Chapter 1

SOLAR
RADIATION

1
 SOLAR RADIATION
The sun’s structure and characteristics determine the nature of the energy it
radiates into space.

The first major topic in this chapter concerns the characteristics of this energy
outside the earth’s atmosphere, its intensity and its spectral distribution.

We will be concerned primarily with radiation in a wavelength range of 0.25 to

3.0 μm, the portion of the electro-magnetic radiation that includes most of the
energy radiated by the Sun.

The second major topic in this chapter is solar geometry, that is, the position of
the Sun in the sky, the direction in which beam radiation is incident on surfaces
of various orientations and shading.

The third topic is extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface, which

represents the theoretical upper limit of solar radiation available at the earth’s
surface.

An understanding of the above is important in understanding and using solar

2
radiation data, the subject of Chapter 2.
 1.1 The Sun

The Sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1.39 × 109
m and is, on the average, 1.5 × 1013 m from the earth.

As seen from the earth, the Sun rotates on its axis about once every 4 weeks.
However, it does not rotate as a solid body: the equator takes about 27 days and
the polar regions take about 30 days for each rotation.

The Sun has an effective blackbody temperature of 5777 K.

The energy produced in the interior of the solar sphere at temperatures of many
millions of degrees must be transferred out to the surface and then be radiated into
space.

3
 1.1 The Sun
A schematic structure of the Sun is shown in Figure 1.1.1.
0-0.23 R:
•90% of energy generated.
•40% of the mass.
•T = ~8-40x106 K
•ρ = 105 kg/m3

@0.7 R:
•T = 130,000 K
•ρ = 70 kg/m3
•convection starts being important

0.7-1 R:
•Known as the convective zone.
•T = drops to about 5000 K
•ρ = 10–5 kg/m3
Photosphere, Reversing layer,
Chromosphere, Corona 4
 1.2 THE SOLAR CONSTANT
Figure 1.2.1 shows schematically the geometry of the Sun-earth relationships.

The eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is such that the distance between the Sun and
the earth varies by 1.7%.
At a distance of one
astronomical unit, 1.495 × 1011
m, the mean earth-Sun distance,
the sun subtends an angle of 32’ Approx. 0.54°

approximately 0.54°.
The radiation emitted by the Sun
and its spatial relationship to the
earth result in a nearly fixed
intensity of solar radiation
outside of the earth’s
atmosphere.
The solar constant, GSC, is the energy from the sun per unit time received on a
unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation
at mean earth-Sun distance outside the atmosphere. 5
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
We know that radiation originates due to emission by matter and that its
subsequent transport does not require the presence of any matter.

But what is the nature of this transport?

One theory views radiation as the propagation of electromagnetic waves.

The
electromagnetic
spectrum is
delineated in
this Figure.

6
ME 315
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Where h is Planck’s constant (6.6256 × 10-34 J s).

It follows that as the frequency v increases (i.e., as the

wavelength λ decreases), the photon energy increases.

7
ME 315
 1.3 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF
EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION
In addition to the total energy in the solar spectrum (i.e., the solar constant), it is
useful to know the spectral distribution of the extraterrestrial radiation, that is, the
radiation that would be received in the absence of the atmosphere.

A standard spectral
irradiance curve has
been compiled based
on high-altitude and
space measurements.

The WRC standard is

shown in Figure 1.3.1.

Table 1.3.1 provides

the same information
on the WRC spectrum
in numerical form.
8
WRC: World Radiation Center
1.3 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF
EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION

9
 1.3 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF
EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION
The average energy GSC, λ (in W/m2 μm) over small bandwidths centered at
wavelength λ is given in the second column.

The fraction f0-λ of the total energy in the spectrum that is between
wavelength zero and λ is given in the third column.

The table is in two parts, the first at regular intervals of wavelength and the
second at even fractions f 0-λ.

10
 Example 1.3.1
Calculate the fraction of the extraterrestrial solar radiation and the amount of
that radiation in the ultraviolet (λ < 0.38 μm), the visible (0.38 μm < λ < 0.78
μm), and the infrared (λ > 0.78 μm) portions of the spectrum.

From Table 1.3.1a,

Wavelength range
0–0.38 0.38–0.78 0.78–∞
(μm)

Fraction in range 0.064 0.48 0.456

Energy in range
87.49 656.16 623.35
(W/m2)

For 1st column,

0.064x1367 = 87.49 11
1.4 VARIATION OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION
Two sources of variation in extraterrestrial radiation must be considered.
The first is the variation in the radiation emitted by the Sun.

There are conflicting reports in the literature on periodic variations of intrinsic

(natural) solar radiation.

For engineering purposes, in view of the uncertainties and variability of

atmospheric transmission, the energy emitted by the Sun can be considered to be
fixed.

Secondly, variation of the

earth-Sun distance, however,
does lead to variation of
extraterrestrial radiation flux
in the range of ± 3.3%.

The dependence of
extraterrestrial radiation on
time of year is shown in
Figure 1.4.1. 12
1.4 VARIATION OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION

A simple equation with accuracy adequate for most engineering calculations is

given by Equation 1.4.1a.

Spencer (1971), as cited by Iqbal (1983), provides a more accurate equation (±

0.01%) in form of Equation 1.4.1b:

Where Gon is the extraterrestrial radiation incident on the plane normal to the
radiation on the nth day of the year and B is given by

13
 1.5 DEFINITIONS
Zenith
The zenith is an imaginary point directly "above" a
particular location, on the imaginary celestial sphere.

"Above" means in the vertical direction opposite to

the apparent gravitational force at that location.

The opposite direction, i.e. the direction in which the

gravitational force pulls, is toward the nadir.

Meridian
A meridian (or line of longitude) is an imaginary
line on the Earth's surface from the North Pole to the
South Pole that connects all locations along it with a
given longitude.

Prime Meridian
The Prime Meridian is the meridian (line of
longitude) at which the longitude is defined to be 0°. 14
 1.5 DEFINITIONS
Several definitions will be useful in understanding this chapter.

Air Mass m. The ratio of the mass of atmosphere through which beam
radiation passes to the mass it would pass through if the Sun were at the zenith
(i.e., directly overhead, see Section 1.6).

For zenith angles from 0º to 70º at sea

level, to a close approximation,

Thus, at sea level

m = 1 when the sun is at the zenith and
m = 2 for a zenith angle θz of 60º.

For higher zenith angles, the effect of the earth’s curvature becomes significant
and must be taken into account.

For a more complete discussion of air mass, see Robinson (1966), Kondratyev
(1969), or Garg (1982). 15
 1.5 DEFINITIONS
Beam Radiation. The solar radiation received from the Sun without having
been scattered by the atmosphere. (Beam radiation is often referred to as direct
solar radiation; to avoid confusion between subscripts for direct and diffuse, we
use the term beam radiation.)

Diffuse Radiation. The solar radiation received from the Sun after its direction
has been changed by scattering by the atmosphere. (Diffuse radiation is referred
to in some meteorological literature as sky radiation or solar sky radiation; the
definition used here will distinguish the diffuse solar radiation from infrared
radiation emitted by the atmosphere.)

Total Solar Radiation. The sum of the beam and the diffuse solar radiation on
a surface. (The most common measurements of solar radiation are total
radiation on a horizontal surface, often referred to as a global radiation on the
surface.)

Total solar radiation is sometimes used to indicate quantities integrated over all
wavelengths of the solar spectrum.
16
 1.5 DEFINITIONS
The beam and diffuse solar radiation

17
 1.5 DEFINITIONS
Irradiance, W/m2. The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface
per unit area of surface. The symbol G is used for solar irradiance, with
appropriate subscripts for beam, diffuse, or spectral radiation.

Irradiation or Radiant Exposure, J/m2. The incident energy per unit area on
a surface, found by integration of irradiance over a specified time, usually an
hour or a day. Insolation is a term applying specifically to solar energy
irradiation. The symbol H is used for insolation for a day. The symbol I is used
for insolation for an hour (or other period if specified). The symbols H and I
can represent beam, diffuse, or total and can be on surfaces of any orientation.

Subscripts on G, H, and I are as follows:

o refers to radiation above the earth’s atmosphere, referred to as extraterrestrial
radiation;
b and d refer to beam and diffuse radiation;
T and n refer to radiation on a tilted plane and on a plane normal to the
direction of propagation.
If neither T nor n appears, the radiation is on a horizontal plane.
18
 1.5 DEFINITIONS

Radiosity or Radiant Exitance, W/m2. The rate at which radiant energy

leaves a surface per unit area by combined emission, reflection, and
transmission.

Emissive Power or Radiant Self-Exitance, W/m2. The rate at which radiant

energy leaves a surface per unit area by emission only.

Any of these radiation terms, except insolation, can apply to any specified
wavelength range (such as the solar energy spectrum) or to monochromatic
radiation. Insolation refers only to irradiation in the solar energy spectrum.

Solar Time. Time based on the apparent angular motion of the Sun across the
sky, with solar noon the time the Sun crosses the meridian of the observer.

19
 1.5 DEFINITIONS
Solar time is the time used in all of the Sun-angle relationships; it does not
coincide with local clock time.

It is necessary to convert standard time to solar time by applying two

corrections.

First, there is a constant correction for the difference in longitude between the
observer’s meridian (longitude) and the meridian on which the local standard
time is based.

The Sun takes 4 min to transverse 1º of longitude.

The second correction is from the equation of time (E), which takes into
account the perturbations in the (relative) speed between the Sun and earth.

The difference in minutes between solar time and standard time is

20
 1.5 DEFINITIONS

where Lst is the standard meridian (longitude) for the local time zone, Lloc is the
longitude of the location in question; west positive and east negative.

The parameter E is the equation of time (in minutes) from Figure 1.5.1 or
Equation 1.5.3 [from Spencer (1971), as cited by Iqbal (1983)]:

where B is found from Equation 1.4.2 and n is the day of the year.
Thus 1 ≤ n ≤ 365.

Time is usually specified in hours and minutes. Care must be exercised in

applying the corrections, which can total more than 60 min.

All equations use degrees, not radians

21
1.5 DEFINITIONS

22
 Example 1.5.1
At Madison, Wisconsin, what is the solar time corresponding to 10:30 a.m.
central (standard) time on February 3?

Solution

In Madison, where the longitude is 89.4º and the standard meridian is 90º,
Equation 1.5.2 gives

Solar time = standard time + 4(90 – 89.4) + E

= standard time + 2.4 + E

On February 3, n = 34, and from Equation 1.5.3 or Figure 1.5.1, E = –13.5 min,
so the correction to standard time is –11.1 min.
Thus, 10:30 a.m. Central Standard Time is 10:19 a.m. solar time.

NOTE: In this book, time is assumed to be solar time unless indication is given
otherwise. 23
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
The geometric relationships between a plane of any particular orientation relative
to the earth at any time (whether that plane is fixed or moving relative to the
earth) and the incoming beam solar radiation, that is, the position of the Sun
relative to that plane, can be described in terms of several angles (Benford and
Bock, 1939).

Some of the
angles are
indicated in
Figure 1.6.1.

The angles and a

set of consistent
sign conventions
are as follows:

24
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
 Latitude, the angular location north or south of the equator, north positive;
–90º ≤ φ ≤ 90º.

δ Declination, the angular

position of the Sun at solar noon
(i.e., when the Sun is on the local
meridian) with respect to the
plane of the equator, north δ
positive; –23.45º ≤ δ ≤ 23.45º.

β Slope, the angle between the plane of the surface in question and the
horizontal; 0º ≤ β ≤ 180º. (β > 90º means that the surface has a downward-facing
component).

γ Surface azimuth angle, the deviation of the projection on a horizontal plane,

of the normal to the surface, from the local meridian, with zero due south, east
negative, and west positive: –180º ≤ γ ≤180º.
25
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
ω Hour angle, the angular displacement of the Sun east or west of the local
meridian at 15º per hour; morning negative, afternoon positive. ω = 15(ST - 12).
e.g. at 11 a.m., ω = -15°.

θ Angle of incidence, the angle between the beam radiation on a surface and
the normal to that surface.

Additional angles are defined that describe the position of the Sun in the sky:

θz Zenith angle, the angle between the vertical and the line to the Sun, that is,
the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a horizontal surface.

αs Solar altitude angle, the angle between the horizontal and the line to the
Sun, that is, the complement of the zenith angle. (αs= 90 - θz).

γs Solar azimuth angle, the angular displacement from south of the projection
of beam radiation on the horizontal plane, shown in Figure 1.6.1. Displacements
east of south are negative and west of south are positive.
26
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION

The declination δ can be found from the approximate equation of Cooper (1969),

or from the more accurate equation (error < 0.035º) [from Spencer (1971), as
cited by Iqbal (1983)]

where B is from Equation 1.4.2 and the day of the year n can be conveniently
obtained with the help of Table 1.6.1.

Variation in Sun-earth distance (as noted in Section 1.4), the equation of time E
(as noted in Section 1.5), and declination are all continuously varying functions of
time of year.
27
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
For many computational purposes it is customary to express the time of year in
terms of n, the day of the year, and thus as an integer between 1 and 365.

Equations 1.4.1, 1.5.3, and 1.6.1 could be used with non-integer values of n.

Note that the maximum rate of change of declination is about 0.4º per day.

The use of integer values of n is adequate for most engineering calculations

28
outlined in this book.
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
There is a set of useful relationships among these angles.

Equations relating the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface, θ, to

the other angles are

and

The angle θ may exceed 90º.

Also, when using Equation 1.6.2, it is necessary to ensure that the earth is not
blocking the Sun (i.e., that the hour angle is between sunrise and sunset).
29
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
There are several commonly occurring cases for which Equation 1.6.2 is
simplified.

• For fixed surfaces sloped toward the south or north, that is, with a surface
azimuth angle γ of 0º or 180º (a very common situation for fixed flat-plate
collectors), the last term drops out.

• For vertical surfaces, β = 90º and the equation becomes

• For horizontal surfaces, the angle of incidence is the zenith angle of the Sun,
(θ=θz). Its value must be between 0º and 90º when the Sun is above the
horizon. For this situation β = 0, and Equation 1.6.2 becomes

• For vertical surface facing due south, β = 90º, γ = 0º. 30

 Example 1.6.1
Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface located at
Madison, Wisconsin (Latitude 43º N), at 10:30 (solar time) on February 13 if the
surface is tilted 45º from the horizontal and pointed 15º west of south.

Solution

Under these conditions, n = 44, the declination δ from Equation 1.6.1 is –14º,
the hour angle ω = –22.5º (15º per hour times 1.5 h before noon), and the
surface azimuth angle γ = 15º. Using a slope β = 45º and the latitude φ of
Madison of 43º N, Equation 1.6.2 is

31
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
For tropical latitudes, γs can have any value when δ – φ is positive in the
northern hemisphere or negative in the southern, for example, just before noon
at φ = 10º and δ = 20º, γs = –180º, and just after noon γs = +180º.

Thus γs is negative when the hour angle is negative and positive when the hour
angle is positive.

The sign function in Equations 1.6.6 is equal to +1 if ω is positive and is equal

to -1 if ω is negative:

32
 Example 1.6.2
Calculate the zenith and solar azimuth angles for Madison, Wisconsin (Latitude
43º N) at: a) 9:30 a.m. on February 13, and b) 6:30 p.m. on July 1.

Solution
a) On February 13 at 9:30, δ = –14º and ω = –37.5º. From Equation 1.6.5,

From Equation 1.6.6

b) On July 1 at 6:30 p.m., n = 182, δ = 23.1º, and ω = 97.5º. From Equation

1.6.5,

33
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
Useful relationships for the
angle of incidence of
surfaces sloped due north or
due south can be derived
from the fact that surfaces
with slope β to the north or
south have the same
angular relationship to
beam radiation as a
horizontal surface at an
artificial latitude of φ– β.
The relationship is shown in Figure 1.6.2 for the northern hemisphere.

Modifying Equation 1.6.5 yields

For the southern hemisphere modify the equation by replacing φ – β by φ + β,

consistent with the sign conventions on φ and δ:
34
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
For the special case of solar noon (ω = 0), for the south-facing sloped surfaces
in the northern hemisphere,

and in the southern hemisphere

where β = 0, the angle of incidence is the zenith angle, which for the northern
hemisphere is

and for the southern hemisphere

Equation 1.6.5 can be solved for the sunset hour angle ωs, when θz = 90º:

The sunrise hour angle is the negative of the sunset hour angle. It also follows
that the number of daylight hours is given by

N = 2ωs / 15 = 35
 1.6 DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION

Solar sunrise time = 12 – N/2 ; Solar sunset time = 12 + N/2

A convenient nomogram for determining day length has been devised by

Whillier (1965) and is shown in Figure 1.6.3.
Information
on latitude
and
declination
for either
hemisphere
leads
directly to
times of
sunrise and
sunset and
day length.

36
 Example 1.6.3
Calculate the time of sunrise, solar altitude, zenith and solar azimuth angles for a
60º sloped surface facing 25º west of south at 4:00 p.m. solar time on March 16
at a latitude of 43º. Also, calculate the time of sunrise and sunset on the surface.

Solution
The hour angle at sunset is determined using Equation 1.6.10.
For March 16, from Equation 1.6.1 (or Table 1.6.1), δ = –2.4º:

Therefore, N = 11.706. This means, sunrise is at 6:09 a.m. (and sunset is at 5:51
p.m.). [Side note: The sunrise hour angle is, therefore, –87.8º.]

The solar altitude angle αs is a function only of time of day and declination. At
4:00 p.m., ω = 60º. From Equation 1.6.5, recognizing that cos θz = sin (90 – θz)
= sin αs,

37
 Example 1.6.3
Solution
The solar azimuth angle for this time can be calculated with Equation 1.6.6:

ω
The hour angles at which sunrise and sunset occur on the surface are calculated
from Equation 1.6.2 with θ = 90º (cos θ = 0):

or

which, using sin2 ω + cos2 ω = 1, has two solutions: ω = –68.6º and ω = 112.4º.
Sunrise on the surface is therefore 68.6/15 = 4.57 h before noon, or 7:26 a.m.
The time of sunset on the collector is the actual sunset since 112.4º is greater
than 87.8º.
38
 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE
For purposes of solar process design and performance calculation, it is often
necessary to calculate the hourly radiation on a tilted surface of a collector from
measurements or estimates of solar radiation on a horizontal surface.

The most commonly available data are total radiation for hours or days on the
horizontal surface.

cos θ = GbT /Gbn

cos θz = Gb /Gbn

For geometric factor Rb, the ratio of beam radiation on the tilted surface to that
on a horizontal surface at any time, can be calculated exactly by appropriate use
of Equation 1.6.2.

39
 Example 1.8.1
What is the ratio of beam radiation to that on a horizontal surface for the surface
and time specified in Example 1.6.1?
Solution
Example 1.6.1 shows the calculation for cos θ.

n = 44,
δ = –14º,
ω = –22.5º
γ = 15º.
β = 45º and
φ = 43º N,

For the horizontal surface, from Equation 1.6.5,

And from Equation 1.8.1 40

 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE
The optimum azimuth angle γ for flat-plate collectors is usually 0º in the
northern hemisphere (or 180º in the southern hemisphere).

Thus it is a common situation that γ = 0º (or 180º).

In this case, Equations 1.6.5 and 1.6.7 can be used to determine cos θz and cos
θ, respectively, leading in the northern hemisphere, for γ = 0º, to

In the southern hemisphere, γ = 180º and the equation is

A special case of interest is Rb, noon, the ratio for south-facing surfaces at solar
noon. From Equations 1.6.8a and 1.6.9a, for the northern hemisphere,

For the southern hemisphere, from Equations 1.6.8b and 1.6.9b,

41
 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

Hottel and Woertz (1942) pointed out that Equation 1.8.2 provides a convenient
method for calculating Rb for the most common cases.

They also showed a graphical method for solving these equations.

This graphical method has been revised by Whillier (1975), and an adaptation
of Whillier’s curves is given here.

Figures 1.8.2(a–e) are plots of both cosθz as a function of φ and cosθ as a

function of φ – β for various dates (i.e., declinations).

Thus each set of curves, in effect, covers the latitude range of –60º to 60º.

42
 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

43
 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

44
 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

As will be seen in later chapters, solar process performance calculations are

very often done on an hourly basis.

The cos θz plots are shown for the midpoints of hours before and after solar
noon, and the values of Rb found from them are applied to those hours.

(This procedure is satisfactory for most hours of the day, but in hours that
include sunrise and sunset, unrepresentative values of Rb may be obtained.

Solar collection in those hours is most often zero or a negligible part of the total
daily collector output.

However, care must be taken that unrealistic products of Rb and beam radiation
Ib are not used.)

45
 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE
To find cos θz enter the chart for the appropriate time with the date and latitude
of the location in question.

For the same date and latitude cos θ is found by entering with an abscissa (x-
axis) corresponding to φ – β. Then Rb is found from Equation 1.8.1.

The dates on the sets of curves are shown in two sets, one for north (positive)
latitudes and the other for south (negative) latitudes.

Two situations arise, for positive values or for negative values of φ –β. For
positive values, the charts are used directly.

If φ – β is negative (which frequently occurs when collectors are sloped for

optimum performance in winter or with vertical collectors), the procedure is
modified. Determine cos θz as before.

Determine cos θ from the absolute value of φ – β using the curve for the other
hemisphere, that is, with the sign on the declination reversed. 46
 Example 1.8.2
Calculate Rb for a surface at latitude 40ºN at a tilt 30º toward the south for the
hour 9 to 10 solar time on February 16.

Solution
Use Figure 1.8.2(c) for the hour ± 2.5 h from noon as representative of the hour
from 9 to 10. To find cos θz, enter at a latitude of 40º for the north latitude date
of February 16. Here cos θz = 0.45. To find cos θ, enter at a latitude of φ – β =
10º for the same date. Here cos θ = 0.73. Then

The ratio can also be calculated using Equation 1.8.2. The declination on
February 16 is –13º:

47
 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

cos θ = 0.73

cos θz = 0.45

φ – β = 10º φ = 40º

48
 Example 1.8.3
Calculate Rb for a latitude 40ºN at a tilt of 50º toward the south for the hour 9 to
10 solar time on February 16.

Solution
As found in the previous example, cos θz = 0.45.

To find cos θ, enter at an abscissa of +10º, using the curve for February 16 for
south latitudes.

The value of cos θ from the curve is 0.80.

Thus Rb = 0.80/0.45 = 1.78.

Equation 1.8.2 can also be used:

49
 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

cos θ = 0.8

cos θz = 0.45

|φ – β| = 10º
φ = 40º

50
 1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED
SURFACE TO THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE
It is possible, using Equation 1.8.2 or Figure 1.8.2, to construct plots showing
the effect of collector tilt on Rb for various times of the year and day.

Figure 1.8.3 shows such a plot for a latitude of 40º and a slope of 50º.

51
 1.10 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON
A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
Several types of radiation calculations are most conveniently done using
normalized radiation levels, that is, the ratio of radiation level to the
theoretically possible radiation that would be available if there were no
atmosphere.

For these calculations, which are discussed in Chapter 2, we need a method of

calculating the extraterrestrial radiation.

At any point in time, the solar radiation incident on a horizontal plane outside
of the atmosphere, Go, is given by:
Go
Go = Gon cos θz Gon
Substituting Eq. 1.4.1a, we get

where GSC is the solar constant and n is the day of the year. 52
 1.10 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON
A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
Combining Equation 1.6.5 for cosθz with Equation 1.10.1 gives Go for a
horizontal surface at any time between sunrise and sunset:

It is often necessary for calculation of daily solar radiation to have the

integrated daily extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface, Ho. This is
obtained by integrating Equation 1.10.2 over the period from sunrise to sunset.

If Gsc is in watts per square meter, Ho in joules per square meter is

where ωs is the sunset hour angle, in degrees, from Equation 1.6.10.

53
 1.10 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON
A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
The monthly mean11 daily extraterrestrial radiation H o is a useful quantity.

It can be calculated with Equation 1.10.3 using n and δ for the mean day of the
month12 from .

Ho is plotted as a function of latitude for the northern and southern hemispheres

in Figure 1.10.1.

The curves are for dates that give the mean radiation for the month and thus
show H o .

Values for Ho for any day can be estimated by interpolation.

Exact values of H o for all latitudes are given in Table 1.10.1.

NOTE:
11An overbar is used throughout the book to indicate a monthly average quantity.
12The mean day is the day having H closest to H . 54
o o
 1.10 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON
A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
The curves are for dates that give the mean radiation for the month and thus
show H o .

55
 1.10 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON
A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
The curves are for dates that give the mean radiation for the month and thus
show H o .

56
 1.10 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON
A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
The curves are for
dates that give the
mean radiation for
the month and thus
show H o .

57
 Example 1.10.1
What is Ho, the day’s solar radiation on a horizontal surface in the absence of the
atmosphere, at latitude 43º N on March 16?
Solution
For these circumstances, n = 75 (from Table 1.6.1), δ = -2.4º (from Equation
1.6.1), and φ = 43º. From Equation 1.6.10

Then from Equation 1.10.3, with Gsc = 1367 W/m2,

24 x3600 x1367  360 x75 
Ho   1  0.033cos 
  365 
  x87.8 
x  cos 43 cos(2.4)sin87.8  sin 43 sins(2.4) 
 180 
 26.03 MJ / m2

From Figure 1.10.1(a), for the curve for March, we read Ho = 26.0 MJ/m2, and
from Table 1.10.1 we obtain Ho = 26 MJ/m2 by interpolation. 58
 1.10 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON
A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
It is also of interest to calculate the extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal
surface for an hour period.

Integrating Equation 1.10.2 for a period between hour angles ω1 and ω2 which
define an hour (where ω2 is the larger),

(The limits ω1 and ω2 may define a time other than an hour.)

59
 Example 1.10.2
What is the solar radiation on a horizontal surface in the absence of the
atmosphere at latitude 43º N on April 15 between the hours of 10 and 11?

Solution
The declination is 9.4º. For April 15, n = 105. Using Equation 1.10.4 with ω1 =
–30º and ω2 = –15º,

60
 SUMMARY

In this chapter we have outlines the basic characteristics of the Sun and the
radiation it emits, noting that the solar constant, the mean radiation flux density
outside of the earth’s atmosphere is 1367 W/m2 (within ± 1%), with most of the
radiation in a wavelength range of 0.3 to 3 μm.

This radiation has directional characteristics that are defined by a set of angles
that determine the angle of incidence of the radiation on a surface.

We have included in this chapter those topics that are based on extraterrestrial
radiation and the geometry of the earth and Sun.

This is background information for Chapter 2, which is concerned with effects

of the atmosphere, radiation measurements, and data manipulation.

61