TC 503

Digital Communication Theory

Course Teacher:
Dr. Muhammad Imran Aslam
 Signals and Spectra
• Signal (Plural: Signals): Function of time (t)
• Spectrum (Plural: Spectra): Function of frequency (f)
– As radian frequency is 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋, spectrum can also be
represented as function of 𝜔.
• Time domain: The independent variable is time (t)
– Signal refers to time-domain representation
• Frequency domain: The independent variable is
frequency (f)
– Frequency-domain description is called the spectrum
• Electrical communication signals are time-varying
quantities such as voltage or current.
– A signal physically exists in the time domain
– we can also represent it in the frequency domain where we
view the signal as consisting of sinusoidal components at
various frequencies.
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 Line Spectrum
• Consider the sinusoidal waveform 𝑣 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙
– where A is the peak value or amplitude
– 𝜔0 is the radian frequency
– The phase angle 𝜙 represents the fact that the peak has
been shifted away from the time origin and occurs at
𝑡 = −𝜙/𝜔0 .
– 𝑣 𝑡 repeats itself, with repetition period 𝑇0 = 2𝜋/𝜔0 .
– The reciprocal of the period equals the cyclical frequency,
𝑓0 = 1/𝑇0 = 𝜔0 /2𝜋 measured in cycles per second, or
hertz (Hz).

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 Line Spectrum
• The time domain view of 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙

• How to show this sinusoid in frequency domain?

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 Line Spectrum
• To get frequency domain descript ion of 𝑣 𝑡 =
𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙 , note the following
1. The sinusoid has amplitude 𝐴 at frequency 𝑓0
2. The sinusoid has phase 𝜙 at frequency 𝑓0
3. A suitable frequency-domain description consists of two
plots: amplitude versus frequency (Amplitude spectrum)
and phase versus frequency (Phase spectrum).
4. As the spectrum of (a periodic functions) appears as
discrete lines, it is known as line spectrum.

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 Phasor Representation
• Recall Euler’s identity 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 ± 𝑗 sin 𝜃, where
𝑗 = −1 and 𝜃 is an arbitrary angle.
• Hence we can write: cos 𝜃 = Re 𝑒 𝑗𝜃
• Taking 𝜃 = 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙, we can write
𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙 = 𝐴Re 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔0 𝑡+𝜙
𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙 = Re 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜙 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
• This is called a phasor representation because the
term inside the brackets may be viewed as a rotating
vector in a complex plane whose axes are the real
and imaginary parts, as illustrated in the Figure.
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 Phasor Representation
• The phasor has length 𝐴, rotates counterclockwise at a
rate of 𝑓0 revolutions per second, and at time 𝑡 = 0
makes an angle 𝜙 with respect to the positive real axis
• The projection of the phasor on the real axis equals the
sinusoid 𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙

Observe that only three

parameters completely specify
a phasor: amplitude, phase
angle, and rotational
frequency.
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 Two-sided Spectrum
• Recall Euler’s identity 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 ± 𝑗 sin 𝜃
• From Euler’s identity, we can write
𝑒 𝑗𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
cos 𝜃 =
2
• Considering our example of sinusoidal function
𝑒 𝑗 𝜔0 𝑡+𝜙 + 𝑒 −𝑗 𝜔0 𝑡+𝜙
𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙 = 𝐴
2
𝐴 𝑗𝜙 𝑗𝜔 𝑡 𝐴 −𝑗𝑗 −𝑗𝜔 𝑡
𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙 = 𝑒 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 𝑒 0
2 2
• We now have a pair of conjugate phasors. The phasor
diagram consists of two phasors with equal lengths but
opposite angles and directions of rotation.
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 Two-sided Spectrum
• The corresponding phasor diagram and line spectrum
are shown

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 Two-sided Spectrum
• The line of spectrum is two-sided (or double-sided)
since it must include negative frequencies to allow for
the opposite rotational directions, and one-half of the
original amplitude is associated with each of the two
frequencies ±𝑓0 .
– Note that frequency of a real signal is always positive. The
negative frequency appearing in this two-sided spectrum is
because of complex domain representation
– Both positive and negative frequencies should be included for
complete representation in complex domain
– A simple notation for specifying intervals [𝑓1 , 𝑓2 ] in both
positive and negative frequencies is 𝑓1 ≤ |𝑓| ≤ 𝑓2

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 Two-sided Spectrum
• Important: Please note that (for real signal)
– The amplitude spectrum has even symmetry
– The phase spectrum has odd symmetry
• NOTE: The amplitude spectrum conveys more
information than the phase spectrum.
– Both parts are required to define the time-domain
function, but the amplitude spectrum by itself tells us
what frequencies are present and in what proportion.
– Putting this another way, the amplitude spectrum displays
the signal’s frequency content.
• Mathematically a periodic signal can be represented
as sum of sinusoids (Fourier Series)
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 Continuous Spectra
• Recall: Frequency domain representation of Periodic
signals is line spectrum
• What about non-periodic signals?
– Non-periodic signals have continuous spectrum
– Amplitude and phase change continuously with frequency
– Fourier transform is used to convert a time domain signal
to frequency domain
– Standard table of Fourier transforms and its properties is
helpful in simplifying the analysis (Refer to appendices in
the textbook)
– Typically small letters are used to represent time-domain
functions and capital letters are used represent for
frequency-domain functions
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 Example of
continuous spectrum

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SPECTRUM DENSITY

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 Spectral Density
• The spectral density of a signal characterizes the distribution
of the signal’s energy or power in the frequency domain.
• This concept is particularly important when considering
filtering in communication systems.
• We need to be able to evaluate the signal and noise at the
filter output.
• The energy spectral density (ESD) or the power spectral
density (PSD) is used in the evaluation.
– For Energy signals: ESD is calculated
– For Power signals: PSD is calculated

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 1. Energy Spectral Density (ESD)
• Energy spectral density (ESD) describes the signal energy per unit
bandwidth measured in joules/hertz.
• If X(f) is Fourier transform of an energy signal x(t), then its ESD [ 𝜓𝑥 (𝑓) ],
2
the squared magnitude spectrum i.e. ψ x ( f ) = X ( f )
• According to Parseval’s theorem, the energy of x(t):
∞ ∞

∫ x (t) dt = ∫
2 2
Ex = |X(f)| df
∞ -∞ -∞
• Therefore: E x = ∫ ψ x (f) df
-∞

• As for real signals x(t), |X(f)| is an even function of frequency.

Therefore, Energy spectral density is symmetrical in frequency about
origin and total energy of the signal x(t) can be expressed as:
∞
E x = 2 ∫ψ x (f) df
0

Parseval’s Theorem: The sum (or integral) of square of a signal is equal to sum (or
integral of square of it’s (Fourier) transform.
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 2. Power Spectral Density (PSD)
• The power spectral density (PSD) describes the signal power per unit
bandwidth measured in watts/hertz.
• The PSD Gx(f ) of a periodic signal x(t) is a real, even, and nonnegative
function of frequency that gives the distribution of the power of x(t) in
the frequency domain. ∞

• PSD is represented as: G x (f ) = ∑ |C n

n=-∞
|2
δ ( f − nf 0 )

• Whereas the average power of a periodic signal x(t) is represented as:

T /2
1 0 2 ∞
=Px = ∫
T0 −T0 / 2
x (t) dt
n=-∞
∑ |C | n
2

• Using PSD, the average normalized power of a real-valued signal is

represented as:
∞ ∞
=Px ∫=
G (f) df 2 ∫ G
−∞
x
0
x (f) df

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 Problem

a) Find the normalized average power in x(t) over the frequency band from 0
to 10 kHz
b) Find the normalized average power contained in the frequency band from
5 to 10 kHz

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Solution

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AUTOCORRELATION

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 Autocorrelation
Autocorrelation of an Energy Signal
• Correlation is a matching process; autocorrelation refers to the
matching of a signal with a delayed version of itself.
• Autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal x(t) is defined
as:
∞
R x (τ ) = ∫ x(t) x (t + τ ) dt
−∞
for -∞ < τ < ∞

• The autocorrelation function Rx(τ) provides a measure of how closely

the signal matches a copy of itself as the copy is shifted τ units in time.
• Rx(τ) is not a function of time; it is only a function of the time
difference τ between the waveform and its shifted copy.

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 Properties of autocorrelation of an Energy Signal
R x (τ ) =R x (−τ ) symmetrical about zero

R x (τ ) ≤ R x (0) for all τ maximum value occurs at the origin

R x (τ ) ↔ ψ x (f ) autocorrelation and ESD form a

Fourier transform pair, as designated
by the double-headed arrows
∞
E X R=
= x (0) ∫
−∞
x 2 (t ) dt value at the origin is equal to
the energy of the signal
∞
= ∫ ψ x ( f ) df
-∞

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 Autocorrelation of a Power Signal

• Autocorrelation function of a real-valued power signal x(t) is defined as:

T /2
1
R x (τ ) lim
T →∞
∫
T −T / 2
x(t) x (t + τ ) dt for -∞ < τ < ∞

• When the power signal x(t) is periodic with period T0, the
autocorrelation function can be expressed as
T0 / 2
1
R x (τ )
T0 ∫
−T0 / 2
x(t) x (t + τ ) dt for -∞ < τ < ∞

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 Properties of Autocorrelation of a Power Signal
• The autocorrelation function of a real-valued periodic signal has the
following properties similar to those of an energy signal:

R x (τ ) =R x (−τ ) symmetrical about zero

R x (τ ) ≤ R x (0) for all τ maximum value occurs at the origin

autocorrelation and PSD form a

R x (τ ) ↔ Gx (f)
Fourier transform pair
T0 /2
1 value at the origin is equal to the
PX R=
= x (0)
T0 ∫
−T0 /2
x 2 (t ) dt
average power of the signal
∞
= ∫ G ( f ) df
−∞
x

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 Random Signals
Random Variables
• All useful message signals appear random; that is, the receiver does
not know, a priori, which of the possible waveform have been sent.

• Let a random variable X(A) represent the functional relationship

between a random event A and a real number.

• The (cumulative) distribution function FX(x) of the random variable X is

given by
FX=
( x) P( X ≤ x)
• Another useful function relating to the random variable X is the
probability density function (PDF)
dFX ( x)
PX ( x) =
dx
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 Ensemble Averages
∞
• The first moment of a probability
m X E=
= {X } ∫xp
−∞
X ( x)dx distribution of a random variable
X is called mean value mX, or
expected value of a random
∞ variable X
E{ X 2 } = ∫
−∞
x 2 p X ( x)dx • The second moment of a
probability distribution is the
mean-square value of X
• Central moments are the
var(
= X ) E{( X − m X ) 2 } moments of the difference
∞ between X and mX and the
= ∫ ( x − m X ) 2 p X ( x)dx second central moment is the
variance of X
−∞
• Variance is equal to the
var(
= X ) E{ X 2 } − E{ X }2 difference between the mean-
square value and the square of
the mean

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 Random Processes

• A random process X(A, t) can be viewed as a function of two variables:

a random variable (A) and time (t).
• X(Ak,t) is called a
sample function

• X(A, tk) is simply

gives random
variable

• X(Ak,tk) is just a
number

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Statistical Averages of a Random Process
• A random process whose distribution functions are continuous can be
described statistically with a probability density function (PDF).

• A partial description consisting of the mean and autocorrelation

function are often adequate for the needs of communication systems.

• Mean of the random process X(t) :

∞
E{ X (tk )}
= ∫=
−∞
xp ( x) dx
Xk mX (tk )

• Autocorrelation function of the random process X(t)

RX (t1 , t2 ) = E{ X (t1 ) X (t2 )}

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 Stationarity

• A random process X(t) is said to be stationary in the strict

sense if none of its statistics are affected by a shift in the time
origin.
• A random process is said to be wide-sense stationary (WSS) if
two of its statistics, its mean and autocorrelation function, do
not vary with a shift in the time origin.
E{ X (t=
)} m=
X A constant
RX (t1 , t2 =) RX (t1 − t2 )= RX (τ )

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 Autocorrelation of a WSS Process
• For a wide-sense stationary process, the autocorrelation function is
only a function of the time difference τ = t1 – t2;
RX (τ ) E{ X (t ) X (t + τ )}
= for − ∞ <τ < ∞
• Properties of the autocorrelation function of a real-valued wide-
sense stationary process are

τ ) RX (−τ )
RX (= • Symmetrical in τ about zero

RX (τ ) ≤ RX (0) for all τ • Maximum value occurs at the origin

Autocorrelation and power spectral
RX (τ ) ↔ GX ( f ) •
density form a Fourier transform pair

RX (0) = E{ X 2 (t )} • Value at the origin is equal to the

average power of the signal

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 Time Averaging and Ergodicity
• When a random process belongs to a special class, known as an
ergodic process, its time averages equal its ensemble averages.

• The statistical properties of such processes can be determined by time

averaging over a single sample function of the process.

• A random process is ergodic in the mean if

T /2
1
mX = lim
T →∞ T ∫
−T /2
X (t )dt

• It is ergodic in the autocorrelation function if

T /2
1
=RX (τ ) lim
T →∞ T ∫
−T / 2
X (t ) X (t + τ )dt

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For Ergodic process, fundamental electrical parameters can be
evaluated using signal statistics. Following is the summary of
these relations:

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 Power Spectral Density
• A random process X(t) can generally be classified as a power signal
having a power spectral density (PSD) GX(f )
• PSD of a real valued X(t) is a real-valued function of f.
• Principal features of PSD functions

• GX(f ) is a real function

GX ( f ) ≥ 0 • PSD is always positive
• PSD is symmetric about
GX (=
f ) GX (− f ) frequency origin
GX ( f ) ↔ RX (τ ) • PSD and autocorrelation form a
Fourier transform pair
∞
• Relationship between average
PX R=
= X (0) ∫G
−∞
X ( f )df normalized power and PSD
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Problem

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Solution

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