UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ANATOMY
Human anatomy is the branch of science, which deals with the structure of the human body.
The term anatomy is derived from the Greek word “anatome” which means “to dissect”
(cutting up). Herophilus of Chalcedon (circa 300 BC) is called the father of anatomy. He
was a Greek physician, and was one of the first to dissect the human body.
PHYSIOLOGY
Human physiology is the branch of science, which deals with the functions of various parts
of normal body. It also includes the study of physical and chemical changes which takes
place in the body.
REGIONS OF THE BODY
Human body can be divided into main five regions:
1. Head : Cranium and face
2. Neck
3. Trunk : Thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity
4. Upper limbs: Arm, forearm and hand
5. Lower limbs: Thigh, leg and foot.
POSITIONS OF BODY
The attitude or posture of the body is known as body position.
Types of Body Positions
1. Anatomical Position:
 The body is erect (straight) in standing position
 The eyes look straight to the front
 The upper limbs hang by the side of the trunk with the palms directed forward
 The lower limbs are parallel with the toes pointing forward.

Fig. Anatomical Position

2. Supine Position: In this position the body is lying down with face pointing upwards. All
the remaining positions are similar to anatomical position with the only difference of
being in a horizontal plane rather than a vertical plane.

Fig. Supine Position

3. Prone Position: This is the position in which the back of the body is directed upwards.
The body lies in a horizontal plane with face directed downwards.

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 Fig. Prone Position
4. Right lateral recumbent Position: The lying on right side of the body is known as right
lateral recumbent position.
5. Left lateral recumbent Position: The lying on left side of the body is known as left
lateral recumbent position.

Fig. Right lateral recumbent position Fig.Left lateral recumbent position

6. Lithotomy Position: In this position the body is lying in a supine with hips and knees
fully extended. The feet are strapped in position to support the flexed knees and hips.

Fig. Lithotomy Position

ANATOMICAL PLANES
The anatomical planes are imaginary surface formed by extension through any axis of the
body or through two definite points on the body.
Types of anatomical plane
1. Median or Mid sagittal plane: The plane passing through the centre of the body
which divides into two equal right and left halves is known as median plane.
2. Sagittal plane: The any plane parallel to the median plane is known as sagittal plane.
3. Coronal or Fontal plane: The plane at right angles to sagittal or medial plane which
divides the body into anterior and posterior halves is known as coronal plane.
4. Transverse or Horizontal plane: The plane at right angles to both sagittal and
coronal planes which divides the body into superior and inferior portions is known as
transverse plane.
5. Oblique plane: A plane which declines from the zenith of inclines towards the
horizon is known as oblique plane.

Fig. Anatomical Planes

ANATOMICAL TERMS
The human anatomy uses its own collection of terms. Many of these are taken from Latin
and Greek languages and each has a very specific meaning. It is really important to
understand the basic terms, which would be used again and again throughout the course of
learning anatomy. Therefore, it is highly recommended that you try to learn the following
terms.
1. Anterior /Ventral : Towards the front
2. Posterior/Dorsal : Towards the back
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 3. Superior : Towards the head (up)
4. Inferior : Towards the feet(down)
5. Medial : Towards the median plane
6. Lateral : Away from the mid line
7. Caudal : Towards the tail
8. Palmar or volar : Palm of the hand
9. Plantar : Sole of the foot
10.Interior : Inner
11.Exterior : Outer
12.Superficial : Toward the surface
13.Deep : Inner to the surface
14.Ipsilateral : Same side
15.Contralateral : Opposite side
CLINICAL TERMS
Puberty : The age at which the secondary sexual character
developed i.e. 12 -15 years in girls & 13-16 in boys.
Symptoms : The symptoms are subjective complaints of the patient
about the disease.
Sign : The sign are objective finding by the doctor on the
patient.
Diagnosis : The identification of a disease or determination of the
nature of a disease.
Pyrexia : Fever.
Lesion : Injury or pathologic change the tissue.
Haemorrhage : Bleeding which may be external or internal.
Paralysis : Loss of motor power (movement) of part of body.
Hemiplegia : The paralysis of one-half of the body.
Paraplegia : The paralysis of both lower limbs.
Monoplegia : The paralysis of any one limb.
Quadriplegia : The paralysis of all the four limbs.
Coma : Deep unconsciousness.
BODY MOVEMENTS
The motion of all or part of the body, especially at a joint or joints is known as body
movements.
Types of Body Movements
1. Flexion: The movement by which the angle of a joint is decreased is known as flexion.
2. Extension: The movement by which the angle of a joint is increased is known as extension.
3. Adduction: The movement towards the central axis (mid line) is known as adduction.
4. Abduction: The movement away from the central axis (mid line) is known as abduction.
5. Medial rotation: The rotation toward the medial side of the body is known as medial
rotation.
6. Lateral rotation: The rotation towards the lateral side of the body is known as lateral
rotation.
7. Circumduction: The circular movement of a body part such as a ball and socket joints is
known as circumduction. It consists of combination of flexion, extension, adduction and
abduction.
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 HOMEOSTASIS
The ability or tendency to maintain internal stability in an organism to compensate for environmental
changes is known as homeostasis. In other words, Homeostasis’ refers to the maintenance of constant
internal environment of the body (homeo = same; stasis
= standing).
Role of Various System of the Body in Homeostasis
The one or more systems are involved in homeostatic mechanisms:
1. The pH of extracellular fluids is maintained ad 7.4 level by respiratory system, blood and
urinary system.
2. The body temperature is maintained at 98.6o F by respiratory system, skin, digestive
system and excretory system.
3. The water and electrolyte balance is maintained by kidneys, skin and gastrointestinal
tract.
4. The central nervous system plays major role in homeostasis maintenance by integrating
the information.
5. The many hormones are essential for the metabolism of nutrients and other substances
necessary for the cells.
6. The skeletal muscles are also involved in homeostasis maintenance. This system helps the
organism to move around in search of food. It also helps to protect the organism from
adverse surroundings, thus preventing damage or destruction.
7. The autonomic nervous system regulates all the vegetative functions of the body essential
for homeostasis maintenance.
Mechanism of Action of Homeostatic System
The homeostasis is maintained by control system. All the control system of homeostasis
shows two modes of action.
1. Positive Feedback Mechanism: Positive feedback is the one to which the system reacts
in such a way as to increase the intensity of the change in the same direction. Positive
feedback is less common than the negative feedback. However, it has its own significance
particularly during emergency conditions. Examples: Coagulation of blood, contraction of
uterus during labour (parturition) etc.

Chart: Positive feedback mechanism: Coagulation of blood

2. Negative Feedback Mechanism: Negative feedback is the one to which the system reacts in such a way
as to arrest the change or reverse the direction of change. After receiving a message, effectors send
negative feedback signals back to the system and maintain homeostasis. Many homeostatic mechanisms
in the body function through negative feedback. Examples: Secretion of thyroxin hormone, maintenance
of water balances in the body etc.

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 Chart : Negative feedback mechanism : secretion of thyroxin hormone
BODY CAVITIES
The hollow space or potential space within the body is known as body cavities. The main
body cavities are:
• Cranial cavity • Abdominal cavity
• Thoracic cavity • Pelvic cavity
1. Cranial cavity
The cranial cavity contains the brain and its boundaries are formed by the bones of the skull.
2. Thoracic cavity
It is situated in the upper part of the trunk. Its boundaries are formed by a bony frame work
and supporting muscles. It contents:
 Trachea  Aorta  Blood vessels
 Bronchi  Superior Venacava  Lymph vessels
 Lungs  Inferior venacava  Nerves
 Heart  Oesophagus
3. Abdominal cavity
It is the largest cavity in the body and is oval in shape. It is situated in the main part of the trunk.
Regions of the Abdominal Cavity
The abdominal cavity is divided into nine regions. It facilitates the description of the
positions of the organs and structures. It contains:
i. Right hypochondriac region: Liver, gall bladder, small intestine, ascending colon,
transverse colon and right kidney.
ii. Epigastric region: Oesophagus, stomach, liver, small intestine, transverse colon,
adrenal glands, pancreas, kidneys, ureters and spleen.
iii. Left hypochondriac region: Stomach, tip of liver, small intestine, transverse colon,
descending colon, pancreas, left kidney and spleen.
iv. Right lumbar region: Tip of liver, gall bladder, small intestine, ascending colon and
right kidney.
v. Umbilical region: Stomach, pancreas, small intestine, transverse colon, kidneys and
ureters.
vi. Left lumbar region: Small intestine, descending colon and tip of left kidney.
vii. Right iliac region: Small intestine, appendix, cecum and ascending colon, Female-
right ovary and right fallopian tube.
viii. Hypogastric region : Small intestine, sigmoid colon, rectum, ureters and urinary
bladder, Female- uterus, ovaries and fallopian tubes, Male- vas deferens, seminal
vesicle and prostate gland.
ix. Left iliac region: Small intestine, descending colon and sigmoid colon, Female- left
ovary and left fallopian tube.
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 Quadrants of the Abdominal Cavity
The quadrants of the abdominal cavity are divided into four types:
i. Right upper quadrant (RUQ): It extends from the median plane to the right of the
body and from the umbilical plane to the right ribcage. The following organs are
situated in the right upper quadrant.
 Liver  Head of pancreas
 Gall bladder  Right kidney and adrenal
 Duodenum gland
ii. Left upper quadrant (LUQ): It extends from the median plane to the left of the body
and from the umbilical plane to the left ribcage. The following organs are situated in the
left upper quadrant.
 Stomach  Left kidney and adrenal gland
 Spleen  Splenic flexure of colon
 Left lobe of liver  Transverse and descending
 Body of pancreas colon
iii. Right lower quadrant (RLQ): It extends from the median plane to the right of the body,
and from the umbilical plane to the right inguinal ligament. The following organs are
situated in the right lower quadrant.
 Cecum  Right ovary and fallopian tube
 Appendix  Right ureter
 Ascending colon
iv. Left lower quadrant (LLQ): It extends left of the midline and below the umbilicus.
The left lower quadrants include the left iliac fossa and half of the left flank region. The
following organs are situated in the left lower right quadrant.
 Descending colon and sigmoid colon
 Left ovary and fallopian tube
 Left ureter
4. Pelvic cavity
It is roughly funnel shaped and extends from the lower end of the abdominal cavity. It
contains the following structures:
• Sigmoid colon
• Rectum and anus
• Urinary bladder
• Lower part of ureters and urethra
In female: The organs of the reproductive system are uterus, uterine tube, ovaries and
vagina.
In male: The organs of the male reproductive system are prostate gland, seminal vesicles,
spermatic cords, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts and urethra.

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 MEMBRANES
The thin, soft layer of the tissue that covers an organ of structures, lines a tube or cavity,
divides a space or organ or structure or separates one part from another is known as
membranes.
Types of membranes
The membranes are of three types:
1. Synovial membrane: The inner layer of the joint capsule of a synovial joint is known as
synovial membrane. It secretes synovial fluid which fills up the joint cavity.
2. Mucous membrane: The membrane linning the cavities and canals of the body is
known as mucous membrane. It secretes mucous and keeps them moist.
3. Serous membrane: The membrane consisting of mesothelium lying on the thin layer of
the connective tissue which lines the closed cavities such as peritoneal, pleural and
pericardial cavities of the body. It secretes a thin fluid which keeps the surface moist.

Fig. Membranes

Introduction of Anatomy and Physiology

B.Sc Nursing and PBN First Year (Purbanchal University)
Prepared By: Dr.CK Singh
Facebook Page: www.facebook.com/drcksingh1
Reference: Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Author: Dr.C.K.Singh
Edition: Fourth (2020)
Publication: Highland Publication Pvt. Ltd.
Bhotahity, Kathmandu, Nepal

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