Core Concepts: Culture,

Social Structure, and

Power
Introduction to Sociology : Core Concepts:
Culture, Social Structure, and Power

Lesson 2 Overview

Culture represents all

aspects of a society that are
transmitted socially. Learned
behaviors produce and
transmit culturally distinct
ways of life among groups.
Cultural diversity provides
opportunities to learn about
and appreciate different cultures, but diversity can also precipitate
aggression, conflict, and social inequality among groups. Social
structures are stable patterns of behavior within a group or society that
provide context and establish boundaries for social interaction.

Social structures and institutions define positions (known as statuses)

that individuals can occupy in a social system, as well as define roles or
expected behaviors.

Power represents the ability to bring about an intended outcome in spite

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of opposition. Education, organizing, and networking are ways of
empowering individuals and groups to achieve desired goals.

In this lesson, you'll more closely examine culture, social structure, and
power—sociology's core concepts—to understand the role each plays in
modern life.

2.1 Consider the ways in which culture shapes and is

shaped by people and their actions
Culture
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read this assignment, along with Chapter 3 in your textbook. Complete the
Critical Thinking Questions at the end of Chapter 3 to test your knowledge of the
lesson materials. Check your answers against those found under the Additional
Study Materials in this lesson. You shouldn't submit this work as an exam or
assignment.

Culture Defined

Imagine a pickup truck driving down the street with a man and woman in
the back. They're covered in smashed rotten eggs, black tar, and
feathers. The way you interpret that scene depends on your culture. In
the United States, it may seem disgusting and possibly cruel. In
Scotland, it’s a fun-loving custom called blackening the bride and groom.

Here's a short video of the blackening of a bride and groom (www.youtu

be.com/embed/qKjnnPqrYWI?rel=0&showinfo=0) in Scotland.

In Scotland, this ritual is a way of life for people getting married. It's a
part of Scottish culture.

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Culture includes the values, beliefs, knowledge, norms, language,
behaviors, and objects that people in a society share. Culture is a way of
life that has the following characteristics:

It's learned
It's passed down from generation to generation
It affects every part of life
It influences how people live
It helps bring people together
It can cause problems between groups that differ

The Elements of Culture

Some parts of culture are material, other parts are nonmaterial.

A society’s material culture includes objects made by people. For

example, cars, food, clothes, houses, tools, and other objects.

Nonmaterial culture is made of things you can’t touch like thoughts,

beliefs, and ideas. Some examples of nonmaterial culture are religious
beliefs, traffic laws, and dress codes.

Values, Beliefs, Knowledge, and Norms

Values, beliefs, knowledge, and norms are parts of a society’s

nonmaterial culture.

Values are your ideas about what is right regarding what you consider
important. Values determine how people act and interact. For example,

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Americans value freedom and equal rights.

Beliefs are what you assume to be true about the world. Beliefs are
based on life experiences. Beliefs guide your values. For example, a
person’s religious beliefs might determine how they act and behave and
what decisions they make.

Values and beliefs can change over time. They can become stronger or
weaker depending on a person’s experiences.

Knowledge, in terms of culture, is what you know about a culture. If you

grew up in America, you know that people drive on the right side of the
road and tip in restaurants.

If you visit a foreign country for the first time, you may be surprised by
how things are done. This is called culture shock, which is a sense of
disorientation felt when you don’t know how things work in another
culture. For example, in England, people drive on the left side of the
road and tipping isn't expected.

Norms are a culture’s rules for how to act. There are different types of
cultural norms:

Folkways have to do with rude and polite behavior. For example,

people know to wait their turn in a line. If someone cuts the line, it
makes others upset, but there probably won’t be any consequences
for that person other than angry glares from other shoppers.
Mores are stricter than folkways. They have to do with ethics, or
what is morally right or wrong. For example, public nudity is

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 generally unacceptable and punishable by law in most places.
Taboos are extreme negative norms. They are usually met with
disgust. These are things like cannibalism and incest.

These cultural rules help people know how to act in society.

When technology advances faster than culture can keep up, it’s called
cultural lag. One example of this is the issue of life support. Medical
technology makes it possible to keep a person alive with machines, even
after their body would have naturally died. Issues like who has the right
to decide if life support is used, or when life support should end, present
moral and ethical issues due to long-held cultural beliefs.

Communicating Culture: Symbols and Language

Symbols and language are ways culture is communicated. A symbol is

anything used to represent something else. Symbols can be objects,
gestures, pictures, or sounds. For example, a flag with stars and stripes
in red, white, and blue symbolizes the USA. The image of three green
arrows forming a circle represents recycling.

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 [An image of three green arrows
arranged in a circle symbolize

recycling.]

Symbols like this one are

commonly used to
communicate meaning.

Certain symbols have different meanings in different cultures. For

example, the “OK” symbol means everything is fine to Americans. To the
French, it's used as a way to say something is worth nothing.

Language is how people communicate through speaking or writing.

Language is a system of symbols used to share information. Note that
just because people speak the same language doesn’t mean they share
the same culture.

People in the United Kingdom and the United States speak English;
however, they sound different and many words have a different
meaning. For example, a baked potato to an American is a jacket potato

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to someone from the United Kingdom. Similarly, you might give a crying
baby a pacifier in the United States, but in the United Kingdom, you give
it a dummy. These language differences are known as dialect.

Symbolic interactionists pay special attention to how people interact

using symbols like language.

Reproducing Culture: Behavior

Things you do every day reveal your culture. You may not realize it, but
brushing your hair, wearing clothes that cover a tattoo before a business
meeting, and holding the door for a stranger are all learned behaviors.
Behaviors help reproduce culture.

Most people don’t follow all the cultural rules they were taught or even
those that they claim to believe in. For example, American culture values
monogamy (ideal culture), but many people cheat on their spouses
(real culture).

Objects: The Artifacts of Culture

Cultural objects (or cultural artifacts) are items created and used by
people that tell something about their culture.

Some examples of American cultural artifacts are:

The Apollo spacesuits

Levi’s jeans
The Barbie doll

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 Lindbergh’s plane, the Spirit of St. Louis
The Ford Model T automobile
The iPhone

Culture, Ideology, and Power

By now, you understand that culture defines how you live. That’s true for
individuals and for societies.

Culture determines your beliefs and your ideas about the world
(ideology). When your beliefs match the majority of society’s, you follow
the dominant ideology. In the USA, democracy and Christianity are
examples of political and religious dominant ideologies.

Dominant ideology can be so widely accepted that it becomes

considered the “norm.”

Cultural Diversity

The internet makes it easy to connect with people from different

cultures. This has opened up conversations about diversity like never
before. From women’s rights to gender identity issues, diversity is a hot
topic in today’s world.

Dominant Culture, Subcultures, and Countercultures

Several recent social movements promote diversity and speak out

against the dominant culture in America. Powerful, wealthy white men
are being called into question as women, homosexuals, and other

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minority groups assert their rights.

Subcultures exist in all societies. Subcultures are groups of people with

shared interests, the same geographical location, or even shared
hobbies, that come together. Some examples of subcultures in the
United States are motorcycle enthusiasts, people from the South, and
Harry Potter fans (“Potterheads”). Members of a subculture often share
special symbols, vocabulary, or behaviors unique to their common
interest.

Some subcultures take their beliefs further and openly oppose the
dominant culture. Those groups are considered a counterculture.

A famous counterculture in America was the hippies of the 1960s. They

broke away from mainstream views and values. Hippies used special
symbols like brightly colored clothing, peace signs, and long hair. They
set up communes in cities across the United States. As many
countercultures do, the hippie movement influenced mainstream culture.

High Culture and Popular Culture

High culture and popular culture are ways people in society express
themselves according to their position.

High culture is what most people think of when they hear the word
culture. It includes art galleries, opera, literature, and classical music.
These activities are associated with being wealthy and educated.

Popular culture (pop culture) is more accessible and widespread. It

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includes television, movies, sports, theme parks, and anything with
mass appeal.

The Commercialization of Culture

Popular products are commercialized (promoted and sold) in today’s

culture. From music videos to TV shows, advertising is everywhere. It
may seem cool to see a character in a TV show drinking the soda you
drink, but the goal of putting it there is to sell a product.

Advertisers want to make a profit, so they use cultural symbols to get

people to buy things. Because of this, the value of some art forms like
books, films, and art isn't based on the item’s true value but on how
much of a profit can be made from it.

Multiculturalism

Today, people across the globe connect in real-time online. They share
about their cultures. This helps people acknowledge and preserve
distinct cultures that make up the world (multiculturalism).

Unfortunately, not everyone wants to understand and accept other

cultures. Sometimes people think their culture and way of life is the only
“right” way (ethnocentrism). This leads to intolerance and a dislike of
different cultures (xenophobia).

In some cases, cultural differences are small. For example, in Asian

culture, chopsticks are used for eating. In America, people use forks,
spoons, and knives. That minor difference is no big deal.

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In other cases, cultural differences cause harm. One of the most well-
known examples of ethnocentrism is that of Nazi Germany. Hitler
promoted racial hatred of Jewish people. Six million Jewish people were
killed as a result.

The opposite of such a negative view of culture is cultural relativism.

That is when a culture is viewed on its own terms without judgment.

Cultural Activism

Activism is working in an organized way to create change in politics or

society. Forms of cultural activism include the following:

1. Cultural Pride Organizations: Culturally diverse cities like New

York hold regular activities to promote different cultures. One
example is New York City’s annual Chinese New Year parade.
2. Religious Fundamentalism: Holy scriptures are taken literally and
mainstream views that don’t match them are rejected. For example,
some Christian fundamentalists homeschool their children to teach
about their religious beliefs and to keep children from mainstream
views.
3. Anticorporate Activism: People against corporate power change
popular ads to reveal a negative truth about a company. Doing this
is called culture jamming.

Culture and Globalization

At one time, Western culture forced its way into other countries through

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movies and other media. That was because it was cheaper for
developing nations to import American films than to produce their own.
But now, technology makes it simpler and more affordable for those
countries to make their own movies that promote their own culture.

Key Points and Links

READING ASSIGNMENT

Key Points

Culture is a way of life, passed down through generations and

learned.
Norms, like folkways, mores, and taboos are the ideas and
guidelines for how to act in a culture.
Symbols are an important way to share information and promote
culture.
Culture determines ideology, or how a person thinks about the
world.
The dominant culture prevails, but subcultures and countercultures
also exist in society.
High culture is linked to wealth and education. Pop culture is
associated with the mainstream.
In multiculturalism, recognizing and preserving other cultures is
encouraged.
Understanding another culture on its own terms is cultural
relativism. The opposite of that is ethnocentrism, or judging a
culture based on one’s own. That leads to xenophobia, fearing or
hating another culture.

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 Three forms of cultural activism are pride organizations, religious
fundamentalism, and anti-corporate activism.
Globalization of Western culture through media is slowing because
other countries are making their own media.

Links

Blackening of the Bride and Groom (www.youtube.com/embed/qKjn

nPqrYWI?rel=0&showinfo=0)

Exercise: Culture

Fill in the blanks.

1. A person’s _______ must be learned.

2. Driving down the street, you see a house, a church, and a display
of handmade pottery. These are all examples of _______ culture.
3. A hand gesture is an example of a/an _______.
4. If you visit France and are continually appalled that dog owners
don't clean up after their furry friend, even on busy sidewalks in
Paris, you are experiencing _______.
5. Prohibited acts that come with severe penalties if violated, such as
child abuse, are called _______.
6. The _______ hypothesis suggests that people who speak different
languages will think and act differently than one another based on
that language difference.
7. What you actually do, versus what you say you believe, reflects

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 your _______ culture.
8. If you decide to reject the values and norms of the dominant
culture, you are part of a/an _______.

Respond to the following based on your reading.

9. Name three examples of material culture.

10. List the elements of culture.
11. Name two subcultures in America.
12. The legal age to marry in the US is 18; however, two states allow
marriage at 14 with parental consent. In a few sentences, use
cultural norms to discuss these situations.
13. Do you feel cultural assimilation is necessary to promote social
solidarity in today’s society? Explain your answer in terms of
cultural diversity.

Exercise Answer Key:

Exercise: Culture

1. culture
2. material
3. symbol
4. culture shock
5. mores
6. Sapir-Whorf
7. real
8. counterculture
9. (1) buildings, (2) clothing, (3) handmade objects like pottery

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10. Values, beliefs, knowledge, norms, behaviors, objects/artifacts,
symbols, and language
11. skateboarders and survivalists
12. Marrying at 18 is legal; however, it isn't necessarily the dominant
culture in American society. Norms dictate that it's more appropriate
to wait until one is older, more mature, and perhaps finished with
their education. Although it's legal in two US states, the idea of
marrying at 14 is considered taboo by most people. In states where
underage marriage isn't legal, it impinges on the cultural mores and
could be punished by law.
13. This is an opinion question and can be answered two ways:

Yes. Cultural assimilation is necessary for the promotion of social

solidarity in a society. People from one culture going to live in
another one should learn the language, wear similar clothing, and
adopt the customs of their new culture so that they fit in and are
accepted. It not only makes their life easier in terms of everyday
interaction, it allows them a better opportunity to fit in, meet new
people and become part of their local society.
No. Cultural diversity can be honored and social solidarity
maintained in concurrence. Today’s multicultural society welcomes
diversity and people are more willing than ever to try to understand
other cultures and welcome them. With diverse communities in
every city, there's a sense of connection to the subculture (the
person’s culture) and to the dominant culture (the person’s new
culture) that allows them to be connected to others in society.

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Critical Thinking Question Guide
READING STUDY MATERIAL

Critical Thinking Questions and Activities Chapter 3

1. Culture is a core concept in sociology because the basic idea of

sociology is that human behavior is shaped and influenced by
social interaction and social life. Culture drives those interactions.

The concept of culture can help us understand social life because

one’s culture is the learned behaviors, ideas, and beliefs acquired
from their social group. Culture influences behavior and how people
interact in society and it reflects the material and nonmaterial
elements of values, beliefs, knowledge, norms, symbols, language,
behaviors, and objects.

2. Changes in today’s world make it especially important to

understand the concept of culture because our society is a
multicultural one. Understanding what culture is, that it's learned,
and that it should be viewed objectively can help people understand
others better.

3. Some cultural artifacts one might include in a time capsule to be

opened 100 years from now are:

An iPhone—a sign of our technologically-reliant times

An excerpt from the president's Twitter feed—to demonstrate
the change in how political figures communicate
An Instant Pot—to signify the ultra-fast pace of today’s society

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 Clippings of celebrity suicides—to pose questions about social
structure, stability, and mental health in the face of
fame/wealth

4. Media images aren't always an accurate representation of a

nation’s culture. In most cases, American television shows seem to
portray an ideal culture, not a real one. The majority of shows
portray a skewed demographic of mainly white, wealthy, traditional
families when in fact, American families are more diverse than ever.

People in other societies may think all Americans are shallow, self-
centered, and wrought with what are commonly referred to as “first-
world problems.”

2.2 Classify the levels of social structure and examine

how they affect people's lives
Social Structure
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read this assignment, along with Chapter 4 in your textbook. Complete the
Critical Thinking Questions at the end of Chapter 4 to test your knowledge of the
lesson materials. Check your answers against those found under the Additional
Study Materials in this lesson. You shouldn't submit this work as an exam or
assignment.

Social Structure in Everyday Life

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Think of structure as how something is organized. Apply that to society
and you have social structure. That is how people are arranged in
society in relation to each other.

Social structure helps people make sense of daily life. It guides how
people act. How people act can create, reinforce, or change social
structures.

No matter what the social structure is, you have the capacity for action.
That means you can go along with, go against, or attempt to change the
social structure.

Social structure isn’t something you can see, but you can pick up on it.
For example, think about what you do each day. Chances are, most
days follow the same pattern. Most people follow a pattern of going to
work, returning home, eating dinner, and relaxing before bedtime. There
may be extra activities like going to the gym or spending time with
family, but the general pattern is there.

Sociologists study social institutions like schools, government, and

organized religion to study patterns of social structure. In those
organizations, routines and patterns are enduring. This gives insight into
the connections between people and their beliefs and actions.

Status and Role: Where You Fit into Social Structure

To understand how people fit into the social structure, sociologists use
status and role. Status is your social position. Statuses are ascribed or

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achieved.

Ascribed status is the status you are born into. It's based on qualities
people think you have. For example, daughter, American, redhead.

Achieved status is the social position you take based on your

achievements. For example, honor student, athlete, musician.

Your role is how people expect you to act based on your status. As a
student (status), you're expected to take classes and successfully
complete assignments. As an athlete, you're expected to eat healthily,
work out, and practice regularly.

Everyone has various statuses and roles. These connect you to society
and to the patterns of social structure.

Levels of Social Structure

Micro-Level

Your daily interactions with family and friends (micro-level interactions)

form patterns. You probably aren’t aware of them, but they exist. These
social interactions shape society. Sociologists study these interactions
to learn how they shape and impact society.

Ethnomethodology is one type of sociological analysis. It looks at how

people use their daily interactions to make sense of the world and how
that creates social structure. The sociologist Harold Garfinkel used
breaching experiments to show what happens when people break (or

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breach) everyday social norms.

Here's a short video of a breaching experiment (www.youtube.com/emb

ed/7rXSXfnT8wA?rel=0&showinfo=0) .

Another method sociologists use to study micro-level interactions is

conversation analysis. This is the study of talk in everyday situations.
It lets sociologists see how conversations are structured. It also reveals
hidden conventions (how something is usually done).

Meso-Level

Meso-level social structure involves organizations like households,

schools, businesses, and government. For organizations like these to
accomplish their goals, they need organizational structure, or rules to
determine how the work gets done. People’s statuses and roles
determine where everyone fits in the organization.

Macro-Level

Macro-level social structure is the big-picture view of social institutions

like government, economy, religion, and education. This type of social
structure looks at how the major institutional structures of society fit
together to fulfill their functional requirements. If you think that sounds
like structural-functionalism, you’re right.

That perspective is concerned with how those institutions work together

and stay in balance to keep social order. Social structure and the values
that maintain it are what bind people together in society (social

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integration).

Sometimes the way society is organized has a negative effect. For

example, at one time women were not welcome in the workplace.
Society deemed their role was to stay at home to fulfill their status as
wife and mother. Restricting women in that way kept them from
contributing to society on a larger scale. It also kept men from being
more involved in family life.

Globalization and the Structure of Work

Look at the tag on your clothes, shoes, or just about any item in your
home. Chances are they were made outside the USA. Cheap labor
overseas and technology that makes it easy to have items made
elsewhere makes globalization a way of life.

Globalization changed the structure of work in America. Many people

faced job loss and had to change occupations or relocate for work.

How Structures Change

Social structure shapes the world and influences human behavior, but it
doesn’t dictate how people act. People have free will. Even if social
structure restricts that free will, people can act in various ways. Recall
Weber’s work. It focused on how people act in various social situations.

Weber focused on three types of human action:

1. Traditional: People act based on how things have always been

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 done.
2. Affective: People’s actions are emotionally driven.
3. Rational: People act with a goal and a plan to achieve it.

Weber believed rational action was at the heart of how society develops.
He also believed that too much rational action might make the world too
impersonal.

Four Dimensions of McDonaldization

Sociologist George Ritzer also says too much rational action may be
bad for society. Ritzer uses the term McDonaldization to describe an
extreme form of rational action. If the term makes you think of the
popular hamburger chain, it should. Ritzer uses the concept to explain
how rational action and hyper-efficiency affect daily life.

There are four dimensions of McDonaldization:

1. Efficiency: Specific steps are used to complete a task.

2. Calculability: With the idea that “more is better,” focus is on size,
quantity, or price.
3. Predictability: Products or services are standardized.
4. Control: Rules and choices are limited. Behavior is monitored with
technology.

Efficiency seems good, but Ritzer points out some drawbacks. For
example:

People are working for free by doing tasks like checking and

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 bagging their own groceries at self-check lines.
Fast food isn’t always fast or affordable, and it can be bad for your
health.

Technology and Action: Telephone to Smartphone

The telephone is a good example of people’s capacity for action.

Phones were first marketed for business communications. Later, in the
1920s, home phones were marketed for emergency use.

That’s not how phones were used. People used them to call friends and
family. They made plans and kept in touch with people far away.
People’s actions affected the structure of society.

The same thing happened with mobile phones. The first ones were bulky
luxury items. Few people owned one. The phones were promoted for
business use and emergencies.

Over time, technology advanced and mobile phones became smaller

and less expensive. More people could afford them. As with home
phones, people used mobile phones for personal calls.

Now, smartphones are easily accessible to almost everyone. Again, the

structure of society is affected by people’s actions and how they use
technology. FaceTime, mobile dating, mobile banking, and even mobile
money are some ways that patterns in society change as a result of
people’s interaction with technology.

Workers Respond to Globalization

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Consider workers’ actions regarding globalization. People near
retirement age may have retired early. Some people looked for new jobs.
Others relocated. Some started their own business. The change brought
by globalization shaped the opportunities available. People’s actions in
response to that change shaped social structure.

The Changing Structure of Friendship

Just like globalization changed people’s lives, and ultimately, some

aspects of social structure, the digital age has changed the structure of
friendship in society.

As Durkheim pointed out with his idea of social solidarity, people need
to feel connected for social and personal wellbeing. Technology has
changed the way people connect, but they are as connected as ever.
People go online more, teens prefer text messaging over talking on the
phone, and in-person meetings are more likely to happen at coffee
shops than in someone’s home. But people still connect. It is the way
that people connect, and who they connect with, that is changing.

Key Points and Links

READING ASSIGNMENT

Key Points

Social structure exists on several levels and is formed by recurring

patterns of behavior and helps people understand everyday life.
Even though social structure shapes people’s behavior and even
with few options, people can act.

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 Regular everyday interactions with family and friends are micro-
level interactions.
Ethnomethodology and conversation analysis are ways sociologists
study how people use micro-level interactions to make sense of the
world.
Meso-level social structure involves organizations like households,
schools, and businesses. Organizational structure must exist for the
work in these organizations to get done.
Macro-level social structure is the broad view of institutions like the
government, the economy, and the education system. It explores
how these structures work together to help society function.
Globalization changed the structure of work in America. As jobs
were sent overseas, many people lost jobs and had to change
occupations or relocate for work.
McDonaldization explains an extreme form of rational action. It
refers to the level of efficiency applied to many aspects of human
life.
The digital age is changing how people interact and practice
friendship, and ultimately, the structure of friendship in society

Links

Breaching Experiment (www.youtube.com/embed/7rXSXfnT8wA?re

l=0&showinfo=0)

Exercise: Social Structure

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Fill in the blanks.

1. _______-level interactions focus on one-on-one interactions

between individuals.
2. _______ is one method of examining how people use everyday
conversations and gestures to make sense of the world.
3. People using telephones in ways other than how manufacturers
intended is an example of people taking _______ that changed
some parts of social life.

Respond to the following based on your reading.

4. Briefly explain the relationship between statuses and roles.

5. What's the difference between ascribed and achieved status?
6. Give three examples of social institutions.
7. Describe breaching experiments.
8. How does structural-functionalist theory relate to macro-level social
structure?
9. Name two ways globalization changed the structure of work in
America.
10. List the three types of human action for various social settings.
11. Briefly describe what the term McDonaldization means.

Exercise Answer Key:

Exercise: Social Structure

1. Micro
2. Ethnomethodology

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 3. action
4. Statuses are positions a person has in society and roles are the
expected behaviors related to specific statuses.
5. Ascribed status is a position given to a person at birth or given later
in life through no effort of their own. Achieved status is a position a
person earns through their own actions and/or efforts.
6. Family, religion, law
7. Breaching experiments are situations where people break social
rules, defy norms, and ignore the expected patterns of behavior in
society.
8. The structural-functionalist theory is concerned with how
interrelated societal institutions work together to maintain social
order. Macro-level social structure is the big-picture view of social
institutions like government, economy, religion, and education. It
looks at how these major institutional structures of society fit
together to fulfill their functional requirements.
9. People had to relocate to find new jobs; people changed
occupations due to job loss.
10. Traditional, Affective, Rational
11. McDonaldization is the term used to describe how the principles of
fast-food restaurants are becoming evident in areas of society.

Critical Thinking Question Guide

READING STUDY MATERIAL

Critical Thinking Questions and Activities Chapter 4

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1. Understanding social structure, the recurring patterns in life, helps
us recognize those patterns and the connection between them and
people’s beliefs and actions. In turn, people’s actions influence
social structure and can provide information about potential social
changes.

2. Classroom patterns for college and high school are similar in that
there's a set time when most people show up for class and the
instructor speaks and students listen. Differences include a less
structured environment where students may come and go in a
college classroom and the instructor is less interested in whether
students take notes or not.

Expectations differ in that in a college classroom, instructors aren't

expected to be as understanding and students are expected to be
more responsible than in high school.

3. Fast food restaurants use an assembly line set up to construct food

for efficiency with each person handling a specific task.
Predictability comes with using the same techniques to produce
food time after time, so the end product is always the same. The
extreme rational action is demonstrated in the hyper-efficiency
exacted upon the process of making food, with each aspect
precisely calculated.

4. You may miss the interaction with friends and checking your social
media feed. You may enjoy the freedom of not having to post on
social media or respond immediately to every text message you

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 normally receive. The recurring patterns of behavior that exist in
your world (social structure) may be different if you don’t use your
cell phone. You may take different actions. For example, you may
go to a friend’s home to visit them and talk, or you may have more
meaningful conversations when you see them as a result of not
being able to text or access them at any time of day or night.

5. Jobs serve other functions besides earning money. Many people

express a need to use their talents and skills by finding a job that
allows them to do so. Some people want to help others (doctors,
nurses) and others want to bring beauty to the world through art
(books, paintings, sculptures). Retired people may miss the human
interaction with others after leaving their jobs. They may also miss
the opportunity to use their abilities in a meaningful way through
their work.

6. Patterns of interaction differ between individual and team sports in

that individual athletes are more focused on themselves and their
sole performance, whereas players on a team are concerned with
how the whole team performs.

Team players interact with one another and that interaction could
boost performance in some cases where team members are
cheering one another on.

Some qualities typically associated with individual or team athletes

are dedication, hard work, physical fitness, and competition.

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 Fans may react more emphatically toward a team versus an
individual athlete due to the team’s representation of a
town/city/state/country, depending on the sport.

2.3 Analyze the ways in which power influences all levels

of social structure
Power
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read this assignment, along with Chapter 5 in your textbook. Complete the
Critical Thinking Questions at the end of Chapter 5 to test your knowledge of the
lesson materials. Check your answers against those found under the Additional
Study Materials in this lesson. You shouldn't submit this work as an exam or
assignment.

Understanding Power

According to Weber, power is the “ability to bring about an intended

outcome, even when opposed by others.” More simply, power is getting
people to do what you want, even when they don’t want to.

Understanding power is important for understanding social life. People

with more resources have more power. That's why power is related to
social inequality (the unequal distribution of resources among people or
groups in society).

Forms of Power

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Empowerment is one form of power. It gives people the “power to” do
something. Empowerment helps people gain control over their lives.
This can happen in the big picture with social issues or on an individual
level with self-empowerment.

There are three ways to boost empowerment:

1. Educate: People must understand their situation, know what needs

to be done, and have the right skills to do it.
2. Organize: When people come together with a common goal, they
have a unified message that's more likely to be heard.
3. Network: Connecting with other people who have an interest in
your cause can increase resources and the ability to make a
change.

Domination is another form of power. To dominate something is to have

“power over” it. Domination can happen at any level. It's usually talked
about in terms of politics or the economy.

In Weber’s definition of power, empowerment addresses the first part,

“to bring about an intended outcome.” Domination addresses the second
part of the definition, “even when opposed by others.” When people
oppose something, there are ways to get them to change their minds
(strategies to overcome opposition).

Here are three strategies to overcome opposition:

1. Persuade: Convince people that going along with your view is right.

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 For example, a parent might tell their child that if they want to get a
good job after college, they will study hard and make good grades.
2. Reward: Give people something they want for doing what you want
them to do. For example, a parent might promise a new car if their
child studies hard and does well in college.
3. Coerce: Force people to do what you want. For example, a parent
might tell their child that if they don’t study hard and make good
grades, they will kick them out of the house.

These examples are mild. In society, powerful people who want to win
out over (dominate) others often use harsher tactics.

Power in Everyday Life

Power is part of daily life. It shows up in all types of relationships.

For example, on the micro-level (one-on-one or small group

interactions), parents have power over their children. Bosses have
power over employees. Even in romantic relationships, one person
usually has more power. That person may handle the money or always
be the one who chooses the restaurant or movie.

In meso-level interactions like small groups and organizations, there are

six bases of power. You can think of these as six ways people get others
to do what they want:

1. Reward power is controlling someone using something they want.

For example, employers give bonuses for reaching work goals.
Parents give treats when kids eat their vegetables.

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 2. Coercive power is forcing someone to act a certain way by
threatening something bad. For example, bosses may threaten to
fire you if you’re late to work.
3. Legitimate power comes from a person’s authority or position. For
example, you'll go along with a request from the president of the
company you work for. Kids on a soccer team obey their coach.
4. Referent power comes from influence based on respect,
admiration, or need for approval. For example, you follow your
great grandmother’s advice, or you're influenced by a celebrity that
you look up to.
5. Expert power comes from someone who makes suggestions
based on what they know about a situation. For example, you listen
to your college advisor because they have expert knowledge about
which classes to take to reach your goals.
6. Informational power occurs when someone gains influence based
on the facts they have. For example, someone at work may have
the information needed to make a project go well.

Different approaches are used depending on the situation. Sometimes,

the person in power doesn’t realize they're using a power strategy.
That's the case with legitimate or referent power.

Research on the different bases of power show some interesting

findings:

The more resources someone has, the more power they have.
People are more willing to do things for authority figures they

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 respect.
People who feel powerless are more likely to use coercion (force) to
get power.
People are more willing to tolerate coercion from a leader they
trust.

Power Tactics

Think about how you go about getting what you want in daily life. The
strategies people use to get what they want are their power tactics.

Some ways people exert power in daily life are to:

Complain
Demand
Evade
Inspire
Joke
Negotiate
Promise
Request
Reward
Socialize

These ways of exerting power can be combined in three main groups:

Hard and soft: Think of these as direct versus indirect. An example

of a hard power tactic is being offered free lunch to attend a
mandatory meeting during your lunch break at work. A soft tactic is

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 sending a text to your spouse reminding them to pick up bread on
the way home.
Rational and nonrational: Think of these as logical versus
emotional. A doctor using realistic facts like “you'll have a heart
attack if you don’t quit smoking” is an example of a rational power
tactic. Telling someone you can’t go on living without them if they
don’t take care of their health is a nonrational power tactic.
Unilateral and bilateral: Think of these as demands versus
negotiations. By overriding Congress to force a law to be passed, a
US president exercises unilateral power. An example of bilateral
power is when two countries trade resources to reach each of their
goals.

Economic, Political, and Cultural Uses of Power

Social institutions like the economy, politics, and culture are at the
macro level, or big picture, of society. In the economy, whoever has
more resources has more power. In politics, the people or groups with
more power make the rules.

When it comes to culture, mass media promotes certain news stories

with an agenda. The education system determines what students are
taught. Even art and fashion trends are dictated by people with the most
power (celebrities and influencers). This idea of people spreading their
ideas so that they're accepted as true is called hegemony.

Power and Social Relationships

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Power affects social relationships at every level of society. Legitimate
power is accepted power that comes from a position of authority. For
example, police officers have power over citizens. School principals
have power over students. Business owners have power over
employees.

There are three types of legitimate power:

1. Traditional authority is accepted because it has existed for a long

time. For example, the Queen of England has traditional authority.
2. Rational-legal authority is power that's based on rules, laws, and
procedures. Elected officials are an example of this type of
authority.
3. Charismatic authority is authority that comes from a leader’s
personality, which makes people want to follow them. The
charismatic leadership of Martin Luther King, Jr. brought positive
change to the lives of many people.

Legitimate power differs from illegitimate power, which is power taken

by force.

Compliance and Disobedience

Power is held because people under that power comply, or go along

with, it. In certain situations, as with human rights, groups of individuals
join together in disobedience and go against authority. A well-known
example of civil disobedience, or non-violent protest against authority, is
Gandhi’s work on Indians’ rights.

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Power, Privilege, and Inequality

What do you think when you hear the word privilege? Chances are it’s
people with wealth and access to things you don’t have. Privilege refers
to special benefits that not everyone has. Many privileges that
Americans have are taken for granted. For example, the freedom to
speak your mind or practice your religion without being harmed. Some
groups have privileges others don't. For example, heterosexuals never
had to fight for the right to marry the person they love.

By thinking about the privileges you have and those you don’t have, you
get a better understanding of society and power. Looking at every side
of a situation and trying to see it from others’ views can help you
understand how power, privilege, and inequality are related. This
approach of looking at an issue from all sides is called standpoint
theory.

[A black and white artwork illustration

of blindfolded human figures touching
different areas of an elephant’s body
to show perspective, viewpoint, and

different standpoints.]

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 Seeing a situation from every
side and considering how
others might see it gives you a
better understanding.

Power differences in society produce inequality, or the unequal

distribution of resources. All societies have inequality.

It helps to remember the work of Weber and Marx (conflict theory) when
discussing power and inequality. Weber suggested that society is
arranged according to class, status, and political power. Class is
determined by a person’s economic situation. Marx talked about class in
terms of business owners, workers, and the economic gap between
them. Weber looked at class in terms of life chances, or the
opportunities a person has based on their finances. For example,
someone born into wealth probably never worries about being able to
afford an education. That can put them in a position to get a job where
they make a lot of money, which gives them financial security.

Weber believed that non-economic factors like status and political power
were sources of power that could influence inequality. Status is a
person’s position in society. A person with the achieved (earned) status
of “famous actor” may also gain prestige (admiration) because of
society’s fascination with celebrities.

Ascribed status (assigned from birth), such as race or gender, also

affects a person’s power in society.

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There are all sorts of status groups at every level of society. Think of the
different groups of kids in school. Some examples are jocks, mean girls,
nerds, and artsy kids. Forming groups like these and keeping certain
people out is a type of social closure. Weber defined it as a way group
members gain power and maximize benefits by keeping people who
don’t fit in out of the group.

Sometimes social closure is understood and not mentioned. For

example, the artsy kids probably won’t try to join the jocks’ group. They
know they won’t fit in or be accepted.

Other times, discrimination (treating someone different based on

personal characteristics) is involved. An example of this is excluding a
new student because they look, act, and sound different from the other
group members.

Discrimination throughout history involved minority groups like African

Americans and women. By organizing in large groups, they were able to
gain strength and political power to make changes in society. For
example, in the late 1800s women organized and worked together to
earn the right to vote. That political right was won by the women coming
together for a common cause. The civil rights movement of the 1950s
and 1960s involved the organization of mass meetings at local churches
to build solidarity among African Americans. These efforts led to the
passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which ended segregation in
public places and banned employment discrimination based on race,
color, religion, sex, or national origin.

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Race, Class, and Gender Intersect

Power and inequality involve many aspects of social life. Two main
concepts address oppression and the connections between race, class,
and gender that cause it.

Intersectionality theory is a feminist theory that looks at how these

connections impact women. For example, African American women face
racism and sexism.

The matrix of domination is a phrase that highlights how nearly

everyone is privileged in some ways and oppressed in others. For
example, a wealthy white woman is considered privileged by class and
race; however, that same woman experiences oppression based on
gender.

Structured Inequality: Stratification Systems

Inequality is built into society. it's maintained with stratification

systems. These are social structures and cultural norms in place to
keep people in certain positions that maintain inequality.

In all stratification systems, there's an unequal distribution of resources,

there are distinct groups, and there's an overriding ideology that justifies
the inequality that exists.

Caste Systems: India, Feudal Estates, and Racial Segregation

Stratification systems have been around for as long as humankind.

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Caste systems are divisions based on a person’s ascribed status, the
status they're born into. Discrimination was banned in India in the 1950s,
but an informal caste system is still in place today, especially in rural
areas. It's one of the world’s oldest examples of social stratification. In
that system, people are assigned to one of four groups at birth, based on
social honor and respect.

A similar system, feudalism, existed in Europe in the Middle Ages

(before the Industrial Revolution). The feudal estate system was based
on how much land a person’s family owned. Land was the most
important commodity then because the economy was based on
agriculture.

In the United States, segregation between blacks and whites was a

stratification system based on race.

Class Systems: Capitalist and Socialist

Class systems are based on economic position. In capitalist societies

like the United States, where individualism is promoted, there's an
unequal distribution of wealth and resources like education, land, and
opportunity. The way of thinking (ideology) that supports this system is
that if someone works hard enough, they can have anything.

In socialists systems, class systems exist, but there's more focus on

economic equality and the collective good. Very wealthy members of
society pay more taxes to support government-owned public systems
like healthcare and education.

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Patriarchy

Another type of social stratification is patriarchy, which is based on

gender. In this system, men hold the power and women are excluded
from it. The ideology that supports patriarchy is that men are superior.
Some examples of this are the idea of men as “head of the household”
and women being prevented from holding high-ranking positions in
religious and political organizations.

Can Inequality be Reduced?

The idea of equality for all people came to be during the Age of
Enlightenment in the late 1700s. People stopped relying on blind faith
and the teachings of the church and started to use logic and science to
understand the world.

Since then, many inequalities have changed. As people organize,

educate themselves, and network with others, they boost empowerment
and break down some inequalities that exist.

Algorithms and the Power of Tech Companies

For computers to work the way we want them to, they need instructions
to know what to do. Computer programmers write those instructions,
called algorithms. Even if you don’t understand algorithms, they affect
your life. For example, when you search on Google or log into Facebook
or your bank account, algorithms are at play behind the scenes.

In some cases, algorithms promote social inequality like racism and

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sexism. Algorithms even target people based on how much money they
spend online. Because programmers hold the code to algorithms, only
they know how algorithms are written. That brings into question whether
algorithms are created to promote certain ideas and opinions without the
public being aware of it.

While algorithms are instructions followed out by computers, it helps to

keep in mind they're written by people. With a better understanding of
power and inequality, the next time you search online, you can think
about your search results more as a sociologist would.

Key Points and Links

READING ASSIGNMENT

Key Points

Power is getting people to do what you want them to do, even when
they don’t want to do it. People with more resources have more
power, which is why power is closely related to inequality.
Empowerment gives people the “power to” do something and is
increased through education, organization, and networking.
Persuasion, reward, and coercion are ways to overcome
opposition.
Power is present at every level of society—micro, meso, and
macro.
Legitimate power is the accepted power that comes from a position
if it's based on traditional, rational-legal, or charismatic authority.
Illegitimate power is power taken by force.

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 Power is held because people under that power comply, or go
along with, it.
Looking at a situation from all sides to see it as others do helps
people understand how power, privilege, and inequality are related.
This approach is known as standpoint theory.
Social closure is a type of discrimination and a way that group
members gain power and resources by excluding people who don’t
fit in.
The matrix of domination highlights how nearly everyone is
privileged in some ways and oppressed in others.
Inequality is built into society and maintained with stratification
systems. These social structures and cultural norms keep people in
positions that promote inequality.

SSC125 Discussion Board 2

READING ASSIGNMENT
Read the following guidelines. Then, return to your student portal and complete
Discussion Board 2.

Below are some general guidelines about the online discussions that will
allow you to interact with other students and faculty members. This
interaction can greatly benefit anyone studying online. By participating in
these interactions, you can learn from and encourage others while
progressing through your studies.

1. Access a Discussion Board on your student portal.

2. Choose a User Name. (It is suggested that you use your first and
last name.)

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 3. Pick the major word or words as your subject, type in your
response, and then click on Create New Message to post your
response.
4. Once you have posted your initial response, you will be able to see
your classmates’ responses.

You may be required to respond to one or more of your classmates'

posts depending on the directions given for your specific course. Refer
to the specific instructions given for the course by your instructor. If you
need to respond to your peers, see the following:

1. After you have chosen and clicked on your classmate and decided
this is the one you want to respond to, click on Post a reply to this
message.
2. Type your response and click on Post Reply to Board.

Note that the discussion board system will automatically time out after
20 minutes, and any unsaved work will be lost. It's highly recommended
that you write your answers to the discussion board prompts in a Word
document, and then copy and paste your answers into the discussion
board window when you're ready to submit.

What Are the Requirements?

1. The day you receive the course materials marks the start of your
first lesson. At this time, you should introduce yourself to your
classmates and instructor. Please be sure to return to the
discussion to welcome others.

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 2. Thereafter, for each prompt, you are required to complete the
readings and then answer the prompts for the lesson that you’re
completing. Your answer to the discussion prompt should be in
fully-developed sentences. There may be a length requirement (for
example, at least five-to-seven sentences) provided by your
instructor for the course.
3. You also may read the posted answers from other classmates and
respond to those other posts to start a discussion. These
responses are known as peer responses. Remember, this may not
always be required, but is encouraged. All of your comments to
peers should be academic and appropriate for the course
discussion and fit the length requirement (if one is required).
4. The discussion questions are based on the course material you’re
studying. However, you may want to conduct some outside
research when developing your answers and peer responses. All
postings are expected to be in well-developed paragraphs with
proper sentence structure and grammar.

How Are the Discussion Posts Evaluated?

Answers to the posted questions and peer responses that do not meet
all of the mentioned requirements will not count toward the grade.

When Are the Discussions Graded?

Grades are automatically posted; however, instructors are monitoring

the boards and will reach out to you when a posting grade is being
changed.

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What If I Fall Behind on My Postings?

You will not move onto your next class until all discussions are
complete. If you earn an F on a discussion, it is asked that you follow the
email instructions received from your instructor and that you redo the
discussion.

How Can I Contact the School?

You can email instructors through the Contact Us link when logged onto
the Penn Foster website.

Exercise: Power

Fill in the blanks.

1. A caste system is based on _______ status.

2. Class systems rankings are based on _______ status.
3. _______ is the type of power that means to have “power over”
someone or something.
4. Trying to convince others that going along with your way of thinking
is the right thing to do, you're trying to _______ them.
5. When a person makes suggestions based on their knowledge of a
situation, they're exerting _______ power.
6. If you give someone a gentle reminder to do something you need
them to do, that is an example of a _______ power tactic.
7. _______ is the term for specific ideas being spread and promoted

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 in the media so that they're accepted as true.
8. Technology companies can use _______ to control what people
see online and to promote social inequality.

Respond to the following based on your reading.

9. Name three types of legitimate authority.

10. Briefly describe social stratification.
11. How can a person or an organization increase empowerment?
12. How is power related to inequality?
13. Name three ways people use power in daily life to get what they
want.

Exercise Answer Key:

Exercise: Power

1. ascribed
2. achieved
3. Domination
4. persuade
5. expert
6. soft
7. Hegemony
8. algorithms
9. Traditional, Rational-Legal, and Charismatic
10. Social stratification is a system where people in society are ranked
into hierarchies based on status.
11. Empowerment can be increased through education, organization,

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 and networking.
12. The more power a person or organization has, the more resources
they have. When the amount of power and resources are out of
balance in society, that creates inequality between people and/or
groups.
13. Complaining, joking, and requesting

Critical Thinking Question Guide

READING STUDY MATERIAL

Critical Thinking Questions and Activities Chapter 5

1. Power is the ability to get people to do what you want them to do

even when they're opposed. Inequality is the unequal distribution of
resources among people or groups in society. These are related
because groups with more power hold more resources, which
means another group has fewer of those resources, thus creating a
state of inequality.

2. If yes, you may have legitimate power as a respected authority

figure such as a manager or parent. If no, that may be because you
suffer from economic inequality due to your ascribed status. To gain
power, that status can be changed through education that allows
you to get a better job and earn more income.

3. A daily life situation where someone may comply with power is

taking the direction of a senior colleague at work. If that colleague
is well-respected and viewed as fair, that's a case of legitimate

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 power. If the colleague is in a position to threaten your job and acts
on the basis of instilling fear, that's illegitimate power.

4. Various inequalities can intersect in the lives of people in different

ways. For an Asian woman, that might be racism and sexism.
Americans are privileged to have freedom of speech, the right to
vote, and freedom to practice the religion of their choice. Other
privileges some experience are access to education, food on the
table, and a car to drive. Some people face disadvantages related
to not being able to afford adequate housing, not being able to
access quality medical care, or not being able to afford necessary
prescription medications.

5. Powerful:

The NAACP is a powerful organization because it's the largest,

most recognized civil rights organization. The organization uses
strategies to increase empowerment (education, organization, and
networking) to promote its cause and broaden its reach. The
NAACP started as a grassroots organization using social
relationships at the micro, meso, and macro levels to help end
discrimination.

The current President of the United States of America, Donald

Trump, is powerful due to his political position as well as his
independent wealth. He used his wealth as a powerful tool to win
the presidency and in turn, uses the office of president to exert his
power. His power is perhaps rooted in social relationships because

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 of the power by association others feel they will get from him.

The National Rifle Association (NRA) is powerful because a large

number of Americans support their cause and they have significant
money to exert power in Washington. As for social relationships,
The NRA can promote their cause by lobbying in Washington but
can also receive independent support from individuals not affiliated
with a particular political party, making them attractive in a
bipartisan way.

Not powerful:

Labor unions have lost power in recent years in America. This is in

large part due to anti-union right-to-work laws passed in several
states as well as the fact that unionized industries aren't as large a
part of the workforce as they once were due to the changing
economy. Workers lost faith in unions and these relationships once
held in high regard have deteriorated over time.

Many Americans report feeling powerless. One reason is how few

choices people feel they have as consumers due to conglomerates
taking over large portions of markets like airlines, internet access,
and cell phone service. Another reason is the nonchalance
Americans feel they're treated with by employers in terms of how
they're valued. Again, people are faced with limited choices when it
comes to their livelihood. Even in healthcare, choices are scarce.
Fewer choices and less say-so mean less power. These changes
occur on a macro level in corporate business and politics but trickle

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 down to the micro level and target individuals' day-to-day lives,
impacting their social relationships and general well-being.

Diamond miners in Sierra Leone are virtually powerless, even in

light of reported aid and support in recent years. Surrounded by a
wealth of natural resources from diamonds to gold and other
precious metals, the workers live in poverty like slaves. A lack of
regulation, the remote location of some mines, and the exploitative
relationships many miners find themselves in are a few of the
reasons this lack of power exists for the miners. Because most of
the mining takes place in small-scale, artisanal digs, without change
at the micro level (with the miners themselves), it's difficult for large-
scale policy changes to take place.

Lesson 2 Review

Self-Check
1. A _______ is a subculture that opposes the dominant culture in a
society.
a. counterculture
b. religion
c. gang

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 d. cult
2. Giving someone the "thumbs up" gesture is an example of
communicating by using a/an
a. symbol.
b. cultural object.
c. object.
d. language.
3. Which of the following is/are an example of nonmaterial culture?
a. Cars
b. Clothes
c. Food
d. Traffic laws
4. _______ are what you assume to be true about the world.
a. Values
b. Knowledge
c. Culture
d. Beliefs
5. Understanding that people in England aren't expected to tip at a
restaurant is an example of cultural
a. beliefs.
b. values.
c. knowledge.
d. folkways.
6. Wearing a baseball cap during a formal dinner most likely violates
established
a. mores.

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 b. taboos.
c. laws.
d. folkways.
7. Extreme negative norms, including incest and sexual abuse, are
examples of
a. folkways.
b. mores.
c. taboos.
d. culture shock.
8. Ethnomethodology looks at how people use their _______ to make
sense of the world.
a. religion
b. money
c. values
d. daily interactions
9. The study of talk in everyday situations is known as _______
analysis.
a. conversation
b. social
c. role
d. functional
10. Which of the following has resulted in people losing jobs and being
forced to relocate for work?
a. Multiculturalism
b. Globalization
c. Discrimination

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 d. Social integration
11. According to Weber, doing something because it has always been
done that way is a _______ type of human action.
a. traditional
b. affective
c. rational
d. progressive
12. According to Ritzer, one drawback of efficiency is that
a. people often end up working for free.
b. products and services are standardized.
c. rules and choices are limited.
d. specific steps are used to complete a task.
13. The telephone was originally marketed for
a. emergency use.
b. business communications.
c. communicating with family.
d. military use.
14. Connecting with other people who have an interest in your cause is
known as
a. social equality
b. networking.
c. organizing.
d. educating.
15. Domination is usually talked about in terms of
a. religion.
b. education.

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 c. family.
d. politics.
16. _______ is forcing people to do what you want.
a. Coercion
b. Domination
c. Persuasion
d. Empowerment
17. According to the text, which of the following is a strategy to
overcome opposition?
a. reward
b. education
c. organization
d. networking
18. Which of the following types of power come from influence based on
respect, admiration, or need for approval?
a. Legitimate
b. Referent
c. Coercive
d. Informational
19. People are more willing to tolerate coercion from a leader they
a. trust.
b. fear.
c. elect.
d. dislike.
20. A business owner's power over his/her employees is an example of
_______ power.

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 a. reward
b. referent
c. legitimate
d. informational

Self-Check Answer Key

1. counterculture
Explanation: A counterculture is a subculture that opposes the
dominant culture in a society. For example, the hippie movement of
the 1960s opposed the dominant culture in America, making it a
counterculture.
Reference: Section 2.1

2. symbol.
Explanation: Giving someone the "thumbs up" gesture is an
example of communicating by using a symbol. A symbol is
something that represents something else, so a "thumbs up" is a
symbol, as it stands for "good job" or "I'm good."
Reference: Section 2.1

3. Traffic laws
Explanation: Nonmaterial culture consists of things that you can't
touch, including thoughts, beliefs, and ideas. A traffic law, such as
the speed limit being 55 mph is an example of a law, it's not
tangible and can't be touched, making it nonmaterial culture.
Reference: Section 2.1

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4. Beliefs
Explanation: Beliefs are what you assume to be true about the
world. For example, a person's thoughts and assumptions about
their religion are examples of beliefs.
Reference: Section 2.1

5. knowledge.
Explanation: Understanding that people in England aren't expected
to tip at a restaurant is an example of cultural knowledge. The
culture of England is different than the culture in America, where
tipping at a restaurant is expected.
Reference: Section 2.1

6. folkways.
Explanation: This behavior would most likely be a violation of
established folkways because wearing a casual item of clothing to a
formal dinner would be considered rude within the group or culture.
Reference: Section 2.1

7. taboos.
Explanation: Extreme negative norms, including incest and sexual
abuse, are examples of taboos. These are behaviors that are
prohibited, restricted, or rejected by society.
Reference: Section 2.1

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 8. daily interactions
Explanation: Ethnomethodology looks at how people use their daily
interactions to make sense of the world. For example, the
statement "Hurry or we'll be late" implies that being late for
something is undesirable and should be avoided.
Reference: Section 2.2

9. conversation
Explanation: The study of talk in everyday situations is known as
conversation analysis. Conversation analysis begins with the notion
that conversational interaction involves "doing things with words,"
and that, for example, describing, questioning, agreeing, offering
and so on are all examples of social actions using words.
Reference: Section 2.2

10. Globalization
Explanation: Globalization has resulted in people losing jobs and
being forced to relocate for work. An example would be a factory
located in the United States closing down and relocating to Mexico
to save money on production costs.
Reference: Section 2.2

11. traditional
Explanation: According to Weber, doing something because it has
always been done that way is a traditional type of human action. An
example of this would include having a large family dinner every

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 Sunday since you were a child.
Reference: Section 2.2

12. people often end up working for free.

Explanation: According to Ritzer, one drawback of efficiency is that
people often end up working for free. For example, bagging your
groceries at self-check out lines, while efficient, results in the
consumer working on behalf of the store and therefore working for
free.
Reference: Section 2.2

13. business communications.

Explanation: The telephone was originally marketed for business
communications. Later, in the 1920s, they were marketed for
emergency use, then as a way to stay in contact with family and
friends.
Reference: Section 2.2

14. networking.
Explanation: Connecting with other people who have an interest in
your cause is known as networking. Networking is one way to boost
empowerment as it increases access to resources and to the ability
to make change.
Reference: Section 2.3

15. politics.

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 Explanation: Domination is usually talked about in terms of politics.
Meaning "to have power over" something, domination is a form of
power that can happen at any level, however, it's usually talked
about in terms of politics or the economy.
Reference: Section 2.3

16. Coercion
Explanation: Coercion is forcing people to do what you want. For
example, parents telling children if they don't receive all A's on their
report card they won't be allowed to play sports is a form of
coercion.
Reference: Section 2.3

17. reward
Explanation: According to the text, strategies to overcome
opposition include persuasion, reward, and coercion. These
strategies are ways to get people to change their minds when they
oppose something.
Reference: Section 2.3

18. Referent
Explanation: Referent power comes from influence based on
respect, admiration, or need for approval. An example of this would
be buying a certain brand of shoes or clothes because your favorite
basketball player wears the brand.
Reference: Section 2.3

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19. trust.
Explanation: People are more willing to tolerate coercion from a
leader they trust. Research on different bases of power also shows
that the more resources someone has, the more power they have;
people are more willing to do things for authority figures they
respect; people who feel powerless are more likely to use coercion
or force to gain power.
Reference: Section 2.3

20. legitimate
Explanation: A business owner's power over his or her employees
is an example of legitimate power. Legitimate power comes from a
person's authority or position; they have power based on position or
title within an organization or hierarchy.
Reference: Section 2.3

Flash Cards
1. Term: Counterculture
Definition: A subculture that opposes the dominant culture in a society

2. Term: Cultural Lag

Definition: When culture takes time to catch up to technological
changes

3. Term: Cultural Relativism

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Definition: Understanding a culture on its own terms

4. Term: Culture War

Definition: A conflict about core values and morals

5. Term: Dominant Culture

Definition: The predominant culture in a society that represents those in
power

6. Term: Dominant Ideology

Definition: Widely-held ideas, beliefs, and values that serve those in
positions of authority

7. Term: Ethnocentrism
Definition: Judging another culture by your own culture's standards and
feeling your culture is better

8. Term: Ideology
Definition: Beliefs and values that help you make sense of your world

9. Term: Mores
Definition: Norms that are strictly enforced

10. Term: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Definition: The idea that because different languages have different
structure and content they affect how people speak and act

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11. Term: Taboo
Definition: A norm whose violation carries severe stigma

12. Term: Xenophobia

Definition: Fearing or hating people from other cultures than your own

13. Term: Achieved Status

Definition: Position that's earned or accomplished through effort

14. Term: Affective Action

Definition: Behavior guided by emotion or feelings

15. Term: Ascribed Status

Definition: Social position received at birth or assumed later in life
regardless of one's wishes or abilities

16. Term: Breaching Experiments

Definition: Social situations in which individuals involved intentionally
break social rules, violating basic norms and patterns of behavior

17. Term: Ethnomethodology

Definition: Study of how people use their understanding of the world to
make sense out of life, emphasizing the ways in which they collectively
create social structure in their everyday activities

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18. Term: Rational Action
Definition: Behavior motivated by calculations of efficiency

19. Term: Roles

Definition: Sets of expected behaviors that are associated with
particular statuses

20. Term: Social Integration

Definition: Process by which people are bound together in society by
values and social structures

21. Term: Social Structure

Definition: Recurring patterns of behavior among people over time

22. Term: Status

Definition: A person's position in a social system

23. Term: Traditional Action

Definition: Behavior motivated by custom

24. Term: Caste System

Definition: Divisions based on various ascribed characteristics
determined at birth

25. Term: Class System

Definition: Divisions based on economic position, which results from a

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combination of individual achievement and family of birth

26. Term: Discrimination

Definition: Treating others unequally based on their background or
other personal characteristics

27. Term: Hegemony

Definition: A condition that exists when those in power have
successfully spread their ideas, and marginalized alternative viewpoints
so that their perspectives and interests are accepted widely as being
universal and true

28. Term: Illegitimate Power

Definition: A form of authority that relies on force or coercion to
generate obedience

29. Term: Intersectionality Theory

Definition: A perspective that highlights the connections and
interactions between various forms of inequality, especially race, class,
and gender

30. Term: Matrix of Domination

Definition: The interlocking systems of oppression associated with race,
class, and gender

31. Term: Patriarchy

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Definition: A system of male domination through social institutions and
cultural practices

32. Term: Privilege

Definition: Special advantage or benefit that not everyone has

33. Term: Rational-Legal Authority

Definition: Power that has legitimacy because it's based on rules, laws,
and procedures

34. Term: Social Closure

Definition: The process whereby a status group maximizes its own
advantages by restricting access to rewards only to members of the
group

35. Term: Standpoint Theory

Definition: A theory that questions taken-for-granted assumptions about
society by looking at it from multiple viewpoints, especially from the
perspective of people in subordinate positions

36. Term: Stratification System

Definition: Social structures and cultural norms that create and maintain
inequality by ranking people into a hierarchy of groups that receive
unequal resources

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