; they are the unacceptable act in its social definition.
➢ Psychologically, crime is an act, which is considered undesirable due to
behavioral maladjustment of the offender; acts that maladaptive or
abnormal behavior.
➢ A crime is defined as any act that is contrary to legal code or laws. There
are many different types of crimes, ranging from crimes against persons to
victimless crimes and violent crimes to white collar crimes. The study of
crime and deviance is a large subfield within sociology, with much
attention paid to who commits which types of crimes and why.

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 Furthermore, crime is also a general term for all the violations of the law that
refers to felony, offense, delinquency or misdemeanor, and infractions. Hence, it can be
categorized base on the nature of its violation under a particular law that punished a
specific crime like felony, offense, misdemeanor, or infractions.

Furthermore, the definition of crime can be more appropriate if we base it on the

nature and the damage it brought to society such as Mala Inse Crimes which refer to
those crimes that are evil in itself and Malum Prohibutum Crimes which are crimes
because the society considered it as harmful or dangerous and therefore should be
punished.

What is Criminal Behavior?

Criminal behavior, particularly violent and antisocial behavior, is considered to be

a major social problem with complex causes. It is known that a myriad of environmental,
social, and psychological factors are associated with increased risk of convictions for
this type of criminality. Interrelated factors include poverty; poor housing; high levels of
social inequality in society; low educational attainment; poor diet; low self-esteem; and
impulsivity.

Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) observed that criminality is a style of strategic

behavior characterized by selfcenteredness, indifference to the suffering and needs of
others, and low self-control. On the other hand, an attractive style of behavior is
manifested by impulsive individuals for it can provide an immediate satisfaction through
simple or easy ways.

In the hypothesis of the study conducted by Gottfredson and Hirschi, they found
out that majority of legal crime is committed by individuals in a general strategy of
criminal activity. It explains further that a person will not only commit a specific type of
crime rather a variety of crimes is committed by a certain person. These strategies
frequently are risky and thrilling, usually requiring little skill or planning. They often result

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in pain or discomfort for victims and offer few or meager long-term benefits because
they interfere with careers, family, and friendships.

Criminal behavior can be defined in different perspectives; here are the most
common definitions;

➢ it is legally define as conduct of an offender that leads to and including the

commission of an unlawful act.
➢ in its psychological definition, criminal behavior occurs when an individuals
are not properly socialized and thus do not feel bound by the laws, rules,
and mores that have been established by society (Encyclopedia of Mental
Health, 2016).
➢ it is sociologically define as deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms
or cultural standard prescribing how humans ought to behave normally.

UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES OF CRIME AND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

“Society secretly wants crime, needs crime, and gains definite satisfactions from
the present mishandling of it! We condemn crime; we punish offenders for it; but we
need it. The crime and punishment ritual is part of our lives!” —Karl Menninger

Criminology as a discipline focuses on the study of crimes and criminals. The

existence of the law is important to clearly define human conduct that violates criminal
law. Yet, famous Latin Maxim states that “Nullum Crimen, Nulla Poena, Sine Lege”
which means there is no crime if there is no law punishing it.

A law must be created for the following reasons;

➢ to safeguard the people from threat pose by crimes and criminality.

➢ to established order in the society.
➢ to control and suppress crimes and criminality.

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 Thus, without a law defining a particular form of behavior, there is no crime, no
matter how deviant or socially repugnant the behavior in question may be.

Edwin Sutherland, regarded by many as a founding figure in American

criminology, said that crime’s “essential characteristic is that it is behavior which is
prohibited by the State as an injury to the State and against which the State may react
by punishment.”

Under this legalistic perspective, laws are considered as a social control and a
social product. Yet, in this approach they assert that those who are in power have the
position to influence legislation and enact law to protect their interest by making their
own definition of criminal behavior or law breakers. Hence, legal impediments will be
avoided by those who are in power and may escape punishment from their
wrongdoings.

Most of the social scientists concluded that “crime is whatever a society says it
is”. In the Philippines as a democratic country legislative abuse is not rampant as to
process since check and balance is being observed. Thus, our country adopts
bicameral types of congress. Hence, the voice of the majority will be heard through the
representation of our congressmen and senators.

Certainly, the question “What should be criminalized?” can be answered in many

different ways. The social and intellectual processes addressing this question can be
found in two contrasting points of view:

➢ the consensus perspective

➢ the pluralist perspective

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 LESSON 2
Earlier Study On the Causes of Crime
(Demonology to Positivist Theory)

I- LESSON LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

In this lesson, you will be able to:

1. trace the earlier study on the causes of crime;

2. examine the demonological theory;
3. differentiate the basic theories or schools of thought of crime causation

EXPLAIN: EARLIER STUDY ON THE CAUSES OF CRIME: ANCIENT TO PRESENT

Earlier Study On The Causes Of Crime

Criminology as a science was established at second half of 19th century.

However, interest to study crime existed in earlier times of history wherein the said
study is always associated with the study of law, philosophy, and medicine. Criminology
as a science only exists during the progressive era, during the time when the principle
of positivism became popular in understanding and in solving different societal
problems.

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 Hence, below are the most famous earlier theories which explained the causes of
crime, to wit:

Demonology Theory

Demonology definitely is a pseudo-science. This means that anything which do

not exist and cannot be observed or examine is not accepted in the body of knowledge.
Yet, psychiatrist and psychologist will view any crime involving demonic possession is c
clear indication of insanity.

According to some theorists, the first school of criminology was the

demonological school of criminology.

Finally, demonological explanation of crime was based on the mixture of

common logic and religious beliefs.

The tenets of Demonology

➢ people who committed crime were possessed by evil spirits or demons

entered human body to commit sins.
➢ the earliest explanation given regarding crime and criminal behavior.
➢ terms like demons, witches, and windigo were used for people who had
turned criminals.
➢ the society thought that it happened due to evil influence.
➢ supernatural powers were considered the best explanation behind crime
and sin.
➢ it was believed that a person did not commit crimes of his own free will but
under evil influence.
➢ criminal acts were considered as sign of basically evil human nature
suggesting adherence to Satan or under the spell of the prince of
darkness.

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 ➢ the causes of crime have been based in superstitious belief in which
criminals were allegedly perceived as controlled by other worldly forces-
the devil.

In this regard, an ancient explanation to crime is based solely in theological or

religious principles and doctrines. Hence, crime is a clear violation of church doctrine.
Therefore, crime is a sin as a violation to sacred obligation.

Similar attempts to explain human behavior were made by astrologists.

Development of astrology starts around 3500 BC. The positions of heavenly bodies
such as constellations and planets affect human behavior. In 13th century theology
attempted to explain crime in similar fashion as demonology did before the theology.
Introduction of the inquisition enabled clerics to be investigators, prosecutors and
judges at the same time.

Classical Theory

Classical theory in criminology can be traced back in the work of the 18th century
Italian nobleman and economist, Cesare Becarria and the English philosopher, Jeremy
Bentham. This was a time history when punishment for crime was severe in the
extreme, and both men proffered the theory of utility. Hence, Classical School came into
existence due to the abused of judicial individualization that gives the judge an absolute
power that lead them to tyranny in the administration of justice.

Becarria and Bentham rejected theories of naturalism and demonology which

characterized the European Enlightenment as reason to crime causation. The new
theories reflected the rationalism and humanitarianism of the philosophy of the Age of
Enlightenment.

The tenets of the Classical Theory

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 ➢ freewill doctrine- every person have a freedom of action.
➢ utilitarianism- is a theory that one is motivated by pleasure and the fear of
pain, so punishment can be used as a deterrent to commit crimes.
➢ human calculator- every person has the ability to calculate between
pleasure and pain anchored in the concept of psychological hedonism.
➢ rational being- every person is a thinking individual. Therefore,
discernment is present every time the person will person an action.
➢ there must be a corresponding punishment depending on the crime
committed regardless of the person who committed the crime.
➢ that the purpose of punishment is retribution. Hence, it was anchored on
lex taliones doctrine.
➢ Crime is a behavioral human characteristic and a choice.

At the age of 23, Cesare Becarria secretly published his piece entitled, “An Essay
on Crimes and Punishment” in 1764. Becarria together with Bentham believes that the
use of fear of punishment will serve as a deterrence to other person having the same
criminal propensity or desire. They believed that every person should be held liable and
accountable of their actions since a person is a moral creature capable to distinguish
right from wrong. Lastly, they believe that the only way to eliminate crime punishment
should be swift or prompt, certain and severe.

Neo- Classical Theory

Classical theory is represented by the theoretical study of Jeremy Bentham and

Cesare Becarria. Bentham was a founder of English utilitarianism. He thought that
human beings are hedonistic and act only in their own self-interest. Utilitarianism also
considered rational courses of action when people pursue own interests. Utilitarianism
teachings are an important part of criminal justice ethics today. Neoclassical theory, is a
continuation of classical theory tradition. Development of neoclassical theory will
continue in 1980 with a forming of new sociological theories such as differential
association and identification theories.

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 The tenets of Neo-Classical Theory

➢ adhere in the general principle of classical.

➢ gives exemptions to children and lunatics.
➢ not all persons have a full exercise of their freewill.
➢ not all persons have the ability to calculate between pleasure and pain.

Neoclassical theory sought to improve the stances towards perpetrators

who should have an impact on the level of guilt and severity of punishment. Not
all perpetrators should be treated in the same fashion, because the evident
differences exist among them. Crime is a result of many conditions that have
ultimately influenced on the perpetrators to commit it. Representative of
neoclassical criminology theory, Gabriel Tarde was a French sociologist and
founder of neoclassical criminology school. In his book Tarde criticizes classical
and positivist criminology and takes the best from both criminology. Neoclassical
criminology theory considers age, gender and social class of the perpetrators.
The perpetrators are people who think, feel, act and criminal behavior is learned
within groups by imitation and identification.

Positivist Theory

In the mid-1800s, ideas about criminals and punishment started to evolve.

Positivist criminology began to emerge, which is the study of criminal behavior
based upon external forces.

The word “Positivist” means scientific, this is the first theory in Criminology
that used scientific approach in the study of crime. But prior to this theory there
are pseudo-science theories that serve as a spring board for the positivist theory.
This involves the study known as Physiognomy and Phrenology.

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 Johann Lavater, the physiognomist thought that the shape of the skull and
some facial features had an impact on a human behavior and actions. Later,
positivist theorist of crime Cesare Lombroso took Lavater’s ideas and began
exploring other physical traits of a body.

Lombroso, as criminal anthropologist, did research on the following factors

to a person;

➢ facial features
➢ the shape of the skull
➢ social conditions of individual (unemployment and medical history of illnesses)

He compared a large number of criminals and noncriminals using human physical

traits like:
➢ sloping forehead
➢ asymmetry of the face
➢ excessive length of arms
➢ asymmetry of the cranium
➢ other distinct features
Such indications or stigmata were conceptualized by Cesare Lombroso as “born
type criminal”. According to him, criminal were throwback from primitive society and has
no capability to appreciate the law. Hence, atavistic stigmata were coined to describe
these individuals.

Lombroso’s born type criminal was challenge by his main critics Dr. Charles
Buckman Goring when he conducted research on prisoners. Goring didn’t find any
differences in facial features or other human physical traits among inmates, asylum
inhabitants and non-criminals. He found out that heredity is more influential as
determinant to criminal behavior than environment.

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 Positivist’s theories of crime argued that human behavior is pre-disposed and
fully determined by individual differences and biological traits. In short, terms, what
drives people towards crime is not a matter of free-will.

Along with Lombroso, two other Italian thinkers were proponents of the positivist
theory or school of criminology. First, is Raffaele Garofalo, who at this point in 1885
coined the term “criminologia” and advocated the concept of moral anomalies basing on
the basic sentiments of the person as a cause of crime causation. Second, is Enrico
Ferri, who identified that social, economic and political are factors to crime causation
and he advocated the Theory of Imputability or the Denial of Freewill. Ferri added, that
crime is result of bad laws instead of people.

The tenets of the Positivist Theory

Individual Positivism

➢ crime is caused by individual abnormality or pathology.

➢ crime is viewed as a biological, psychiatric, personality or learning
deficiency.
➢ behavior is determined by constitutional, genetic or personality factors.
crime is a violation with temperament, personality and degree of
“adequate” socialization.
➢ criminals can be treated via medicine, therapy and resocialization and
condition of the majority thus cured.
➢ crime is an abnormal individual condition

Sociological Positivism

➢ crime is caused by social pathology.

➢ crime is viewed as a product of dysfunctions in social, economic and
political conditions.

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 ➢ behavior is determined by social conditions and structures.
➢ crime is a violation of a collective conscience.
➢ crime varies from region to region depending on economic and political
milieu.
➢ crime can be treated via programs of social reform, but never completely
eradicated.
➢ crime is a normal social fact, but certain rates of crime are dysfunctional.

The positivist crime theorist and criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso made
attempts to scientifically prove his thesis that criminal offenders were physically different
from non-offenders. Lombroso, stated that atavistic features are more akin to savage
and criminal offenders. This view was held by many biological positivists.

Positivist theory presumed that scientific study of criminal behavior should find
the “cause” of such behavior. Hence, they treated the criminal as a sick person needs to
be treated rather than to be punished. They also believed that the causes of crime are
beyond the control of the individual. Explanations of positivist theory were deterministic.
Lombroso, was influenced by Darwinian principles of evolution and used these ideas to
support a thesis on inferiority of criminals.

This theory acts on the proposition that one who commits a crime cannot morally
comprehend the wrongfulness of his actions in the same way individuals of average
intelligence or who are socially accepted and others are able to do so. The mind of
these individuals has been affected in a particular way and therefore does not have the
capability to make a conscious rational choice to obey the law.

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 LESSON 3
DETERMINISM AND MODERN CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES

II- LESSON LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

In this lesson, you will be able to:

1. identify the different determinism in crime causation;

2. categorize different crimes;
3. examine the different modern criminological theories.

EXPLAIN: CRIME CAUSATION: DETERMINISM AND MODERN CRIMINOLOGICAL

THEORIES

A. BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM

Determinism defines as the philosophical theory that all events, including

moral choices, are completely determined by previously existing causes.
Determinism is usually understood to preclude free will because it entails that
humans cannot act otherwise than they do. That there are existing situations or
circumstances that interferes in the decision or action of man, thus, he is forced
to commit crime, even without intention of doing it.

Biological determinism also known as biologism or biodeterminism is

the idea that hereditary factors shapes human characteristics such as;

➢ Physical traits- are qualities possess by a person such as

characteristics of body parts, color of the hair, and etc. are
transferred from parents to offspring through genetic endowment.

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 ➢ Mental traits- are qualities possess by a person such as Intelligence
quotient, mental processing and other neurological aspects are
transferred from parents to offspring through gene transmission.

A classic study as to gene transmission is “XYY syndrome” in which the male

possess an extra Y chromosomes that makes him aggressive and tend to be violent.
Hence, it will lead the person to commit crime.

Prior to the 20th century and the rediscovery of Austrian botanist Gregor
Mendel’s work on heredity, a wide variety of factors were thought to influence hereditary
traits. For example, environmental agents were thought to act directly on the mother’s or
father’s germ cells (eggs or sperm, respectively) or indirectly on the fetus via the mother
during pregnancy. After the rediscovery of Mendel’s work, theories of biological
determinism became increasingly formulated in terms of the then new science of
genetics. Thus, biological determinism became synonymous with genetic determinism,
though some researchers later considered the two to be distinct. Biological determinism
refers to the set of theories that point to physical, biological and other natural factors as
the causes of crime. The terms “biological” and “genetic” are often confused, in part due
to the fact that they represent overlapping sources of influence. Biological factors are
more on physiological, biochemical, neurological, and genetic. While genetic refers to
biological factors that are inherited.

Biological Positivism/Determinism believes that the earliest scientific study in

determining human behavior is biologically oriented. Hence, the following were the most
notable studies involving biological determinism:

1. Hereditary influences – during the early years of criminology as a science,

one of the areas that criminologists having an interest on involve the study of the
genealogy of family. As a result, there are two most familiar study involving family tree,
to wit:

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 a. Kallikak family – relationship between intelligence and criminality. A study
conducted by Henry Goddard.

b. Juke family – relationship between feeblemindedness and criminality. A study

conducted by Richard Dugdale. In this study, many criminologists considered Margareth
“Ada” Juke as the “Mother of All Criminals”.

2. Biological inferiorities

a. Phrenology - Franz Joseph Gall (1758 – 1828) and Johann K. Spurzheim

(1776 – 1832) – they are Phrenologists, who studied the shape of the skull and bumps
of the head to determine whether these physical attributes were linked to criminal
behavior.
b. Physiognomy - J.K. Lavater (1741 – 1801) a Physiognomist, studied the facial
features of criminals to determine whether the shape of ears, nose and eyes and the
distance between them were associated with anti – social behavior.

3. Somatotyping theory - Somatotype theory is one of the biological theories of

criminology and is considered to be included in the biological school of
criminology. Somatotyping is the classifying of people into types according to
body build. Somatotype theory relates distinctive body types to personality
characteristics and relates criminal behavior to the body types. Somatotype
theory is most commonly associated with William Sheldon. Sheldon's somatotype
theory established three basic body types:

a. Endomorph – are said to have a higher percentage of body fat with less
muscle mass. They're often heavier and rounder, but not necessarily obese.
They also have smaller joints, a smaller body size, and a narrower frame.

b. Mesomorph - a human physical type that is marked by greater than

average muscular development. The extreme mesomorph has a square, massive

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head; broad, muscular chest and shoulders; a large heart; heavily muscled arms
and legs; and minimal body fat. He tends to develop muscle easily. His muscular
development can usually be distinguished from that of one who has developed
his muscles through body-building exercises.

c. Ectomorph – a human physical type (somatotype) tending toward

linearity. The extreme ectomorph has a thin face with high forehead and receding
chin; narrow chest and abdomen; a narrow heart; rather long, thin arms and legs;
little body fat and little muscle; but a large skin surface and a large nervous
system. If well fed, he does not gain weight easily; if he becomes fat, he is still
considered an ectomorph, only overweight.

d. Orsomatotyping theory – a theory developed by Ernest Kretschmer

advanced the theory that certain mental disorders were more common among
people of specific physical types. Kretschmer posited three chief constitutional
groups:

a. the tall, thin asthenic type, - were more prone to schizophrenia

b. the more muscular athletic type, and

c. the rotund pyknic type - were more likely to develop manic-depressive

disorders.

Other Notable Personalities of Biological Determinism:

1. Philippe Pinel – one of the founders of French Psychiatry. He claimed

that some people behave abnormally even without being mentally ill. He coined
the phrase “manie sans delire” which means psychopathic personality.

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 2. Benjamine Rush (1812) – described patients with an “innate
preternatural moral depravity”.

3. Henry Maudsley (1835 – 1918) – believed that insanity and criminal

behavior were strongly linked. He stated that “Crime is a sort of outlet in which
their unsound tendencies are discharged; they would go mad if they would not
criminals, and they do not go mad because they are criminals.

The tenets of Biological Determinism

➢ Behavior is determined by biology.

➢ There is a genetic basis of all behaviors.
➢ Most behavior has an adaptive or evolutionary function.
➢ Behaviors have their origins in specific locations of the brain.
➢ In order to understand human behavior, it is necessary to include
animal studies.

In this regard, persons behind biological determinism believes that punishment

will not affect deterring the individual from the crime, because the person (criminal) has
some inherited remnants, stigmata etc. This determinism in the study of crime causation
is the first theory where scientific approach was used.

Early Theories and Application of Biological Determinism

In the 18th and 19th centuries, theories of biological determinism were based on
vague, often highly controversial ideas about the nature of heredity. Since the concepts
and tools were not available during that period to study heredity directly, biologists and
anthropologists measured physical features of humans, trying to associate mental and
personality traits with anatomical (and occasionally physiological) features, such as
facial angle (angle of slope of the face from chin to forehead) or cranial index (ratio of
lateral to vertical circumference of the head).

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 Certain physical features, such as high cheekbones or a prominent eyebrow
ridge, were often said to be indicative of criminal tendencies. In the first half of 20th
century scientist were on its massive researched to trace the defective genes that
causes undesirable traits. Hence, defective genes were carefully examine through the
sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and trying to found out if the altered
sequences causes such traits.

In the annals of history, biological determinism was applied to what were widely
perceived to be negative traits. Here are the physical traits observed to be defective;

➢ cleft palate
➢ clubfoot
➢ dwarfism
➢ gigantism

Aside from physical traits, social and psychological conditions were examined
in relation to criminality such as:

➢ feeblemindedness
➢ pauperism
➢ shiftlessness
➢ promiscuity
➢ bipolar disorder
➢ hyperactivity

Whereas many researchers agreed that physical defects likely arise from genetic
anomalies, the claim that all psychological disorders and socially unacceptable
behaviors are inherited was controversial. That was partly due to the difficulty of
obtaining rigorous data about the genetics of such traits.

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 However, it was also due to an increasing knowledge of the abilities of various
factors, such as chemicals in the environment, to interact with genetic elements.
Teasing apart the genetic and environmental causes of psychological and behavioral
conditions remains an exceptionally challenging task.

B. SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS

The theories under sociological perspective sought the following sociological

factors as to crime causation in terms of the social environment such as;

➢ Family
➢ School
➢ Peer group,
➢ Workplace,
➢ Community Society.

These factors contributed a lot in crime commission and explain respectively in

sociological theories.

However, differ from one another in several ways: they focus on somewhat
different features of the social environment causes crime, and some focus on explaining
individual differences in crime while others attempt to explain group differences in crime
(example why communities have higher crime rates than other communities).

There are three (3) major sociological theories crime and criminality:

➢ strain,
➢ social learning and,
➢ control theories.

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 Economic disadvantage as explain by strain theory as sociological factor
asserts that people commit crime since they experience pressure or stress, they then
become upset, and they sometimes engage in crime as a result.

They may engage in crime as there mode of adaptation just to cope up with the
frustration that they are experiencing. Here are some examples how a person overcome
frustration with the use of crime as a mode of adaptation;

➢ they may engage in violence to end harassment from others,

➢ they may steal to reduce financial problems, or
➢ they may run away from home to escape abusive parents. They may also
engage in crime to seek revenge against those who have wronged them.
➢ and they may engage in the crime of illicit drug use to make themselves
feel better.
Media Influence is another sociological factor to crime causation explain by
social learning theory advocated by Albert Bandura. According to Social Learning
Theory, we tend to modeled or pattern our behavior from other person that we interact
in a daily basis either direct or indirect.

Here are the assertions of social learning theory according to Albert Bandura;

➢ Man is not born with ability to act violently but they learn to be aggressive
through their life experiences.
➢ Human behavior is modeled through observation of human social
interactions.
➢ Direct observation those who are close from intimate contact, or indirectly
through the media.
➢ Interaction that are rewarded are copied, while those that are punished
are avoided.
Prior to Albert Bandura concepts of Social Learning Theory, Ronald Akers presented
her primary version of the said theory;

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 ➢ Criminal behavior is learned according to the principles of operant
conditioning (Burgess & Akers, 1966)
➢ Criminal Behavior is learned both in nonsocial or social situations
(Burgess & Akers, 1966)
➢ The principle parts of learning occur in groups (Burgess & Akers, 1966)
➢ The learning of criminal behavior including specific techniques reinforces,
and the existing reinforcement contingencies (techniques of committing
crime) (Burgess & Akers, 1966)
➢ Behavior depends on how reinforcement are applied based on norms
(Burgess & Akers, 1966)
➢ Criminal Behavior is a function of norms which are discriminative for
criminal behavior (a person will become delinquent based on the function
of the norms) (Burgess & Akers, 1966)
➢ The strength of criminal behavior depends on the frequency and
probability of its reinforcement (Burgess & Akers, 1966)

Akers's theory, in turn, represents an elaboration of Edwin Sutherland's

differential association theory (also see the related work of Albert Bandura in
psychology).

Unlike strain and social learning, control theory do not question why people
commit crime instead it ask a question why people conform.

According to control theorists, people do not engage in crime because of the

controls or restraints placed on them. These controls may be viewed as barriers to
crime—they refer to those factors that prevent them from engaging in crime. So while
strain and social learning theory focus on those factors that push or lead the individual
into crime, control theory focuses on the factors that restrain the individual from
engaging in crime. Control theory goes on to argue that people differ in their level of

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control or in the restraints they face to crime. These differences explain differences in
crime: some people are freer to engage in crime than others.

Control theories describe the major types of social control or the major restraints
to crime. The control theory of Travis Hirschi dominates the literature, but Gerald
Patterson and associates, Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, and Robert
Sampson and John Laub have extended Hirschi's theory in important ways. Rather than
describing the different versions of control theory, an integrated control theory that
draws on all of their insights is presented.

C. GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS

The development of geography of crime has been an issue in criminology. A

framework for the interaction between criminology and human geography came into
existence due to;
➢ Place
➢ Space
➢ Environment

These attributed to values and meaning that includes cognitive mapping and
environmental perception.

Spatial data analysis through geographic information systems is becoming more

popular in crime mapping and crime analysis in contemporary police organizations and
their usage is limitless. Geographic information system as an analytical instrument is
also used for pattern analysis or for analysis of spatial crime distribution model and for
researching spatial relations between crime and other demographic and socio-economic
factors by using visual representation of spatial data.

Along with usual implementation of traditional methods, geographic information

systems contribute in directing crime investigations to a certain area of probable

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locations of residence, other activities and the offender’s itinerary. Due to its significant
impact on the quality of police work, as well as policy and decision making on
operational, tactical and strategic levels, modern police organizations use GIS in their
daily work in order to prevent and reduce crime rates.

Majority of criminological theories are based on researching the offender, the

victim or the situation in which a criminal act has been committed and these theories
have been developed under the influence of psychological and sociological trends in
criminology. Considering that psychological theories do not necessarily include spatial
components, this lesson will present criminological theories relevant for geographic
crime analysis and thus the following issues will be considered: where, when and why
criminal acts are committed in certain locations and are there a specific pattern or a
model in the offender’s movement?

Development period for spatial or environmental theories and empirical research

of crime can be divided historically into four phases: the cartographic school in the 19th
century, the Chicago school in the first half of the 20th century, the factor analysis
school from the mid-20th century and criminology of the environment (environmental
criminology) and geography of crime that has developed since the 1970’s till today.

The ‘Cartographic School’: By investigating environmental and spatial sources of

crime, criminology as a scientific discipline has contributed to judicial reform and to the
development of the classical school of criminal law in the late 18th century and in the
beginning of the 19th century. That is how the cartographic school (1830-1880)
emerged in England and France as a part of classical reformist school.

The majority of the studies referred to the description of differences in attributes

and the number of criminal acts between certain cities, regions and smaller regions, for
example Guerry and Quetelet discovered that crime was unevenly distributed in
different French districts. During the second half of the 19th century, studies focused
more on researching crime rates in city centers.

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 The most important results produced by the cartographic school showed that
crime changes fundamentally in relation to space, that deviations occur in many
different levels of social danger of criminal acts and that there is a mutual connection
between crime and certain social characteristics such as population density, for
example.

The ‘Chicago School’: Scientists from the University of Chicago have studied and
tried to provide an explanation about the distribution of crime in Chicago in the late 19th
century and early 20th century by introducing a concept of social ecology that consisted
of two elements. The first one was based on social competition or social conflict due to
scarce spatial resources of expanding cities created due to industrialization and
urbanization.

The second one referred to nature and quality of social organization within
various areas. The most significant Chicago School researchers who applied the
concentric zone theory were Shaw and McKay. They established a link between
delinquency in different neighborhoods and other socioeconomic factors. Their results,
which pointed to the existence of delinquency areas, had a major influence on future
research in American criminology.

The ‘Factor Analysis School’: Empirical research conducted in the mid-20th

century had many things in common with the Chicago School. They highlighted a link
between the geographical distribution of offenders and criminal acts and characteristics
of certain areas inhabited by delinquents, i.e. places where offences are committed. The
studies done by Morris and especially Lander in relation to Shaw and McKay research
results did not show substantial differences in crime analysis of large city
agglomerations.

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 D. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

Psychologists approach the task of explaining delinquent and criminal behavior

by focusing on an individual’s personality. In particular, they examine the processes by
which behavior and restraints on behavior are learned. These processes often are
conceived as being the result of the interaction of biological predispositions and social
experiences. Among the earliest psychological theories of crime were those based on
the work of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). In which in this study, Freud discussed the
three major personality mechanisms, to wit:

1. ID (evil or pleasure principle)

➢ Contained the instinctual, unconscious desires (especially sexual and
aggressive) with which a child was born.
➢ It was governed by the pleasure principle, seeking to achieve pleasure
and avoid pain.

2. EGO (reality principle)

➢ The ego, which was the seat of consciousness, developed out of the id by
about age three.
➢ The ego tried to achieve the desires of the id while taking account of the
reality of social conventions, and hence could delay immediate
gratification in favor of long-term goals.
➢ Children would only develop a strong ego if they had a loving relationship
with their parents.

3. SUPEREGO (morality principle)

➢ The superego developed out of the ego by about age five, and contained two
functions, the conscience and the ego-ideal.

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 ➢ The conscience acted to inhibit instinctual desires that violated social rules,
and its formation depended on parental punishment arousing anger that
children then turned against themselves.
➢ The ego-ideal contained internalized representations of parental standards
and its formation depended on children having loving relationships with their
parents.

According to psychoanalytic theories, offending resulted from a weak ego or a

weak superego, both of which followed largely from low attachment between children
and parents. These ideas inspired counseling and social work approaches, trying to
rehabilitate offenders by building up warm relationships with them.

Later, psychological theories of crime were based on the following:

1. Behavior theory by the American psychologist B.F. Skinner (1904–90) – who

viewed all human behavior—criminal and otherwise—as learned and thus can be
manipulated by the use of reinforcement and punishment.

2. Social Learning Theory of Ronald Akers – expanded behavior theory to

encompass ways in which behavior is learned from contacts within the family and other
intimate groups, from social contacts outside the family (particularly from peer groups),
and from exposure to models of behavior in the media, particularly television.

3. Mental Illness - it is sometimes argued that crime is associated with certain

mental conditions. Mental illness is generally the cause of a relatively small proportion
of crimes.

4. Antisocial Personality Disorder—is thought to be strongly associated with

criminality. However, because the criteria for diagnosing the disorder emphasize
committing crimes and engaging in crime like behavior, it is unclear whether the

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disorder is a cause of crime or simply a label that psychiatrists use to describe people
who happen to be criminals.

5. Early Childhood Experiences – In the 1990s, psychological research was

focused on early childhood experiences that tended to lead to criminality in later life,
including poor parental child-rearing techniques, such as harsh or inconsistent
discipline.

6. Impulsivity – is the tendency to engage in high levels of activity, to be easily

distracted, to act without thinking, and to seek immediate gratification—as a personality
characteristic associated with criminality.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

A. General Classification

1. Mala In Se- acts that are wrongful and evil of its nature. Even without the
existence of the legal definition of crime it will always be a crime since these acts are
detrimental not only to the offender party but also in the society as a whole.

2. Mala Prohibita- acts that are considered crime because of the operation of the
law. In context, crime is not always detrimental to victim or to society but being
prohibited for some legal reasons and to establish order in the community.

B. Classification of Crimes According to Severity of Punishment

1. Felony- is an act or omission punishable by the Revised Penal Code, the

criminal law in the Philippines (Reyes, 1960)

2. Offense- is an act or omission punishable by special penal laws.

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 3. Delinquency or misdemeanor- acts that are in violation of simple rules and
regulation usually referring to acts committed by minor offenders.

4. Infractions- are acts in violation of traffic laws and ordinances

C. Legal Classification

1. Public Crime – is defined by Siegel (2004) as "crime which involves acts that
interfere with the operations of society and the ability of people to function efficiently",
i.e., it is behavior that has been labelled criminal because it is contrary to shared norms,
social values, and customs.

2. Private Crime – refers to those crimes which can only be prosecuted by the
aggrieved party.

D. Criminological Classification of Crimes

1. As to the result of crimes

a. Acquisitive crime – when the offender acquires something as a consequences

of his criminal act.

b. Extinctive Crime – when the end result of a criminal act is destruction.

2. As to the time or period committed

a. Seasonal crime – refer to crimes committed in a certain period of the year

b. Situational crime – those committed only when given the situation conducive to
its commission

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3. As to the length of time committed

a. Instant crimes – those committed in the shortest possible time

b. Episodic crimes – those committed by a series of act in a lengthy space of time

4. As to the place or location of commission

a. Static crimes – those committed only in one place.

b. Continuing crimes – those committed in several places

5. As to the use of mental faculties

a. Rational crimes – those committed with intention and offender is in full possession of
his mental faculties
b. Irrational crimes – those committed by a person who does not know the nature and
quality of his act on account of the disease of the mind

6. As to the type of offenders

a. White-collar crimes – those committed by a person of responsibility and of upper

socio-economic class in the course of their occupational activities

b. Blue-collar crimes – those committed by ordinary professional criminals to maintain

their livelihood

7. As to the standard of living of criminals

a. Crimes of the upper world – those committed by people of the upper strata of society
b. Crimes of the underworld – those committed by members of the lower or
underprivileged class of society

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8. Crime by imitation or passion

a. By imitation – those committed, the pattern of which is merely a duplication of what

was done by others

b. By passion – those committed because of the fit of passion, anger, jealousy, hatred,
etc.

MODERN CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES

A. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

This theory is also known as Choice Theory or Rational Action Theory. The origin
of this theory is anchored in classical theory. Freewill doctrine, psychological hedonism
and utilitarian principle is applied in this theory. An individual uses rational calculations
to make rational choices. The decision of an individual in committing crime is depended
on the outcome that will serve his best self-interest. Hence, rational choice theory
explained that crime will happen after an individual weighed the benefits of the crime
and the risk of being detected or apprehended. If the gain of committing the crime will
outweigh the chances of being caught then crime happen as a result.

B. DETERRENCE THEORY

The origin of this theory can be traced in the Classical thinkers such as Thomas
Hobbes, Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria. This theory together with the classical
doctrine challenge the legal policies throughout European thought more than a
thousand years against the spiritual explanations of crime. Thomas Hobbes, as one of
the proponents of “Social Contract” provided the foundation for modern deterrence
theory in criminology. Deterrence theory uses punishment to prevent and control crime.
Thus, there are two forms of deterrence;

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 General Deterrence- is designed to prevent crime in the general population.
Thus, the state’s punishment of offenders serves as an example for others in the
general population who have not yet participated in criminal events.

Specific Deterrence- is designed by the nature of the proscribed sanctions to

deter only the individual offender from committing that crime in the future. It also believe
that punishing offenders severely will make them unwilling to reoffend in the future.

C. INDIVIDUAL TRAIT THEORY

This theory is also known as Physical Aberration Theory. The trait theory in
criminology originated from positivist theory. This theory states that certain personality
traits can be predispose an individual criminal propensity. Physical defects or aberration
caused an individual to commit crime. Thus, it defined as habitual patterns of behavior,
thought, and emotion. Extraversion and Introversion are common dimensions in this
theory.

D. BIOCHEMICAL THEORY

This theory of crime causation anchored its study in the biological perspectives of
crime causation. This theory believes that the food and drug intakes of a person will
influence his behavior to commit crimes. The explanation of crime under this theory
involves, body’s hormones, food and drug intakes.

E. BIOSOCIAL THEORY

This theory explain crime as a result of their examination of the combined effects
of biology, behavior and environment on criminal behavior. It asserts that criminal
behavior is a product of both environmental and biological factors. There is where the
genetic attributes explore both nature and nurture influence behavior.

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F. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY

This theory is one of the theories under social structure perspective in the study
of crime. This can be trace on the word of two urban sociologist Clifford Shaw and
Henry McKay, in which they examined the distribution of delinquency among various
groups in Chicago. This is sometimes called Concentric Zone Theory.

G. STRAIN THEORY

This theory is popularized by Robert King Merton. According to him, there are
five modes of adaptation that a certain individual will adapt the moment an individual
confronted with problems that causes strain. Frustration due to the blocking of goals is
the main reason why people feel pressure and most of common goal is economic
reason.

H. GENERAL STRAIN THEORY (Frustration, Anger and Hatred)

This theory believed that aside from frustration due to economic reason, there
are other factors that cause strain that pushes an individual to commit crime. Thus, the
core concept of this theory is focus on frustration, anger and hatred as the cause of
crime.

I. CULTURAL DEVIANCE THEORY (Mainstream Society VS the Lower Class)

This theory is a combination of both Strain and Social Disorganization theories. It

explains how people living in slum neighborhoods react to isolation from the rest of
society and economic deprivation. Thus, the norms implemented by the middle class to
the mainstream society is in conflict to the peculiar sets of norms of the lower class.

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J. SUBCULTURE THEORY (Middle Class Youth VS Lower Class Youth)

A theory introduced by Albert Cohen that focuses on gangs. This theory holds
that certain groups or subcultures in society have values and attitudes that are unique to
them and serves as an avenue for crime and violence.

K. CONTROL THEORY

A theory that focus on explaining why people follow rules instead of breaking
them. It focuses in techniques and strategies on how to regulate the behavior and lead
them to conform and obey the rules in the society.

L. SOCIAL BOND THEORY

A theory under control theories. This theory was introduced by Travis Hirschi in
1969. According to him, individual bond that focuses upon a person’s relationships to
their agent of socialization, such as parents, teachers, preachers, coaches, scout
leaders, or police officers will determine criminal behavior. Thus, Hirschi able to identify
four (4) elements that will strengthen the individual’s bond namely;

1. Attachment- your relationship with other people and having the feeling of
belongingness.
2. Commitment- doing what is right even if nobody is watching you or simply
following rules.
3. Involvement- refers to your participation in different group or organization or
different peoples.
4. Belief- refers to your basic value system.

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M. CONTAINMENT THEORY (Self- Insulation)

This theory is one of the control theories introduced by Walter Reckless. The
core concept of this theory is that by insulating yourself using containment you will be
keep away from crime.

N. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (Modeled Behavior)

A theory developed by Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess that explains deviant
behavior by combining variables which encouraged crime and delinquency (Example:
Social Pressure from delinquent peers) with variable that discouraged delinquency
(Example: Parental response to discovering delinquency in their children).

O. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY (Learning Criminal Techniques)

A theory advocated by the dean of Modern Criminology Dr. Edwin H. Sutherland.

This theory believes that criminal behavior is learned to through process of
communication. Hence, learning criminal technique is intentional and can be learned
both in social and anti-social way. Thus, crime will happen if the definition of favorable
conditions of violating the law will outweighed the unfavorable conditions of not violating
the law.

O. DIFFERENTIAL IDENTIFICATION THEORY (Belonging to a group)

A theory developed by Daniel Glaser in which it holds that a person sees his
behavior that is accepted in a particular group that he then identifies himself as a
member of the group. Therefore, he will be doing what that particular group is doing.
Thus, crime will result as he identifies himself to be part of that group.

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P. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT THEORY (Rewards and Punishment)

This theory explain crime as a result of our response to a particular behavior. If

the response is in appropriate such behavior will continue and escalate. This theory
uses rewards and punishments to reinforce in a particular behavior.

Q. DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY (Goals VS Means)

A theory introduced by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin that combines learning,
subculture, anomie social disorganization theories and expands them to include the
recognition that for criminal behavior there must also be access to illegitimate means.

R. SOCIAL REACTION THEORY

This theory is commonly known as Labeling Theory. This theory contends that
crime is the result of the response of the significant members of society in a particular
behavior exhibited by a certain individual. Hence, we label the behavior as such. This
theory takes a process or a cycle of delinquency;
1. We put a negative label to a person.
2. The negative label will be accepted by the person.
3. There will be dramatization of evil, and in here the person will commit crime
base on the behavior label to him.
4. There will be a self- fulfilling prophecy once the crime is successful.

S. SOCIAL CONFLICT THEORY (The Battle of the have and the have nots)

The theory anchored to Radical perspective in which crime is seen as a reflection

of class struggle, a kind of primitive rebellion with criminals behaving as rebels without a
clue. Under this theory crime is the result of a class struggle in which society is
undergoing a constant battle between the rich and the poor.

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T. FEMINIST THEORY

A theory in which has much common with the conflict theory but the focus of this
theory is inequality of gender. Crime is the result of gender biases. Thus, the central
concept is patriarchy or male domination, as the main cause of crime.

U. NEUTRALIZATION THEORY

Also known as Drift theory developed by David Matza and Gresham Skyes. This
theory asserts that criminals and delinquents is not always involved into the life of
criminality all the time.

V. HUMAN ECOLOGY THEORY

This theory by Robert Ezra Park focus in the study of the interrelationship of
people and their environment. The core concept of this theory is environmental change
that cause crime.

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