LAB MANNUAL

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY

BS 4TH YEAR (8TH SEMESTER)

COURSE TITLE: DAIRY SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY LAB

COURSE CODE: FST-4062

SUBMITTED TO: MISS MEHAK

SUBMITTED BY: SHARFA MUMTAZ

EXPERIMENT # 01
STUDY QUESTION:

Q1: How is lactic acid produced in milk?

A: The presence of lactic acid or lactate in milk is due to the fermentation of

lactose caused mainly by lactic bacteria. Generally speaking, just-milked milk does
not contain lactic acid, but this increases after a while and its concentration is closely
correlated to the total bacterial charge.

Q2: Is lactic acid found in freshly drawn milk?

A: The real acidity of milk is due to lactic acid. This is never found in milk when it is
first drawn from the udder. It is produced by the action of the lactic acid

organisms on the milk sugar.

Q3: Discuss the effect of increase level of lactic acid on other milk constituents.

A: During fermentation process, milk proteins are acidified by the increased level of
lactic acid and are hydrolyzed by proteases and peptidases from bacteria. This
proteolysis is followed by a reduction of the number of epitopes and consequently by
a decrease in allergenicity of hydrolyzed proteins.

Q4: Does non-dairy plant milk contains lactic acid?

A: Most lactic acid is vegan, as it primarily occurs during the natural fermentation
process of plants or is man-made using plants. Lactic acid is also found in
fermented dairy and meats, but vegans avoid these foods anyway.

Q5: What happens when you have too much lactic acid in your body?

A: A temporary buildup of lactic acid can be caused by vigorous exercise if your

body doesn't have enough available oxygen to break down glucose in the blood.
This can cause a burning feeling in the muscle groups you're using. It can also cause
nausea and weakness.
EXPERIMENT # 02
STUDY QUESTION:
Q1: Why is COB testing important?

A: COB testing is important to ensure that milk and milk products are safe, healthy,
and. meet the standards for chemical composition, purity, and levels of bacteria and
other micro-organisms.

Q2: What is difference between normal and colostrum’s milk?

A: Colostrum is higher in both fat and protein than regular milk. It is an impressively
concentrated substance, packed with important nutrients and antibodies that newborns
need for protection. Colostrum is essential in strengthening both the immune and
digestive systems of the baby.

Q3: Why colostrum milk clot on boiling?

A: The heating of milk in an advanced state of souring (acidity of more than 0.20%)
or abnormal milk (colostrum or mastitis milk) will result in clotting.

Q4: Jot down the other tests which detect the colostral or mastitis milk?

A: other tests which detect the colostral or mastitis milk are as follows:

⚫ Somatic Cell Counts

⚫ California Mastitis Test

⚫ Individual Cow Cultures

⚫ Bulk Tank Culture

⚫ ProStaph

⚫ Conductivity Tests

⚫ Antibiotic Susceptibility Tests

 EXPERIMENT # 03
Object: To determine the quality of milk sample by Ethanol/Alcohol test.
STUDY QUESTION:

Q1: What is mastitis?

Mastitis is one of the most significant diseases of dairy cattle. Mastitis is an infectious
disease condition resulting in an inflammatory reaction in the mammary gland of the
cow. It may be accompanied by signs of inflammation in the mammary gland including
swelling, redness, and painfulness.

Q2: Why mastitis infected milk coagulate when treat with alcohol?
Mastitis infected milk coagulated when treat with alcohol as there is high salt
concentration.

Q3: Write down the importance of alcohol test for milk?

The alcohol test is used on fresh milk to indicate whether it will coagulate on thermal
processing. This test is especially important for the manufacture of UHT milk,
evaporated milk and milk powders.

Q4: Why it is important to check the quality of milk?

Milk testing and quality control should be carried out at all stages of the dairy chain.
Due to the nutritive value of milk, its testing and quality control is an essential
component of any milk processing industry whether small, medium or large scale.
Milk is made up of 87% of water hence making it prone to adulteration by
unscrupulous middlemen and unfaithful farmworkers. Moreover, its high nutritive
value makes it an ideal medium for the rapid multiplication of bacteria, particularly
under unhygienic production and storage at ambient temperatures. For any processor
to make good dairy products, good quality raw materials are essential. A milk
processor or handler will only be assured of the quality of raw milk if certain basic
quality tests are carried out at various stages of transportation of milk from the
producer to the processor and finally to the consumer.
 EXPERIMENT # 04
OBJECT:

Study the Resazurin Test in the given Milk Sample.

STUDY QUESTION:

Q1: Why is Resazurin dye used for?

Resazurin (7-hydroxy-10-oxidophenoxazin-10-ium-3-one, sodium) is a blue
fluorogenic dye used as a redox indicator in cell viability and proliferation assays for
bacteria, yeast or mammalian cells.

Q2: Why did the Resazurin change color in spoiled milk?

Resazurin is added to milk, the bacteria present take up oxygen and change the colour
of the dye from blue-purple to Pink.

Q3: How is Resazurin reduced?

Resazurin is reduced to resorufin by aerobic respiration of metabolically active cells,
and it can be used as an indicator of cell viability. ... It can be used to detect the
presence of viable cells in mammalian cell cultures.

Q4: What is the working principle of this test?

The resazurin test is conducted similar to the methylene blue reduction test with the
judgement of quality based either on the color produced after a stated period of
incubation or on the time required to reduce the dye to a given end-point.

EXPERIMENT# 05
OBJECT:

Determination of freezing point of given milk samples?

STUDY QUESTIONS:

Define freezing point?

The Freezing point is the temperature of a liquid at which it changes its state from
liquid to solid at atmospheric pressure.

What is the freezing point of milk in Fahrenheit?

Unprocessed milk taken from a cow freeze at an average temperature of 31.091

degree. If the fat content or other component of the milk are reduced or water is
added, the freezing point rises.

How can you determine freezing point of milk?

Thermistor cryoscope method (GOST). Milk is cooled down to a predetermined

temperature, crystallization of water present in the milk sample is stimulated by
means of mechanical vibration and after that the temperature is rapidly increased to a
plateau, that corresponds to the sample’s freezing point value.

What freezes faster milk or water?

The average freezing time for tap water was 36 minutes , the average freezing time
for milk was 53 minutes.

Which factor is responsible for elevation of freezing point?

Freezing point depression is the factor that describes by adding a solute to a solvent
results in the lowering of the freezing point of the solvent. When a substance starts to
freeze, the molecules slow down due to the decreases in temperature, and the
intermolecular forces start to take over. The molecules will then arrange themselves in
a pattern, and thus turn into a solid. For example, If salt is added to the water, the
Na+ and Cl–ions attract to the water molecules and interfere with the formation of the
large network solid known as ice.
 EXPERIMENT # 06
OBJECT:

Determination of the Fat level in milk by Gerber method.

STUDY QUESTIONS:

Q1: What is the standard percentage of fat in milk?

The whole milk standard percentage of fat is 3.5%.

Q2: Why is Sulphuric acid used in this test?

Sulphuric acid is used to dissolve the protein that forms the membrane around the fat
(fat globules).

Q3: Why is Amyl alcohol used in this test?

Amyl alcohol is used to improve the separation of fat from other solids.

Q4: Name the products on which Gerber method can be used other than milk?

Gerber method can be used other than milk is:

Cheese

Ice cream

Butter

Cream

Mayonnaise

Curd
 EXPERIMENT # 07
Object: To observe the effect of homogenization on boiled/ Pasteurized milk
properties by using viscometer.
STUDY QUESTIONS:

Q1: What is the relation between viscosity and consistency?

A liquid with higher viscosity usually means a comparatively higher consistency, The
only common characteristic is that all viscosity values change with
temperature. Consistency is an attribute that relates to firmness or thickness. The term
is used for many materials that flow with the application of only gravitational force.

Q2: Write down the viscosity of some dairy products?

• 7.20 to 7.67 for natural pasteurized milk,
• viscosity of yogurt prepared from UHT-treated milk became nearly constant
at 0.8 cp, while the apparent viscosity of yogurts prepared from vat-treated
milks ranged from 1.8 to 3.8 cp
• The viscosity of the cheese at 15 C was 936.8Pas, while the viscosity at 30 C
was 112.7 Pa s.
• For an ice cream liquid mixture, apparent viscosity values have been reported
between 0.1 and 0.8 Pa∙s,
Q3: What is the principle of viscometer?

These viscometers use the principle of 'rotational viscometry', i.e. their measurement
of product viscosity is based upon immersing a specifically selected spindle within a
sample of the product followed by measurement of the torque required to rotate the
spindle at a set speed whilst immersed within the product sample.

Q4: Why homogenization done in milk processing?

Because homogenization is a mechanical process used to reduce the size of the fat
globules in the milk. The net result of this process is a decreased creaming rate
according to Stokes' Law, reduced clustering during creaming, and better density
matching with the continuous phase.
EXPERIMENT# 08
STUDY QUESTIONS:

Q1: What is Methylene blue?

A: Methylene Blue is a synthetic basic dye. Methylene blue stains to negatively
charged cell components like nucleic acids. Methylene blue is an organic chloride salt
having 3,7-bis(dimethylamino)phenothiazin-5-ium as the counterion. A commonly
used dye that also exhibits antioxidant, antimalarial, antidepressant and
cardioprotective properties.

Q2: What is principle of this Test?

A: The principle behind this test is that the quality of the milk is determined by
observing the colour that appears in the milk after addition of dye like methylene
blue. Because methylene blue is a redox indicator, which loses its colour when it
comes under the effect of lack of oxygen. Bacterial metabolism causes decreses of
oxygen in milk due to formation of reducing substance. the time taken by the dye to
get reduced determines the amount of microbes in the milk.

Q3:How the presence of Microrganism can be detected?

A: The test relies on the fact that methylene blue solution is blue in the presence of
oxygen, but will lose color as oxygen is depleted. Bacteria in milk ferment lactose
(milk sugar) to form lactic acid. During this process oxygen is used up and electrons
are released, which react with methylene blue. One effect is to decolorize the
methylene blue. More bacteria present in the milk leads to faster reduction (taking on
electrons) of methylene blue and increased rate of color loss. It is generally assumed
that the greater the number of bacteria in milk, the quicker will the oxygen be
consumed, and in turn the sooner will the color disappear.

Q4: What does length of time indicate?

A: The concentration of the dye should be uniform as an increased concentration

lengthens the time of reduction. Increasing the incubation temperature augments the
activity of the bacteria and therefore shortens the reduction time.

Q5: Name the factors by which Methylene Blue test is effected?

A: Many factors affect the methylene blue reduction test some of mention below;

1. Oxygen content
2. The kind of organisms affect the rate of reduction
3. Reduction time
 EXPERIMENT # 09
OBJECT

To detect the acid-based preservatives in milk sample.

STUDY QUESTIONS:

1. What are preservatives?

A preservative is a substance or a chemical that is added to products such as food
products, beverages, pharmaceutical drugs, paints, biological samples, cosmetics,
wood, and many other products to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by
undesirable chemical changes.

2. Why preservatives are used in food product?

Preservatives are added to food to fight spoilage caused by bacteria, moulds, fungus,
and yeast. Preservatives can keep food fresher for longer periods, extending its shelf
life. Food preservatives also are used to slow or prevent changes in colour, flavour or
texture and delay rancidity.

3. Name the preservatives that are used in milk?

The major preservatives in dairy products are sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate,
and natamycin.

4. All preservatives are hazardous?

All preservatives used in the food items are not bad for health. Natural preservatives,
which are used to preserve food ‘as is’ are not harmful to your health. The reason is
they are not mixed with synthetic items and the chemical composition is not altered.
Artificial or Chemical preservatives which are used to delay the contamination of
foods are the ones which lead to health problems. These preservatives are artificially
produced and synthetic. These are often labelled as additives on food labels.

5. What is the effect of preservatives in human health?

Consuming foods that contain preservatives will disturb our intestinal tract because
these preservatives kill both “good” and our “bad” bacteria. The destruction of our
“good” bacteria has several negative effects on our health. One major effect is our
ability to digest and breakdown food and also has the ability to transform into
carcinogen agents.
EXPERIMENT # 10
STUDY QUESTIONS:
Q1: Name some of the adulterants having serious adverse health effects?
Some of the major adulterants in milk having serious adverse health effect are urea,
formalin, detergents, ammonium sulphate, boric acid, caustic soda, benzoic acid,
salicylic acid, hydrogen peroxide, sugars and melamine.
Q2: What is melamine and why it is added to milk? What are its potential health
risks?

Melamine is a nitrogen-based compound used by many manufacturers to create a

number of products, especially plastic dishware. The addition of melamine increases
the nitrogen content of the milk and therefore its apparent protein content. The
ingestion of melamine at levels above the safety limit can induce renal failure and
death in infants. Melamine can cause crystals formation in urinary tract. In severe
cases, these small crystals can form kidney stones, blocking the small tubes in the
kidney, stopping the production of urine, causing kidney failure and in some cases
death.

Q3: What can be the simplest tests done at home to detect adulteration?

Here are the few tests that can be done at home to detect adulteration:

• Milk slip test - Put a drop of milk on a polished vertical surface. If it stops or
flows slowly, leaving a white trail behind, it is pure milk. Milk mixed with
water or other agents will flow down immediately without a trace.
• Reduction test - Boil some milk on a slow heat while moving it with a spoon
till it becomes solid (khoya). Take it off the heat and wait for 2-3 hours. If the
produced solid is oily, the milk is of good quality; if it's not, it means the milk
is synthetic.
• Checking for Synthetic Milk- Synthetic milk is made by mixing chemicals
and things like soap in natural milk. Synthetic milk can be easily identified by
bad taste. It feels soapy when rubbed and turns yellowish when heated.
• Lemon Juice Test: Put a small amount of the milk in a bowl and boil it on the
stove. Squeeze few drops of lemon juice into it. When you see the milk
curdling immediately, be glad that it is of good quality. If the milk does not
curdle, or if it turns in to rubbery jelly-like substance, thanks to the presence of
the chemicals and adulterants, the milk is not good to consume.

Q4: How is synthetic milk made? And how can you test for synthetic milk?

Synthetic milk is manufactured by mixing glucose, urea, refined oil, milk powder
and water. Other chemicals, including hydrogen peroxide, are also used. Synthetic
milk has a bitter after taste, gives a soapy feeling on rubbing between the fingers and
turns yellowish heating.

Q5: Why is ammonium sulphate added to milk? Name some acids added to
increase shelf life of milk.
Ammonium sulphate is added to increase the lactometer reading by maintaining the
density of diluted milk. Formalin, Salicylic acid, Benzoic acid and Hydrogen peroxide
act as preservatives and increase the shelf life of the milk.

EXPERIMENT # 11
STUDY QUESTIONS:

Q1: What is lactometer?

A: Lactometer is a small glass instrument that is used to test the purity of the milk. It
works on the principle of specific gravity of milk (Archimede's Principle). It measures
the relative density of milk with respect to water.

Q2: What is principle of lactometer?

A: It works on the principle of specific gravity of milk (Archimede's Principle). It

measures the relative density of milk with respect to water. If the specific gravity of a
sample of milk is within the approved ranges, the milk is pure.

Q3: Why checking specific gravity of milk is important?

A: It is important to determine because it tell us how much milk are adulterated with
water. if the water present in milk the specific gravity and density are decrease.

Q4: Standard specific gravity of milk?

A: The specific gravity of milk measured at 15oC or 20oC is normally 1.028 - 1,033
kg/litre.