See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/331277033

Simplified Text with Workbook in Advanced Algebra

Book · February 2015

CITATIONS READS
0 123

1 author:

Harold Jan Terano

Camarines Sur Plytechnic Colleges
11 PUBLICATIONS   2 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Harold Jan Terano on 22 February 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.




 



  
  
 
   
 
 


     

    
                
            
   

 
  


             
   
 



 
  

 !
 





 
 
"  

#
$

%

  
%" %


 &$' 

&(
&$'& 
 
  ')" %
 
 

  !


 
  

      


 
  

  
   

 !"
 #$ 

 




 

 

 
   

 
   
 

 


 
  

 

 
 




 ! 

 

"



 
# 

 

$  !%
 !

   
& 
$

'  

 
'  

($
 

' 

# %
 %
)   %
*  %
'  
  $


'
 

 

+ 
 


" %
 
 
 

&

'  !

#  




  
$,

 

( 

$



  

 
 
-
 
 
   
. 
 
   

 
 

 
 
  

 
  
 

  

 


 ! 

"-
 
 


 


 


(

  %
 

 



  


  


 


. 



 
 %

 %

 %
 
 %




$ 

  
 

 
$



$ -




 
 

 
 -

 






  

 

 


 


-
-

/

/
 
$$$   

0 

 

1"
1"#23.
" 
 







  


4&
)*
5
/
+)

* !6!&
7!8%
779:9
& %
  

) -
2 

; !  

*
 

&





 
 



/- 
<
:=9>
4&
)*
5
/
+)

"
3 
 

"
 

& 
:=9>
ii
 Pr eface
Algebra is the branch of mathematics that is very important as a
foundation course in engineering and other mathematics major progr ams. As
part of the curriculum in the engineering programs, algebra is subdivided into
two separate courses. One is the college algebra and the second is the
advanced algebra that is taken in a separ ate semesters in a school year.
According to the minimum requirements of the course Advanced
Algebra by the Commission on Higher Education, the description of the course
is: Matrices and deter minants; arithmetic and geometric series; solution sets of
different types of inequalities and systems involving quadratics; solution of
linear equations using determinants and matrices. This description is
applicable to all engineering degree programs in the Philippines.
As a professor of the course, the material was prepared to better
facilitate students in learning. This material is a simplified text with workbook
in advanced algebra. This material was guided by the minimum requirements
for the course as recommended by the CHED. This material comprises by six
chapters.
Chapter 1 covers the topics on inequalities. This includes the properties
of inequalities, evaluating linear , polynomial and r ational inequalities and
inequalities involving absolute value.
Chapter 2 covers the topics on ratio, proportion and variation and its
applications on some common problems.
Chapter 3 covers the topics on determinants. This includes operation on
determinants, expansion of minors and Cr amer’s rule as a solution to a system
of linear equations.
Chapter 4 covers the topics on matrices. This includes operation on
matrix and solution to system of linear equations using matrix.
Chapter 5 covers the topics on sequences and series. This includes the
types of progression or sequence. This chapter includes also topics on
summation notation and related sequences.
Chapter 6 covers the topics on combinatorial mathematics. This
includes topics on the fundamental principle of counting, factorial notation,

iii
permutation, combination, binomial theorem, Pascal’s triangle and
mathematical induction.
The six chapters of this material consist of a workbook in which after
each discussion of a certain topic, there is a corresponding activity that will be
done by the students.

Acknowledgements:
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to all my
colleagues both from the Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges, Nabua,
Camarines Sur, Bicol University Polangui Campus, Polangui, Albay and
University of Northeastern Philippines, Iriga City, to my students, friends and
relatives, to my family and most of all to the Almighty God for their continual
supports and encouragement for the completion of this work. Without them,
this work will never been in reality.

To all, my sincere thanks and May God bless you!!!

HAROLD JAN R. TERANO, ECE, MET

Camar ines Sur Polytechnic Colleges
Nabua, Camar ines Sur
2014

iv
 Table of Contents
Page
Preface iii
Chapter 1: INEQUALITIES 1
1.1 Inequalities 2
Exercise 1.1 7
1.2 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities 11
Exercise 1.2 17
1.3 Inequalities Involving Absolute Value 21
Exercise 1.3 23

Chapter 2: RATIO, VARIATION AND PROPORTION 27

2.1 Ratio 28
2.2 Proportion 28
Exercise 2.1 31
2.3 Variation 33
Exercise 2.2 35

Chapter 3: DETERMINANTS 39
3.1 Determinants of Second Order 40
3.2 Expansion of Minors 41
Exercise 3.1 45
3.3 Determinants of Third Order 49
Exercise 3.2 51
3.4 Cramer’s Rule 55
3.5 Cramer’s Rule f or a System of
Three Linear Equations 57
Exercise 3.3 61

Chapter 4: MATRICES 65
4.1 Matrix 66
Exercise 4.1 73
4.2 Algebraic Operations of Matrix 75
Exercise 4.2 79
4.3 Solutions of Linear Systems using
Inverse of a Matrix 81
Exercise 4.3 85

Chapter 5: SEQUENCES AND SERIES 89

5.1 Sequence 90
5.2 Arithmetic Progression 90
Exercise 5.1 93
5.3 Geometric Progression 97
Exercise 5.2 101
5.4 Harmonic Progression 105
Exercise 5.3 107
5.5 Summation Notation 109
Exercise 5.4 113
5.6 Related Sequences 117

v
Chapter 6: COMBINATORIAL MATHEMATICS 121
6.1 Fundamental Principle of Counting 122
6.2 Factorial Notation 122
Exercise 6.1 125
6.3 Permutation 127
Exercise 6.2 131
6.4 Combination 133
Exercise 6.3 135
6.5 Binomial Theorem 137
Exercise 6.4 141
6.6 Pascal’s Triangle 145
Exercise 6.5 147
6.7 Mathematical Induction 149
Exercise 6.6 153

Ref erences 157

vi
 Chapter 1
INEQUALITIES
Outline:
1.1 Inequalities
1.2 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
1.3 Inequalities Involving Absolute Value

Overview:

Problems in mathematics need the solution of equations or

inequalities. This chapter deals on inequalities. This includes first-
degree inequalities, polynomial and r ational inequalities and
inequalities involving absolute value.

Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Define inequalities.
2. Solve first-degree inequalities.
3. Solve polynomial and r ational inequalities.
4. Solve inequalities involving absolute value.

1
1.1 Inequalities
An inequality is a statement that one real quantity or expression is
greater or less than another real quantity or expression.
The following are some meaning of inequality signs:
1. ܽ > ܾ means “ܽ is greater than ܾ”
2. ܽ < ܾ means “ܽ is less than ܾ”
3. ܽ ൒ ܾ means “ܽ is greater than or equal to ܾ”
4. ܽ ൑ ܾ means “ܽ is less than or equal to ܾ”
5. 0 < ܽ < 1 means “ܽ is greater than zero but less than 1”
6. െ1 ൑ ܽ < 1 means “ܽ is greater than or equal to െ1 but less than 1”

The domain of a variable in equality is the set of real numbers for

which the members of the inequality are defined. Examples of linear
inequalities having the set ܴ of real numbers as domain are:
௫ିଽ
2‫ ݔ‬െ 5 < 8 ൑‫ݔ‬ 2 < 5‫ ݔ‬+ 7 ൑ 15
ଶ

An absolute inequality is true f or all real values of the letters involve.

For example ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൒ 0 holds f or all real values of ‫ݔ‬, since the square of any
real number is positive or zero.
A conditional inequality holds only for particular values of the letters
involved. Thus ‫ ݔ‬െ 4 > 2 is true only when ‫ ݔ‬is greater than 6.

Properties:
1. If ܽ,ܾ and ܿ are real numbers, and if ܽ < ܾ, then ܽ + ܿ < ܾ + ܿ or if
ܽ > ܾ, then ܽ + ܿ > ܾ + ܿ.
Illustration:
1. If ܽ < ܾ, for instance ܽ = 2, ܾ = 5 and ܿ = 4, then 2 + 4 < 5 + 4 or
6 < 9.
2. If ܽ > ܾ, for instance ܽ = 5, ܾ = 2 and ܿ = 4, then 5 + 4 > 2 + 4
or 9 > 6.

2
2. If ܽ,ܾ and ܿ are real numbers, and if ܽ < ܾ, then ܽ െ ܿ < ܾ െ ܿ or if
ܽ > ܾ, then ܽ െ ܿ > ܾ െ ܿ.
Illustration:
1. If ܽ < ܾ, for instance ܽ = 2, ܾ = 5 and ܿ = 4, then 2 െ 4 < 5 െ 4 or
െ2 < 1.
2. If ܽ > ܾ, for instance ܽ = 5, ܾ = 2 and ܿ = 4, then 5 െ 4 > 2 െ 4
or 1 > െ2.

3. If ܽ,ܾ and ܿ are real numbers, and if ܽ < ܾ and ܿ > 0, then ܽܿ < ܾܿ or
if ܽ < ܾ and ܿ < 0, then, ܽܿ > ܾܿ.
Illustration:
1. If ܽ < ܾ, for instance ܽ = 2, ܾ = 5 and ܿ = 4, then 2(4) < 5(4) or
8 < 20.
2. If ܽ < ܾ, for instance ܽ = 2, ܾ = 5 and ܿ = െ4, then 2(െ4) > 5(െ4)
or െ8 > െ20.
Note that if the inequality is multiplied by a positive number, the
direction of the inequality remains unchanged while multiplying both
sides by a negative number, the direction is reversed.
Example 1:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
inequality 3‫ ݔ‬െ 5 < 10.
Solution:
3‫ ݔ‬െ 5 < 10
3‫ ݔ‬െ 5 + 5 < 10 + 5
3‫ < ݔ‬15
ଷ௫ ଵହ
<
ଷ ଷ

‫ <ݔ‬5
Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality is {‫ < ݔ|ݔ‬5},
which is the interval ( െ’,5). The number line is,

െ૞ ૙ ૞

3
Example 2:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
௫ିଶ
inequality
ଷ
൑ ‫ݔ‬.

Solution:
௫ିଶ
൑‫ݔ‬
ଷ
(ଷ)(௫ିଶ)
ଷ
൑ (3)‫ݔ‬

‫ ݔ‬െ 2 ൑ 3‫ݔ‬
‫ ݔ‬െ 2 െ 3‫ ݔ‬+ 2 ൑ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݔ‬+ 2
െ2‫ ݔ‬൑ 2
ଶ௫ ଶ
െ ିଶ ൑ ିଶ

‫ ݔ‬൒ െ1
Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality is {‫ ݔ|ݔ‬൒ െ1},
which is the interval [െ1,+ ’). The number line is

െ૜ ૙ ૠ

Example 3:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
inequality 3 < 2‫ ݔ‬+ 5 ൑ 11.
Solution:
Solve each inequality separately,
3 < 2‫ ݔ‬+ 5 2‫ ݔ‬+ 5 ൑ 11
3 െ 5 < 2‫ ݔ‬+ 5 െ 5 2‫ ݔ‬+ 5 െ 5 ൑ 11 െ 5
െ2 < 2‫ݔ‬ 2‫ ݔ‬൑ 6
ିଶ ଶ௫ ଶ௫ ଺
< ൑
ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ

െ1 < ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬൑3

The value of ‫ ݔ‬will be the solution of the given inequality if
and only if
െ1 < ‫ݔ‬ and ‫ ݔ‬൑ 3

4
Therefore, the solution set is the interval (െ1,3].
Other way of solving can be done directly as shown below,
3 < 2‫ ݔ‬+ 5 ൑ 11
3 െ 5 < 2‫ ݔ‬+ 5 െ 5 ൑ 11 െ 5
െ2 < 2‫ ݔ‬൑ 6
ିଶ ଶ௫ ଺
ଶ
< ଶ
൑ଶ

െ1 < ‫ ݔ‬൑ 3
The number line is,

െ૚ ૙ ૜

5
6
Exer cise 1.1
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the following
inequalities.
1. 4‫ ݔ‬െ 3 < 8

2. 3‫ ݔ‬+ 2 ൑ 11

3. 2‫ ݔ‬+ 3 ൒ ‫ ݔ‬െ 4

7
 ଷି௫
4. 6 െ 2‫> ݔ‬
ିଶ

ଶ௫ିହ
5. ଷ
< ‫ݔ‬െ4

6. 12 < 2 െ 5‫ < ݔ‬22

௫ାଶ
7. ൑‫ݔ‬
ହ

8
 ଶ௫ିଷ
8. 1 < ൑3
ଷ

9. 12 ൒ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 3 > 9

଺௫ିହ
10. െ2 < ଻
൑7

9
10
1.2 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
To solve polynomial inequalities, we use the concepts of critical
number and test number.
A critical number of an inequality is the real root of the equation,
suppose we have the quadratic equation,
ܽ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ܾ‫ ݔ‬+ ܿ = 0
has the real roots ‫ݎ‬ଵ and ‫ݎ‬ଶ and these are called the critical numbers, thus,
the intervals may be
(െ’,‫ݎ‬ଵ ) (‫ݎ‬ଵ ,‫ݎ‬ଶ ) (‫ݎ‬ଶ , + ’)
A test number is an arbitrary constant that is used to determine the
sign on a particular one of these intervals. From the results, we can obtain
the solution set of the inequality.
Consider the following examples:
Example 1:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
inequality ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 6 < ‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
The equivalent inequality is
‫ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬െ 6 < 0
(‫ ݔ‬+ 2)(‫ ݔ‬െ 3) < 0
The factored form of the inequality ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬െ 6 = 0 has the roots
െ2 and 3 which are the critical numbers of the inequality. These
points separate the line into the following three intervals.
(െ’,െ2) (െ2,3) (3,+ ’)
Then, determine the sign on an interval by assigning arbitrary
test number in the interval and compute the sign of each of the
factors (‫ ݔ‬+ 2) and (‫ ݔ‬െ 3) at this test number. We select െ3 in
(െ’,െ2), 0 in (െ2,3) and 4 in (3,+ ’). Consider the following
results,
interval test sign of sign of ‫ ݔ‬െ 3 sign of (‫ ݔ‬+ 2)(‫ ݔ‬െ
number ݇ ‫ ݔ‬+ 2 at ݇ at ݇ 3) on interval
(െ’,െ2) െ3 െ െ +
(െ2,3) 0 + െ െ
(3,+ ’) 4 + + +

11
 From the table, we can consider that the solution set of the
inequality is the interval (െ2,3) since the resulting sign of
(‫ ݔ‬+ 2)(‫ ݔ‬െ 3) on the interval is negative (െ) which indicates that it is
less than (< ) zero.
The number line is

െ૛ ૙ ૜

Example 2:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
inequality ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬൒ 8.
Solution:
The equivalent inequality is
‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 8 ൒ 0
(‫ ݔ‬+ 4)(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) ൒ 0
The critical numbers are െ4 and 2. The following intervals are
(െ’,െ4) (െ4,2) (2,+ ’)

Consider the table below,

interval test number ݇ sign of ‫ ݔ‬+ 4 sign of ‫ ݔ‬െ 2 at sign of (‫ ݔ‬+ 4) (‫ ݔ‬െ 2)
at ݇ ݇ on interval
(െλ,െ4) െ5 െ െ +
(െ4,2) 0 + െ െ
(2,+ λ) 3 + + +

For (‫ ݔ‬+ 4)(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) > 0, we consider the interval (െ’,െ4) and
(2,+ ’) since at these values, the sign of (‫ ݔ‬+ 4)(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) on the
interval is positive (+ ) which indicates that it is greater than 0. For
(‫ ݔ‬+ 4)(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) = 0, we consider the values at െ4 and 2 since at any
of these values, (‫ ݔ‬+ 4)(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) = 0.
Therefore, the number line is,

െ૝ ૙ ૛

12
Example 3:
Find solution set of the inequality 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 4‫ ݔ‬+ 1 < 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3.
Solution:
The given inequality is equivalent to
3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 4‫ ݔ‬+ 1 < 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3
3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 4‫ ݔ‬+ 1 + 3 < 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3 െ 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3
‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 4‫ ݔ‬+ 4 < 0
(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) ଶ < 0
From the inequality, there is no possible value of ‫ ݔ‬for which
(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) ଶ is negative, therefore, there is no solution. Thus, the solution
set is ‫׎‬.

Example 4:
Find the solution set of the inequality 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 8‫ ݔ‬+ 6 ൑ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3.
Solution:
The given inequality is equivalent to
4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 8‫ ݔ‬+ 6 ൑ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3
‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 9 ൑ 0
(‫ ݔ‬+ 3) ଶ ൒ 0
From the given inequality, (‫ ݔ‬+ 3) ଶ is nonnegative for all values
of ‫ݔ‬, therefore, the solution set is the set ܴ for all real numbers.

Example 5:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
inequality 4 < 3‫ ݔ‬+ 10 ൑ 13.
Solution:
Solve each inequality separately,
4 < 3‫ ݔ‬+ 10 3‫ ݔ‬+ 10 ൑ 13
4 െ 10 < 3‫ ݔ‬+ 10 െ 10 3‫ ݔ‬+ 10 െ 10 ൑ 13 െ 10
െ6 < 3‫ݔ‬ 3‫ ݔ‬൑ 3
െ2 < ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬൑1

13
 The value of ‫ ݔ‬will be a solution of the given inequality if and
only if,
െ2 < ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݔ‬൑ 1
Thus,
െ2 < ‫ ݔ‬൑ 1
Therefore, the solution set is the interval (െ2,1] or it can be
solved directly by,
4 < 3‫ ݔ‬+ 10 ൑ 13
4 െ 10 < 3‫ ݔ‬+ 10 െ 10 ൑ 13 െ 10
െ6 < 3‫ ݔ‬൑ 3
ଵ
(െ6 < 3‫ ݔ‬൑ 3)
ଷ

െ2 < ‫ ݔ‬൑ 1
The number line is,

െ૛ ૙ ૚

For rational inequality, the method of solution is similar to that is

used for polynomial inequalities.

Example 1:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
ଷ௫
inequality < 2.
௫ିଵ

Solution:
ଷ௫
௫ିଵ
< 2
ଷ௫
௫ିଵ
െ2< 0

Combining terms on the lef t side,

ଷ௫ିଶ(௫ିଵ)
< 0
௫ିଵ
௫ାଶ
< 0
௫ିଵ

14
 The critical numbers of the inequality are those numbers for
which either the numerator or denominator of the rational expression
on the lef t is zero, thus,
‫ ݔ‬+ 2 = 0 and ‫ ݔ‬െ 1 = 0
and the critical numbers are െ2 and 1. The intervals are
(െ’,െ2) (െ2,1) (1,+ ’)

Consider the table,

interval test number ݇ sign of ‫ ݔ‬+ 2 sign of ‫ ݔ‬െ 1 at ௫ାଶ
sign of on interval
௫ିଵ
at ݇ ݇
(െλ,െ2) െ3 െ െ +
(െ2,1) 0 + െ െ
(1,+ λ) 2 + + +

The solution set of the inequalities is the interval (െ2,1) since

௫ାଶ
the resulting sign of in the interval is negative (െ) which
௫ିଵ

indicates that it is less than (< ) zero.

The number line is,

െ૛ ૙ ૚
Example 2:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
ଶ௫ మ ାଷ௫ି଻
inequality ൑ 1.
௫ మାଷ௫ାଶ

Solution:
ଶ௫ మ ାଷ௫ି଻
൑1
௫ మ ାଷ௫ାଶ
ଶ௫ మ ାଷ௫ି଻
௫ మ ାଷ௫ାଶ
െ1൑0
ଶ௫ మ ାଷ௫ି଻ି൫௫ మାଷ௫ାଶ൯
௫ మାଷ௫ାଶ
൑0
ଶ௫ మ ାଷ௫ି଻ି௫ మିଷ௫ିଶ
൑0
௫ మାଷ௫ାଶ
௫ మିଽ
൑0
௫ మାଷ௫ାଶ
(௫ିଷ) (௫ାଷ)
(௫ାଶ) (௫ାଵ)
൑0

15
 The critical numbers are obtained by equating both the
numerator and denominator to zero, thus,
(‫ ݔ‬െ 3)(‫ ݔ‬+ 3) = 0
(‫ ݔ‬+ 2)(‫ ݔ‬+ 1) = 0
The critical numbers are,
3,െ3,െ2 and െ1
The intervals are,
(െ’,െ3) (െ3,െ2) (െ2, െ1) (െ1,3) (3,+ ’)
For the sign of the rational expression on each of the five
intervals by choosing a test number in the interval, consider the table,
interval test sign of sign of sign of sign of sign of
number ‫ ݔ‬+ 3 at ݇ ‫ ݔ‬+ 2 at ݇ ‫ ݔ‬+ 1 at ݇ ‫ ݔ‬െ 3 at ݇ (௫ିଷ)(௫ାଷ)
on
(௫ାଶ)(௫ାଵ)
݇
interval
(െλ,െ3) െ4 െ െ െ െ +


(െ3,െ2) 5 + െ െ െ െ
െ
2
(െ2,െ1) 0 + + + െ െ
(െ1,3) 1 + + + െ െ
(3,+ λ) 4 + + + + +

(௫ିଷ)(௫ାଷ)
For  < 0, we consider the interval (െ3,െ2),(െ2,െ1)
(௫ାଶ)(௫ାଵ)

(௫ିଷ) (௫ାଷ)
and (െ1,3) since at these values, the sign of on the
(௫ାଶ) (௫ାଵ)

interval is negative (െ) which indicates that it is less than 0. Also,

the rational expression is zero if ‫ = ݔ‬3 and ‫ = ݔ‬െ3, thus 3 and െ3
are in the solution set. But, the expression is not defined when
‫ = ݔ‬െ2 and ‫ = ݔ‬െ1 because the denominator is zero. Therefore, the
solution set is [െ3,െ2) ‫( ׫‬െ1,3].
The number line is

െ૜ െ૛ െ૚ ૙ 1 ૛ ૜

16
Exer cise 1.2
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the following
inequalities.
1. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ > 4

2. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬൒ 32

3. ‫ ݔ‬൑ 6 െ 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ

17
4. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 5‫ ݔ‬+ 6 > 0

5. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ < 2‫ ݔ‬+ 8

6. (‫ ݔ‬+ 1)(‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 6) > 0

ଶ ଷ
7. <
ଶ௫ାସ ௫ିଶ

18
 ଷ
8. < ‫ݔ‬െ3
ଶ௫ିଵ

ହ௫
9. ௫ మାଶ௫ି଼
൒3

ଷ ଶ
10. ௫ିଷ
<
௫ାଵ

19
20
1.3 Inequalities Involving Absolute Value
The absolute value of a real number ܽ, denoted by |ܽ| is given by,
ܽ,ifܽ ൒ 0
|ܽ| = ൜
െܽ,ifܽ < 0
Example 1:
Find the solution set of the equation |2‫ ݔ‬+ 3| = 6.
Solution:
2‫ ݔ‬+ 3 = 6 or െ(2‫ ݔ‬+ 3) = 6
2‫ = ݔ‬3 െ2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 = 6
ଷ
‫=ݔ‬ െ2‫ = ݔ‬9
ଶ
ଽ
‫ = ݔ‬െଶ
ଷ ଽ
The solution set is ቄ , െ ቅ.
ଶ ଶ

Example 2:
Find the solution set of the equation |4‫ ݔ‬+ 3| = |10 െ 3‫|ݔ‬.
Solution:
The given equation will be satisfied if either
4‫ ݔ‬+ 3 = 10 െ 3‫ݔ‬ or 4‫ ݔ‬+ 3 = െ(10 െ 3‫)ݔ‬
4‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ = ݔ‬10 െ 3 4‫ ݔ‬+ 3 = െ10 + 3‫ݔ‬
7‫ = ݔ‬7 4‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ = ݔ‬െ10 െ 3
‫ =ݔ‬1 ‫ = ݔ‬െ13
The solution set is {1, െ13}.
Consider the inequality
|‫ < |ݔ‬2
The inequality states that it is equivalent to െ2 < ‫ < ݔ‬2, and ‫ ݔ‬is in
the open interval (െ2,2). Thus, the solution set of the inequality is {‫ |ݔ‬െ 2 <
‫ < ݔ‬2}.
Generally, if ܽ > 0,
|࢞| < ࢇ and is equivalent to െࢇ < ࢞ < ࢇ.
Example 1:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
inequality |3‫ ݔ‬െ 5| < 7.

21
 Solution:
The given inequality is equivalent to
െ7 < 3‫ ݔ‬െ 5 < 7
െ7 + 5 < 3‫ ݔ‬െ 5 + 5 < 7 + 5
െ2 < 3‫ < ݔ‬12
ିଶ ଷ௫ ଵଶ
< <
ଷ ଷ ଷ
ିଶ
ଷ
< ‫ <ݔ‬4
ଶ
The solution set is the open interval ቀെ ଷ , 4ቁ. The number line

is,

െ૚ ૙ ૝

For the inequality |‫ > |ݔ‬2, the inequality is equivalent to ‫ > ݔ‬2 or
‫ < ݔ‬െ2. Thus, ‫ ݔ‬is in (െ’,െ2) ‫( ׫‬2,+ ’). The solution set is {‫ > ݔ|ݔ‬2} ‫׫‬
{‫ < ݔ|ݔ‬െ2}.
Generally, if ܽ > 0,
|࢞| > ࢇ and is equivalent to ࢞ > ࢇ or ࢞ < െࢇ
Example 1:
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the
inequality |2‫ ݔ‬െ 5| ൒ 7.
Solution:
The solution set of the given inequality is the union of the
solution set of inequalities
2‫ ݔ‬െ 5 ൒ 7 2‫ ݔ‬െ 5 ൑ െ7
2‫ ݔ‬൒ 7 + 5 2‫ ݔ‬൑ െ7 + 5
2‫ ݔ‬൒ 12 2‫ ݔ‬൑ െ2
‫ݔ‬൒6 ‫ ݔ‬൑ െ1
Thus, the solution set is {‫ ݔ|ݔ‬൑ െ1} ‫ ݔ|ݔ{ ׫‬൒ 6} or with interval
notation (െ’,െ1] ‫[ ׫‬6,+ ’).The number line is,

െ૚ ૙ ૟

22
Exer cise 1.3
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Find the solution set of the following equations.

1. |2‫ ݔ‬െ 7| = 5

2. |3‫ ݔ‬െ 4| = 5

3. |3 െ 5‫ = |ݔ‬13

23
 ଷ௫ିଵ
4. ቚ ቚ= 4
௫ାଶ

5. |‫ ݔ‬+ 4| = |3‫ ݔ‬െ 4|

II. Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the following
inequalities.
1. |6 െ ‫ |ݔ‬൑ 10

2. |8 െ 3‫ < |ݔ‬10

24
3. |‫ ݔ‬െ 3| > 6

4. |2‫ ݔ‬െ 3| ൑ െ5

5. |6 + 3‫ |ݔ‬൒ 9

25
26
 Chapter 2
RATIO, PROPORTION
AND VARIATION
Outline:
1.1 Ratio
1.2 Proportion
1.3 Variation

Overview:
This chapter covered the topics on r atio, proportion and variation
as applications on common problems.

Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Define r atio.
2. Define proportion.
3. Solve problems on r atio and proportion.
4. Define variation.
5. Solve problems on variations.

27
2.1 Ratio
The ratio of two numbers ܽ and ܾ is written ܽ: ܾ, is the fraction
ܽ/ ܾ provided ܾ ് 0.
The ratio 2: 1 is equal to 2/ 1 = 2.
Examples:
଺ ଷ
1. The ratio of 6 to 8 = 6: 8 = = .
଼ ସ
ଵ ଷ ଵ/ ଶ ଶ
2. : = =
ଶ ସ ଷ/ ସ ଷ
ସ௬ ଶ௫ ଷ௫
3. 2‫ݔ‬: = ర೤ =
ଷ ଶ௬
య

2.2 Pr oportion
௔ ௖
A proportion is an equality of two ratios. If ܽ: ܾ = ܿ: ݀ or = is
௕ ௗ

proportion in which ܽ and ݀ are called the extremes and ܾ and ܿ the
means, while ݀ is called the fourth proportional to ܽ,ܾ and ܿ .
In the proportion ܽ: ܾ = ܾ: ܿ, ܿ is called the third proportional to ܽ
and ܾ and ܾ is called a mean proportional between ܽ and ܿ .

By the laws of proportion, if ܽ/ ܾ = ܿ/ ݀ , then,

1. ܽ݀ = ܾܿ
௕ ௗ
2. =
௔ ௖
௔ ௕
3. =
௖ ௗ
௔ା௕ ௖ାௗ
4. =
௕ ௗ
௔ି௕ ௖ିௗ
5. =
௕ ௗ
௔ା௕ ௖ାௗ
6. =
௔ି௕ ௖ିௗ

Example 1:
Given the proportion (‫ ݔ‬+ 2) : ( ‫ ݔ‬െ 1) = 1: 2, find the value of ‫ݔ‬.

28
 Solution:
௫ାଶ ଵ
=
௫ିଵ ଶ

2( ‫ ݔ‬+ 2) = ‫ ݔ‬െ 1
2‫ ݔ‬+ 4 = ‫ ݔ‬െ 1
2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݔ‬െ1 െ 4
‫ = ݔ‬െ5
Example 2:
Given the proportion (‫ ݔ‬െ 1) : ( ‫ ݔ‬െ 3) = ( ‫ ݔ‬െ 2) (‫ ݔ‬+ 1), find the value
of ‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
௫ିଵ ௫ିଶ
=
௫ିଷ ௫ାଵ

(‫ ݔ‬െ 1)( ‫ ݔ‬+ 1) = ( ‫ ݔ‬െ 2)( ‫ ݔ‬െ 3)

‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 1 = ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 5‫ ݔ‬+ 6
െ1 = െ5‫ ݔ‬+ 6
5‫ = ݔ‬6 + 1
5‫ = ݔ‬7
଻
‫=ݔ‬
ହ

Example 3:
Find the mean proportion of 3 and 12.
Solution:
ଷ ௫
=
௫ ଵଶ

‫ ݔ‬ଶ = 3(12)
‫ =ݔ‬6
Example 4:
The mean proportion between 18 and ‫ ݔ‬is equal to 3. Find the
value of ‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
ଵ଼ ଷ
=
ଷ ௫

18‫ = ݔ‬9

29
 ଵ଼
‫=ݔ‬
ଽ

‫ =ݔ‬2
Example 5:
Find the fourth proportional to 3,6,10.
Solution:
ଷ ଵ଴
=
଺ ௫

3‫ = ݔ‬60
‫ = ݔ‬20
Example 6:
A triangle has sides of lengths 32,25 and 15 cm. If the length of the
longest side of a similar triangle is 28 cm, find the lengths of the other
sides.
Solution:
The corresponding sides of similar triangles are proportional,
thus,
28: ‫ݔ‬: ‫ = ݕ‬32: 25: 15
The proportion is equivalent to the two proportions
28: ‫ = ݔ‬32: 25 and 28: ‫ = ݕ‬32: 15
Thus,
ଶ଼ ଷଶ ଶ଼ ଷଶ
௫
= ଶହ ௬
= ଵହ

32‫ = ݔ‬28(25) 32‫ = ݕ‬28(15)

‫ = ݔ‬21.875 cm ‫ = ݕ‬13.125 cm

30
Exer cise 2.1
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Express the following ratios as simplified fraction.

1. 50: 125

ଶ ଶ
2. :
ଷ ଽ

ଷ௫ ହ௫ మ
3. :
ଶ௬ ଷ௬ మ

4. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ‫ݖ‬: ‫ ݕݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݖ‬ଷ

5. (‫ ݕݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫)ݕ‬: (‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ )ݕ‬ଶ

31
II. Solve the following problems.
1. Find the mean proportion of 7 and 28.

2. The mean proportion between 50 and ‫ ݔ‬is equal to 5. Find the value of
‫ݔ‬.

3. Find the third proportional to 16 and 12.

4. Two towns are 10cm apart on a map. If the map scale is 4 cm to 15 km,
what is the actual distance between the two towns?

5. Three workers do a certain job for ܲ4,250. If this sum is to be divided

among the workers in the ratio 3: 6: 8, find the share of each worker.

32
2.3 Var iation
The types of variation functions are direct, inverse and joint.
௫
1. If ‫ ݔ‬varies directly as ‫ݕ‬, then ‫ ݕ݇ = ݔ‬or = ݇, where ࢑ is called the
௬

constant of proportionality or the constant of variation.

௞
2. If ‫ ݔ‬varies inversely as ‫ݕ‬, then ‫ = ݔ‬௬ .

3. If ‫ ݔ‬varies jointly as ‫ ݕ‬and ‫ݖ‬, then ‫ݖݕ݇ = ݔ‬.

Example 1:
If ‫ ݔ‬varies directly as ‫ ݕ‬and inversely as ‫ݖ‬, and ‫ = ݔ‬10 when
‫ = ݕ‬15 and ‫ = ݖ‬6, find ‫ ݔ‬when ‫ = ݕ‬12 and ‫ = ݖ‬8.
Solution:
௬
‫݇ =ݔ‬
௭

When ‫ = ݔ‬10,‫ = ݕ‬15 and ‫ = ݖ‬6

ଵହ
10 = ݇
଺

60 = 15݇
݇= 4
Then,
ସ௬
‫=ݔ‬
௭

When ‫ = ݕ‬12 and ‫ = ݖ‬8,

ସ(ଵଶ)
‫=ݔ‬ ଼

‫ =ݔ‬6
Example 2:
The value of ܴ varies directly with ‫ ݔ‬and inversely proportional to
the square of ‫ݕ‬. When ‫ = ݔ‬5 and ‫ = ݕ‬10, ܴ = 20. Find the value of ܴ when
‫ = ݔ‬2 and ‫ = ݕ‬5.
Solution:
௫
ܴ= ݇
௬మ
(ହ)
20 = ݇ (ଵ଴) మ

݇ = 400

33
 Then,
ସ଴଴௫
ܴ=
௬మ

When ‫ = ݔ‬2 and ‫ = ݕ‬5,

ସ଴଴(ଶ)
ܴ= (ହ) మ

ܴ = 32
Example 3:
The volume of a sphere varies directly as the cube of its radius. The
volume of the sphere with a radius of 10 cm is 4,200 cm3. What is the
volume of the sphere with 3.5 cm radius?
Solution:
ܸ = ݇‫ ݎ‬ଷ
4,200 = ݇(10) ଷ
ଶଵ
݇=
ହ

When the radius is 3.5 cm,

ଶଵ ଷ
ܸ= ‫ݎ‬
ହ
ଶଵ
ܸ= (3.5) ଷ
ହ

ܸ = 180.075 cm3

34
Exer cise 2.2
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Write the equation described by the following relations.

1. ‫ ܦ‬varies directly as the square of ‫ ݔ‬and inversely with the cube of ‫ݕ‬.

2. ܵ varies directly as the product of ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬and inversely with the

square root of ‫ݖ‬.

3. ܹ varies j ointly as ‫ ݔ‬and square of ‫ ݕ‬and inversely with ‫ݖ‬.

4. The resistance of a wire varies directly with its length and inversely with
its area.

35
5. The gravitational force ‫ܨ‬ is directly proportional to the product of the
two objects with masses ݉ଵ and ݉ଶ and inversely with the square of it s
distance ‫ݏ‬.

II. Solve the following problems.

1. If ‫ ݕ‬varies directly as ‫ ݔ‬and inversely as ‫ݖ‬, and ‫ = ݕ‬5 when ‫ = ݔ‬5
and ‫ = ݖ‬3, find ‫ ݕ‬when ‫ = ݔ‬10 and ‫ = ݖ‬5.

2. If ‫ ݔ‬varies directly as the square of ‫ ݕ‬and inversely as ‫ݖ‬, and ‫ = ݔ‬6

when ‫ = ݕ‬4 and ‫ = ݖ‬10, find ‫ ݔ‬when ‫ = ݕ‬2 and ‫ = ݖ‬3.

36
3. If ‫ ݔ‬varies directly as the product of ‫ ݕ‬and ‫ ݖ‬and inversely as the
square of ‫ݓ‬, and ‫ = ݔ‬10 when ‫ = ݕ‬4, ‫ = ݖ‬6 and ‫ = ݓ‬2, find ‫ ݔ‬when
‫ = ݕ‬3,‫ = ݖ‬5 and ‫ = ݓ‬4.

4. The volume ܸ of a cone is directly proportional to the product of the

square of the radius ‫ ݎ‬and the altitude ݄. The volume of the cone is
655cm3 when the radius is 5cm and the altitude is 25cm. What is the
volume when the radius is 15cm and the altitude is 8cm?

5. The electric power ܲ is directly proportional to the product of the

square of current ‫ ܫ‬and the resistance ܴ. The power is 900 Watts when the
current is 3A and the resistance is 100 ohms. What is the resistance when
the power is 6,250 Watts and the current is 2.5A?

37
38
 Chapter 3

DETERMINANTS
Outline:
3.1 Determinants of Second Order
3.2 Expansion of Minors
3.3 Determinants of Third Order
3.4 Cramer’s Rule
3.5 Cramer’s Rule for a System of Three Linear
Equations

Overview:
Deter minants is ver y impor tant in solving systems of linear
equations by the for mula known as Cramer’s r ule, named after the
Swiss mathematician Gabriel Cr amer (1704-1752).
This chapter begins with the definition of a second-or der
deter minants. Reduction of higher-or der deter minants is also covered
by using the expansions of minors. These topics are very important in
using the Cr amer ’s rule to solve systems of linear equations.

Objectives:

Upon completion of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Define deter minants.
2. Reduce higher-order deter minants using the expansion of
minors.
3. Define Cr amer ’s r ule.
4. Solve systems of linear equations using the Cr amer ’s rule.

39
3.1 Determinants of Second Or der
The symbol,
ܽ ܾଵ
ฬ ଵ ฬ
ܽଶ ܾଶ

consisting of the four numbers ܽଵ , ܾଵ ,ܽଶ and ܾଶ arranged in two rows and
two columns is called a determinant of second order or determinant of
order two. The four numbers are called elements of the determinant.

By definition,
ܽ ܾଵ
ฬ ଵ ฬ = ܽଵ ܾଶ െ ܽଶ ܾଵ
ܽଶ ܾଶ

Example 1:
3 െ2
Evaluate ቚ ቚ.
1 3
Solution:
3 െ2
ቚ ቚ = (3)(3) െ (1)(െ2) = 9 + 2 = 11
1 3

Example 2:
െ2 1
Evaluate ቚ ቚ.
െ4 5
Solution:
െ2 1
ቚ ቚ = (െ2)(5) െ (െ4)(1) = െ10 + 4 = െ6
െ4 5

Example 3:
6 െ2
Evaluate ቚ ቚ.
െ5 7
Solution:
6 െ2
ቚ ቚ = (6)(7) െ (െ5)(െ2) = 42 െ 10 = 32
െ5 7

40
3.2 Expansion of Minor s
The minor of an element in a square matrix can be obtained by
deleting the row and column in which that certain element appears, then
the minor is determined by taking the determinant of the resulting matrix.
2 െ3 1
Consider the matrix ‫ = ܣ‬൥ 5 1 4൩.
െ2 3 6
Consider the elements of the first row: 2, െ3 and 1. The minor of 2
is
2 െ3 1
൥ 5 1 4൩.
െ2 3 6
1 4
ቚ ቚ = (1)(6) െ (3)(4) = െ6
3 6
The minor of െ3 is
2 െ3 1
൥ 5 1 4൩
െ2 3 6
ቚ 5 4ቚ (5)(6) െ (െ2)(4) = 38
=
െ2 6
The minor of 1 is
2 െ3 1
൥ 5 1 4൩
െ2 3 6
5 1
ቚ ቚ= (5)(3) െ (െ2)(1) = 17
െ2 3

The cofactor of an entry in a matrix is the determinant of the matrix

formed by omitting the entry’s row and column in the original matrix. The
sign of the cofactor is determined from the following positional matrices:
+ െ +
൥െ + െ൩
+ െ +
or the sign of the cofactor can be determined by the relation (െ1) ௜ା௝ , where
݅ is the row number and ݆ is the column number.
Suppose the matrix in the above illustration. Consider the elements of
the first row: 2,െ3 and 1. The cofactor of 2 is

41
 (െ1) ଵାଵ ቚ1 4ቚ = + ቚ1 4
ቚ = (1)(6) െ (3)(4) = െ6
3 6 3 6

The cofactor of െ3 is

(െ1) ଵାଶ ቚ 5 4ቚ

= െቚ
5 4ቚ
= െ[(5)(6) െ (െ2)(4)] = െ38
െ2 6 െ2 6
The cofactor of 1 is

(െ1) ଵାଷ ቚ 5 1

ቚ = + ቚ 5
1
ቚ = (5)(3) െ (െ2)(1) = 17
െ2 3 െ2 3

Consider the matrix

ܽଵ ܾଵ ܿଵ
‫ = ܣ‬൥ܽ ଶ ܾଶ ܿଶ ൩
ܽଷ ܾଷ ܿଷ
The product of ܽଵ and its cofactor is
ܾ ܿଶ ܾ ܿଶ
ܽଵ ή (െ1) ଵାଵ ฬ ଶ ฬ = ܽଵ ฬ ଶ ฬ
ܾଷ ܿଷ ܾଷ ܿଷ
The product of ܾଵ and its cofactor is
ܽଶ ܿଶ ܽଶ ܿଶ
ܾଵ ή (െ1) ଵାଶ ቚܽ ܿ ቚ = െܾଵ ቚܽ ܿଷ ቚ
ଷ ଷ ଷ

The product of ܿଵ and its cofactor is

ܽଶ ܾଶ ܽ ܾଶ
ܿଵ ή (െ1) ଵାଷ ฬ ฬ = ܿଵ ฬ ଶ ฬ
ܽଷ ܾଷ ܽଷ ܾଷ
Thus, the determinant of ‫ ܣ‬is
ܽଵ ܾଵ ܿଵ
ܾ ܿଶ ܽଶ ܿଶ ܽଶ ܾଶ
อ ܽଶ ܾଶ ܿଶ อ = ܽଵ ฬ ଶ ฬ െܾଵ ቚܽ ܿଷ ቚ + ܿଵ ฬܽଷ ฬ
ܾଷ ܿଷ ଷ ܾଷ
ܽଷ ܾଷ ܿଷ
Therefore, the third-order determinant is reduced to a second-order
determinant.
Also, higher-order determinant is reducible to a lower-order
determinant by using the expansion of minors.

Example 1:
െ3 8 2
Evaluate อ3 െ2 0อ by using the expansion of minors.
2 5 6

42
 Solution:
Considering the elements of the first row,
െ3 8 2
െ2 0 3 0 3 െ2
อ 3 െ2 0อ = െ3(െ1) ଵାଵ ቚ ቚ + 8(െ1) ଵାଶ ቚ ቚ + 2(െ1) ଵାଷ ቚ ቚ
5 6 2 6 2 5
2 5 6
െ2 0 3 0 3 െ2
= െ3 ቚ ቚ െ8ቚ ቚ + 2ቚ ቚ
5 6 2 6 2 5
= െ3[(െ2)(6) െ (5)(0)] െ 8[(3)(6) െ (2)(0)] +
2[(3)(5) െ (2)(െ2)]
= െ3(െ12) െ 8(18) + 2(19)
= െ70

Example 2:
3 െ4 െ6
Evaluate อെ4 1 8 อ by using the expansion of minors considering
7 5 2
the elements of the last row.
Solution:
Considering the elements of the last row,
3 െ4 െ6
อെ4 1 8 อ =
7 5 2
ଷାଵ ቚെ4 െ6ቚ 3 െ6 3 െ4
7(െ1) + 5(െ1) ଷାଶ ቚ ቚ + 2(െ1) ଷାଷ ቚ ቚ
1 8 െ4 8 െ4 1
െ4 െ6 3 െ6 3 െ4
= 7ቚ ቚ െ5ቚ ቚ + 2ቚ ቚ
1 8 െ4 8 െ4 1
= 7[(െ4)(8) െ (1)(െ6)] െ 5[(3)(8) െ (െ4)(െ6)] +
2[(3)(1) െ (െ4)(െ4)]
= 7(െ26) െ 5(0) + 2(െ13)
= െ208

Example 3:
െ3 2 1 െ1
Evaluate ቮ 2 െ1 5 0 ቮ by using the expansion of minors.
4 5 3 6
െ1 െ3 4 െ3

43
 Solution:
Considering the elements of the first row,

െ3 21 െ1
െ1 5 0 2 5 0
ቮ 2 െ1 5 0 ቮ = െ3(െ1) ଵାଵ อ
5 3 6 อ + 2(െ1) ଵାଶ อ 4 3 6 อ +
4 53 6
െ1 െ3 4 െ3 െ3 4 െ3 െ1 4 െ3
2 െ1 0 2 െ1 5
1(െ1) ଵାଷ อ 4 5 6 อ െ 1(െ1) ଵାସ อ4 5 3อ
െ1 െ3 െ3 െ1 െ3 4
െ1 5 0 2 5 0 2 െ1 0 2 െ1 5
= െ3 อ 5 3 6 อ െ 2 อ 4 3 6 อ + อ4 5 6 อ + อ 4 5 3อ
െ3 4 െ3 െ1 4 െ3 െ1 െ3 െ3 െ1 െ3 4
Then, again, consider the elements of the first row,
3 6 3 6 4 6
ቚ െ 5 ቚ 5
6
ቚ + 0 ቚ 5
3
= െ3 ቄെ1 ቚ ቚቅ െ 2 ቄ2 ቚ ቚ െ 5ቚ ቚ+
4 െ3 െ3 െ3 െ3 4 4 െ3 െ1 െ3
4 4 6 4 3
ቚቅ + 2 ቚ 5 6 ቚ + ቚ ቚ + 0 ቚ 4 5 ቚ + 2 ቚ 5 3ቚ + ቚ
3
0ቚ ቚ+
െ1 4 െ3 െ3 െ1 െ3 െ1 െ3 െ3 4 െ1 4
4 5 ቚ
5ቚ
െ1 െ3
= െ3{33 െ 15 + 0} െ 2{െ66 + 30 + 0} + 6 െ 6 + 0 + 58 + 19 െ 35
= െ54 + 72 + 6 െ 6 + 58 + 19 െ 35
= 60

44
Exer cise 3.1
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Evaluate the following determinants.

െ2 3
1. ቚ ቚ
1 െ5

5 െ5ቚ
2. ቚ
െ10 4

3 12
3. ቚ ቚ
െ2 െ6

13 െ4
4. ቚ ቚ
2 9

45
 2 4 2
5. อെ4 െ1 5 อ
2 3 െ2

1 3 െ6
6. อ5 െ5 4 อ
3 0 2

2 െ4 8
7. อെ3 15 െ3อ
9 2 6

46
 െ3 0 5
8. อ 4 െ2 9 อ
െ7 3 െ1

2 െ3 6 െ2

9. ቮ െ3 4 െ48 ቮ
1 7 2 െ3
0 െ1 െ2 6

1 4 െ3 െ4
10. ቮ 3 െ2 9 6 ቮ
െ4 0 2 7
3 െ3 െ4 െ1

47
48
3.3 Determinants of Third Order
The symbol
ܽଵ ܾଵ ܿଵ
อ ܽଶ ܾଶ ܿଶ อ
ܽଷ ܾଷ ܿଷ

By definition, െ െ  െ
ܽଵ ܾଵ ܿଵ ܽଵ ܾଵ
อ ܽଶ ܾଶ ܿଶ อ ܽଶ ܾଶ อ
ܽଷ ܾଷ ܿଷ ܽଷ ܾଷ
+ +  +

= ܽଵ ܾଶ ܿଷ + ܾଵ ܿଶ ܽଷ + ܿଵ ܽଶ ܾଷ െ ܽଷ ܾଶ ܿଵ െ ܾଷ ܿଶ ܽଵ െ ܿଷ ܽଶ ܾଵ

Example 1:
2 െ1 3
Evaluate อ5 െ2 െ2อ.
െ3 1 4
Solution:
2 െ1 3 2 െ1 3 2 െ1
อ 5 െ2 െ2อ = อ 5 െ2 െ2อ 5 െ2อ
െ3 1 4 െ3 1 4 െ3 1
= (2)(െ2)(4) + (െ1)(െ2)(െ3) + (3)(5)(1) െ
(െ3)(െ2)(3) െ (1)(െ2)(2) െ (4)(5)(െ1)
= െ1

Example 2:
4 3 10
Evaluate อെ3 2 5 อ.
0 െ4 െ8
Solution:
4 3 10 4 3 10 4 3
อെ3 2 5 อ = อെ3 2 5 อ െ3 2 อ
0 െ4 െ8 0 െ4 െ8 0 െ4
= (4)(2)(െ8) + (3)(5)(0) + (10)(െ3)(െ4) െ
(0)(2)(10) െ (െ4)(5)(4) െ (െ8)(െ3)(3)
= 64

49
Example 3:
3 െ4 8
Evaluate อ 5 6 7 อ
െ2 5 െ1
Solution:
3 െ4 8 3 െ4 8 3 െ4
อ 5 6 7 อ = อ 5 6 7 อ 5 6 อ
െ2 5 െ1 െ2 5 െ1 െ2 5
= (3)(6)(െ1) + (െ4)(7)(െ2) + (8)(5)(5) െ
(െ2)(6)(8) െ (5)(7)(3) െ (െ1)(5)(െ4)
= 209

Example 4:
2 െ2 െ1 3
Evaluate ቮ5 6 0 െ1ቮ.
4 െ2 5 7
1 3 െ3 െ4
Solution:
Apply expansion of minors to reduce the f ourth-order
determinant into a third-order determinant and then solve.

Considering the elements of the first row,

2 െ2 െ1 3

6 0 െ1 5 0 െ1
ቮ5 6 0 െ1ቮ = 2(െ1) ଵାଵ อെ2 5 7 อ െ 2(െ1) ଶାଵ อ4 5 7 อെ
4 െ2 5 7
1 3 െ3 െ4
3 െ3 െ4 1 െ3 െ4

5 6 െ1 5 6 0

1(െ1) ଷାଵ อ4 െ2 7 อ + 3(െ1) ସାଵ อ4 െ2 5 อ
1 3 െ4 1 3 െ3
6 0 െ1 5 0 െ1 5 6 െ1 5 6 0
= 2 อെ2 5 7 อ + 2 อ4 5 7 อ െ อ4 െ2 7 อ െ 3 อ4 െ2 5 อ
3 െ3 െ4 1 െ3 െ4 1 3 െ4 1 3 െ3
=
6 0 െ1 6
0 5 0 െ1 5 0 5 6 െ1 5 6
2 อെ2 5 7 อ െ2
5 อ + 2 อ4 5 7 อ 4 5 อ െ อ4 െ2 7 อ 4 െ2อ െ
3 െ3 െ4 3
െ3 1 െ3 െ4 1 െ3 1 3 െ4 1 3
5 6 0 5 6
3 อ4 െ2 5 อ 4 െ2อ
1 3 െ3 1 3
= 2[(6)(5)(െ4) + (0)(7)(3) + (െ1)(െ2)(െ3) െ (3)(5)(െ1) െ
(െ3)(7)(6) + (െ4)(െ2)(0)] + 2[(5)(5)(െ4) + (0)(7)(1) + (െ1)(4)(െ3) െ
(1)(5)(െ1) െ (െ3)(7)(5) െ (െ4)(4)(0)] െ [(5)(െ2)(െ4) + (6)(7)(1) + (െ1)(4)(3) െ
(1)(െ2)(െ1) െ (3)(7)(5) െ (െ4)(4)(6)] െ 3[(5)(െ2)(െ3) + (6)(5)(1) + (0)(4)(3) െ
(1)(െ2)(0) െ (3)(5)(5) െ (െ3)(4)(6)]
= 2(15) + 2(22) െ 59 െ 3(57)
= െ156

50
Exer cise 3.2
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Evaluate the following determinants.

2 3 െ1
1. อ 0 1 െ3อ
െ3 2 െ4

5 െ4 6
2. อ 1 െ2 1อ
െ3 4 8

െ3 2 0
3. อ 1 െ4 െ5อ
3 6 7

51
 9 െ3 1
4. อെ1 െ7 െ8อ
8 5 3

െ3 1 4
5. อ 0 3 0 อ
െ2 െ4 െ5

െ1 3 5 െ3

6. ቮ 6 7 െ12 ቮ
െ2 െ5 െ5 െ4
െ3 2 െ4 2

52
 3 െ6 െ2 1
7. ቮ െ2 1 െ4  െ4 ቮ
0 െ3 3 5
5 1 െ8 െ7

6 5 െ8 4

8. ቮ െ1 െ2 4 െ1ቮ
0 െ9 െ9 7
1 10 4 2

53
54
3.4 Cramer’s Rule
For a system of two linear equations in two unknowns, it may be
solve by using the second-order determinants. Given the system of
equations
ܽଵ ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾଵ ‫ܿ = ݕ‬ଵ
ܽଶ ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾଶ ‫ܿ = ݕ‬ଶ

The values of ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬are given by

ࡰ࢞ ࡰ࢟
࢞= ࡰ
and ࢟ = ࡰ

where
ܽ ܾଵ
‫ =ܦ‬ฬ ଵ ฬ
ܽଶ ܾଶ
and
ܿ ܾଵ
‫ܦ‬௫ = ฬ ଵ ฬ
ܿଶ ܾଶ
ܽଵ ܿଵ
‫ܦ‬௬ = ቚܽ ܿ ቚ
ଶ ଶ

Example 1:
‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ = ݕ‬െ5
Solve the system ൜ .
‫ ݔ‬െ 2‫ = ݕ‬3
Solution:
The denominator ‫ ܦ‬is,
1 2
‫ =ܦ‬ቚ ቚ = (1)(െ2) െ (1)(2) = െ4
1 െ2
For ‫ܦ‬௫ ,
െ5 2 ቚ (െ5)(െ2) (3)(2)
‫ܦ‬௫ = ቚ = െ = 4
3 െ2
For ‫ܦ‬௬ ,
1 െ5
‫ܦ‬௬ = ቚ ቚ = (1)(3) െ (1)(െ5) = 8
1 3
Then,
஽ೣ ସ
‫=ݔ‬ ஽
= ିସ
= െ1
஽೤ ଼
‫=ݕ‬ ஽
= ିସ
= െ2

55
Example 2:
2‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ = ݕ‬5
Solve the system ൜ .
‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ = ݕ‬6
Solution:
The denominator ‫ ܦ‬is,
2 െ3
‫ =ܦ‬ቚ ቚ = (2)(2) െ (1)(െ3) = 7
1 2
For ‫ܦ‬௫ ,
5 െ3ቚ (5)(2) (6)(െ3)
‫ܦ‬௫ = ቚ = െ = 28
6 2
For ‫ܦ‬௬ ,
2 5ቚ (2)(6) (1)(5)
‫ܦ‬௬ = ቚ = െ = 7
1 6
Then,
஽ೣ ଶ଼
‫=ݔ‬ = = 4
஽ ଻
஽೤ ଻
‫=ݕ‬ = = 1
஽ ଻

Example 3:
3‫ ݔ‬െ 4‫ = ݕ‬െ3
Solve the system ൜ .
െ5‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ = ݕ‬െ4
Solution:
The denominator ‫ ܦ‬is,
3 െ4
‫ = ܦ‬ቚ ቚ = (3)(2) െ (െ5)(െ4) = െ14
െ5 2
For ‫ܦ‬௫ ,
െ3 െ4
‫ܦ‬௫ = ቚ ቚ = (െ3)(2) െ (െ4)(െ4) = െ22
െ4 2
For ‫ܦ‬௬ ,
3 െ3
‫ܦ‬௬ = ቚ ቚ = (3)(െ4) െ (െ5)(െ3) = െ27
െ5 െ4
Then,
஽ೣ ିଶଶ ଵଵ
‫=ݔ‬ ஽
= ିଵସ
= ଻
஽೤ ିଶ଻ ଶ଻
‫=ݕ‬ ஽
= ିଵସ
= ଵସ

56
3.5 Cramer’s Rule for a System of Thr ee Linear Equations
For a system of three linear equations in three unknowns, it may be
solve by using the third-order determinants. Given the system of equations
ܽଵ ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾଵ ‫ ݕ‬+ ܿଵ ‫݀ = ݖ‬ଵ
ܽଶ ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾଶ ‫ ݕ‬+ ܿଶ ‫݀ = ݖ‬ଶ
ܽଷ ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾଷ ‫ ݕ‬+ ܿଷ ‫݀ = ݖ‬ଷ

The values of ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݕ‬and ‫ ݖ‬are given by

ࡰ࢞ ࡰ࢟ ࡰࢠ
࢞= ࡰ
,࢟ = ࡰ
and ࢠ = ࡰ

where
ܽଵ ܾଵ ܿଵ
‫ = ܦ‬อ ܽଶ ܾଶ ܿଶ อ
ܽଷ ܾଷ ܿଷ
and
݀ଵ ܾଵ ܿଵ
‫ܦ‬௫ = อ݀ଶ ܾଶ ܿଶ อ
݀ଷ ܾଷ ܿଷ
ܽଵ ݀ଵ ܿଵ
‫ܦ‬௬ = อܽଶ ݀ଶ ܿଶ อ
ܽଷ ݀ଷ ܿଷ
ܽଵ ܾଵ ݀ଵ
‫ܦ‬௭ = อܽଶ ܾଶ ݀ଶ อ
ܽଷ ܾଷ ݀ଷ

Example 1:
2‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ = ݖ‬9
Solve the system ൝ ‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ ݕ‬+ 3‫ = ݖ‬5 .
െ2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ = ݖ‬3
Solution:
The denominator ‫ ܦ‬is,
2 െ3 െ1 2 െ3 െ1 2 െ3
‫ = ܦ‬อ 1 3 3 อ = อ1 3 3 อ 1 3 อ
െ2 െ1 1 െ2 െ1 1 െ2 െ1
= (2)(3)(1) + (െ3)(3)(െ2) + (െ1)(1)(െ1) െ (െ2)(3)(െ1) െ
(െ1)(3)(2) െ (1)(1)(െ3)
‫ = ܦ‬28

57
 For ‫ܦ‬௫ ,
9 െ3 െ1 9 െ3 െ1 9 െ3
‫ܦ‬௫ = อ5 3 3 อ = อ5 3 3 อ 5 3 อ
3 െ1 1 3 െ1 1 3 െ1
= (9)(3)(1) + (െ3)(3)(3) + (െ1)(5)(െ1) െ (3)(3)(െ1) െ
(െ1)(3)(9) െ (1)(5)(െ3)
‫ܦ‬௫ = 56
For ‫ܦ‬௬ ,
2 9 െ1 2 9 െ1 2 9
‫ܦ‬௬ = อ 1 5 3 อ = อ 1 5 3 อ 1 5อ
െ2 3 1 െ2 3 1 െ2 3
= (2)(5)(1) + (9)(3)(െ2) + (െ1)(1)(3) െ (െ2)(5)(െ1) െ
(3)(3)(2) െ (1)(1)(9)
‫ܦ‬௬ = െ84
For ‫ܦ‬௭ ,
2 െ3 9 2 െ3 9 2 െ3
‫ܦ‬௭ = อ 1 3 5อ = อ 1 3 5อ 1 3 อ
െ2 െ1 3 െ2 െ1 3 െ2 െ1
= (2)(3)(3) + (െ3)(5)(െ2) + (9)(1)(െ1) െ (െ2)(3)(9) െ
(െ1)(5)(2) െ (3)(1)(െ3)
‫ܦ‬௭ = 112
Then,
஽ೣ ହ଺
‫=ݔ‬ ஽
= = 2
ଶ଼
஽೤ ି଼ସ
‫=ݕ‬ = = െ3
஽ ଶ଼
஽೥ ଵଵଶ
‫=ݖ‬ = = 4
஽ ଶ଼
Example 2:
െ2‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݕ‬+ 5‫ = ݖ‬െ5
Solve the system ൝ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 6‫ ݕ‬െ 2‫ = ݖ‬െ4 .
െ‫ ݔ‬+ 6‫ ݕ‬െ 2‫ = ݖ‬8
Solution:
The denominator ‫ ܦ‬is,
െ2 െ3 5 െ2 െ3 5 െ2 െ3
‫ = ܦ‬อ 2 െ6 െ2อ = อ2 െ6 െ2อ 2 െ6อ
െ1 6 െ2 െ1 6 െ2 െ1 6
= (െ2)(െ6)(െ2) + (െ3)(െ2)(െ1) + (5)(2)(6) െ
(െ1)(െ6)(5) െ (6)( െ2)(െ2) െ (െ2)(2)(െ3)

58
 ‫ = ܦ‬െ36
For ‫ܦ‬௫ ,
െ5 െ3 5 െ5 െ3 5 െ5 െ3
‫ܦ‬௫ = อെ4 െ6 െ2อ = อെ4 െ6 െ2 อ െ4 െ6อ
8 6 െ2 8 6 െ2 8 6
= (െ5)(െ6)(െ2) + (െ3)(െ2)(8) + (5)(െ4)(6) െ
(8)(െ6)(5) െ (6)(െ2)(െ5) െ (െ2)(െ4)(െ3)
‫ܦ‬௫ = 72
For ‫ܦ‬௬ ,
െ2 െ5 5 െ2 െ5 5 െ2 െ5
‫ܦ‬௬ = อ 2 െ4 െ2อ = อ2 െ4 െ2อ 2 െ4อ
െ1 8 െ2 െ1 8 െ2 െ1 8
= (െ2)(െ4)(െ2) + (െ5)(െ2)(െ1) + (5)(2)(8) െ
(െ1)(െ4)(5) െ (8)(െ2)(െ2) െ (െ2)(2)(െ5)
‫ܦ‬௬ = െ18
For ‫ܦ‬௭ ,
െ2 െ3 െ5 െ2 െ3 െ5 െ2 െ3
‫ܦ‬௭ = อ 2 െ6 െ4อ = อ2 െ6 െ4อ 2 െ6อ
െ1 6 8 െ1 6 8 െ1 6
= (െ2)(െ6)(8) + (െ3)(െ4)(െ1) + (െ5)(2)(6) െ
(െ1)(െ6)(െ5) െ (6)(െ4)(െ2) െ (8)(2)(െ3)
‫ܦ‬௭ = 54
Then,
஽ೣ ଻ଶ
‫=ݔ‬ = = െ2
஽ ିଷ଺
஽೤ ିଵ଼ ଵ
‫=ݕ‬ ஽
= ିଷ଺
= ଶ
஽೥ ହସ ଷ
‫=ݖ‬ ஽
= ିଷ଺
= െଶ

59
60
Exer cise 3.3
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Solve the systems of linear equations using Cramer’s r ule.

1. ‫ ݔ‬െ 2‫ = ݕ‬െ5
െ2‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ = ݕ‬7

2. െ3‫ ݔ‬െ 5‫ = ݕ‬8

4‫ ݔ‬െ 2‫ = ݕ‬െ7

3. 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ = ݕ‬6
െ6‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ = ݕ‬3

61
‫‪ = െ6‬ݕ‪ െ 4‬ݔ‪4. 9‬‬
‫‪ = െ6‬ݕ‪ + 3‬ݔ‪4‬‬

‫‪ = 14‬ݖ‪ െ 2‬ݕ‪ െ 3‬ݔ‪5. 5‬‬

‫‪ = 0‬ݖ‪ + 3‬ݕ‪ + 6‬ݔ‪2‬‬
‫‪ = 6‬ݖ ‪ െ‬ݕ ‪ െ‬ݔ‪3‬‬

‫‪ = 6‬ݖ‪ െ 3‬ݕ‪ െ 4‬ݔ‪6. 2‬‬

‫‪ = െ2‬ݖ ‪ +‬ݕ‪ + 2‬ݔ‪2‬‬
‫‪ = 13‬ݖ‪ െ 2‬ݕ‪ + 9‬ݔ‪െ6‬‬

‫‪62‬‬
‫‪ = െ1‬ݖ ‪ െ‬ݕ‪ + 3‬ݔ‪7. 4‬‬
‫‪ = െ4‬ݖ‪ െ 3‬ݕ‪ + 2‬ݔ‪3‬‬
‫‪ = െ11‬ݖ‪ െ 6‬ݕ‪ + 3‬ݔ‪െ‬‬

‫‪ = 1‬ݖ‪ + 3‬ݕ‪ െ 2‬ݔ‪8. 3‬‬

‫‪ = 6‬ݖ ‪ െ‬ݕ‪ + 7‬ݔ‪െ2‬‬
‫‪ = െ5‬ݖ ‪ െ‬ݕ‪ + 6‬ݔ‪3‬‬

‫‪63‬‬
64
 Chapter 4
MATRICES
Outline:
4.1 Matrix
4.2 Algebraic Operations of Matrix
4.3 Solutions to Linear Systems using Inverse of a
Matrix

Overview:
Matrix is a mathematical technique and a powerful tool in solving
systems of linear equations. This chapter begins with an introduction to
matrix, its classifications and oper ations. Solutions to linear systems of
equations are covered using the inverse of a matrix.

Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter, the students will be able to:
5. Define matrix.
6. Identify the classifications of matrices.
7. Identify the oper ations of matrices.
8. Solve matrices using algebr aic oper ations.
9. Solve systems of linear equations using the inverse of a
matrix.

65
4.1 Matr ix
A matrix is a rectangular collection of variables or scalars contained
within a set of square [ ] or round ( ) brackets. A matrix consists of ݉ rows
and ݊ columns. The numbers are the entr ies or elements of the matrix.
Examples of matrices are:

1 െ3
1. ቂ ቃ ĺ 2 × 2 matrix
4 2
2 5
2. ൥െ3 1൩ ĺ 3 × 2 matrix
0 6
െ2
3. ൥ 3 ൩ ĺ 3 × 1 matrix
െ2
2 െ3 1
4. ቂ ቃĺ 2 × 3 matrix
5 2 െ1

When a matrix has the same number of rows as columns, it is a

square matrix.
ܽଵଵ ܽଵଶ ܽଵଷ …ܽଵ௡
‫ܽ ۍ‬ଶଵ ܽଶଶ ܽଶଷ …ܽଶ௡ ‫ې‬
‫ ێ‬. . .. ‫ۑ‬
‫ ێ = ܣ‬. . .. ‫ۑ‬
‫ ێ‬.... ‫ۑ‬
‫ܽۏ‬௠ଵ ܽ௠ଶ ܽ௠ଷ …ܽ௠௡ ‫ے‬

The matrix ‫ܣ‬ is an ݉× ݊ matrix. The entries in matrix ‫ܣ‬ are

double subscripted with the first number indicating the row of the entry
and the second number indicating the column of the entry. The general
entry for the matrix is denoted by ܽ௜௝ . The matrix ‫ ܣ‬can be denoted by
ൣܽ௜௝ ൧.

Classification of Matrices
1. Square matrix
A matrix whose number of rows ݉ is equal to the number of
columns ݊.

66
2. Diagonal matrix
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix with all zero values except for
the ܽ௜௝ value for all ݅ = ݆.
1 0 0
൥0 3 0൩
0 0 6

3. Identity matrix
An identity matrix is a diagonal matrix with all non-zero entries equal
to 1.
1 0 0
൥0 1 0൩
0 0 1

4. Scalar matrix
A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix with all non-zero entries equal to
some other constant.
5 0 0
൥0 5 0൩
0 0 5
5. Triangular matrix
A triangular matrix has zeros in all positions above or below the
diagonal.

Operations of Matrices
1. Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose is an (݊ × ݉) matrix formed f rom the original (݉ × ݊)
matrix by taking the ݅ ௧௛ row and making it the ݅ ௧௛ column. The diagonal is
unchanged in this operation. The transpose of a matrix ‫ ܣ‬is symbolized by
‫ ்ܣ‬.

Example 1:
2 1
Determine the transpose of ‫ = ܣ‬ቂ ቃ.
െ4 3

67
 Solution:
2 െ4
‫ = ்ܣ‬ቂ ቃ
1 3
Example 2:
3 െ1 0
Determine the transpose of ‫ = ܣ‬൥െ4 1 െ2൩.
5 6 െ2
Solution:
3 െ4 5
‫ = ்ܣ‬൥െ1 1 6 ൩
0 െ2 െ2

2. The Cofactor of an Entry in a Matrix

The cofactor of an entry in a matrix is the determinant of the matrix
formed by omitting the entry’s row and column in the original matrix. The
sign of the cofactor is determined from the following positional matrices:
+ െ +
൥െ + െ൩
+ െ +
or the sign of the cofactor can be determined by the relation (െ1) ௜ା௝ , where
݅ is the row number and ݆ is the column number.
Example 1:
െ1 2 4
Find the cofactor of െ3 in the matrix ൥െ3 െ4 5൩.
2 6 3
Solution:
െ3 is at row 2, column 1. The resulting matrix is,

(െ1) ଶାଵ ቂ2 4
ቃ
6 3
The cofactor is:
2 4
െ1 ቚ ቚ = െ[(2)(3) െ (6)(4)] = 18
6 3

Example 2:
4 െ2 7
Find the cofactor of 5 in the matrix ൥െ1 5 1 ൩.
2 6 െ5

68
 Solution:
5 is at row 2, column 2. The resulting matrix is,

(െ1) ଶାଶ ቂ4 7

ቃ
2 െ5
The cofactor is:
4 7
1ቚ ቚ = (4)(െ5) െ (2)(7) = െ34
2 െ5

3. Classical Adjoint
The classical adjoint is a matrix formed f rom the transposed cofactor
matrix with the conventional sign arrangement. The resulting matrix is
represented as ‫ܣ‬௔ௗ௝ .

Example 1:
3 െ1 2
Determine the classical adjoint of the matrix ‫ = ܣ‬൥ 5 1 െ4൩.
െ3 4 6
Solution:
1 െ4
The cofactor of 3 is + ቚ ቚ = (1)(6) െ (4)(െ4) = 22
4 6
5 െ4ቚ
The cofactor of െ1 is െ ቚ = െ[(5)(6) െ (െ3)(െ4)] = െ18
െ3 6
5 1ቚ (5)(4) (െ3)(1)
The cofactor of 2 is + ቚ = െ = 23
െ3 4
െ1 2
The cofactor of 5 is െ ቚ ቚ = െ[(െ1)(6) െ (4)(2)] = 14
4 6
3 2
The cofactor of 1 is + ቚ ቚ = (3)(6) െ (െ3)(2) = 24
െ3 6
3 െ1
The cofactor of െ4 is െ ቚ ቚ = െ[(3)(4) െ (െ3)(െ1) = െ9
െ3 4
െ1 2
The cofactor of െ3 is + ቚ ቚ = (െ1)(െ4) െ (1)(2) = 2
1 െ4
3 2
The cofactor of 4 is െ ቚ ቚ = െ[3(െ4) െ (5)(2)] = 22
5 െ4
3 െ1
The cofactor of 6 is + ቚ ቚ = (3)(1) െ (5)(െ1) = 8
5 1
The matrix of the cofactors is,

69
 22 െ18 23
൥14 24 െ9൩
2 22 8
By taking the transpose of the above matrix, the classical
adjoint is,
22 14 2
‫ܣ‬௔ௗ௝ = ൥െ18 24 22൩
23 െ9 8
4. The Inverse Matrix
The inverse of a matrix ‫ ܣ‬is symbolized as ‫ିܣ‬ଵ and is given by,
࡭ࢇࢊ࢐
࡭ି૚ = |࡭|

where ‫ܣ‬௔ௗ௝ is the classical adjoint of the matrix ‫ܣ‬ and |‫|ܣ‬ is the
determinant of the matrix ‫ܣ‬.

Example 1:
3 െ1 2
Find the inverse of the matrix ‫ = ܣ‬൥ 5 1 െ4൩.
െ3 4 6
Solution:
The classical adjoint of the matrix ‫( ܣ‬from the previous
example) is
22 14 2
‫ܣ‬௔ௗ௝ = ൥െ18 24 22൩
23 െ9 8
The determinant of the matrix ‫ ܣ‬is
3 െ1 2 3 െ1
|‫ = |ܣ‬อ 5 1 െ4อ 5 1 อ
െ3 4 6 െ3 4
|‫( = |ܣ‬3)(1)(6) + (െ1)(െ4)(െ3) + (2)(5)(4) െ (െ3)(1)(2) െ
(4)(െ4)(3) െ (6)(5)(െ1)
|‫ = |ܣ‬130
The inverse of the matrix ‫ ܣ‬is,
ଵଵ ଻ ଵ
‫଺ ۍ‬ହ   ‫ې‬
ଶଶ ଵସ ଶ
൥ିଵ଼ ଶସ ଶଶ ൩ ଺ହ ଺ହ
ଶଷ ିଽ ଼ ‫ ێ‬ଽ ଵଶ ଵଵ‫ۑ‬
‫ିܣ‬ଵ = ଵଷ଴
= ‫ ێ‬െ ଺ହ 
଺ହ
 ‫ۑ‬
଺ହ
‫ ێ‬ଶଷ ଽ ସ‫ۑ‬
‫ۏ‬ଵଷ଴
െ
ଵଷ଴
 ‫ے‬
଺ହ

70
Example 2:
0 2 1
Find the inverse of the matrix ‫ = ܣ‬൥4 1 2൩.
6 2 4
Solution:
Starting from the first row:
1 2
The cofactor of 0 is + ቚ ቚ = (1)(4) െ (2)(2) = 0
2 4
4 2
The cofactor of 2 is െ ቚ ቚ = െ[(4)(4) െ (6)(2)] = െ4
6 4
4 1
The cofactor of 1 is + ቚ ቚ = (4)(2) െ (6)(1) = 2
6 2
2 1
The cofactor of 4 is െ ቚ ቚ = െ[(2)(4) െ (2)(1)] = െ6
2 4
0 1
The cofactor of 1 is + ቚ ቚ = (0)(4) െ (6)(1) = െ6
6 4
The cofactor of 2 is െ ቚ0 2
ቚ = െ[(0)(2) െ (6)(2)] = 12
6 2
2 1
The cofactor of 6 is + ቚ ቚ = (2)(2) െ (1)(1) = 3
1 2
0 1
The cofactor of 2 is െ ቚ ቚ = െ[(0)(2) െ (4)(1)] = 4
4 2
0 2
The cofactor of 4 is + ቚ ቚ = (0)(1) െ (4)(2) = െ8
4 1
The matrix of the cofactors is
0 െ4 2
൥െ6 െ6 12 ൩
3 4 െ8
The classical adjoint is,
0 െ6 3
‫ܣ‬௔ௗ௝ = ൥െ4 െ6 4 ൩
2 12 െ8
The determinant of is,
0 2 1 0 2
|‫ = |ܣ‬อ4 1 2อ 4 1อ
6 2 4 6 2
|‫( = |ܣ‬0)(1)(4) + (2)(2)(6) + (1)(4)(2) െ (6)(1)(1) െ
(2)(2)(0) െ (4)(4)(2)
|‫ = |ܣ‬െ6

71
The inverse of the matrix is,
଴ ି଺ ଷ
൥ିସ ି଺ ସ൩
ଶ ଵଶ ି଼
‫ିܣ‬ଵ =
ି଺
ଵ
‫ ۍ‬0 1 െ ଶ‫ې‬
‫ ێ‬ଶ ଶ‫ۑ‬
‫ିܣ‬ଵ = ‫ ێ‬ଷ 1 െ ଷ‫ۑ‬
‫ ێ‬ଵ ସ‫ۑ‬
‫ۏ‬െ ଷ െ2 ଷ ‫ے‬

72
Exer cise 4.1
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Solve the following problems.

െ1 2
1. Given ‫ = ܣ‬ቂ ቃ, find ‫ ்ܣ‬.
4 െ5

െ1 2
2. Given ‫ = ܣ‬ቂ ቃ, find ‫ܣ‬௔ௗ௝ .
4 െ5

െ1 2
3. Given ‫ = ܣ‬ቂ ቃ, find ‫ିܣ‬ଵ .
4 െ5

4 2 െ1
4. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥3 െ5 6 ൩, find the cofactor of െ5.
4 െ7 2

4 2 െ1
5. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥3 െ5 6 ൩, find the cofactor of െ1.
4 െ7 2

73
 4 2 െ1
6. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥3 െ5 6 ൩, find ‫ ்ܣ‬.
4 െ7 2

4 2 െ1
7. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥3 െ5 6 ൩, find ‫ܣ‬௔ௗ௝ .
4 െ7 2

4 2 െ1
8. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥3 െ5 6 ൩, find ‫ିܣ‬ଵ .
4 െ7 2

74
4.2 Algebraic Operations of Matr ix
1. Equality of Matrices
Two matrices are equal if they have the same number of rows and
columns and their corresponding entries are also equal.

2. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

Addition or subtraction of two matrices can be accomplished by
adding or subtracting the corresponding entries of two matrices which have
the same shape.
Example 1:
െ2 4 െ2 1 െ4 2
If ‫ = ܣ‬ቂ ቃ and ‫ = ܤ‬ቂ ቃ, find ‫ ܣ‬+ ‫ܤ‬.
4 0 െ3 3 5 7
Solution:
െ2 4 െ2 1 െ4 2 െ2 + 1 4 െ 4 െ2 + 2
‫ܣ‬+ ‫ = ܤ‬ቂ ቃ+ ቂ ቃ= ቂ ቃ
4 0 െ3 3 5 7 4 + 3 0 + 5 െ3 + 7
െ1 0 0
‫ܣ‬+ ‫ = ܤ‬ቂ ቃ
7 5 4
Example 2:
െ1 4 2 6 3 െ2
If ‫ = ܣ‬൥ 0 െ3 5൩ and ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 4 5 4 ൩, find ‫ ܣ‬+ ‫ܤ‬.
2 8 2 െ6 8 1
Solution:
െ1 4 2 6 3 െ2 െ1 + 6 4 + 3 2െ2
‫ ܣ‬+ ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 0 െ3 5൩ + ൥ 4 5 4 ൩ = ൥ 0 + 4 െ3 + 5 5 + 4൩
2 8 2 െ6 8 1 2 െ 6 8 + 8 2+ 1
5 7 0
‫ ܣ‬+ ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 4 2 9൩
െ4 16 3
Example 3:
െ2 5 10 െ1 0 2
If ‫ = ܣ‬൥ 4 െ3 2 ൩ and ‫ = ܤ‬൥െ4 2 െ4൩, find ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܤ‬.
െ5 െ4 1 5 6 െ3
Solution:
െ2 5 10 െ1 0 2
‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 4 െ3 2 ൩ െ ൥െ4 2 െ4൩
െ5 െ4 1 5 6 െ3

75
 െ2 െ (െ1) 5 െ 0 10 െ 2
= ቎ 4 െ (െ4) െ3 െ 2 2 െ (െ4) ቏
െ5 െ 5 െ4 െ 6 1 െ (െ3)
െ1 5 8
‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 8 െ5 6൩
െ10 െ10 4

3. Multiplication of Matrices
Multiplying a matrix by a scalar (real number) results in every entry in
the matrix being multiplied by the scalar.

Example 1:
െ2 3 െ4
Multiply ൥ 6 5 0 ൩ by െ2.
െ8 3 െ3
Solution:
െ2 3 െ4 (െ2)(െ2) (െ2)(3) (െ2)(െ4)
െ2 ൥ 6 5 0 ൩ = ቎ ( െ2)(6) (െ2)(5) (െ2)(0) ቏
െ8 3 െ3 (െ2)(െ8) (െ2)(3) (െ2)(െ3)
4 െ6 8
= ൥െ12 െ10 0൩
16 െ.6 6
Example 2:
4 െ6 5 5 െ4 െ3
Simplify 3 ൥െ2 െ2 െ3 ൩ െ 2 ൥െ2 െ1 5൩.
5 4 1 1 7 െ4
Solution:
4 െ6 5 5 െ4 െ3
3 ൥െ2 െ2 െ3 ൩ െ 2 ൥െ2 െ1 5൩
5 4 1 1 7 െ4
12 െ18 15 െ10 8 6
= ൥െ6 െ6 െ9൩ + ൥ 4 2 െ10൩
15 12 3 െ2 െ14 8
12 െ 10 െ18 + 8 15 + 6
= ൥ െ6 + 4 െ6 + 2 െ9 െ 10൩
15 െ 2 12 െ 14 3+ 8
2 െ10 21
= ൥െ2 െ4 െ19൩
13 െ2 11

76
 Multiplication of two matrices can be done only if the number of
columns of the left-hand matrix is equal to the number of rows of the right-
hand matrix. Multiplication is accomplished by multiplying the elements in
each right-hand matrix column, adding the products and then placing the
sum at the intersection point of the involved row and column.
Example 1:
െ2
ቃ and ‫ = ܤ‬ቂെ2
3 5
If ‫ = ܣ‬ቂ ቃ, find ‫ܤ × ܣ‬.
5 1 6 െ4
Solution:
3 െ2 െ2 5
‫ = ܤ ×ܣ‬ቂ ቃቂ ቃ
5 1 6 െ4
(3)(െ2) + (െ2)(6) (3)(5) + (െ2)(െ4)
‫ = ܤ ×ܣ‬൤ ൨
(5)( െ2) + (1)(6) (5)(5) + (1)(െ4)
െ18 23
‫ = ܤ ×ܣ‬ቂ ቃ
െ4 21
Example 2:
2
3 1 2
If ‫ = ܣ‬ቂ ቃ and ‫ = ܤ‬൥5൩, find ‫ܤ × ܣ‬.
4 െ2 3
1
Solution:
2
3 1 2
‫ = ܤ ×ܣ‬ቂ ቃ ൥5 ൩
4 െ2 3
1
(3)(2) + (1)(5) + (2)(1)
‫ = ܤ ×ܣ‬൤ ൨
(4)(2) + (െ2)(5) + (3)(1)
13
‫ = ܤ ×ܣ‬ቂ ቃ
1
Example 3:
െ1 3 2 2 6 1
If ‫ = ܣ‬൥ 5 0 െ2൩ and ‫ = ܤ‬൥െ5 4 െ2൩, find ‫ܤ × ܣ‬.
6 4 7 1 െ3 2
Solution:
െ1 3 2 2 6 1
‫ = ܤ × ܣ‬൥ 5 0 െ2൩ ൥െ5 4 െ2൩
6 4 7 1 െ3 2
‫=ܤ ×ܣ‬
(െ1)(2) + (3)(െ5) + (2)(1) (െ1)(6) + (3)(4) + (2)(െ3) (െ1)(1) + (3)(െ2) + (2)(2)
቎(5)(2) + (0)(െ5) + (െ2)(1) (5)(6) + (0)(4) + (െ2)(െ3) (5)(1) + (0)(െ2) + (െ2)(2) ቏
(6)(2) + (4)(െ5) + (7)(1) (6)(6) + (4)(4) + (7)(െ3) (6)(1) + (4)(െ2) + (7)(2)

77
 െ15 0 െ3
‫ = ܤ × ܣ‬൥ 8 36 1 ൩
െ1 31 12
4. Division of Matrices
Division of matrices can be accomplished only by multiplying the
inverse of the denominator matrix.
Example 1:
1 2 4 2 െ3 1
If ‫ = ܣ‬อ1 3 െ2อ and ‫ = ܤ‬อ0 4 2อ, find ‫ܣ‬/ ‫ܤ‬.
4 0 3 െ3 െ2 4
Solution:
‫ܣ‬/ ‫ିܤ × ܣ = ܤ‬ଵ
஻ೌ೏ೕ
Find for ‫ି ܤ‬ଵ . Since ‫ିܤ‬ଵ = |஻|

The classical adjoint of matrix ‫ ܤ‬is

20 10 െ10
‫ܤ‬௔ௗ௝ = อെ6 11 െ4 อ
12 13 8
The determinant of matrix ‫ ܤ‬is
|‫ = |ܤ‬70

Therefore,
ଶ ଵ ଵ
଻ ଻ െ଻
ଷ ଵଵ ଶ
‫ିܤ‬ଵ = ተተെ ଷହ ଻଴
െ ተተ
ଷହ
଺ ଵଷ ସ
 
ଷହ ଻଴ ଷହ

Then,
ଶ ଵ ଵ
଻ ଻ െ଻
1 2 4
ተ ଷ ଵଵ ଶ
‫ܣ‬/ ‫ିܤ × ܣ = ܤ‬ଵ = อ1 3 อ
െ2 ተ ଷହ× െ ଻଴
െ ଷହተተ
4 0 3 ଺ ଵଷ ସ
ଷହ ଻଴
ଷହ
ସ ଺ ଵ
  
ହ ହ ହ
ଵଵ ଵ଻ ଵଽ
‫ܣ‬/ ‫ = ܤ‬ተተെ ଷହ ଻଴
െ ተተ
ଷହ
ହ଼ ଻ଽ ଼
ଷହ ଻଴
െ ଷହ

78
Exer cise 4.2
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Solve the following matrices.

െ2 0 4 െ3 2 െ5
1. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥െ3 െ1 4൩ and ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 8 0 3 ൩, find ‫ ܣ‬+ ‫ܤ‬.
6 2 5 4 െ6 7

െ2 0 4 െ3 2 െ5
2. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥െ3 െ1 4൩ and ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 8 0 3 ൩, find ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܤ‬.
6 2 5 4 െ6 7

െ2 0 4 െ3 2 െ5
3. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥െ3 െ1 4൩ and ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 8 0 3 ൩, find ‫ ܣ‬െ 4‫ܤ‬
6 2 5 4 െ6 7

െ2 0 4 െ3 2 െ5
4. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥െ3 െ1 4൩ and ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 8 0 3 ൩, find െ2‫ ܣ‬+ 3‫ܤ‬.
6 2 5 4 െ6 7

െ2 0 4 െ3 2 െ5
5. Given ‫ = ܣ‬൥െ3 െ1 4൩ and ‫ = ܤ‬൥ 8 0 3 ൩, find ‫ܤ × ܣ‬.
6 2 5 4 െ6 7

79
 െ3 2 4 3
6. Multiply ൥ 5 2 0൩ × ൥െ4൩.
െ1 1 3 2

4 െ10 12 1 െ4

7. Multiply ൥െ2 0 8 ൩ × ൥ 3 െ2൩.
5 െ6 7 െ5 1

െ2 3 6 2 3 െ1
8. Divide อ 1 0 4อ by อ 0 4 െ5อ.
5 െ4 3 െ2 6 6

80
4.3 Solutions of Linear Systems using Inver se of a Matr ix
In the following example we show how the inverse of a matrix is used
to solve a system of linear equations.

Example 1:
5‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ = ݕ‬6
Solve the following system of equations ൜ .
െ2‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ = ݕ‬12
Solution:
If
5 3
‫ =ܣ‬ቂ ቃ
െ2 െ3
Then, in matrix form, the system is,
‫ݔ‬ 6
‫ ܣ‬ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ = ቂ ቃ
12
Multiply both sides of the equation by ‫ିܣ‬ଵ , thus,
‫ݔ‬ 6
ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ = ‫ିܣ‬ଵ ቂ ቃ
12
Then solve for ‫ିܣ‬ଵ , since,
஺ೌ೏ೕ
‫ିܣ‬ଵ = |஺|

Solve for the classical adjoint.

The cofactor of 5 is + |െ3| = െ3
The cofactor of 3 is െ|െ2| = 2
The cofactor of െ2 is െ|3| = െ3
The cofactor of െ3 is |5| = 5
The matrix of the cofactors is,
െ3 2
ቂ ቃ
െ3 5
By taking the transpose of the above matrix, the classical
adjoint is,
െ3 െ3
‫ܣ‬௔ௗ௝ = ቂ ቃ
2 5
The determinant of ‫ ܣ‬is,

|‫ = |ܣ‬ቚ 5 3

ቚ = (5)(െ3) െ (െ2)(3) = െ9
െ2 െ3

81
 Therefore,
஺ೌ೏ೕ
‫ିܣ‬ଵ = |஺|
ିଷ ିଷ
ቂ ቃ
ଶ ହ
‫ିܣ‬ଵ =
ିଽ
ଵ ଵ
 ଷ
‫ିܣ‬ଵ = ቎ ଷଶ ହ቏
െ െ
ଽ ଽ
Then,
‫ݔ‬ 6
ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ = ‫ିܣ‬ଵ ቂ ቃ
12
ଵ ଵ
‫ݔ‬   6
ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ = ቎ ଷଶ ଷ
ହ቏
ቂ ቃ
െ ଽ െ ଽ 12
ଵ ଵ
‫ݔ‬ ቀ ቁ (6) + ቀ ቁ (12)
ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ = ቎ ଶଷ ଷ
ହ
቏
ቀെ ቁ (6) + ቀെ ቁ (12)
ଽ ଽ
‫ݔ‬ 6
ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ = ቂ ቃ
െ8
The values are ‫ = ݔ‬6 and ‫ = ݕ‬െ8.

Example 2:
െ2‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݕ‬+ 5‫ = ݖ‬െ5
Solve the following system of equations ൝ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 6‫ ݕ‬െ 2‫ = ݖ‬െ4 .
െ‫ ݔ‬+ 6‫ ݕ‬െ 2‫ = ݖ‬8
Solution:
If
െ2 െ3 5
‫ = ܣ‬൥ 2 െ6 െ2൩
െ1 6 െ2
Then, in matrix form, the system is,
‫ݔ‬ െ5
‫ ܣ‬ቈ‫ݕ‬቉ = ൥െ4൩
‫ݖ‬ 8
Multiply both sides of the equation by ‫ିܣ‬ଵ , thus,
‫ݔ‬ െ5
ቈ‫ ݕ‬቉ = ‫ିܣ‬ଵ ൥െ4൩
‫ݖ‬ 8
Then solve for ‫ିܣ‬ଵ , since,
஺ೌ೏ೕ
‫ିܣ‬ଵ = |஺|

82
 Solve for the classical adjoint, starting from the first row:
െ6 െ2
The cofactor of െ2 is + ቚ ቚ = (െ6)(െ2) െ (6)(െ2) = 24
6 െ2
2 െ2
The cofactor of െ3 is െ ቚ ቚ = െ[(2)(െ2) െ (െ1)(െ2)] = 6
െ1 െ2
2 െ6
The cofactor of 5 is + ቚ ቚ = (2)(6) െ (െ1)(െ6) = 6
െ1 6
െ3 5 ቚ
The cofactor of 2 is െ ቚ = െ[(െ3)(െ2) െ (6)(5)] = 24
6 െ2
െ2 5 ቚ (െ2)(െ2) (െ1)(5)
The cofactor of െ6 is + ቚ = െ = 9
െ1 െ2
െ2 െ3
The cofactor of െ2 is െ ቚ ቚ = െ[(െ2)(6) െ (െ1)(െ3)] = 15
െ1 6
െ3 5 ቚ (െ3)(െ2) (െ6)(5)
The cofactor of െ1 is + ቚ = െ = 36
െ6 െ2
െ2 5 ቚ
The cofactor of 6 is െ ቚ = െ[(െ2)(െ2) െ (2)(5)] = 6
2 െ2
െ2 െ3
The cofactor of െ2 is + ቚ ቚ = (െ2)(െ6) + (2)(െ3) = 18
2 െ6
The matrix of the cofactors is,
24 6 6
൥24 9 15൩
36 6 18
By taking the transpose of the above matrix, the classical
adjoint is,
24 24 36
‫ܣ‬௔ௗ௝ = ൥ 6 9 6 ൩
6 15 18
The determinant of ‫ ܣ‬is,
െ2 െ3 5 െ2 െ3
|‫ = |ܣ‬อ 2 െ6 െ2อ 2 െ6อ
െ1 6 െ2 െ1 6
|‫( = |ܣ‬െ2)(െ6)(െ2) + (െ3)(െ2)(െ1) + (5)(2)(6) െ
(െ1)(െ6)(5) െ (6)(െ2)(െ2) െ (െ2)(2)(െ3)
|‫ = |ܣ‬െ36
Therefore,
஺ೌ೏ೕ
‫ିܣ‬ଵ = |஺|
ଶସ ଶସ ଷ଺
൥ ଺ ଽ ଺ ൩
଺ ଵହ ଵ଼
‫ିܣ‬ଵ =
ିଷ଺

83
 ଶ ଶ
‫ۍ‬െ ଷ െ ଷ െ1‫ې‬
ିଵ ‫ ێ‬ଵ ଵ ଵ‫ۑ‬
‫ܣ‬ = ‫ێ‬െ ଺ െ ସ െ ଺‫ۑ‬
‫ ێ‬ଵ ହ ଵ‫ۑ‬
‫ۏ‬െ ଺ െ ଵଶ െ ‫ے‬
ଶ

Then,
‫ݔ‬ െ5
ቈ‫ ݕ‬቉ = ‫ିܣ‬ଵ ൥െ4൩
‫ݖ‬ 8
ଶ ଶ
‫ݔ‬ ‫ۍ‬െ ଷ െ ଷ െ1‫ې‬
െ5
‫ ێ‬ଵ ଵ ଵ‫ۑ‬
ቈ‫ ݕ‬቉ = ‫ێ‬െ ଺ െ ସ െ ‫ ۑ‬൥െ4൩
଺
‫ݖ‬ ‫ ێ‬ଵ ହ ଵ‫ ۑ‬8
‫ۏ‬െ ଺ െ ଵଶ െ ‫ے‬
ଶ
ଶ ଶ
‫ݔ‬ ‫ ۍ‬ቀെ ଷቁ (െ5) + ቀെ ଷቁ (െ4) + (െ1)(8) ‫ې‬
‫ێ‬ ଵ ଵ ଵ ‫ۑ‬
ቈ‫ ݕ‬቉ = ‫ ێ‬ቀെ ଺ቁ (െ5) + ቀെ ସቁ (െ4) + ቀെ ଺ቁ (8) ‫ۑ‬
‫ݖ‬ ‫ ێ‬ଵ ହ ଵ ‫ۑ‬
‫ۏ‬ቀെ ଺ቁ (െ5) + ቀെ ଵଶቁ (െ4) + ቀെ ଶቁ (8) ‫ے‬
െ2
‫ݔ‬ ଵ
ቈ‫ ݕ‬቉ = ൦ ଶ ൪
‫ݖ‬ ଷ
െଶ
ଵ ଷ
The values are ‫ = ݔ‬െ2,‫= ݕ‬ and ‫ = ݖ‬െ ଶ.
ଶ

84
Exer cise 4.3
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Solve the following systems of linear equations.

1. 2‫ ݔ‬െ 6‫ = ݕ‬െ3
3‫ ݔ‬+ 12‫ = ݕ‬െ8

2. 2‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ‬4
െ5‫ ݔ‬െ 6‫ = ݕ‬4

3. 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ = ݕ‬6
െ‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ = ݕ‬െ5

85
‫‪ = 6‬ݕ‪ െ 3‬ݔ‪4. 7‬‬
‫‪ = െ2‬ݕ‪ െ 8‬ݔ‪4‬‬

‫‪ = െ7‬ݖ‪ െ 6‬ݕ‪ െ 3‬ݔ‪5. 4‬‬

‫‪ = 7‬ݖ‪ + 3‬ݕ ‪ +‬ݔ‪െ‬‬
‫‪ = 19‬ݖ‪ െ 2‬ݕ‪ െ 5‬ݔ‪6‬‬

‫‪ = െ3‬ݖ‪ െ 10‬ݕ‪ െ 4‬ݔ‪6. 3‬‬

‫‪ = 3‬ݖ‪ െ 15‬ݕ‪ + 8‬ݔ‪6‬‬
‫‪ = 7‬ݖ‪ + 5‬ݕ‪ + 10‬ݔ‪3‬‬

‫‪86‬‬
‫‪ = െ5‬ݖ‪ + 4‬ݕ‪ െ 6‬ݔ‪7. 3‬‬
‫‪ = 3‬ݖ‪ + 4‬ݕ‪ െ 3‬ݔ‪െ‬‬
‫‪ = 8‬ݖ‪ െ 8‬ݕ‪ െ 10‬ݔ‪െ5‬‬

‫‪ = െ10‬ݖ ‪ െ‬ݕ‪ െ 4‬ݔ‪8. 2‬‬

‫‪ = െ2‬ݖ‪ + 5‬ݕ‪ െ 2‬ݔ‪4‬‬
‫‪ = 7‬ݖ‪ െ 4‬ݕ ‪ െ‬ݔ‬

‫‪87‬‬
88
 Chapter 5
SEQUENCESAND
SERIES
Outline:
5.1 Sequence
5.2 Arithmetic Progression
5.3 Geometric Progression
5.4 Harmonic Progression
5.5 Summation Notation
5.6 Related Sequence

Overview:
This chapter begins with the introduction to sequence and series.
Types of sequence or progressions are covered which include
arithmetic pr ogression, geometric progression and har monic
progression. Topics on summation notation are also covered. Also,
related sequences are included.

Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Differentiate sequence and series.
2. Define arithmetic pr ogression.
3. Solve problems on arithmetic pr ogression.
4. Define geometric pr ogression.
5. Solve problems on geometric pr ogression.
6. Define har monic progression.
7. Solve problems on har monic progression.
8. Define summation notation.
9. Evaluate summation notation.
10. Identify the different types of related sequences.

89
5.1 Sequence
A sequence is a set or collection of numbers arranged in an orderly
manner such that the preceding and the following numbers are completely
specified while series is the sum of the terms in a sequence. Progression is
another term for a sequence.

Elements are the term used to describe the numbers in a given

sequence. An element is sometimes called a term.

An Infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive

integer. If the domain of the function consists of the first ݊ positive
integers only, then it is said to be a finite sequence.

Examples of a finite sequence:

1. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10
2. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
Examples of an infinite sequence:
1. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + ‫ڮ‬
2. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ‫ڮ‬

5.2 Ar ithmetic Progr ession

Arithmetic progression is a sequence in which the succeeding terms
have a common difference. The corresponding sum of all the terms in
arithmetic progression is called arithmetic series.

Formulas:
Last term (nth term):
ࢇ࢔ = ࢇ૚ + (࢔ െ ૚)ࢊ or ࢇ࢔ = ࢇ࢓ + (࢔ െ ࢓)ࢊ

Sum of all terms:

࢔ ࢔
ࡿ= (ࢇ૚ + ࢇ࢔ ) or ࡿ = [૛ࢇ૚ + (࢔ െ ૚)ࢊ]
૛ ૛

90
where,
ܽଵ = first term
ܽ௡ = last term (nth term)
ܽ௠ = any term before ܽ௡
݊ = number of terms
݀ = common difference
݀ = ܽଶ െ ܽଵ = ܽଷ െ ܽଶ = ‫ڮ‬

Example 1:
Find the 12௧௛ term of the arithmetic progression 5,11,17,..
Solution:
The common difference ݀ = 17 െ 11 = 11 െ 5 = 6.
ܽ௡ = ܽଵ + (݊ െ 1)݀
ܽଵଶ = 5 + (12 െ 1)(6)
ܽଵଶ = 71

Example 2:
What is the sum of the sequence f rom 1 to 100?
Solution:
The sequence is 1,2,3,…100. The common difference is ݀ = 1,
thus,
௡
ܵ= (ܽଵ + ܽ௡ )
ଶ
ଵ଴଴
ܵ= (1 + 100)
ଶ

ܵ = 5,050

Example 3:
How many terms of the sequence 8,13,18,… must be taken so that the
sum is 1,700?
Solution:
The common difference ݀ = 18 െ 13 = 13 െ 8 = 5,
௡
ܵ= [2ܽଵ + (݊ െ 1)݀ ]
ଶ

91
 ௡
1,700 = [ 2( 8) + ( ݊ െ 1)(5)]
ଶ

2(1,700) = ݊(16 + 5݊ െ 5)
3,400 = ݊(5݊ + 11)
3,400 = 5݊ଶ + 11݊
5݊ଶ + 11݊ െ 3,400 = 0
(݊ െ 25)(5݊ + 136) = 0
݊ = 25

Example 4:
଻
The fifth and the eight terms of an arithmetic progression are ଷ
and
ଶଷ
଺
respectively, determine the first term of the progression. What is the

sum of the first eight terms?

Solution:
First is to determine the common difference,
ܽ௡ = ܽ௠ + (݊ െ ݉)݀
ଶଷ ଻
଺
= ଷ
+ (8 െ 5)݀
ଷ
ଶ
= 3݀
ଵ
݀= ଶ

The first term is,

ܽ௡ = ܽଵ + (݊ െ 1)݀
ଶଷ ଵ
= ܽଵ + (8 െ 1) ቀ ቁ
଺ ଶ
ଵ
ܽଵ =
ଷ

The sum of the first eight terms is,

௡
ܵ= (ܽଵ + ܽ௡ )
ଶ
଼ ଵ ଶଷ
ܵ= ቀ + ቁ
ଶ ଷ ଺
ହ଴
ܵ=
ଷ

92
Exer cise 5.1
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Solve the following problems.

1. Find the 20௧௛ term of the progression 8,14,20,…

ଶ ଻ ହ
2. Find the 35௧௛ term of the progression , , ,…
ଷ ଺ ଷ

3. Find the sum of the first 8௧௛ terms of the progression 5,9,13,…

93
4. Find the sum of all even integers between 1 and 100.

5. Find the sum of all the odd integers between 1 and 100.

6. Given the progression 6,11,16,… , find the number of terms in which the
sum is 2,355.

7. The 8௧௛ term of an arithmetic progression is 65 and the 13௧௛ term is

105. What is the 18௧௛ term of the progression?

94
8. The 10௧௛ term of an arithmetic progression is 8, what is the sum of the
ଵ
first ten terms if the common difference is ଷ?

9. What is the first term of an arithmetic progression if the sum of the first
ଵ
12 terms is 94 with a common difference of ଷ ?

10. The 3௥ௗ term of an arithmetic progression is 25 and the 25௧௛ term is
135, what is the sum of the first 30 terms?

95
96
5.3 Geometr ic Pr ogression
Geometric Progression is a sequence in which the succeeding terms
have a common ratio. The corresponding sum of all the terms in geometric
progression is called geometric series.

Formulas:
Last term (nth term):
ࢇ࢔ = ࢇ૚ ࢘࢔ି૚

Sum of all terms:

ࢇ૚ (࢘࢔ ି૚)
ࡿ= ࢘ି૚
when ‫ > ݎ‬1 or
ࢇ૚ (૚ି࢘࢔ )
ࡿ= when ‫ < ݎ‬1
૚ି࢘

Other derived relations:

ࢇ࢔ ࢘ିࢇ૚
ࡿ= ࢘ି૚
when ‫ > ݎ‬1 or
ࢇ૚ ିࢇ࢔ ࢘
ࡿ= when ‫ < ݎ‬1
૚ି࢘

where,
ܽଵ = first term
ܽ௡ = last term (nth term)
݊ = number of terms
‫ = ݎ‬common ratio
௔మ ௔య
‫=ݎ‬ ௔భ
= ௔మ
= ‫ڮ‬

Example 1:
Find the 10௧௛ term of the geometric progression 5,20,80,…
Solution:
଼଴ ଶ଴
The common ratio ‫= ݎ‬ = = 4.
ଶ଴ ହ

ܽ௡ = ܽଵ ‫ ݎ‬௡ିଵ
ܽଵ଴ = 5(4) ଵ଴ିଵ
ܽଵ଴ = 1,310,720

97
Example 2:
ଵ ଵ ଵ
What is the sum of the first five terms of the sequence , , ,…
ଷ ଺ ଵଶ

Solution:
The sequence is geometric progression and has the common
ଵ/ ଵଶ ଵ/ ଺ ଵ
ratio ‫= ݎ‬ = = .
ଵ/ ଺ ଵ/ ଷ ଶ

௔భ (ଵି௥ ೙ )
ܵ=
ଵି௥
భ భ ఱ
൤ଵିቀ ቁ ൨
య మ
ܵ= భ
ଵିቀ ቁ
మ

ଷଵ
ܵ=
ସ଼

Example 3:
The first and last term of a geometric progression is 3 and 768
respectively and the sum of all the terms is 1,023. What is the common
ratio? Find the number of terms.
Solution:
For the common ratio,
௔೙ ௥ି௔భ
ܵ= ௥ିଵ
଻଺଼௥ିଷ
1,023 = ௥ିଵ

1,023‫ ݎ‬െ 1,023 = 768‫ ݎ‬െ 3

1,023‫ ݎ‬െ 768‫ = ݎ‬െ3 + 1,023
255‫ = ݎ‬1,020
‫ =ݎ‬4
For the number of terms,
ܽ௡ = ܽଵ ‫ ݎ‬௡ିଵ
768 = 3(4) ௡ିଵ
଻଺଼
= 4௡ିଵ
ଷ

256 = 4௡ିଵ
Taking the logarithm of both sides,
log(256) = log4௡ିଵ
log(256) = (݊ െ 1) log4

98
 ୪୭୥ ଶହ଺
݊െ1 =
୪୭୥ ସ

݊െ1 = 4
݊= 5

Infinite Geometric Progression is a type of progression that is

geometric progression only that the number of terms is extremely large or
is infinite.
If ‫ > ݎ‬1, the sum of all terms is infinite.
If ‫ < ݎ‬1, the sum of all terms is
ࢇ૚
ࡿ=
૚ି࢘

where ܽଵ = first term and ‫ = ݎ‬common ratio.

Example 1:
The first term of an infinite geometric progression is 20. What is the
common ratio if the sum of the progression is 25?
Solution:
௔భ
ܵ=
ଵି௥
ଶ଴
25 =
ଵି௥

25 െ 25‫ = ݎ‬20
25‫ = ݎ‬25 െ 20
25‫ = ݎ‬5
ଵ
‫=ݎ‬ = 0.2
ହ

Example 2:
ଵ ଵ
Find the sum of the infinite geometric progression 2,െ , , …
ଶ ଼

Solution:
The common ratio is,
ଵ/ ଼ ିଵ/ ଶ ଵ
‫=ݎ‬ = = െ
ିଵ/ ଶ ଶ ସ

The sum is,

௔భ
ܵ=
ଵି௥
ଶ ଼
ܵ= భ =
ଵିቀି ቁ ହ
ర

99
100
Exer cise 5.2
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Solve the following problems.

1. Find the 7௧௛ term of the progression 4,24,144,…

2. Find the sum of the first ten terms of the progression 4,12,36,…

3. The common ratio of a geometric progression is 3. If the first term of the

progression is 9, how many terms is the progression if the sum is 3,276?

101
4. The first and last term of a geometric progression is 2 and 4,374
respectively and the sum of all the terms is 6,560. What is the common
ratio?

5. The common ratio of a geometric progression is 5. If the first term of the

progression is 2, what is the last term if the sum is 39,062?

6. What is the first term of an infinite geometric progression if the sum is

ଵ
10 and the common ration is ?
ହ

102
 ଵ ଵ ଵ ଵ
7. What is the sum of the geometric series + + + + ‫?ڮ‬
ଶ ଵଶ ଻ଶ ସଷଶ

ଵ ଵ ଵ
8. What is the sum of the infinite geometric series ,
ଷ ଵ଼ ଵ଴଼
, ,…?

103
104
5.4 Harmonic Progr ession
Harmonic Progression is a sequence of numbers whose reciprocals
form an arithmetic progression. For this problem, it is easier to convert all
the given terms into arithmetic sequence by getting its reciprocals. Use the
formulas in arithmetic sequence and take the reciprocal of resulting value
to obtain the equivalent harmonic term for an answer.

Example 1:
ଵ ଵ ଵ
Find the 15௧௛ term of the progression , , ,…
ଷ ଻ ଵଵ

Solution:
The reciprocals of the terms are,
3,7,11,..
The common difference is ݀ = 4,
By using the formula for an arithmetic progression,
ܽ௡ = ܽଵ + (݊ െ 1)݀
ܽଵହ = 3 + (15 െ 1)(4)
ܽଵହ = 59
Thus, taking the reciprocal, the 15௧௛ term is,
ଵ
ܽଵହ =
ହଽ

Example 2:
ଵ ଷ ଷ
Find the 8௧௛ term of the progression , , ,…
ଶ ଻ ଼

Solution:
The reciprocals of the terms are,
଻ ଼
2, ଷ , ଷ ,…

and it forms an arithmetic progression with a common difference of

ଵ
݀= .
ଷ

By the formula,
ܽ௡ = ܽଵ + (݊ െ 1)݀
ଵ
଼ܽ = 2 + (8 െ 1) ቀ ቁ
ଷ

105
 ଵଷ
଼ܽ =
ଷ

Thus, taking the reciprocal, the 8௧௛ term is,

ଷ
଼ܽ = ଵଷ

Example 3:
ଵ ଺ ଷ ଵ
In the series , , , .. what term is the element ?
ହ ଷଵ ଵ଺ ଻

Solution:
The reciprocals of the terms are,
ଷଵ ଵ଺
5, , , …,7
଺ ଷ

and it forms an arithmetic progression with a common difference of

ଵ
݀= .
଺

By the formula,
ܽ௡ = ܽଵ + (݊ െ 1)݀
ଵ
7 = 5 + (݊ െ 1) ቀ ቁ
଺
ଵ
2= (݊ െ 1)
଺

12 = ݊ െ 1
݊ = 13
ଵ
The element ଻
is the 13௧௛ term of the sequence.

106
Exer cise 5.3
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Solve the following problems.

ଵ ଵ ଵ
1. Find the 10௧௛ term of the progression , ,
଺ ଽ ଵଶ
,…

ଵ ହ ହ
2. Find the 7௧௛ term of the progression ,
ହ ଶ଺ ଶ଻
, ,…

ଷ
3. The 6௧௛ term of a harmonic progression is , what is the 3௥ௗ term if
ସ
the first term is 3?

107
 ଵ ଶ ଵ ଵ
4. In the series , , , … what term is the element ?
଺ ଵଷ ଻ ଽ

5. The first and the eighth term of an harmonic progression are 8 and 1
respectively, what is the 32௧௛ term?

108
5.5 Summation Notation
Summation notation is a technique developed to reduce the work of
writing out sums. Summation notation use the Greek letter ȭ, capital sigma.

Consider the sum,

‫ݑ‬ଵ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ݑ‬ଷ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ‫ݑ‬௡

can be written as,

σ௡௜ୀଵ ‫ݑ‬௜

The symbol is read, “the sum from ݅ = 1 to ݊ of ‫ ݑ‬sub ݅”, where, ݅

is called the index of summation, ݊ is the upper limit of summation and 1
is the lower limit of summation.

For example,
௜ ଴ ଵ ଶ ଷ ସ ହ
σହ௜ୀ଴ = + + + + + = 3.55
ଵା௜ ଵା଴ ଵାଵ ଵାଶ ଵାଷ ଵାସ ଵାହ

σ଺௜ୀଶ ݅ ଶ௜ = 2ଶ(ଶ) + 3ଶ(ଷ) + 4ଶ(ସ) + 5ଶ(ହ) + 6ଶ(଺) = 2,186,614,242

σ௡௜ୀଵ(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬௜ = (‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ଵ + (‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ଶ + (‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ଷ + ‫ ڮ‬+ (‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬௡

Properties:
1. σ௡௜ୀଵ ܿ ܽ௜ = ܿ σ௡௜ୀଵ ܽ௜
2. σ௡௜ୀଵ(ܽ௜ + ܾ௜ ) = σ௡௜ୀଵ ܽ௜ + σ௡௜ୀଵ ܾ௜

Summation Formulas:
1. σ௡௜ୀଵ ܿ = ݊ܿ , where ܿ is constant
௡(௡ାଵ)
2. σ௡௜ୀଵ ݅ =
ଶ
௡(௡ାଵ) (ଶ௡ାଵ)
3. σ௡௜ୀଵ ݅ ଶ = ଺
௡ మ(௡ାଵ) మ
4. σ௡௜ୀଵ ݅ ଷ =
ସ

109
Example 1:
Evaluate σହ௜ୀଵ(6݅ + 5) .
Solution:
σହ௜ୀଵ(6݅ + 5) = 6 σହ௜ୀଵ ݅ + σହ௜ୀଵ 5
ହ(ହାଵ)
= 6ቂ ଶ
ቃ + 5(5)

= 115
Example 2:
Evaluate σଶ଴ ଷ
௜ୀଵ 3݅ .

Solution:
σଶ଴ ଷ ଶ଴ ଷ
௜ୀଵ 3݅ = 3 σ௜ୀଵ ݅
(ଶ଴) మ (ଶ଴ାଵ) మ
= 3ቂ ସ
ቃ

= 132,300

Example 3:
ଷ
Evaluate σଵ଴
௜ୀଵ 5݅ ቀ݅ + ቁ.௜

Solution:
ଷ
σଵ଴ ଵ଴ ଶ
௜ୀଵ 5݅ ቀ݅ + ௜ ቁ = σ௜ୀଵ(5݅ + 15)

= 5 σଵ଴ ଶ ଵ଴
௜ୀଵ ݅ + σ௜ୀଵ 15
[ଵ଴][ଵ଴ାଵ][ଶ(ଵ଴) ାଵ]
= 5ቄ ቅ + 15(10)
଺

= 2,075

Example 4:
Evaluate σ଻௜ୀଵ(݅ + 1) ଷ .
Solution:
σ଻௜ୀଵ(݅ + 1) ଷ = σ଻௜ୀଵ( ݅ ଷ + 3݅ ଶ + 3݅ + 1)
= σ଻௜ୀଵ ݅ ଷ + 3 σ଻௜ୀଵ ݅ ଶ + 3 σ଻௜ୀଵ ݅ + σ଻௜ୀଵ 1
(଻) మ (଻ାଵ) మ [଻][଻ାଵ][ଶ(଻)ାଵ] ଻(଻ାଵ)
= ቂ ସ
ቃ + 3ቄ
଺
ቅ + 3ቂ
ଶ
ቃ + 7(1)

= 1,295

110
Example 5:
Write the sum of 1ଶ + 2ସ + 3଺ + ‫ ڮ‬+ 10ଶ଴ in summation notation.

Solution:
2݅
1ଶ + 2ସ + 3଺ + ‫ ڮ‬+ 10ଶ଴ = σ10
݅= 1 ݅

Example 6:
ଵ ଶ ଶ ଷ ଷ ସ ହ଴ ହଵ
Write the sum of ቀ ቁ + ቀ ቁ + ቀ ቁ + ‫ڮ‬+ ቀ ቁ in summation
ଷ ସ ହ ହଶ

notation.
Solution:
ଵ ଶ ଶ ଷ ଷ ସ ହ଴ ହଵ ௜ ௜ାଵ
ቀଷቁ + ቀସቁ + ቀହቁ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ቀହଶቁ = σହ଴
௜ୀଵ ቀ௜ାଶቁ

111
112
Exer cise 5.4
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Evaluate the following summation notation.

1. σହ௜ୀ௜ 3݅ ଷ

2. σଶ଴ ଶ
௜ୀଵ(3݅ െ 5)

3. σଷ௜ୀଵ ݅ ଶ (3݅ + 6)

113
4. σଵହ ଷ ଶ
௜ୀଵ(3݅ + 5݅ )

5. σ଻௜ୀଵ(2݅ െ 5)(3݅ + 7)

II. Write the sum of the following in the summation notation.

1. 5ଵ + 5ଶ + 5ଷ + ‫ ڮ‬+ 5ଵ଴଴

114
 ଵ ଶ ଷ ଵ଴଴
2. + + + ‫ڮ‬+
ଶ ଷ ସ ଵ଴ଵ

3. 1ଶ + 2ଷ + 3ସ + ‫ ڮ‬+ 50ହଵ

4. 2ଶ + 3ଶ + 4ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬+ 12ଶ

ଵ ଶ ଷ ଶ଴
5.
௫మ
+ ௫య
+ ௫ర
+ ‫ڮ‬+ ௫ మభ

115
116
5.6 Related Sequences
1. Fibonacci Numbers
It is named after the Italian merchant and mathematician, Leonardo
di Pisa or Fibonacci (Figlio dei Bonacci, “Son of the Bonnaccis”)
૚,૚, ૛,૜, ૞,ૡ, ૚૜,૛૚, ૜૝,૞૞, ૡૢ,૚૝૝,…
Each number is equal to the sum of the two preceding numbers.
2. Lucas Sequence
It is named after Edouard Lucas (1841-1891). Like Fibonacci
numbers, every term of the Lucas sequence is the sum of the two preceding
numbers.
૚,૜, ૝,ૠ, ૚૚,૚ૡ, ૛ૢ,૝ૠ, ૠ૟,૚૛૜,…
3. Figurate Numbers
A. Triangular numbers: Numbers which can be drawn as dots and
arranged in triangular shape.

1 3 6 10 15 21

B. Square numbers: Numbers which can be drawn dots and arranged

in square shape.

1 4 9 16 25 36

C. Gnomons: Numbers which can be drawn as dots on equally long

legs of a right angle.

1 3 5 7 9 11

117
 D. Oblong numbers: Numbers which can be drawn as dots and
arranged in a rectangular shape.

2 6

12 20 30

E. Pentagonal numbers:

1 5 12 22 35

F. Cubic numbers:

1 8 27 64

G. Tetrahedral numbers

1 4 10 20

118
 H. Square pyramidal numbers

1 5 14 30

I. Supertetrahedral numbers: By pilling up tetrahedral numbers,

1,4,10,20,35,56, etc., we make four-dimensional numbers
1,5,15,35,70,…
1 = 1
1+ 4 = 5
1 + 4 + 10 = 15
1 + 4 + 10 + 20 = 35
1 + 4 + 10 + 20 + 35 = 70

119
120
 Chapter 6
COMBINATORIAL
MATHEMATICS
Outline:
6.1 Fundamental Principle of Counting
6.2 Factorial Notation
6.3 Permutation
6.4 Combination
6.5 Binomial Theorem
6.6 Pascal’s Triangle
6.7 Mathematical Induction

Overview:
This chapter covers topics on the general counting procedures as
well as per mutations and combinations. Binomial expansions using the
binomial theorem and Pascal’s triangle are also covered. Mathematical
induction is also presented that is very useful technique in proving
for mulas.

Objectives:

Upon completion of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Explain the fundamental principle of counting.
2. Define factorial notation.
3. Define per mutation and solve problems.
4. Define combination and solve problems.
5. Expand binomials using the binomial theorem.
6. Expand binomials using the Pascal’s triangle.
7. Define mathematical induction.
8. Prove for mulas and inequalities using mathematical
induction.

121
6.1 Fundamental Pr inciple of Counting
“If an event can be done in ࢓ different ways and another event
can be done in ࢔ different ways, then both events can be done in ࢓
times ࢔ different ways”.

Example 1:
There are 40 computers in a computer center. Each computer has 30
ports. How many different ports to a computer in the center are there?
Solution:
The number of ports are
40(30) = 1,200 ports

Example 2:
There are 10 gates providing access to a school. In how many ways
can a person enter the school by one gate and leave by a different gate?
Solution:
Entering the school can be done by choosing in any one of the
ten gates and then leaving the school can be done by selecting from
among the remaining nine gates, theref ore, the number of ways that a
person can enter the school by one gate and leave by a different gate
is,
10(9) = 90 ways

6.2 Factor ial Notation

The product of the first ݊ positive integers can be written as ݊!,
read as “ ݊ factorial”, thus,
࢔! = ࢔(࢔ െ ૚)(࢔ െ ૛) …(૜)(૛)(૚)
Since
݊! = ݊(݊ െ 1)(݊ െ 2) …(3)(2)(1)
and

122
 (݊ െ 1)! = (݊ െ 1)(݊ െ 2) …(3)(2)(1)
therefore,
݊! = ݊(݊ െ 1)!
If ݊ = 1,
1! = 1(1 െ 1)!
1! = 1(0)!
Thus, we define,
૙! = ૚
Examples:
1. 1! = 1
2. 2! = (2)(1) = 2
3. 3! = (3)(2)(1) = 6
4. 4! = (4)(3)(2)(1) = 24

123
124
Exer cise 6.1
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Solve the following problems.

1. A factory building has 5 entrance doors. In how many ways can a
person enter and leave by any door?

2. A student has a choice of 8 mathematics and 7 sciences. In how many

ways can he choose 1 mathematics and 1 science?

3. A man has 4 jackets, 9 shirts and 6 pants. If an outfit consists of a

jacket, a shirt and a pant, how many different outfits can the man make?

4. In an organization, there are 5 candidates for president, 7 for vice-

president and 3 for secretary. In how many ways can these three positions
be filled?

125
5. Twelve contestants may be awarded by 2 different prizes. In how many
ways can these 2 different prizes be awarded if both prizes may not be
given to the same person?

II. Evaluate the following.

1. 12!

2. (10!)(3!)

3. 15! െ 4!

ଵସ!
4. ଻!

5. 3! + 9! + 5!

126
6.3 Permutation
Consider the integers 1,2,3 and 4. If we take two different digits at a
time, we have the following twelve two digits integers.
12 13 14 21 23 24 31 32 34 41 42 43

Each of these orderings is called a per mutation of the elements of the

set {1,2,3,4} taken two at a time.

Permutation is defined as an ordered arrangement of a finite number

of elements, either all of the available ݊ elements or of a part of them. The
permutations that contain exactly the same elements but not in the same
order are regarded as diff erent.

We use the notation .௡ ܲ௥ to denote the number of permutations of ݊

elements taken ‫ ݎ‬at a time. Other symbols are ܲ(݊, ‫)ݎ‬,ܲ௡,௥ and ܲ௥௡ .

The number of permutation s of ݊ different things taken ‫ ݎ‬at a time

is
࢔!
.࢔ ࡼ࢘ = (࢔ି࢘)!

If taken all at once,

.࢔ ࡼ࢘ = ࢔!

Example 1:
Evaluate .ହ ܲଶ .
Solution:
ହ! ହ! (ହ)(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ) ଵଶ଴
.ହ ܲଶ = = = = = 20
(ହିଶ) ! ଷ! (ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ) ଺

Example 2:
Evaluate .ଶ଴ ܲଷ .

127
 Solution:
଼! ଼! (଼)(଻)(଺)(ହ)(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ) ସ଴,ଷଶ଴
.଼ ܲଷ = = = = = 336
(଼ିଷ) ! ହ! (ହ)(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ) ଵଶ଴

Example 3:
How many 5 digit numbers can be formed without repeating any digit
from numbers 1 to 9?
Solution:
There are nine(9) different things (numbers) given which will be
arranged five(5) at a time. The number of arrangement is the
permutation of nine different things taken five at a time.
ଽ! ଽ! (ଽ)(଼)(଻)(଺଴(ହ)(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ) ଷ଺ଶ,଼଼଴
.ଽ ܲହ = (ଽିହ)!
= ସ!
= (ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ)
= ଶସ
= 15,120

Example 4:
In how many ways can 6 students line up to pay their tuition fees?
Solution:
There are six different things given which will be arranged six
at a time, thus,
.଺ ܲ଺ = 6! = 720 ways

Permutation with Identical Elements

The number of permutations is reduced when a collection contains
identical elements. The number of permutation ݊ objects, ‫ ݌‬of one type,
‫ ݍ‬of another, ‫ ݏ‬of another, etc. is given by
࢔!
.࢔ ࡼ࢘ = (࢔ି࢘)!࢖!ࢗ!࢙!…

Example 1:
How many permutations can be made out of the letters in the word
‫ ܣܴܤܧܩܮܣ‬taking three letters at a time?
Solution:
There are 7 letters (݊ = 7) with 2‫ܣ‬ᇱ ‫ ݏ‬and the other 5 letters
are single, then, the number of permutations is,
଻! ଻!
.଻ ܲଷ = =
(଻ିଷ) !ଶ!ଵ!ଵ!ଵ!ଵ!ଵ! ସ!ଶ!ଵ!ଵ!ଵ!ଵ!ଵ!

128
 (଻)(଺)(ହ)(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ)
.଻ ܲଷ = [(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ)][(ଶ)(ଵ)](ଵ)(ଵ)(ଵ)(ଵ)(ଵ)
ହ,଴ସ଴
.଻ ܲଷ =
ସ଼

.଻ ܲଷ = 105
Example 2:
How many permutations can be made out of the letters of the word
‫?ܩܰܫܴܧܧܰܫܩܰܧ‬
Solution:
There are 11 letters (݊ = 11) with 3‫ ܧ‬ᇱ ‫ݏ‬, 3ܰ ᇱ ‫ݏ‬,2‫ ܩ‬ᇱ ‫ݏ‬,2‫ ܫ‬ᇱ ‫ ݏ‬and
1ܴ, then, the number of permutations is,
ଵଵ! ଵଵ!
.ଵଵ ܲଵଵ = (ଵଵିଵଵ)!ଷ!ଷ!ଶ!ଶ!ଵ!
= ଴!ଷ!ଷ!ଶ!ଶ!ଵ!

(ଵଵ) (ଵ଴)(ଽ)(଼)(଻)(଺)(ହ)(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ)
=
଴![(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ)][(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ)][(ଶ)(ଵ)][(ଶ)(ଵ)][(ଵ)]

.ଵଵ ܲଵଵ = 277,200

Cyclic Permutation
Cyclic permutation is the shifting of an entire order of elements one
or more steps forward or backward (the f irst element taking the position of
the last, or vice versa, without changing the order of the elements in the
sequence.
.࢔ ࡼ࢔ = (࢔ െ ૚)!

Example 1:
In how many ways can 8 people be seated at a round table?
Solution:
.଼ ଼ܲ = (8 െ 1)! = 7! = (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) = 5,040 ways

129
130
Exer cise 6.2
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Evaluate the following.

1. .ଽ ܲ଺ =

2. .଼ ܲଷ =

3. .ଵ଴ ܲସ =

4. .ଵହ ܲ଺ =

5. .ଶ଴ ܲହ =

131
II. Solve the following problems
1. How many three-digit numbers can be formed by the use of digits 1,2,3,4
and 5 without repeating any digits.

2. In how many ways can 5 persons be seated in a room where there are
12 seats?

3. How many permutations can be made out of the letters in the word
‫ ܵܥܫܶܣܯܧܪܶܣܯ‬taken 5 at a time?

4. There are 4 copies of Algebra books, 3 copies of Trigonometry books

and 6 copies of Geometry books. In how many ways can they be placed on
a shelf ?

5. There are 10 vacant seats in an auditorium. If 6 students enter the

auditorium, in how many different ways can they be seated?

132
6.4 Combination
Consider again the integers 1,2,3 and 4. If we take two diff erent
digits at a time, we have the following twelve two digits integers.
12 13 14 21 23 24 31 32 34 41 42 43

The digits 12 and 21

13 and 31
14 and 41
23 and 32
24 and 42
34 and 43
are just consider a single combination since we are concerned only on the
two digits and not with the order in which they are chosen. In each of these,
we refer to as combination of elements of a set. Thus the number of
combinations of the four integers taken two at a time is 6.

Combination is an arrangement of the selection of obj ects regardless

of the order. We use the notation .௡ ‫ܥ‬௥ to denote the number of
permutations of ݊ elements taken ‫ݎ‬ at a time. Other symbols are
‫݊(ܥ‬, ‫)ݎ‬,‫ܥ‬௡,௥ and ‫ܥ‬௥௡ .

The number of combinations of ݊ different things taken ‫ ݎ‬at a time

is,
࢔!
.࢔ ࡯࢘ = (࢔ି࢘)!࢘!

If taken all at once,

.࢔ ࡯࢘ = ૚

The relation between permutation and combination is

.࢔ ࡼ࢘
.࢔ ࡯࢘ =
࢘!

133
Example 1:
Evaluate .଼ ‫ܥ‬ଶ .
Solution:
௡!
.௡ ‫ܥ‬௥ = (௡ି௥)!௥!

଼! ଼! (଼)(଻)(଺)(ହ)(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ) ସ଴,ଷଶ଴
.଼ ‫ܥ‬ଶ = = = = = 28
(଼ିଶ)!ଶ! ଺!ଶ! [(଺)(ହ)(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ)][(ଶ)(ଵ)] ଵ,ସସ଴

Example 2:
Evaluate .ହ ‫ܥ‬ଷ .
Solution:
௡!
.௡ ‫ܥ‬௥ = (௡ି௥)!௥!

ହ! ହ! (ହ)(ସ)(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ) ଵଶ଴
.ହ ‫ܥ‬ଷ = = = = = 10
(ହିଷ)!ଷ! ଶ!ଷ! [(ଶ)(ଵ)][(ଷ)(ଶ)(ଵ)] ଵଶ

Example 3:
How many ways can a group of five members be selected f rom a class
with 50 students?
Solution:
The number of ways that can be selected is the number of
combinations of 50 students taken 5 at a time, thus,
ହ଴! ହ଴!
.ହ଴ ‫ܥ‬ହ = = = 2,118,760 ways
(ହ଴ିହ)!ହ! ସହ!ହ!

Example 4:
The lotto uses numbers f rom 1 to 42. A winning number consists of
six (6) different numbers in any order. How many possible combinations
can be made?
Solution:
௡!
.௡ ‫ܥ‬௥ = (௡ି௥)!௥!
ସଶ!
.ସଶ ‫= ଺ܥ‬ (ସଶି଺)!଺!
= 5,245,786

134
Exer cise 6.3
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Evaluate the following.

1. .ଽ ‫ܥ‬ହ =

2. .ଵଶ ‫ܥ‬ସ =

3. .଼ ‫= ଻ܥ‬

4. .ଵହ ‫= ଺ܥ‬

5. .ଶ଴ ‫ܥ‬ଷ =

135
II. Solve the following problems.

1. How many combinations can be made out of the numbers f rom 0 to 7

taken three at a time?

2. How many 10 letter combinations of all the letters in the English

alphabet?

3. How many committees can be formed by selecting 6 persons f rom an

organization with 40 members?

4. There are eight marbles of different colors. Two marbles at a time are
taken and arranged in any way. How many such combinations are possible?

5. How many line segments can be formed by 15 distinct points?

136
6.5 Binomial Theorem
Binomial theorem gives the result of raising a binomial expression to
a certain power. The expansion and the series it leads to are called the
binomial expansion and the binomial series respectively.

The binomial theorem is expressed as:

(ࢇ + ࢈) ࢔ = .࢔ ࡯૙ ࢇ࢔ + .࢔ ࡯૚ ࢇ࢔ି૚ ࢈ + .࢔ ࡯૛ ࢇ࢔ି૛ ࢈૛ + ‫ ڮ‬+ .࢔ ࡯࢔ି૚ ࢇ࢈࢔ି૚ +
.࢔ ࡯࢔ ࢈࢔

Example 1:
Expand (‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ .
Solution:
(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ = .ହ ‫ܥ‬଴ ‫ ݔ‬ହ + .ହ ‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬+ .ହ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + .ହ ‫ܥ‬ଷ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ + .ହ ‫ܥ‬ସ ‫ ݕݔ‬ସ + .ହ ‫ܥ‬ହ ‫ ݕ‬ହ
ହ! ହ! ହ! ହ!
(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ = ‫ݔ‬ହ + ‫ ݔ‬ସ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ‫ ݕ‬ଷ +
(ହି଴)!଴! (ହିଵ) !ଵ! (ହିଶ)!ଶ! (ହିଷ)!ଷ!
ହ! ହ!
(ହିସ)!ସ!
‫ ݕݔ‬ସ + (ହିହ)!ହ!
‫ݕ‬ହ

(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ = (1)‫ ݔ‬ହ + (5)‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬+ (10)‫ ݔ‬ଷ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + (10)‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ + (5)‫ ݕݔ‬ସ + (1)‫ ݕ‬ହ
(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ = ‫ ݔ‬ହ + 5‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬+ 10‫ ݔ‬ଷ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + 10‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ + 5‫ ݕݔ‬ସ + ‫ ݕ‬ହ

Example 2:
Expand (3‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ )ݕ‬ସ .
Solution:

(3‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ )ݕ‬ସ = .ସ ‫ܥ‬଴ (3‫ )ݔ‬ସ + .ସ ‫ܥ‬ଵ (3‫ )ݔ‬ଷ (2‫ )ݕ‬+ .ସ ‫ܥ‬ଶ (3‫ )ݔ‬ଶ (2‫ )ݕ‬ଶ + .ସ ‫ܥ‬ଷ (3‫()ݔ‬2‫ )ݕ‬ଷ + .ସ
‫ܥ‬ସ (2‫ )ݕ‬ସ
ସ! ସ! ସ!
(3‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ )ݕ‬ସ = (81‫ ݔ‬ସ ) + (27‫ ݔ‬ଷ )(2‫ )ݕ‬+ (9‫ ݔ‬ଶ )(4‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) +
(ସି଴)!଴! (ସିଵ)!ଵ! (ସିଶ)!ଶ!
ସ! ସ!
(3‫()ݔ‬8‫ ݕ‬ଷ ) + (16‫ ݕ‬ସ )
(ସିଷ)!ଷ! (ସିସ)!ସ!

(3‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ )ݕ‬ସ = (1)(81‫ ݔ‬ସ ) + (4)(54‫ ݔ‬ଷ ‫ )ݕ‬+ (6)(36‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) + (4)(24‫ ݕݔ‬ଷ ) +
(1)(16‫ ݕ‬ସ )
(3‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ )ݕ‬ସ = 81‫ ݔ‬ସ + 216‫ ݔ‬ଷ ‫ ݕ‬+ 216‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + 96‫ ݕݔ‬ଷ + 16‫ ݕ‬ସ

137
Example 3:
Expand (‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ )ݕ‬ଷ .
Solution:
(‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ )ݕ‬ଷ = .ଷ ‫ܥ‬଴ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ ) ଷ + .ଷ ‫ܥ‬ଵ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ ) ଶ (െ3‫ )ݕ‬+ .ଷ ‫ܥ‬ଶ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ )(െ3‫ )ݕ‬ଶ + .ଷ ‫ܥ‬ଷ (െ3‫ )ݕ‬ଷ
ଷ! ଷ! ଷ!
(‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ )ݕ‬ଷ = (‫ ) ଺ ݔ‬+ (‫ ݔ‬ସ )(െ3‫ )ݕ‬+ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ )(9‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) +
(ଷି଴)!଴! (ଷିଵ) !ଵ! (ଷିଶ)!ଶ!
ଷ!
(െ27‫ ݕ‬ଷ )
(ଷିଷ)!ଷ!

(‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ )ݕ‬ଷ = (1)(‫ ) ଺ ݔ‬+ (3)(െ3‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ )ݕ‬+ (3)(9‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) + (1)(െ27‫ ݕ‬ଷ )
( ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ )ݕ‬ଷ = ‫ ଺ ݔ‬െ 9‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬+ 27‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ െ 27‫ ݕ‬ଷ

Example 4:
ଵ ଷ
Expand ቀ3 െ ቁ .
௫

Solution:
ଵ ସ ଵ ଵ ଶ ଵ ଷ
ቀ3 െ ቁ = .ସ ‫ܥ‬଴ (3) ସ + .ସ ‫ܥ‬ଵ (3) ଷ ቀെ ቁ + .ସ ‫ܥ‬ଶ (3) ଶ ቀെ ቁ + .ସ ‫ܥ‬ଷ (3) ቀെ ቁ +
௫ ௫ ௫ ௫

ଵ ସ
.ସ ‫ܥ‬ସ ቀെ ቁ
௫

ଵ ସ ସ! ସ! ଵ ସ! ଵ
ቀ3 െ ቁ = (81) + (27) ቀെ ቁ + (9) ቀ మቁ +
௫ (ସି଴)!଴! (ସିଵ) !ଵ! ௫ (ସିଶ)!ଶ! ௫
ସ! ଵ ସ! ଵ
(3) ቀെ యቁ + ቀ ቁ
(ସିଷ)!ଷ! ௫ (ସିସ) !ସ! ௫ ర

ଵ ସ ଵ଴଼ ହସ ଵଶ ଵ
ቀ3 െ ௫ቁ = 81 െ ௫
+ ௫మ
െ ௫య + ௫ర

r th term of the Binomial expansion

The rth term of the binomial expansion of (ܽ + ܾ) ௡ is given by,
࢔(࢔ି૚)(࢔ି૛)…(࢔ି࢘ା૚)
࢚࢘ࢎ = ࢇ(࢔ି࢘ା૚) ࢈࢘ି૚
࢘!

࢚࢘ࢎ = .࢔ ࡯࢘ି૚ ࢇ(࢔ି࢘ା૚) ࢈࢘ି૚

Example 1:
Find the 4௧௛ term of the expansion of (‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 2) ଺ .
Solution:
4௧௛ term = .଺ ‫ܥ‬ସିଵ (‫ ݔ‬ଷ ) (଺ିସାଵ) (െ2) ସିଵ
4௧௛ term = .଺ ‫ܥ‬ଷ (‫ ݔ‬ଷ ) ଷ (െ2) ଷ

138
 ଺!
4௧௛ term = (଺ିଷ)!ଷ!
(‫ ݔ‬ଽ )(െ8)

4௧௛ term = 20(‫ ݔ‬ଽ )(െ8)

4௧௛ term = െ160‫ ݔ‬ଽ
Example 2:
Find the 7௧௛ term of the expansion of (3‫ ݔ‬െ 4‫ )ݕ‬ଵ଴ .
Solution:
7௧௛ term = .ଵ଴ ‫ି଻ܥ‬ଵ (3‫( )ݔ‬ଵ଴ି଻ାଵ) (െ4‫ି଻ )ݕ‬ଵ
7௧௛ term = .ଵ଴ ‫( ଺ܥ‬3‫( )ݔ‬ଵ଴ି଻ାଵ) (െ4‫଺ )ݕ‬
ଵ଴!
7௧௛ term = (ଵ଴ି଺)!଺!
(3‫ )ݔ‬ସ (4,096‫) ଺ ݕ‬

7௧௛ term = 210(81‫ ݔ‬ସ )(4,096‫) ଺ ݕ‬

7௧௛ term = 69,672,960‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫଺ ݕ‬

Example 3:
Find the term involving ‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬ସ in the expansion (‫ ݔ‬െ 5‫ ଼ )ݕ‬.
Solution:
From the f ormula for the rth term, where ܽ is ‫ ݔ‬and ܾ is
െ5‫ݕ‬, and ݊ = 8, the rth term has the factors
(‫ି଼( )ݔ‬௥ାଵ) ( െ5‫ )ݕ‬௥ିଵ = (‫ )ݔ‬ଽି௥ (െ5‫ )ݕ‬௥ିଵ
The term involving ‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬ସ is the one for which the exponents of
‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬and 4, then, solve the equations,
9െ‫ = ݎ‬4 and ‫ݎ‬െ1 = 4
‫ =ݎ‬5 ‫ =ݎ‬5
Thus, the fifth term is the desired term. Then,
଼!
.଼ ‫ܥ‬ସ (‫ )ݔ‬ଽିହ (െ5‫ )ݕ‬ହିଵ = (଼ିସ) !ସ!
(‫ ݔ‬ସ )(െ5‫ )ݕ‬ସ

= 70(‫ ݔ‬ସ )(625‫ ݕ‬ସ )

= 43,750‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬ସ
Therefore, the fifth term which involves ‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬ସ is 43,750‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬ସ .

139
140
Exer cise 6.4
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Expand the following binomials using the binomial theorem.

1. (2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ

2. (‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫଺ )ݕ‬

3. (‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2) ସ

141
 ଵ ସ
4. ቀ2‫ ݔ‬െ ௫ቁ

5. (12 + ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ) ଼

II. Find the term in the expansion which involves the given terms.
1. The term involving ‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ in (‫ ݔ‬െ 2‫ ଺ )ݕ‬.

2. The term involving ‫ ݔ‬ଶ in (3‫ ݔ‬െ 4) ହ .

142
3. The term involving ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ଺ ݕ‬in (‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ଻ )ݕ‬.

ଶ ସ
4. The term involving ‫ ݔ‬ସ in ቀ3‫ ݔ‬+ ௫ቁ .

ଶ ଺
5. The term involving ‫ ݔ‬ଷ in ቀ‫ ݔ‬െ ௫ మ ቁ .

143
144
6.6 Pascal’s Triangle
The coef ficients of a binomial expansion can also be obtained by
arranging them in a triangular array or pattern. This is known as Pascal’s
Triangle named after the famous French mathematician Blaise Pascal
(1623-1662). Each number in the triangle is equal to the sum of the two
numbers immediately above it.

In Italy, this triangular pattern is known as Tartaglia’s Triangle while

in many parts of Asia, it is referred to as Yang Hui’s Triangle.

Binomial Pascal’s Triangle

(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬଴ 1
(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫)ݕ‬ ଵ
1 1
(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ଶ 1 2 1
(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ଷ 1 3 3 1
(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫)ݕ‬ ସ
1 4 6 4 1
(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫)ݕ‬ ହ
1 5 10 10 5 1
‫ڭ‬ ‫ڭ‬

Example 1:
Expand (2‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ .
Solution:

(2‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ = (1)(2‫ )ݔ‬ହ + (5)(2‫ )ݔ‬ସ (‫ )ݕ‬+ (10)(2‫ )ݔ‬ଷ (‫ )ݕ‬ଶ + (10)(2‫ )ݔ‬ଶ (‫ )ݕ‬ଷ +
(5)(2‫ )ݕ()ݔ‬ସ + (1)(‫ )ݕ‬ହ
(2‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ = 32‫ ݔ‬ହ + 80‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݕ‬+ 80‫ ݔ‬ଷ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + 40‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ + 10‫ ݕݔ‬ସ + ‫ ݕ‬ହ

Example 2:
Expand (3‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) ସ .
Solution:
(3‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) ସ = (1)(3‫ )ݔ‬ସ + (4)(3‫ )ݔ‬ଷ (െ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) + (6)(3‫ )ݔ‬ଶ (െ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) ଶ +

145
 (4)(3‫()ݔ‬െ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) ଷ + (1)(െ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) ସ
(3‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) ସ = 81‫ ݔ‬ସ െ 108‫ ݔ‬ଷ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + 54‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ସ െ 12‫ ଺ ݕݔ‬+ ‫଼ ݕ‬
Example 3:
ଷ
Expand ൫2 െ ξ‫ݔ‬൯ .
Solution:
ଷ ଶ ଷ
൫2 െ ξ‫ݔ‬൯ = (1)(2) ଷ + (3)(2) ଶ ൫െξ‫ݔ‬൯ + (3)(2)൫െξ‫ݔ‬൯ + (1)൫െξ‫ݔ‬൯
ଷ య
൫2 െ ξ‫ݔ‬൯ = 8 െ 12ξ‫ ݔ‬+ 6‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬మ

Example 4:
ଵ ଺
Expand ቀ2‫ ݔ‬െ ௫ቁ .

Solution:
ଵ ଺ ଵ ଵ ଶ
ቀ2‫ ݔ‬െ ቁ = (1)(2‫ ଺ )ݔ‬+ (6)(2‫ )ݔ‬ହ ቀെ ቁ + (15)(2‫ )ݔ‬ସ ቀെ ቁ +
௫ ௫ ௫

ଵ ଷ ଵ ସ ଵ ହ ଵ ଺
(20)(2‫ )ݔ‬ଷ ቀെ ቁ + (15)(2‫ )ݔ‬ଶ ቀെ ቁ + (6)(2‫ )ݔ‬ቀെ ቁ + (1) ቀെ ቁ
௫ ௫ ௫ ௫

ଵ ଺ ଵ ଵ ଵ
ቀ2‫ ݔ‬െ ቁ = 64‫ ଺ ݔ‬+ 192‫ ݔ‬ହ ቀെ ቁ + 240‫ ݔ‬ସ ቀ మቁ + 160‫ ݔ‬ଷ ቀെ యቁ +
௫ ௫ ௫ ௫
ଵ ଵ ଵ
60‫ ݔ‬ଶ ቀ రቁ + 12‫ ݔ‬ቀെ ఱቁ + ቀ లቁ
௫ ௫ ௫

ଵ ଺ ଺଴ ଵଶ ଵ
ቀ2‫ ݔ‬െ ቁ = 64‫ ଺ ݔ‬െ 192‫ ݔ‬ସ + 240‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 160 + െ +
௫ ௫మ ௫ర ௫ల

146
Exer cise 6.5
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Expand the following binomials using Pascal’s Triangle.

1. (3‫ ݔ‬+ 4‫ )ݕ‬ହ

2. (‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ )ݕ‬ହ

3. (‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 5) ଺

147
 ଵ ସ
4. ቀ5‫ ݔ‬െ ௫ቁ

5. (10 െ ‫ ݕ‬ସ ) ଼

148
6.7 Mathematical Induction
The principle of mathematical induction is a very important form of
mathematical proof.
Consider below the pattern for the sum of the first ݊ odd integers:
ܵଵ = 1 = 1 = 1ଶ
ܵଶ = 1 + 3 = 4 = 2ଶ
ܵଷ = 1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 3ଶ
ܵସ = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 = 4ଶ
ܵହ = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25 = 5ଶ

From the pattern formed by these first five partial sums, the ݊௧௛
partial sum has the form
ܵ௡ = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ‫ ڮ‬+ (2݊ െ 1) = ݊ଶ

The principle of mathematical induction states that:

For a statement ܲ௡ , involving the positive integer ݊, is true for

all positive integer values of ݊ if the following two conditions are
satisfied.

1. ܲଵ is true, that is, the statement is true for ݊ = 1.

2. If ݇ is an arbitrary positive integer for which ܲ௞ is true, then
ܲ௞ାଵ is also true, that is, whenever the statement is true for ݊ = ݇,
it is also true for ݊ = ݇ + 1, where ݇ is an arbitrary positive
integer.

Example 1:
Use mathematical induction to prove the formula
ܵ௡ = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ‫ ڮ‬+ (2݊ െ 1) = ݊ଶ
Solution:
First, show that the formula is true when ݊ = 1.
When ݊ = 1, the formula is valid since
ܵଵ = 1ଶ = 1

149
 Next is to prove that the formula is valid for the integer ݇ + 1,
then
ܵ௞ = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ‫ ڮ‬+ (2݇ െ 1) = ݇ ଶ
Verify the formula for ݇ + 1,
ܵ௞ାଵ = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ‫ ڮ‬+ (2݇ െ 1) + [2(݇ + 1) െ 1]
= [1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ‫ ڮ‬+ (2݇ െ 1)] + 2(݇ + 1) െ 1
Since ܵ௞ = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ‫ ڮ‬+ (2݇ െ 1) = ݇ ଶ , then,
ܵ௞ାଵ = ܵ௞ + 2݇ + 2 െ 1
ܵ௞ାଵ = ܵ௞ + 2݇ + 1 or ܵ௞ାଵ = ݇ ଶ + 2݇ + 1
ܵ௞ାଵ = (݇ + 1) ଶ
Combining the results, we conclude by mathematical induction
that the formula is valid for all positive integer values of ݊.

Example 2:
Use mathematical induction to prove the formula
௡(௡ାଵ)
ܵ௡ = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݊ =
ଶ

Solution:
When ݊ = 1, the formula is valid since
ଵ(ଵାଵ)
ܵଵ = 1 = = 1
ଶ

Assume that
௞(௞ାଵ)
ܵ௞ = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݇ = ଶ

Then, verify the formula for ݇ + 1,

ܵ௞ାଵ = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݇ + (݇ + 1)
= [1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݇] + (݇ + 1)
௞(௞ାଵ)
= ଶ
+ ݇+ 1
௞(௞ାଵ)ାଶ௞ାଶ
= ଶ
௞ మ ା௞ାଶ௞ାଶ
= ଶ
௞ మ ାଷ௞ାଶ
= ଶ
(௞ାଵ)(௞ାଶ)
= ଶ

150
 (௞ାଵ)[(௞ାଵ)ାଵ]
ܵ௞ାଵ =
ଶ

Thus, the formula is valid for all ݊ ൒ 1.

Example 3:
Use mathematical induction to prove that ݊ < 2௡ for all positive
integer values of ݊.
Solution:
For ݊ = 1, the formula is true since
1 < 2ଵ
Then, assume that,
݇ < 2௞
For ݊ = ݇ + 1, we have,
݇ + 1 < 2௞ାଵ
By assumption, multiply 2 to both sides of the inequality
௞
݇ < 2 , thus,
2[݇] < 2[2௞ ]
2݇ < 2௞ାଵ
Since 2݇ = ݇ + ݇ and ݇ + ݇ > ݇ + 1 for all ݇ ൒ 1, then,
݇ + 1 < 2݇ < 2௞ାଵ
or
݇ + 1 < 2௞ାଵ
Therefore, ݊ < 2௡ for all integers ݊ ൒ 1.

Example 4:
Use mathematical induction to prove that 3௡ ൒ 3݊ for all positive
integer values of ݊.
Solution:
For ݊ = 1, the formula is true, since,
3൒3
Then, assume that
3௞ ൒ 3݇

151
 For ݊ = ݇ + 1, we have,
3௞ାଵ ൒ 3(݇ + 1)
By assumption, multiply 3 to both sides of the inequality
௞
3 ൒ 3݇, thus,
3[3௞ ] ൒ 3[3݇]
3௞ାଵ ൒ 9݇
Since 9݇ = 3݇ + 3݇ + 3݇ ൒ 3݇ + 1 for all ݇ > 1, then,
3௞ାଵ ൒ 9݇ ൒ 3(݇ + 1)
or
3௞ାଵ ൒ 3(݇ + 1)
Therefore, 3௡ ൒ 3݊ for all integers ݊ ൒ 1.

152
Exer cise 6.6
Name: Rating:
Course & Year/ Section: Date:
Professor:

I. Use mathematical induction to prove the given formula for every

positive integer ࢔.
1. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ‫ ڮ‬+ 2݊ = ݊(݊ + 1)

2. 4 + 8 + 12 + 16 + ‫ ڮ‬+ 4݊ = 2݊(݊ + 1)

௡(௡ାଵ)(ଶ௡ାଵ)
3. 1ଶ + 2ଶ + 3ଶ + 4ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݊ଶ = ଺

153
 ௡ మ (௡ାଵ) మ 
4. 1ଷ + 2ଷ + 3ଷ + 4ଷ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݊ଷ =
ସ

5. 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + ‫ ڮ‬+ 2௡ = 2(2௡ െ 1)

II. Use mathematical induction to prove that the given inequality is tr ue

for all positive integer values of ࢔.
1. 2௡ ൒ 2݊

154
2. ݊ < 3௡

3. ݊ ൑ ݊ଶ

155
156
 Refer ences

Louis Leithold, College Algebra and Trigonometry, (Singapore:

Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd, 2002).

Mark Dugopolski, College Algebra, 3rd ed., (USA: Addison-Wesley,

2002).

Earl W. Swokowski and Jef f rey A. Cole, Algebra and Trigonometry

with Analytic Geometry, 10th ed. (Brooks/ Cole Publishing Co., 2001).

Murray Spiegel and Robert Moyer, Schaum’s Outlines of Theory and

Problems of College Algebra, 2nd ed., (USA: The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 1998).

157
View publication stats