CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background.
Drainage system is a process of removing & controlling excess surface
water with in right of way. Drainage is an important feature in determining the
ability of given pavement to withstand the effects of traffic and environment.
(Adequate drainage is very essential in the design of highways since it affects the
highway's serviceability and usable life. If bonding on the traveled way occurs,
hydroplaning becomes an important safety concern. Drainage design involves
providing facilities that collect, transport and remove storm water from the
highway (O'Flaherty, C.A. (2002).

The objective of drainage system is to prevent onsite water standing on

the surface and convey the offsite storm runoff from one side of the roadway to
the other. To carry out the offsite drainage. Culverts are closed conduits in which
the top of the structure is covered by embankment. United States National Bridge
Inspection Standards (USNBIS (United States National Bridge Inspection
Standard), 1990) and ERA (Ethiopian Road Authority) drainage design manuals
(ERA DDM, 2002 and 2011).

As the water can cause a serious impact on both the road access and its strength,
an efficient drainage system is the most important part of road construction and
maintenance works.

Good drainage needs to be taken into consideration at the early design

stages in order to secure a long life for the road. With a well-designed drainage
system, future rehabilitation and maintenance works can be considerably reduced
and thus limit the costs of keeping the road in a good condition.

Ensuring good drainage begins when selecting the road alignment. A Centre line
that avoids poorly drained areas, large runoffs and unnecessary stream crossings
will greatly reduce the drainage problems. Provision of sufficient drainage is an
important factor in the location and geometric design of highways. Drainage
facilities on any highway or street should adequately provide for the flow of water
away from the surface of the pavement to properly designed channels. In
addition, traffic may be slowed by accumulated water on the pavement, and
accidents may occur as a result of hydroplaning and loss of visibility from squish
and sprig. The importance of enough drainage is recognized in the amount of
highway construction dollars allocated to drainage facilities. About 25 percent of

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highway construction dollars are spent for erosion control and drainage structures,
such as culverts, bridges, channels, and ditches (Wyatt et al, (2000).

Surface drainage encompasses all means by which surface water is

removed from the pavement and right of way of the highway or street. A properly
designed highway surface drainage system should effectively intercept all surface
and watershed runoff and direct this water into adequately designed channels and
gutters for eventual discharge into the natural waterways. Water seeping through
cracks in the highway riding surface and shoulder areas into underlying layers of
the pavement may result in serious damage to the highway pavement. The major
source of water for this type of intrusion is surface runoff. An adequately
designed surface drainage system will therefore minimize this type of damage.
The surface drainage system for rural highways should include sufficient
transverse and longitudinal slopes on both the pavement and shoulder to ensure
positive runoff and longitudinal channels (ditches), culverts to provide for the
discharge of the surface water to the natural waterways. Storm drains and inlets
are also provided on the median of divided highways in rural areas. In urban
areas, the surface drainage system also includes enough longitudinal and
transverse slopes, but the longitudinal drains are usually underground pipe drains
designed to carry both surface runoff and ground water. Curbs and gutters also
may be used in urban and rural areas to control street runoff, although they are
more frequently used in urban areas (Wyatt et al, (2000).

Roads will affect the natural surface and subsurface drainage pattern of a
watershed or individual hill slope. Road drainage design has as its basic objective
the reduction and/or elimination of energy generated by flowing water. Therefore,
water must not be allowed to develop sufficient volume or velocity so as to cause
excessive wear along ditches, below culverts, or along exposed running surfaces,
cuts, or fills. Provision for adequate drainage is of paramount importance in road
design and cannot be overemphasized. The presence of excess water or moisture
within the roadway will adversely affect the engineering properties of the
materials with which it was constructed. Cut or fill failures, road surface erosion,
and weakened sub grades followed by a mass failure are all products of
inadequate or poorly designed drainage. As has been stated previously, many
drainage problems can be avoided in the location and design of the road:
Drainage design is most appropriately included in alignment and gradient
planning (Larson, C. L. June 1949).

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1.2 Statement of problems
1. The design peak discharge calculated and the review peak discharge calculated
of the return period is not equal. From this the road around this is damaged by
over flooding of the water on the road because the calculated peak discharge for
the design were less than the calculated peak discharge for the review at station,
0+30, 0+400 and 0+85 .Therefore before the culverts are constructing the design
and the review data must be checked always when its design the road it must be
the design peak discharge is greater than the review peak discharge to control the
floods that over follow on the road.

2. Some problems influenced on drainage include: puddles on the surface area,

poor surface flow, slope erosion, clogged ditches, pavement edge raveling,
preliminary cracking, pavement pumping, and surface settlement.

3. Major failures caused by poor drainage conditions include washouts, slides,

slip outs, road and pavement breakup and flood damage.

4. The inadequacy of drainage system during the rainy season to pass the flood,
poor quality construction and improper maintenance of some drainage systems
with respect to the road alignment.

This is the main reason why this study wants to analyze the factors
contributing to the drainage and come up with corresponding recommended
remedial measure.

1.3 Significance of the Study

The study construction of road drainage system is requiring skilled work
force and intensive financial resources. If the drainage system fails, high
investment is required to maintain them in order to avoid traffic interruption. To
minimize maintenance expenses proper protection and management of these road
assets is important. This research is aimed at coming up with findings on the
effects of poor drainage and maintenance systems in Upper Atbara and Setit Dam
Complex Township paved road. It would also come up with recommendation on
the ways forward. It is supposed to find out reasons for inadequate provision of
drainage system and the reasons for poor maintenance of the available drainage
systems. Therefore; this study is beneficial to the region for future road drainage
system construction to avoid problems by assessing the performances of the
current drainage systems and proposing mitigation measures to avoid improper
functioning.

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The study is expected to propose appropriate solutions to the drainage systems
whose implementation would contribute to the sustainability of the case study
road.

The study is beneficial for academicians and researchers who conduct

similar researches on other road drainage system, soil conservation strategies,
erosion and scouring prevention mechanisms and degradations of the stream
channel.

1.4 Research questions

The fundamental questions that are addressed and investigate are:

What are the major causes of drainage system that affect the road segment?

What is the hydrological condition of the existing road drainage system of

the study area?

1.5 Objectives
The main Objectives of the research study are as follows:

To identify the major cause of the road damages which was affected by
drainage problem.

To evaluate the hydrological condition of the existing road drainage system
in the study area.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The thesis is limited to the Causes and effects of poor drainage system
on the asphalt pavement of road layer and proposing mitigation measures of the
problem that are finding only on drainage system. This research also concentrate
on the effects water has on the road due to poor drainage. It would look at the
various steps that should be taken so as to ensure sufficient drainage system and
how water causes increase in moisture content which eventually decreases the
strength of the road and subsequently, road deterioration. The research does not
include structural design of all types of drainage system except proposing the type
and size of the required drainage system.

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1.7 Structure of the Research
The structure of research is as follow:
CHAPTER ONE content to: INTRODUCTION (Background ، Statement of
the problems ، Significance of the study ، Research questions ، Objectives and
Scope and Limitation of the Study.
CHAPTER TWO: content LITERATURE REVIEW (Introduction ، Road
Surface Drainage، Shoulders ،Cross slope ، longitudinal drainage ،Subsurface
drainage systems (culverts،Alignment of Drainage System، Description and
Function of Road Drainage System ، Description of Road Drainage Systems ،
Functions of Road Drainage Systems ، Failures of Road Drainage System ،
Effects of Drainage on Roads، Culverts ، Components of a road and pavement
drainage system ،Necessities to Construct Drainage System ،The Criteria for
Roadside Channels ، Design Flood for Road Drainage System ، Flow Velocity in
Road Drainage System ، Hydrological Analysis and Hydrological Equations for
Determining Peak Flood.
CHAPTER THREE: content to METHODOLOGY (Research Methodologies
، Study Area ، Study period،Research design ، Study population ، Sample size and
sampling procedures ،Study variables،Data collection process ، Data processing
and analysis ، Ethical considerations ، Data quality assurance ، Limitations of the
study and Rational Method
CHAPTER FOUR: content to RESULT AND DISCUSSION (Results from
analysis، Causes and effects of drainage system on asphalt road that response
from the Engineers ،Results from observation and photography
، Investigations of Design and Construction Performs on the study area، Results
from Hydrological Analysis and Peak Discharge Computation
CHAPTER FIVE: content to CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
(Conclusion and Recommendation)

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 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General Description of Road Drainage Systems

This aspect of the study review the various literatures related to the topic
under considerations in order to uncover critical facts and findings which have
already been identified by previous researchers and numerous studying in and
around the cause of drainage system and their problems. Road drainage systems
that cross the rivers and valleys are vital components of the road network that
contributes greatly to the national development and public daily life.

Any damage or failure of this highway drainage system can cause the risk of the
lives of road users as well as create serious influence to the entire country
economic development.

The reconstruction of this road drainage system needs considerable

amount of skilled work force, money and time. Road drainage systems are
essential components during the design development of road infrastructures.
Drainage structures intended to allow the runoff of any flow of water with limited
damages and disturbances to the road and to the surrounding areas. (ERA, manual
2002).

The two main types of water flows that can be considered are the flows
that usually crossing the area that could be diverted by the presence of the road,
and the flows generated by the runoff of the rainwater falling on the carriageway
and its surroundings. The basic design techniques in roadway drainage system
should be developed for economic design of surface drainage system including
ditches, culverts and bridges (ERA manual, 2002). A hydraulic investigation and
analysis of both the upstream and downstream reaches of the watercourse is
necessary to determine the best location, size, and elevation of the proposed
crossroad structure, whether a culvert. The investigation should ensure that any
roadway system or roadway embankment that encroaches on or crosses the flood
plain of a watercourse would not cause significant adverse effect to the flood
plain and would be capable of withstanding the flood flow with minimal damage.
It is significant to provide attention during design of the magnitude, frequency
and appropriate water surface elevations for the design flood, the 100-year flood,
and the overtopping or 500-year flood for all structures (ADOT, 2007).

A drainage system includes the pavement and the water handling system. They
must be properly designed, built, and maintained. The water handling system

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includes: road surface, shoulders, drains and culverts; curb, gutter and storm
sewer. When a road fails, whether it's concrete, asphalt or gravel, inadequate
drainage often is a major factor. Design can direct water back into the road or
keep it from draining away.

2.2 Road Surface Drainage

Removal and diversion of surface water from the roadway and adjoining
land is termed as surface drainage. The surface water is to be collected and the
disposed of. The water is first collected in longitudinal drains, generally in side
drains and then the water is disposed of at the nearest stream, valley or water
course. Cross drainage structures like culverts may be necessary for the disposal
of surface water from the road side drains.
If surface water infiltrates into the road body, it reduces the load bearing capacity
of the pavement, which may cause further damage of the road. To minimize these
problems, it is important to secure adequate drainage of the road surface.
According to ERA geometric design manual (ERA GDM, 2011) the normal
cross-slope is not less than 3% in order to dispose water from the roadway
quickly that minimize infiltration of water into the roadway. If the cross-slope is
less, water will get time to infiltrate into the roadway and the elements of road
surface drainage.

2.2.1 Shoulders
Shoulders help provide lateral support for the pavement, carry water
from the pavement to ditches, and give vehicles a place to go if they lose control
or need to stop in an emergency show figure 2.1. For drainage they need to be
slightly steeper than the pavement and should be able to withstand occasional
traffic. Erosion and washing of shoulders is a major problem and should be
addressed by using less erosive material on the surface.

Figure: 2.1: Shoulders

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2.2.2 Cross slope
Cross slope is provided to provide a drainage gradient so that water would
run off the surface to a drainage system such as a street gutter or ditch. Water
would flow faster on a paved surface. Therefore the slope of a road surface does
not need to be steep. The cross slope should not be too steep. If it is, the water
running off the side would start eroding the shoulder and sides of the road.

2.2.3 Longitudinal drainage

Main objective of longitudinal drainage is collection and removal of
water that is on the road and immediate surrounding or water from adjacent areas.
It's fundamental for maintaining safety of traffic by eliminating water from the
road surface at the same point reducing the possibility of water infiltrating into
the road and pavement layers or foundation which may lead to deterioration.
Longitudinal surface drainage systems include gutters, channels, ditches,
permeable land surface and swales complemented by their respective manholes,
retain facilities and catch basins.

2.3 Subsurface drainage systems.

Subsurface drainage systems drain water that has infiltrated through the
pavement and the inner slope but also groundwater. Subsurface drainage systems
are directly linked to surface drainage systems. According to the SRA (15)
handbook, culverts are road constructions with a theoretical span of ≤ 2.0 m.
Culverts have an open inlet and outlet and conduct water underneath a road. The
need for subsurface drains as alternatives to open drains depends on site
conditions. Subsurface drainage consists of three basic elements. A permeable
base which is required to provide for rapid removal of water which enters the
road structure, a method of conveying the removed water away from the road
structure and this may consist of a base sloped towards a drainage ditch. At the
most, this may consist of a pipe collector system and a filter layer to prevent the
migration of fines into the permeable base from the sub grade, sub base or
shoulder base material.

2.4 Alignment of Drainage System

Alignment deals with the design of the directional transition of the
highway in a horizontal plane and vertical plane. A horizontal alignment consists,
in its most basic form, of a horizontal arc and two transition curves forming a
curve which joins two straights. Culverts that have internal diameter less than or
equal to 1.22m are minor drainage System. The vertical alignment of a culvert
with respect to the stream channel is important to its hydraulic performance, to

8
stream stability, to construction and maintenance costs, and to the safety &
integrity of the roadway. Proper alignment is also particular importance to
prevent outlet scour or excessive sediment build up in the road According to ERA
geometric design manual (ERA, 2011).

2.5 Description and Function of Road Drainage System

Storm drainage facilities consist of curbs, gutters, inlets, storm drains,
ditches, and culverts.

The placement and hydraulic capacities of storm drainage structures and

conveyances should be designed to avoid/minimize damage to adjacent property
and secure a low degree of risk of traffic interruption by flooding. Different types
of structures are employed in the drainage systems (ERA, 2002).

2.5.1 Description of Road Drainage Systems

Two different types of drainage systems commonly used to direct water
from the area surrounding the road and to evacuate extra water from the road
structures. These are surface and sub-surface systems.

A surface drainage system collects and diverts storm water from the
road surface and adjoining areas to avoid flooding. It decreases the possibility of
water infiltration into the road and retains the road bearing capacity. Appropriate
design of the surface drainage system is an essential part of road design (GDD
2011). Sub-surface drainage systems drain water that has infiltrated through the
pavement and the inner slope but also ground water.

2.5.2 Functions of Road Drainage Systems

Drainage systems collect, transport, and dispose of surface/sub-surface
water originating on or near the roadway right of way or flowing in streams
crossing bordering the right of way. It prevents erosion of the back slope by
runoff from the hill above. It intercepts water, not allowing it to enter side drain
that may cause greater discharge in side drains.

2.6 Failures of Road Drainage System

The roadway shall not obstruct the general flow of surface water or
stream water in any unreasonable manner to cause an unnecessary accumulation
either of water flooding or water saturated uplands, or an unreasonable
accumulation and discharge of surface water flooding or water saturated
lowlands. The failure of road occurred on Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex

9
Township paved road. Due to inadequate capacity of the drainage. If the failure is
sudden and catastrophic, it can result in injury or loss of life and property.

2.7 Effects of Drainage system on Roads

An appropriate understanding of the dynamics of water flow in roads is
important for many reasons. It is well known that the rate of road deterioration
increases if the water content of the granular material increases. Presents no less
than six adverse effects related to excess water: reduction of shear strength of
unbound materials, differential swelling on expansive sub grade soils, movement
of unbound fines in flexible pavement base and sub base layers, pumping of fines
and durability cracking in rigid pavements, frost-heave and thaw weakening, and
stripping of asphalt in flexible pavements. In a recently performed accelerated
load test, used a Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) to show that the rate of rutting
increased in all layers of a flexible construction when the ground water table was
raised. On the positive side, ensuring proper (optimal) water content greatly
improves packing of the road during construction, and may also increase its
resilience when trafficked, even though this effect is often neglected. In
conclusion, initially maintaining adequate water contents in asphalt road materials
is beneficial but if the water content increases with time, negative effects will
most likely emerge. It is generally desired to keep the road as close to or less than
optimum water content as possible over time. „Water and road construction do
not make for a harmonious couple! ‟ from this it can be seen that there is a very
serious effect of poor drainage on the condition of roads. The different effects of
water on roads which are supplemented with the case studies. Upper Atbara and
Setit Dam Complex Township paved road. Having inadequate drainage systems,
deterioration often begins with the origin of cracks or pot holes on the road
pavements either at the edges along the drive way which differs by their shapes,
configuration, amplitude of loading, movement of traffic and rate of deformation
show figure 2.2.

Figure: 2.2: Effects of Drainage system on Roads

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2.8 By drainage effects of water on road
Softening and reducing the load carrying ability of sub grades and
shoulders; increasing the disintegration of pavements and gravel surfaces;

Eroding roadside surfaces; Depositing sediment and debris in ditches, pipes ,

catch basins and waterways; and contributing to frost heaves and spring break-
up. Creating driving hazards for passengers. Damaging adjacent property.

2.9 Culverts
Culverts are shallow passages that are fitted under roads that allow
water to pass beneath them. They can be made of either steel, plastic or concrete.
A culvert helps move water under a road or driveway to a stream, lake or
detention basin. The purpose of culverts is to safely convey water from one side
of the road way to the other show figure 2.3. The water may be from natural
streams or runoff surface water from the road structure or areas close to the road.
A culvert must be durable and have sufficient hydraulic capacity to carry a
predetermined quantity of water for a given time (NAAS, 1986). Generally,
drainage structures designed to prevent road damage during the most usual floods
such as annual, 10-year, 25-year 50-year or 100-year flood, depending on the
importance of the road and the type of structures (ERA, 2002) and to minimize
the modifications in the hydrology of the area. Culverts conveying cross drainage
flow from outside should be located on the natural drainage path of the flow.
When the natural drainage path of the flow is a wide overland flow area, the
designer should evaluate the need for multiple culverts in order to prevent
concentrated flow at a single location. The proposed cross culvert must be aligned
with upstream and downstream channels. Culverts are the most common cross
drainage structures used on roads. They are built using a variety of materials, in
different shapes and sizes, depending on the preferred design and construction
practices. Culverts are required in order to (i) allow natural streams to cross the
road, and (ii) discharge surface water from drains and the areas adjacent to the
road. Culverts form an essential part of the drainage system on most roads.
Culverts are constructed using different materials. The most common practice of
culverts is based on the use of pre-cast concrete pipes, in-situ concrete boxes and
corrugated steel pipes culverts. The box culvert is generally built with 1 to 3 cells
of width 1m to 3m and the pipe culvert is built with 1 to 3 rows of pipes with
diameters commonly ranging from 0.6m to 1m. Wing walls and aprons of
concrete or stone pitching are used to protect the culverts from water flow erosion
and scouring at upstream side. Culverts should slope enough so water will flow
(NCHRP, (1997)).

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Culvert drainage structures shall be adequate to avoid hazardous flooding and
failures of road or embankment structures. Poorly designed culverts are also more
appropriate to become blocked with sediment and debris during medium to large-
scale rain events.

This can cause the road to fail, often introducing a large amount of fine
sediment that can clog other structures downstream and also damage crops and
property. Hard bank armoring and a proper sized structure can help to alleviate
this pressure.

Providing scour protections are important at both inlet and outlet for all
culverts to protect the structure from damage. Providing rock armor is significant
protection measure of scour for inlets and outlets of culverts. Moreover,
headwalls and end walls utilized to control erosion and scour, to anchor the
culvert against lateral pressures, and to ensure bank stability. Constructing all
headwalls from reinforced concrete material is significant and may be straight and
parallel to the channel, however, flared or warped, with or without aprons is
possible when the site and hydraulic conditions permit.

To prevent the possible piping failure, cement stabilized fill can be used to form
the culvert invert bedding for a suitable length. These measures found to perform
well in clayey/silt/sandy soils (ERA manual 2002).

Figure: 2.3: Culverts

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2.10 Components of a road and pavement drainage system.
Drainage system on a given road and pavement is made up of various
components, which are supposed to conduct the water to appropriate discharge
points. It is important that components of a drainage system work well together.
If one component of the drainage system breaks down, it will not only
compromise drainage in that specific location, but may lead to overloading other
drainage components which in turn may lead to more damage of roads due to
flooding. Less effective components will show signs of its shortcomings through
excessive scoring, accumulation of silt or entire washouts.

2.10.1 Ditches
Ditches carry water away from the roadway and into streams or other
natural waterways. To do this, ditches must be properly shaped for safety,
maintenance, water flow, and erosion control. The ditch should be at least one
foot below the bottom of the gravel base in order to drain the pavement. Ditches
should extend to shoulders with smooth transition to fore slope show figure 2.4.
A well maintained, smooth flowing ditch will be free of heavy vegetation (tall
grass) and standing water, with enough grades to ensure self-cleaning and
continuous flow.

Figure: 2.4: Ditches

2.10.2 Erosion Control in Ditches

A ditch should be built to channel water away from the road system
without creating erosion. The need for erosion protection should be evaluated for
all channel and ditch designs. A channel lining is required when the design
discharge velocity exceeds the scour velocity for a grassed ditch or standing water
resulting from flat ditch slopes. Paved ditches are discouraged from use as a
channel lining; it is recommended that the designer use articulated concrete block
revetment systems (HDM (Highway Design Manual), 2013).

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2.11 Necessities to Construct Drainage System
A complete drainage system design includes consideration of both major
and minor drainage systems. The minor system, sometimes referred to as the
"Convenience" system, consists of the components that historically considered as
part of the "storm drainage system". These components include curbs, gutters,
ditches, inlets, access holes, pipes and other conduits, open channels, detention
basins, and water quality control facilities (Achleitner S. (2006). According to
HEC (Hydrologic Engineering Centre) No. 22(10), the minor system normally
designed to carry runoff from 10-year frequency storm events (FHWA (Federal
Highway Administration), 2001).

Avoiding of improper alignment of drainage structures is significant in

order to avoid hazardous problems of traffic and damage of foundations,
abutments and piers of structures. Cross currents of stream and river flows are the
causes of damage foundations, abutments and piers of drainage structures.
Narrow sections and hard basement are important during construction of drainage
structures in order to minimize the cost of construction with the exception of
excavation cost. Constructing drainage configurations on hard basement avoids
washing problem.

2.12 The Criteria for Roadside Channels

Roadside channels and median channels are part of the storm drain
system and are commonly used with uncurbed roadway sections to convey runoff
from the road pavement and from areas which drain toward the road. These
channels also provide temporary storage of storm water to prevent serious
inundation problems during major storms (Manual, 2002).

In Ethiopia, the design discharge frequency for permanent roadside

ditch linings should be according to the values that are presented in Appendix B
of Table 8 and channel side slopes should not exceed the angle of repose of the
soil and/or lining should be 2:1 or flatter in the case of rock riprap lining. Stone
pitching or grouted riprap must be used for channel side slopes steeper than 2:1

2.13 Design Flood for Road Drainage System

Drainage works designed for storms having a recurrence interval of at least
that are presented in Appendix B of Table 7. Moreover, all bridges and major
culverts checked for performance under a storm event less frequent than the
design storm events that are presented in Appendix B of Table 7.All other
drainage structures checked for the storm having the next lower frequency than

14
the design storm event. Minor culverts designed for a 10-year storm and checked
for adequate performance with a 25-year interval storm event.

2.14 Flow Velocity in Road Drainage System

The introduction of a culvert to convey the stream flow beneath a
roadway can cause an increase in flow velocity downstream of the structure. The
increased flow velocity may be sufficient to cause erosion and degradation of the
channel profile. This effect can be detrimental to downstream land users and to
the culvert itself. If the natural stream velocity exceeds the erosive velocity, then
the increased velocity at the culvert outfall will accelerate this naturally occurring
process. Erosive velocity must be avoided to protect lower lands and the roadway
embankment. The flow velocity at the outlet of the roadway drainage works shall
not exceed the erosive velocity of the channel or the natural velocity of the
channel, whichever is greater.

2.15 Hydrological Analysis

A hydrologic analysis is prerequisite to identifying flood hazard areas
and determining those locations where construction and maintenance would be
unusually expensive or hazardous. Since many levels of government plan, design,
and construct highway and water resource projects that might affect each other,
interagency coordination is desirable and often necessary. In addition, agencies
can share data and experiences within project areas to assist in the completion of
accurate hydrologic analysis. The analysis of the peak rate of runoff, volume of
runoff, and time distribution of flow is fundamental to the design of drainage
system. Errors in the estimates would result in a structure that is either undersized
and causes more drainage problems or oversized and costs more than necessary.
On the other hand, it must be realized that any hydrologic analysis is only an
approximation. The relationship between the amount of precipitation on a
drainage basin and the amount of runoff from the basin is complex, and too little
data are available on the factors influencing the rural and urban rainfall-runoff
relationship to expect exact solutions. The hydrological information required for
estimating the design floods are obtained from previous studies, ERA drainage
design manual IDF (Intensity-Duration-Frequency) Curves, and topographic map
of the study area. ERA classified rainfall regions in to four major rainfall regions
and eight sub-rainfall regions in the country and developed IDF curves. The
already developed regionalized IDF curve by ERA is used to determine rainfall
intensity. ERA developed four IDF curves for rainfall regions in the country. The
developed curves are for A1&A4, A2&A3, B, C & D Lake Tana rainfall regions.
The study area lies on sub-region B1 and the IDF curve was constructed for B, C

15
Therefore, I used the rainfall intensity from the ID curve for the corresponding
return period (from Ethiopian national methodology).

2.16 Hydrological Equations for Determining Peak Flood.

In the design of drainage facilities, the basic computation is the
determination of runoff. This can be done by either of two methods: the Rational
Method or the SCS (Soil Conservation Service) Method. In most cases rational
and soil conservation service, (SCS) methods of flood estimation are applied for
minor drainage structures due to unavailability of gauged data. Base on the
aforementioned concepts, rational and SCS.

2.16.1 Rational Method

Rational formula method is recommended to determine the peak
discharge, or runoff rate, from drainage areas up to 0.5km2. If a hydrograph is
required to consider the effects of storage, use the Modified Soil Cover Complex
method, or a similar method. Among a number of methods for estimating a
design discharge, the rational formula is an empirical formula relating runoff to
rainfall intensity. According to ERA drainage design manual 2002 and AASHTO
1990, the rational formula is most accurate for estimating the design peak runoff
for small catchment areas of up to (0.5km2). Actual runoff is far more
complicated than the values that are calculated by rational formula. Rainfall
intensity is seldom the same over an area of appreciable size or for any substantial
length of time during the same storm. Even if a uniform intensity of rainfall of
duration equal to the time of concentration that occurs on all parts of the drainage
area, the rate of runoff would vary in different parts of the area because of
differences in the characteristics of the land surface and the non-uniformity of
antecedent conditions. However, for this thesis, the same characteristics of the
land surface and uniform antecedent conditions are considered. Under some
conditions, maximum rate of runoff occurs before all of the drainage areas are
contributing. Temporary storage of storm water routing toward defined channels
and within the channels themselves accounts considerable reduction in the peak
rate of flow except on very small areas. Due to these facts, for this thesis the
rational method is not used to determine the rate of runoff for large drainage
areas. For the design of highway drainage structures, the use of the rational
method should be restricted to drainage areas up to 0.5km2 in upper Atbara dam.
Hence, for this thesis the maximum value of the catchment area, 0.5km2, is
considered (ERA DDM (Drainage Design Manual).

16
 Characteristics of the Rational Method that generally limit its use to 0.5km2
include:

(1) The rate of runoff resulting from any rainfall intensity is a maximum when the
rainfall intensity lasts as long as or longer than the time of concentration. That is,
the entire catchment area does not contribute to the peak discharge until the time
of concentration has elapsed.

(2) The frequency of peak discharges is the same as that of the rainfall intensity
for the given time of concentration. Frequencies of peak discharges depend on
rainfall frequencies, antecedent moisture conditions in the catchment area, and the
response characteristics of the drainage system. For small and largely impervious
areas, rainfall frequency is the dominant factor.

(3) The fraction of rainfall that becomes runoff (C) is independent of rainfall
intensity or volume.

This assumption is only reasonable for impervious areas, such as streets, rooftops,
and parking lots. For pervious areas, the fraction of runoff does vary with rainfall
intensity and the accumulated volume of rainfall.

(4) The peak rate of runoff is sufficient information for the design. Modern
drainage practice includes detention of urban storm runoff to reduce the peak rate
of runoff downstream. Using only the peak rate of runoff, the Rational Method
severely limits the evaluation of design alternatives available in urban and in
some instances, rural drainage design.

Equation: The rational formula estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location
in a catchment area as a function of the catchment area, runoff coefficient and
means rainfall intensity for duration equal to the time of concentration (the time
required for water to flow from the most remote point of the basin to the location
being analyzed). The rational formula is expressed as:

Q = 0.00278CIA (2.1)
Where:

Q = Peak flow in cubic meter per second (m3/sec)

C= Dimensionless weighted runoff coefficient

I= Rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour (mm/hr.)

A= Drainage area in hectares (ha)

17
 The basic assumptions in rational method to determine peak flood are:
1. The peak rate of runoff at any point is a direct function of the average rainfall
intensity for the time of concentration to that point.

2. The recurrence interval of the peak discharge is the same as the recurrence
interval of the average rainfall intensity.

3. The time of concentration is the time required for the runoff established and
flow from the most distant point of the drainage area to the point of discharge.

The main reason that is required to limit the use of rational method for small
watersheds pertains to the assumption that rainfall is constant throughout the
entire watershed. Severe storms, say a 10-year return period, generally cover a
very small area. Applying the high intensity corresponding to a 10-year storm to
the entire watershed could produce greatly exaggerated flows, as only a fraction
of the area may be experiencing such intensity at any given time.

The variability of the runoff coefficient also favors the application of the rational
method to small and developed watersheds.

The procedures in rational method to determine peak flood are:

1. Obtain the necessary information for each sub area:

i. Drainage area

ii. Land use

iii. Soil types

iv. Distance from the farthest point of the drainage area to the point of discharge

v. Difference in elevation from the farthest point of the drainage area to the point
of discharge

2. Determine the time of concentration for the selected recurrence interval with
duration equal to the time of concentration

3. Determine the rainfall intensity for the selected recurrence intervals

4. Select the appropriate runoff coefficient

5. Compute the design flow (Q= 0.00278CIA)

18
2.16.1.1 Runoff Coefficient
The runoff coefficient (C) is the variable of the Rational Method least
susceptible to precise determination and requires judgment and understanding on
the part of the designer. A typical coefficient represents the integrated effects of
many drainage basin parameters.

The most common definition of a runoff coefficient is the ratio of the

peak rate of direct runoff to the average intensity of rainfall in a storm (Chow et
al., 1988). The runoff coefficient is a dimensionless ratio intended to indicate the
amount of runoff generated by a watershed given an average intensity of
precipitation for a storm. While it is implied by the rational method, intensity of
runoff is proportional to intensity of rainfall; calibration of the runoff coefficient
has usually depended on comparing the total depth of runoff with the total depth
of precipitation.

The runoff coefficient accounts for the effects of infiltration, detention

storage, surface retention, surface retention, flow routing and interception. The
product of runoff coefficient and rainfall intensity is the rainfall excess of runoff
per hectare. The runoff coefficient should be weighted to reflect the different
conditions that exist within a watershed.

Cw = (A1C1 + A2C2 +---+ AnCn) / (A1 + A2 +---+ An) (2.2)

Cw =Weighted Runoff Coefficient

C1, C2, --------Cn= coefficient of runoff for parts of the drainage area.

A1, A2, ------, An= parts of drainage areas with different runoff coefficients.

2.16.1.2 Rainfall Intensity

To determine the maximum discharge from a watershed, for a given
storm frequency and duration, the designer should use the rain fall intensity for
which the drainage area will yield the greatest peak discharge. The rainfall
intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr. for duration equal to the time of
concentration for a selected return period. Once a particular return period has
been selected for design and a time of concentration calculated for the catchment
area, the rainfall intensity can be determined from Rainfall-Intensity-Duration
curves. (ERA DDM 2002).

Rainfall intensity is a function of geographic location, design exceedence

frequency (or return interval), and storm duration. It is true that the greater the
return interval (hence, the lower the exceedence frequency), the greater the

19
precipitation intensity for a given storm duration. Furthermore, as storm duration
increases average precipitation intensity decreases.

The relation between storm duration, storm intensity, and storm return interval, is
represented by a family of curves called the intensity-duration-frequency curves,
or IDF) curves. Quantification of rainfall is generally carried out using is pluvial
(Return Period) maps and intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves (Chow et al.,
1988). Various rainfall contour maps developed to provide the design rain depths
for various return periods and durations (Hersh field, 1961). The IDF relationship
is a mathematical relationship between the rainfall intensity, the duration, and the
return period for this research, ERA regionalized IDF curves are used to quantify
rainfall.

2.16.1.3 Time of Concentration

The time of concentration is the time required for water to flow from the
hydraulically most remote point of the catchment area to the point under
investigation. Use of the Rational Method requires the time of concentration (Tc)
for each design point within the catchment area. The duration of rainfall is then
set equal to the time of concentration and is used to estimate the design average
rainfall intensity (I). The time of concentration of a watershed is often defined to
be the time required for a parcel of runoff to travel from the most hydraulically
distant part of a watershed to the outlet. It is not possible to point to a particular
point on a watershed and say, “the time of concentration is measured from this
point”. Neither it is possible to measure the time of concentration. Instead, the
concept of time concentration is useful for describing the time response of a
watershed to a driving impulse, namely that of watershed runoff.

The velocity of flow depends on the catchment characteristics and slope of the
watercourse. It is estimated from appendix A on Figure 7, according to ERA
drainage design manual 2011 for LVRs. The design return periods are taken from
Appendix B in Table 7.

To determine time of concentration for over land flow there are many formula.
Among these the Kerby and Kirpich formula are presented and for defined flow
(Channel flow), U.S. SCS formula is presented.

20
Tc = 0.604[RL/S0.5] 0.467 (2.3) Kerby Formula

Where: Tc – Time of concentration in hours

L – Length of overland flow in kilometers

S – Slope in m/m

R – Roughness coefficient

Tc = 0.0013*M*(L^0.77/S^0.385) (2.4) Kirpich Formula

Where:

Tc – Time of concentration in hours

L – Length of overland flow in kilometers

S – Slope in m/m

m- Earth type coefficient

(m=1 for bare earth, m=2 for grass and m=0.4 for asphalt).

2.16.1.4 Catchment Area

Catchment area regression equations shall be used for all routine designs at
sites where applicable; Catchment area can be determined from topographic maps
and field surveys. For this thesis, the catchment area is determined from
topographic map of the study area. For large catchment areas, it is necessary to
divide the area into sub-catchment areas to account for major land use changes,
obtain analysis results at different points within the catchment area, or locate
drainage structures and investigate their effects on the flood flows.

2.16.2 The SCS method

The SCS runoff equation was developed to estimate total storm runoff
from total storm rainfall (NRCS, 2004) that is, the relationship excludes time as a
variable The SCS method for calculating rates of runoff requires much of the
same basic data as the rational method namely catchment area, a runoff factor
(curve number), time of concentration, and rainfall. However, the SCS method
also considers the time distribution of the rainfall, the initial rainfall losses to
interception and storage, and an infiltration rate that decreases during the course
of a storm. It is therefore, potentially more accurate than the rational method and
is applicable when the catchment area is larger than 0.5km2 (ERA, 2011).

21
2.16.2.1 Catchment Area
Catchment area regression equations shall be used for all routine designs
at sites where applicable; In general, the catchment area can be determined from
topographic maps and field surveys. However, for large catchment areas, it is
necessary to divide the area into sub-catchment areas to account for major land
use changes. Locate storm water drainage structures and assess their effects on
the flood flows. A field inspection of existing or proposed drainage systems shall
be made to determine if the natural drainage divides have been altered. These
alterations could make significant changes in the size and slope of the sub
catchment areas.

2.16.2.2 Rainfall-Runoff Equation

The SCS method is based on a 24-hour storm event. The characteristics
of storms defined in terms of the relationship between the percentages of the total
storm rainfall that has fallen as a function of time. Three basic types of storm are
defined for three levels of maximum intensity, Type one being the least intense
and Type three being the most intense. In Ethiopia, according to ERA drainage
design manual a Type two distribution is used (ERA, 2002). It is applicable for
interior rather than the coastal regions. Hence, type two distributions are
appropriate for Ethiopia (ERA, 2002) and so for the study area. The SCS 24-hour
storm distributions are based on the generalized rainfall depth-duration-frequency
relationships collected for rainfall events lasting from 30 minutes up to 24 hours.
Working in 30-minute increments, the rainfall depths are arranged with the
maximum rainfall depth assumed to occur in the middle of the 24-hour period.
The next largest 30-minute incremental depth occurs just after the maximum
depth; the third largest rainfall depth occurs just prior to the maximum depth, etc.
This continues with each decreasing 30-minute incremental depth until the
smaller increments fall at the beginning and end of the 24-hour rainfall. A
relationship between accumulated rainfall and accumulated runoff derived by
SCS for numerous hydrologic and vegetative cover conditions are important for
peak discharge determination. The storm data included total amount of rainfall in
a calendar day but not its distribution with respect to time. The SCS runoff
equation is therefore a method of estimating direct runoff from 24-hour storm
rainfall (ERA DDM).

Q= (P-Ia) ^2/ (P-Ia) +S (2.5)

For P>0.2S

Q =0 for P≤0.2S

22
Where:
Q = accumulated direct runoff, mm.

P = accumulated rainfall (i.e., the potential maximum runoff), mm.

Ia = initial abstraction (surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior to

runoff), mm.

S = potential maximum retention, mm.

S is a site index defined as the maximum possible difference between P and Q as

P⇒∞, P-Ia is called “effective rainfall”. It is related to the soil and cover
conditions of the catchment area through the curve numbers. The curve number is
a transformation of potential maximum retention (NRCS, 2004).

CN=1000/(S/25.4) +10 (2.6a)

S=25.4*((1000/CN)-10) (2.6b)

S is millimeter

CN=1000/ (10+S) (2.6c)

S is in inches

The relationship between Ia and S was found to be;

Ia= 0.2S (2.7a)

Substituting into (3.7a)

Ia = 50.8((100/CN)-1) (2.7b)

Q = [P – 50.8(100/CN - 1)] 2/ [P + 203.2(100/CN - 1)] (2.8)

2.16.2.3 Time of Concentration

Time of concentration is the time it takes water to flow from the edge of
the catchment area to the point of interest. It is a combination of three values in
SCS method of determining peak flow rate.

A. Sheet flow,

B. Shallow concentrated flow, and

C. Open channel flow

23
The type that occurs is a function of the conveyance system and is determined by
field inspection. It is often a combination of these flows so that the total travel
time is the sum of the time taken for the water to pass through all of the segments
of the catchment. Travel time is the ratio of flow length to flow velocity:

T = L/ (3600V) (2.9)

Where:

T = travel time, hr

L = flow length, m

V = average velocity, m/s

The U.S. SCS formula to estimate time of concentration is:

Tc=((.87L^2)/1000Sav)^.385 (2.10)

Where:

Tc – Time of concentration in hours

Sav – Average slope in m/m

L – Hydraulic length of catchment along the flow path from the catchment
boundary to the place where the flood needs to be determined (km).

Travel time is the time it takes water to travel from one location to another in a
catchment area.

Tt is a component of time of concentration.

Tc=Tt1+Tt2+----+Ttm (2.11)

1. Sheet Flow
In sheet flow, travel time is determined by Manning's kinematic solution. The

Manning's kinematic solution is expressed as:

Tt=[0.091(nL)^0.8/(P2)^0.5*S^0.4] (2.12)

Where:
Tt=travel time, hr

24
n= Manning's roughness coefficient

L=flow length, m

P2 = 2-year, 24-hour rainfall, mm

S = Slope of hydraulic grade line (land slope), m/m

According to ERA DDM 2002, the Manning's kinematic solution is based on the
following criteria:

i. Shallow steady uniform flow

ii. Constant intensity of rainfall excess

iii. Rainfall duration of 24-hours

iv. Minor effect of infiltration on travel time

2. Shallow Concentrated Flow

After a maximum of 100 meters, sheet flow usually becomes shallow

concentrated flow (ERA DDM, 2002). The average velocity for this can be
determined by the following formulae according to the type of surface which
water flows i.e. paved and unpaved. In these formulae, average velocity is a
function of watercourse slope and type of channel.

Unpaved Surface: V= 4.9178(S) ^ 0.5

Paved Surface: V= 6.1961(S) ^ 0.5 (2.13)

According to ERA DDM 2002 these two formulae are based on the solution of
Manning's equation with different assumptions for n (Manning's roughness
coefficient) and R (hydraulic radius, meter). According to the ERA DDM 2002
for unpaved areas, the value of n is 0.05 and R is 0.12; for paved areas, the value
of n is 0.025 and R is 0.06.

After determining average velocity, equation (3.9) is used to estimate travel time
for the shallow concentrated flow segment.

3. Open Channel Flow

Open channels are assumed to begin where surveyed cross section
information has been obtained, where channels are visible on aerial photographs,
or where blue lines (including streams) appear on Ethiopian Mapping Agency
(EMA) topographic maps

25
(1:50,000). Average velocity is usually determined for bank-full elevation.
Manning's equation or water profile information used to estimate average flow
velocity. When the channel section and roughness coefficient are available, then
the average velocity can be calculated by using Manning's equation. For this
thesis, topographic map of the study area was used that was produced in 1:50,000
scale.

V = (R^2/3S^1/2)/n (2.14)

R = A/P
After average velocity is calculated, Tt is calculated by using equation (2.9)

Tc=Tt1+Tt2+Tt3 (2.15)

Where,
Tt1=travel time for sheet flow

Tt2=travel time for shallow concentrated flow

Tt3 =travel time for open channel flow

Using the calculated time of concentration, unit peak discharge is obtained from
Appendix A on Figure 5. After unit peak discharge is obtained, design peak
discharge is determined using the formula:

Design Peak Discharge, Qp = Qu*Q*A (2.16)

Where,

Qp = Design Peak Discharge, m3/sec

Qu =Unit Peak Discharge, m3/sec/100ha/mm

Q = Direct Runoff, mm

A = Area of the catchment, ha

26
2.16.2.4 Runoff and Curve Numbers
The physical catchment area characteristics affecting the relationship
between rainfall and runoff (i.e. the CN values) are land use, land treatment, soil
types, and land slope. Land use is the catchment area cover and it includes
agricultural characteristics, type of vegetation, water surfaces, roads and roofs.
Land treatment applies mainly to agricultural land use, and it includes mechanical
practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices such as
rotation of crops. The SCS method uses a combination of soil conditions and
land-use to assign a runoff factor (curve number) to an area. These runoff factors
or curve numbers (CN), indicate the runoff potential of an area. The higher the
CN, the higher is the runoff potential.

To describe these curves mathematically, SCS assumed that the ratio of

actual retention to potential maximum retention is equal to the ratio of actual
runoff to potential maximum runoff, the latter being rainfall minus initial
abstraction. In mathematical form, this empirical relationship is:

F/S=Q/P-Ia (2.17)

Where,

F = actual retention (mm)

S = potential maximum retention (mm)

Q = accumulated runoff depth (mm)

P = accumulated rainfall depth (mm)

Ia = initial abstraction (mm)

After runoff has started, all additional rainfall becomes either runoff or actual
retention (i.e. the actual retention is the difference between rainfall minus initial
abstraction and runoff).

F=P-Ia-Q (2.18)

The potential maximum retention S has been converted to the Curve

Number CN in order to make the operations of interpolating, averaging, and
weighting more nearly linear. This relationship is
CN=25400/254+S (2.19)

Zero potential maximum retention (S=0 or CN=100) represents an impermeable

watershed; CN = 0 represents a mathematical upper bound to the potential

27
maximum retention (S = ∞), which is an infinitely abstracting watershed. As the
potential maximum retention (S) can theoretically vary between zero and infinity
(2.18) shows that the Curve Number, CN, can range from one hundred to zero.
For highly permeable, flat-lying soils, S will go to infinity and CN will be zero;
all rainfall will infiltrate and there will be no runoff. In drainage basins, the reality
will be somewhere in between. Therefore, equation (2.7b) and (2.8) will be
defined.

The curve number method was developed with daily rainfall data measured with
non-recording gauges. The relationship therefore excludes time as an explicit
variable (i.e. rainfall intensity is not included in the estimate of runoff depth)
soils.

2.16.2.5 Hydrological Soil Groups

Group A Soils having low runoff potential and high infiltration rates even when
thoroughly wetted (low runoff potential). These consist chiefly of deep, well to
excessively drained sands or gravels. These soils have a high rate of water
transmission in that water readily passes through them (> 0.30 in/hr.). (NRCS,
2007).

Group B Soils having moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted. These
consist chiefly of moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well drained soils
with moderately fine to moderately coarse textures. These soils have a moderate
rate of water transmission (0.15 to 0.30 in/hr). (NRCS, 2007).

Group C Soils having low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted. These
consist chiefly of soils with a layer that impedes downward movement of water or
soils with moderately fine to fine texture. These soils have a slow rate of water
transmission (0.05 to 0.15 in/hr.). (NRCS, 2007).

Group D Soils having high runoff potential. They have very low infiltration rates
when thoroughly wetted (high runoff potential). These consist chiefly of clay
soils with a high swelling potential, soils with a permanent high water table, soils
with a clay pan or clay layer at or near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly
impervious material. These soils have a very low rate of water transmission (0 to
0.05 in/hr.). (NRCS, 2007).

The type of soil on the study area is Nitisols (FAO, 1998) that covers almost
100% of the total soil coverage. In Nitisols about 70% of the soil is silt loam of
hydrologic soil group B and the remaining 30% is clay (FAO, 1998) of
hydrologic soil group C.

28
 CHAPTER THREE

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research methods

Both descriptive and exploratory types of research methods were
employed. The descriptive type was used to describe the existing condition and
coverage of roads and storm water drainage facilities. Whereas, the exploratory
type was particularly used to explore the existing condition by making some
required physical measurements, and compare with standards.
This chapter outlines research design; research techniques adopted in this
research; data collection procedures and data analysis and presentation methods.
The main aim of this chapter is to outline how this study found answers to the
research questions that were derived from the research problem. It looked at the
data collection instruments and how those instruments were employed so as to
obtain information and therefore achieve the research objectives. The
methodological part of the paper focused on; sampling techniques; data
collection; and data analysis and etc.

3.2 Study area

The Upper Atbara and setit township is located at the Upper
Atbara&syteet Dam complex site which is in Al-Gadarif State, about 420
km South East of Khartoum.

As part of the Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township is currently
being constructed to provide residence for the dam operation team as well
as the first class, fully serviced and local events.

The township consists of various types of Villas, a VIP Rest House, a

Mosque, various Utility stations, etc. show map follow:

29
3.3 Study period
The time allocated for this study from April 2013 up to May 2017.

3.4 Research design

The data gathered from the study area are categorized and interpreted.
These data are primary and secondary. Primary data source are gathered by using:
Site visit, field survey and Secondary data source from review documents from
written like topographic map, hydrographic map, Google earth and hydrological
map finding the mitigation measurement. Then analyze and discuss the existing
drainage problem and the discharge would be calculated. Then give conclusions
and recommendations of the results.
Site visit refers to the systematic examination of real-time processes or
operations with the goal of identifying needs/challenges or improving processes
and practices that is, what can be seen.
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and
other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Site visit refers to the systematic examination of real-time processes or operations
with the goal of identifying needs/challenges or improving processes and
practices that is, what can be seen.
Field survey is measuring the data from the field by using different material, tape
and GPS.
photography is the art, science and practice of creating durable images
by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either chemically by means
of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film, or electronically by means
of an image sensor.

3.5 Study population

In order to complete the study it is necessary to under taken the following:
Detailed survey, index properties of the drainage to existing conditions of a road
drainage system would be recorded such as an alignment, size, and capacity of
peak discharge.

30
3.6 Sample size and sampling procedures
Sampling procedures are using Random sampling includes choosing subjects
from a population through unpredictable means. In its simplest form, subjects all
have an equal chance of being selected out of the population being researched
(Chambers, 2003). Once the population frame is randomized, the next step is to
decide on the sampling interval. The confidence level set in determining the
sample size is 95% confidence level of the target population while the response is
taken to be within positive or negative 5% (+ or -5%) of the population. Then the
existing condition of the drainage system and their causes and effects on the roads
are prepared as questionnaires to get information from engineer, road users and
residents. The sample size for the population was calculated using the formula
below:
n=Z^2 pqN/(e^2(N-1)+Z^2 pq)
Where:
N – Size of the population
P – Sample proportion
n – Size of the sample
q – 1-P
e – Accepted error (e = 0.05, this is because estimate should be within 5% of the
true value)
Z – The value of the standard deviation at a given confidence level.
by used equation above and used random value for (N=600,330,230,40
respectively):
Total sample population n = 65
Road users n = 36
Residents n = 25
Engineers n= 4

3.7 Data collection process

In this study both primary and secondary data would be used.
Primary data source: The research is conducted first by identification of the
causes of road drainage problems through literature review and desk study on
selected road drainage problem on the study area.
Site visit / observations: site visit was carried out to ascertain current conditions
drainage system in Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex Township paved road
in comparison with the acceptable standards. The research employed use a

31
physical observation checklist, which was filled through observations and a
digital camera was used to take photographs of the current state of the road and
the drainage system, Field survey measuring the data by using tape and GPS.
Questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and
other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Was
asking the contractors and people living around the study area and interviews
means Oral questions were asked to get more information and to clarify the
ambiguous response. The study area information that was gathered from the
residences and road user.

Secondary data source:

The data from different written documents and topographical map, published and
unpublished data, internets

Photography: - Photography is an indirect way of data collection. It was

majorly used to capture the current status of the drainage system in Upper Atbara
and Setit Dam Complex Township paved road. . It was meant to give a visual
understanding of the research topic to the readers of this research project, the
extent of deterioration, maintenance and the state of the drainage system.

3.8 Data processing and analysis

Data collecting by using different materials, after collecting the data, it
would be analyzed using descriptive and exploratory, such as rational and scs
methods. Qualitative and quantitative methods and MS word and Excel of
analysis used for data that are collected and interview.

3.9Ethical considerations
This study is conducted in a manner that is consistent with ethical issues
that need to be considered in conducting a Thesis. Accordingly, letter from the
Jimma University Institute of technology department of civil engineering is
written for the concerned bodies. Hence, most individuals, the researcher visited
for interview, accepted and cooperated with the researcher thesis. Moreover, a
prior consent of the participants is requested before conducting the interview.

32
3.10 Data quality assurance
Before data collection all the source populations availability has checked
and respondents daily work schedule has respected. All the questions that are put
in simple and clear ways, willingness of the respondents to answer the questions
and collaborates with the study is test out, all necessary schedule are worked out
needed to administrate the observations group interviews and to measurements.

3.11 Limitations of the study

The thesis is limited to the performance assessment of current drainage
system and proposing mitigation measures of the problem that are find only on
highway drainage system. The research does not include structural design of all
types of drainage structures except proposing the type and size of the required
drainage system.

3.12 Rational Method

Rational formula method is recommended to determine the peak
discharge, or runoff rate, from drainage areas up to 0.5km2. If a hydrograph is
required to consider the effects of storage, use the Modified Soil Cover Complex
method, or a similar method. Among a number of methods for estimating a
design discharge, the rational formula is an empirical formula relating runoff to
rainfall intensity.

3.13 Equation:
The rational formula estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in a
catchment area as a function of the catchment area, runoff coefficient and means
rainfall intensity for duration equal to the time of concentration (the time required
for water to flow from the most remote point of the basin to the location being
analyzed). The rational formula is expressed as:

Q = 0.00278CIA (3.1)
Where,
Q = Peak flow in cubic meter per second (m3/sec)
C= Dimensionless weighted runoff coefficient
I= Rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour (mm/hr.)
A= Drainage area in hectares (ha)

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Results from questionnaires analysis

Questionnaires were well-arranged to the engineers from west region and

consultants of the west region. Another questionnaire was given to the residents
of the area adjacent to Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex Township and
people who use the road, here in referred to as road users. The questionnaire
comprised of open ended and structured questions on issues that are related to the
study.
Table 4.1 Response rate

Respondent No. of planned The response The response rate

questionnaires
Engineers 4 3 75
Road users 36 27 75
Residents 25 15 60
Total 65 45 69.23

A response rate of 50% is acceptable for data analysis and reporting, 60% is good
and above 70% is very good (Mugenda, 1999). There was a response rate of
69.23% for this study and therefore good enough for the analysis of the data show
table above.

4.2 Causes and effects of drainage system on asphalt pavement road

4.2.1 Causes of drainage on the asphalt pavement road layer.

The improper and no well-maintained of the drainage system are causes the
failure of road pavement and it's reduce their life span. This bad condition of the
side drain and its structures remains the same throughout the rain season causing
the runoff water to flow on the surface of the road and unable to run off through
the path far from the failed drain. The resultant effect of this critical situation
causes serious distresses and damages on pavement. The road edges suffered
from detachment of asphalt layer due to continuous contact of water leading to
stripping of asphalt from aggregates resulting in severe pavement distresses of
cracking, potholes and failure of edges of the road.

34
 The impact of drainage condition on road pavement is very adverse. It
causes pavement distresses and deterioration which affect the safety and riding
quality on the pavement. The study investigated cases of pavement failures and
damages due to drainage experienced during the rainy season.

4.2.2 The effects of drainage system on the road.

Reducing the load carrying ability of the sub grade, sub base, asphalts and
shoulder of the road.
Eroding the road side surface by washing away the top surface of the road.
Runoff the road and block a road by deposited waste material on the road and
water leaved debris on the road and thaw weakening and stripping the asphalt in
asphalt pavement road.
Response rate

Figure 4.1 Considerations when coming up with a road design.

According to get the information from the engineers and DDM of ERA when
design and construction of the road drainage structure it must be consider more
on the topography of around the study area based on the location of settlements of
road that useful for road user and residents in the way which to control the causes
and effects of poor drainage on the road. And also consider the cost of
construction and state of the road. It was important to know the critical factors
considered when designing a road drainage system. This is because they helped to
understand the reasons behind the design of every road show figure 4.1.

35
Table 4.2 Problems, Causes, effects and actions of the drainage on the road

Problems Causes Effects Solution or action

Lack of improper Inefficient Overview of location of
location of drainage planning and existing road drainage
installations performance facilities in the local area
of measures
Poor quality of
construction Lack of drainage Scouring/erod Properly construct road with
structures ed shoulder all structures
Number of cross Over flowing Add necessary crossing
drainage out on road drainage at damaged road
surface
Lack of drainage Water To provide the proper drainage
capacity/improper design infiltration in system that increases the life
cracking of roads
which
weakening the
road
Improper depth of Inefficient Better construction
drainage installations drainage /installation method. Deep
drainage
Limited diameter of pipe Insufficient Consideration of the need of
construction and design or culvert capacity to locally increased drainage
handle large structure dimensions
water volumes
Heavy precipitation; Various kinds Development and usage of
flooding of damage tools to locate vulnerable
points and need of action;
addition/retrofitting of devices
to increase discharge capacity,
such as extra culverts, pipes,
flushing pipes and subgrade
drains

It was important to know the critical factors considered when designing a road
drainage system. This is because they helped to understand the reasons behind the
design of every road and in this case, Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex
Township and people who use the road show Table 4.2.

36
4.2.3 Appropriateness of the drainage system
The engineers‟ and consultant indicated that the drainage system provided
for Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex Township and people who use the road.
Drainage was poor and inappropriate. The magnitude of the water from the
surrounding the area in which the road is situated was overlooked during design.
They also indicated that studies that were carried out before designing the road
were not sufficient to satisfactorily ascertain the amount of water that would cross
the road at a point in time and therefore the design lacked capacity to adequately
drain the runoffs during the rains. However, poor workmanship by the contractor
during construction and poor maintenance also contributed to the drainage
problems on road. As part of understanding the background of the poor drainage
system provisions in the Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex Township and
people who use the road. That lack drainage.

Figure 4.2 Percentage of roads with inadequate drainage system

From Figure 4.2, it can be observed from the project engineers‟ perception, that
most of the roads in west region lack sufficient drainage system. Some of the
reasons cited were inadequate designs, lack of enough studies to establish the
drainage requirements of the road and poor workmanship as a result of reduced
road drainage quality. The study also sought to understand whether the washing
away of Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex Township and people who use the
road construction was expected; the engineers responded that it was never
expected because studies were done before the inception of the road to ascertain
the drainage requirements. It was therefore expected that due diligence was
observed during the study.

37
4.2.4 State of the drainage services
The engineers‟ and consultant have carried out a study on the effects of poor
drainage system on the surrounding environment. They both agreed that though
there was need for redesigning and reconstruction of the drainage system, there
was also need to carry out maintenance on the existing drainage facilities to
increase their efficiency and effectiveness. They reported that redesigns and
reconstruction have been implemented in the future.

4.3 Causes and effects of drainage system on asphalt pavement road

that response from road users

Figure 4.3 Frequency of road usage by road users.

From figure 4.3 A significant proportion of the respondents either use the road
every day or twice a week. The data collected shows that 80% of the respondents
use the road often. This was important to this study as it showed that the
respondents could be relied on to give authentic information to achieve the
studies objectives.
The road users were concerned about their safety and the convenience of going
through Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex Township road during the rains.
The state of the drainage system compromised their safety as they travelled. Only
20% think the drainage system provided in Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex
Township road is good, whereas, there was none of the respondents who thought
the drainage system was very poor that causes the damage of the road eroded,
cracking, wash away by over flooding of the water and deposited waste materials
on the road.

38
Figure 4.4 Effects of drainage system on the asphalt pavement road.

From figure 4.4 Road users were in consensus when it came to the effects of the
poor drainage system on the road. Majority reported that the causes and effects of
poor drainage on the road are water leaves debris on the road surface during the
rains there by hindering free movements of vehicles on the road. It also washed
away the asphalts during the rainy season, therefore totally making it impossible
the passage of the road. A significant proportion reported that runoffs on the road
block and cracking the through the road and leave debris on the road after the
rains; this debris would then hinder movement along the road and therefore
inconvenience travelers. The travelers would then become late in their businesses
or other engagements.
The causes of flooding are complex. A combination of factors can have an
impact on causing flooding and consequences in road drainage systems.
According to the clogging of drainage pipes, culverts and ditches by debris flow
and fine-grade soil is one of the most import maintenance issues in current
drainage systems. Some of the respondents stated that cleaning of drainage pipes,
culverts and ditches is not specified at a certain time and is therefore only done
when needed. This suggests that it is important to perform operations such as
maintenance and cleaning regularly to prevent over flooding of the water on the
road.

4.3.1 Level of road users’ satisfaction of the drainage system.

From the data given below in figure4.5, there is a clear indication that majority of
the road users are not satisfied with the state of drainage system in Upper Atbara
and Setit Dam Complex Township road. According to understanding from the
road users satisfactions the state of the drainage systems are very poor and its
affects the road structures, there is need to thus improve on the system in order to
obtain road users satisfaction. Road users do not satisfy from the road because
asphalt pavement of the roads is affected by drainage system.

39
Figure 4.5 Level of road user satisfaction.

4.3.2Causes and effects of drainage system on asphalt road that response from
the residents

A good percentage from within 100 meters from the road. According to
the data collected 30% come from within a hundred meters from the road and
outside the 50 meters mark. This was important because it showed that they could
respond to all the issues raised in this study so as to achieve the objectives.
On drainage across the road having inadequate drainage systems,
deterioration often begins with the origin of cracks or potholes on the road
pavements either at the edges along the drive way which differs by their shapes,
configuration, amplitude of loading, movement of traffic and rate of deformation.
Figure 4.6 below shows how the residents feel they were affected by the poor
drainage in the area. Majority of the respondents reported that runoff had had
adverse effects on their road and land. They stated that runoff eroded their land
the water that comes from the road there by making the land less productive and
affecting the good road satisfactions of the area.

Figure 4.6 proximity of residents

40
Figure 4.7 Improvement activities.

The data shows in figure4.7 that there have been ongoing activities geared
towards the improvement of the drainage system. A greater percentage of the
respondents have not observed improvement activities on the road, however,
there is also a significant percentage that have observed these activities being
carried out. This shows that though there are efforts to improve the drainage
system, enough has not yet been done yet. There is therefore need to improve the
facilities to an acceptable standard.

4.4 Results from observation and photography

This research project employed both observation and photography as tools
for which data would be collected. This involved observation and taking of
photographs to show the current state of the drainage system in Upper Atbara and
Setit Dam Complex Township road. From observation also; a brief description of
what was observed would be given with the help of photographs.

4.4.1 Causes and effects of drainage system on asphalt road Surface

due to poor drainage that collected from the field with the
photography.
From observation, the state of the drainage system in in Upper Atbara and Setit
Dam Complex Township road is poor. Figure with definitions from the field
survey, it was observed that the road surface experienced potholes, cracking, edge
damages and accumulation of soil on a large area of road surface as shown below:

41
Figure 4.8 Accumulation of soils on the road and Edge of the road erosion

Figure 4.9 the side drain was blocked with soil, debris, vegetation, wheel and
solid waste.
The existing drain is located on both side of the road. It is open and earth
ditch with 1m width and 0.5 to 1 depth. The condition of this drain is very bad. It
was full with soil accumulation and refuse dumps. The side drain was blocked
with soil, debris, vegetation, wheel and solid waste as shown in above figure.
Therefore from these problems the remedies suggests that it is important to
perform operations such as maintenance and cleaning regularly to prevent the
over flooding of water on the road.
4.5 Investigations of Design and Construction Performs on the study
area.
Road drainage system should be designed by analyzing hydrologic parameters of
the catchment area. Adequate hydrologic analysis design is significant for road
drainage system to pass peak discharge without distraction, destruction the
drainage system and property adjoining the road crossing. Moreover, after
acceptable hydrologic analysis design proper construction is very important for
the road drainage construction to function properly for the proposed purpose.

42
In general, most of the side drains provided to roads in Upper Atbara and Setit
Dam Complex Township are earth drains or ditches. Some drains built from
bricks, stones or concrete materials are open drains without covers. Others built
drains are covered with concrete slab or blocks. Failures of built drains like
collapse of bed, side walls and/or covers caused by improper design and
construction, settlement or heave may lead to the development of cracks and
subsequent failure.
This leads to a situation where preliminary studies that would help the design and
construction decisions are not done.

4.5.1 Design and Construction Application at Station 0+30 (road 3)

The condition of the drain and its structures is very poor and getting deteriorated
by the passage of time. The drain suffered from low capacity, natural siltation,
and absence of inlets, indefinite drainage outlets, and lack of proper maintenance
and over and above disposal of solid waste into the crossing culverts. The drain
blocked with silt and sand accumulation, debris and vegetation as shown in
figure4.10 .It is clear that the drain and culverts being converted to dumpy place
and subsequently obstructed the water flow.

Figure 4.10 Damaged Culverts at Station 0+30 (road 3)

Problems associated with slab culvert location and construction as shown on

Figure 4.10 on Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex Township can be alleviated
by conducting a proper site investigation, paying attention to geomorphic
indicators, knowing road template design needs, and understanding how streams
and watersheds function. A poor location of the slab culvert on road at station
0+30 as shown on Figure 4.10 makes to be susceptible to failure. Selection of
good drainage system site must involve many disciplines that include preliminary
engineering, hydrology & hydraulics, geomorphologic concerns, roadway
alignment, and environmental & geological concerns in order to make the

43
structure sustainable after In order to serve a road properly for the road users,
drainage system should be constructed by considering where the location of the
crossing in the watershed is required and how can water, sediment, and wood be
transported at that location and how is the catchment configured. The proper
construction practice is important after proper design for drainage system to
function properly for the road users as intended. Only proper design by itself does
not make the drainage structure to serve properly up to its design life but also
proper construction practice must be carried out by appropriate personnel
according to the design.

4.5.2 Design and Construction Application at Station 0+400(road 2)

On Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex Township at station 0+400, the surface
of the road on the downstream side was eroded by overtopping flood. Initially,
one rows of pipe culvert was constructed. The one rows of pipe culvert could not
accommodate the peak discharge during the rainy season after constructed
because the active channel width is greater than the span of the culvert. In order
to mitigate the overtopping problem two row pipe that has one-meter internal
diameter on the left side and the right side was important additionally to mitigate
the overtopping problem of the peak flood during the rainy season.

Figure 4.11 initially constructed one Rows of Pipe Culvert at Station 0+400
The main cause for the pavement erosion was the lack of detail flood information
during rainy season and poor drainage design. The construction of the culvert was
carried out without some rational and scs calculation of the expected flow. The
hydrologic analysis is required to estimate peak discharge that is a major
component of the overall design effort. In general, drainage crossings must be
designed to pass the appropriate storm flows and debris or to survive overtopping.

44
Proper design and construction of drainage structures are dynamic components
for road structure to function without traffic disturbance. Appropriate
hydrological analysis of the catchment area where the drainage system would be
constructed and appropriate drainage parameters should be determined.

4.5.3 Design and Construction Application at Station 0+85(road38)

On Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex Township at station 0+85, the surface
of the road on the downstream side was eroded by overtopping flood. Initially,
one rows of pipe culvert was constructed. The one rows of pipe culvert could not
accommodate the peak discharge during the rainy season after constructed
because the active channel width is greater than the span of the culvert. In order
to mitigate the overtopping problem two row pipe that has one-meter internal
diameter on the left side and the right side was important additionally to mitigate
the overtopping problem of the peak flood during the rainy season. The
construction of the culvert was carried out without some rational and scs
calculation of the expected flow i.e. the construction was carried out by trial and
error rather than considering hydrological analysis calculating parameters during
the design stage. The hydrologic analysis is required to estimate peak discharge
that is a major component of the overall design effort. In general, drainage
crossings must be designed to pass the appropriate storm flows and debris or to
survive overtopping.
Proper design and construction of drainage structures are dynamic components
for road structure to function without traffic disturbance. Appropriate
hydrological analysis of the catchment area where the drainage system would be
constructed and appropriate drainage parameters should be determined. Culverts
conveying cross drainage flow from outside should be located on the natural
drainage path of the flow. When the natural drainage path of the flow is a wide
overland flow area, the designer should evaluate the need for multiple culverts in
order to prevent concentrated flow at a single location. The proposed cross culvert
must be aligned with upstream and downstream channels. The designer must
analyze the existing flow conditions of the areas located upstream and
immediately downstream of proposed cross culverts. Land use conditions in
upstream and downstream areas should be clearly document ted in the Drainage
Report, including photo documentation of the areas, if possible. This
documentation of the existing conditions on the adjacent drainage areas, prior to
construction, could provide useful information for sub (DDM 2011).

45
Figure 4.12 initially constructed one Rows of Pipe Culvert at Station 0+85

Review is the appraisal of the design and the check list is a very imperative. It's
hoped that this road design review would be use full to those engaged upon the
design review for the road projects it is the necessary to emphasize the current
evaluation of the documents and provided comment at any time to improve can be
made in the future. Also the main purpose of review is to check and to ensure the
design deliverables consists of the drawing. After sizing a drainage facility using
a flood (and the hydrograph) corresponding to the design frequency, it is
necessary to review this proposed facility with a base discharge. This is done to
insure that there are no unexpected flood hazards inherent in the proposed facility.
The review (check) flood shall be at least the 50-100-year event, or as provided.

46
4.6 Results analysis

4.6.1 Descriptions of Watershed Area Problems in design

Descriptions‟ of the catchment area for existing drainage systems is tabulated in
table 4.3 that are determined by digital elevation model.

Table 4.3 Descriptions of Existing Drainage System.

S.NO Existing drainage system

Station Area(ha)

1 0+30 (road 3) 889

2 0+400(road 2) 902

0+85(road38) 723
3

4.6.2 Calculation of Catchment Characteristics

4.6.2.1 Catchment Characteristics at Station 0+30 (road 3) Drainage

system

After the watershed areas and properties were described, the land use coverage,
soil type and curve number were computed. From the Soils Map and field survey
approximately about 70% of the catchment is covered by grass, and the remaining
30% is covered by small trees, and scarcely distributed trees. As presented in
Appendix B on Table 16, the runoff curve number for pasture, Fair condition and
covered land, without conservation treatment average hydrologic soil group B is

47
75 and hydrologic soil group C is 83.5 Therefore, average runoff curve number
is:

(0.70x75) + (0.30x83.5)
= 77.55 but the nearest CN value is 80.

i. Runoff Curve Number

As per Appendix B in Table 11, hydrological characteristics of soil groups, the

region is a wet antecedent moisture condition (AMC) region. From Appendix B
in Table 1,
CN80avg = CN91wet.

ii. 24-hour rainfall depth

Since the drainage system at station 0+30 is culvert that has diameter greater than
2-meter as shown on the 24-hour rainfall depth for years 25 and 50 are 118mm
for design and 132mm for checking (See Appendix B in Table 13).

iii. Direct runoff depth

Direct runoff (Q) is determined from Appendix A on Figure 2, by using rainfall

depth of 118mm for design, 132mm for checking and CN of 91. Therefore,
S = 25.4((1000/91)-10) = 25.12mm

Ia = 0.2s = 0.2*25.12 = 5.02mm

Q25= (118-5.02) ^2/ ((118-5.02) +25.12)) =92mm and

Q50= (132-5.02) ^2/ ((132-5.02) +25.12)) =106mm.

iv. Slope of the watershed

The average slope of the overland flow is approximated 2% (0.02) by

referring from topography and field reconnaissance. Since the topographical map
was produced 24-years ago, there is radical change between the existing
topography and the topography from the topographical map. Hence, I used the
slope that I obtained from field reconnaissance.

48
Table 4.4 summary of the watershed properties calculations at station 0+30
(road 3)
1 Curve number(CN) 91wet
2 Precipitation(p) of 25 118mm
years
3 Precipitation(p) of 50 132mm
years

4 Potential max 25.12mm

retention(s)
5 Initial abstraction(Ia) 5.02mm
6 Direct runoff 25 92mm
year(Q25)
7 Direct runoff 50 106mm
year(Q50)
8 Slope of the 0.02
watershed

v. Time of concentration
A. sheet flow

The sheet flow occurs up to 100 meters. Sheet flow, natural range, slope of 0.02
m/m, and length of 150m and from Appendix B, Table 2, Manning‟s roughness
coefficient is 0.13. The 2-year, 24-hour rainfall depth is determined from
Appendix A in Figure 3 or Appendix B in Table 13 to be 65mm. Hence, from
Equation (2.12), travel time for sheet flow is determined as:
Tt = [0.091(nL) ^ 0.8/ (P2) ^0.5S^0.4]
= [0.091(0.13*150) ^0.8 / (65^0.5*0.02^0.4)
= 0.979/1.686
=0.58hr

b. Shallow Concentrated Flow

For shallow concentrated flow, unpaved watershed slope is approximated
0.02m/m and length from topography map is 1000m. From equation (3.12),
V= 4.9178(S) ^ 0.5 for unpaved watershed. V= 4.9178(0.02) ^0.5 = 0.70m/sec.
From equation (2.9), travel-time is determined as:
Tt = L/ (3600V)
= 1000/ (3600X0.70)
= 0.39hr.

49
c. Channel Flow

For channel flow, natural stream channel, curving with hoes and ponds, slope is
0.01m/m, and length is 1100m. By direct measuring the average bottom width of
the stream channel is 2.75m, side slopes are 1V:1.6H, 25-year storm depth is
observed from flood mark and measured to be 1.25m. From Appendix B in Table
2, Manning's roughness coefficient for fallow (no residue) channels is 0.050.
Cross-sectional flow area (A) = by+zx^2
Where b= width, z= depth, y vertical slope and x is horizontal slope
= (2.75 x 1) + 1.25(1.6) ^2
= 5.95m2
Wetted perimeter (Pw) = b+2x (1+z^2) ^0.5
= 2.75+2x1.6 (1+1.25^2)^0.5
= 7.87m

Hydraulic radius (R) = A/P

= 5.95/7.87
= 0.756m
From Equation (2.14), V = (R2/3S1/2)/n
V = (0.756)2/3*(0.01)1/2/0.05 = (0.829*0.1)/0.05
= 1.658m/sec.
From equation (2.9), Tt = L/ (3600V)
= 1100/ (3600*1.658)
= 0.18hr
From equation (2.15)
Total Time of Concentration (Tc) is (0.58 + 0.39+ 0.18) = 1.15 hr.

50
Table 4.5 summary of time concentration at station 0+30 (road 3).

length 150m
Manning roughness
coefficients(n) 0.13
1 sheet flow
Slope 0.02
Precipitation of 2 year(p2) 65mm
Travel time 0.58hr
length 1000m
shallow concentrated Slope 0.02
2
flow unpaved watershed 0.70m/sec
Travel time 0.39hr
length 1100
Slope 0.01
width of the stream channel(b) 2.75m
Depth of the stream channel(z) 1.25m
side slope 1V:1.6H
Manning roughness
3 channel flow
coefficients(n) 0.05
Cross section area 5.95m^2
Wetted perimeter 7.87m
Hydraulic radius® 0.756m
Velocity 1.658M^3
Travel time 0.18hr
4 Total of time concentration 1.15hr

Using the time concentration and the year to find intensity (I) from appendix A
figure 1 and Runoff Coefficient (c) based on the soil group find from appendix B
table 12
Unit peak discharge (Qu25) = 0.00278*C*I*A= 0.00278*0.13*60*8.89 = 0.193

(Qu50) = 0.00278*C*I*A= 0.00278*0.13*68*8.89 = 0.218

Peak discharge (Qp25) = Qu25*Q25*A → Qp25 = 0.193*92*8.89 = 157.85
(Qp50) = Qu50*Q50*A → Qp50 = 0.218*106*8.89 = 205.88

51
4.6.2.2 Catchment Characteristic at Station0+400(road 2) Drainage
System
After the watershed areas description, watershed properties like the land use
coverage, soil type and curve number are computed. From the Soils Map of
Ethiopia and from the field survey approximately about 70% of the catchment is
cultivated, and the remaining 30% is covered by small trees, shrubs, and scarcely
distributed trees. From Appendix B on Table 16, the runoff curve number for
pasture, Fair condition and cultivated land, without conservation treatment
average hydrologic soil group B is 75 and hydrologic soil group C is 83.5.
Therefore, average runoff curve number is:
(0.70x75) + (0.30x83.5)
= 77.55 but the nearest CN value is 80.
i. Runoff Curve Number
As per Appendix B in Table 11, hydrological characteristics of soil groups, the
region is a wet antecedent moisture condition (AMC) region. From Appendix B
in Table 1,
CN80avg = CN91wet.
ii. 24-hour rainfall depth
Since the drainage system at station 24+200 is culvert that has diameter greater
than 2-meter as shown on 24-hour rainfall depth for years 10 and 25 are 98mm
for design and 118mm for checking (See Appendix B in Table 13).
iii. Direct runoff depth
Direct runoff (Q) is determined from Appendix A on Figure 2, by using rainfall
depth of 98mm for design, 132mm for checking and CN of 91. Therefore,
S = 25.4((1000/91)-10) = 25.12mm
Ia = 0.2s =0.2*25.12 = 5.02mm

Q10= (98-5.02) ^2/ (98-5.02) +25.12 =73mm and

Q25= (118-5.02) ^2/ (118-5.02) +25.12 =92mm

iv. Slope of the watershed

The average slope of the overland flow is approximated 2% (0.02) by referring
from topography and field reconnaissance. Since the topographical map was
produced 24-years ago, there is radical change between the existing topography
and the topography from the topographical map. Hence, I used the slope that I
obtained from field reconnaissance.

52
Table 4.6 Summaries of the watershed properties calculated at station
0+400(road 2)

1 Curve number(CN) 91wet

2 Precipitation(p) of 98mm
10 years
3 Precipitation(p) of 118mm
25 years
4 Potential max 25.12mm
retention(s)
5 Initial abstraction(Ia) 5.02mm
6 Direct runoff 10 73mm
year(Q10)
7 Direct runoff 25 92mm
year(Q25)
8 Slope of the 0.02
watershed

V. Time of concentration
A. sheet flow
The sheet flow occurs up to 50meters. Sheet flow, natural range, slope of 0.02
m/m, and length of 100m and from Appendix B, Table 2, Manning's roughness
coefficient is 0.13. The 2-year, 24-hour rainfall depth is determined from
Appendix A in Figure 3 or Appendix B in Table 13 to be 65mm. Hence, from
Equation (3.12), travel time for sheet flow is determined as:
Tt = [0.091(nL)0.8/ (P2)0.5S0.4]
= [0.091(0.13*100)0.8 / (650.5*0.020.4)
= 0.708/1.686
0.42hr.
B. Shallow Concentrated Flow
For shallow concentrated flow, unpaved watershed slope is approximated
0.02m/m and length from topography map is 900m. From equation (3.12), V=
4.9178(S) 0.5 for unpaved watershed. V=4.9178(0.02)0.5 =0.70m/sec. From
equation (3.9), travel-time is determined as:
Tt = L/ (3600V)
= 900/ (3600X0.70)
= 0.36hr.

C. Channel Flow

For channel flow, natural stream channel, curving with hoes and ponds, slope is
0.01m/m, and length is 1000m. By direct measuring the average bottom width of

53
the stream channel is 2.5m, side slopes are 1V:1.5H, 25-year storm depth is
observed from flood mark and measured to be 1.5m. From Appendix B in Table
2, Manning's roughness coefficient for fallow (no residue) channels is 0.050.
Cross-sectional flow area (A) = by+zx^2
Where b= width, z= depth, y vertical slope and x is horizontal slope
= (2.5 x 1) + 1.5(1.52)
= 5.875m2
Wetted perimeter (Pw) = b+2x (1+z2)^0.5
= 2.5+2x1.5 (1+1.52)^0.5
= 7.91m
Hydraulic radius (R) = A/P
= 5.875/7.91
= 0.743m
From Equation (3.14), V = (R2/3S1/2)/n
V = (0.743)2/3*(0.01)1/2/0.05 = 1.64m/sec.
From equation (3.9), Tt = L/ (3600V)
= 1000/ (3600*1.64) = 0.17hr.
From equation (3.15)
Total Time of Concentration (Tc) is (0.42 + 0.36+ 0.17) = 0.95 hr.
Table 4.7Summary of time concentration at station 0+400(road 2)

 
 
1   
 
 
 
 
2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3   
 
 
  
 
 
4  

54
Using the time concentration and the year to find intensity from appendix A
figure1 and Runoff Coefficient(c) based on the soil group to find the from
appendix B table 12
Unit peak discharge (Qu10) = 0.00278*C*I*A= 0.00278*0.13*58*9.02 = 0.189
(Qu25) = 0.00278*C*I*A= 0.00278*0.13*70*9.02 = 0.228
Peak discharge (Qp10) = Qu*Q*A → Qp10 = 0.189*73*9.02 = 124.500
(Qp25) = Qu*Q*A → Qp25 = 0.261 *92*9.02 = 189.359
By the same procedures, catchment parameters of the rest stations are

determined.

4.7 Peak Discharge Computation

4.7.1 Peak Discharge at Station 0+85(road38) Drainage System

After the watershed areas description, watershed properties like the land use
coverage, soil type and curve number are computed. From the Soils Map of
Ethiopia and from the field survey approximately about 70% of the catchment is
cultivated, and the remaining 30% is covered by small trees, shrubs, and scarcely
distributed trees. From Appendix B on Table 16, the runoff curve number for
pasture, Fair condition and cultivated land, without conservation treatment
average hydrologic soil group B is 75 and hydrologic soil group C is 83.5.
Therefore, average runoff curve number is:
(0.70x75) + (0.30x83.5)
= 77.55 but the nearest CN value is 80.
i. Runoff Curve Number
As per Appendix B in Table 11, hydrological characteristics of soil groups, the
region is a wet antecedent moisture condition (AMC) region. From Appendix B
in Table 1,
CN80avg = CN91wet.
ii. 24-hour rainfall depth
Since the drainage system at station 0+85(road38) is culvert that has diameter
greater than 2-meter as shown on 24-hour rainfall depth for years 10 and 25 are
98mm for design and 118mm for checking (See Appendix B in Table 13).
iii. Direct runoff depth
Direct runoff (Q) is determined from Appendix A on Figure 2, by using rainfall
depth of 98mm for design, 132mm for checking and CN of 91. Therefore,
S = 25.4((1000/91)-10) = 25.12mm
Ia = 0.2s =0.2*25.12 = 5.02mm

Q25= (118-5.02) ^2/ ((118-5.02) +25.12)) =90mm and

Q50= (132-5.02) ^2/ ((132-5.02) +25.12)) =105mm.

55
iv. Slope of the watershed

The average slope of the overland flow is approximated 2% (0.02) by referring

from topography and field reconnaissance. Since the topographical map was
produced 24-years ago, there is radical change between the existing topography
and the topography from the topographical map. Hence, I used the slope that I
obtained from field reconnaissance.
v. Time of concentration
A. sheet flow
The sheet flow occurs up to 100 meters. Sheet flow, natural range, slope of 0.02
m/m, and length of 150m and from Appendix B, Table 2, Manning‟s roughness
coefficient is 0.13. The 2-year, 24-hour rainfall depth is determined from
Appendix A in Figure 3 or Appendix B in Table 13 to be 65mm. Hence, from
Equation (2.12), travel time for sheet flow is determined as:
Tt = [0.091(nL) ^ 0.8/ (P2) ^0.5S^0.4]
= [0.091(0.13*150) ^0.8 / (65^0.5*0.02^0.4)
= 0.979/1.686
=0.25 hr
b. Shallow Concentrated Flow
For shallow concentrated flow, unpaved watershed slope is approximated
0.02m/m and length from topography map is 1000m. From equation (3.12),
V= 4.9178(S) ^ 0.5 for unpaved watershed. V= 4.9178(0.02) ^0.5 = 0.70m/sec.
From equation (2.9), travel-time is determined as:
Tt = L/ (3600V)
= 1000/ (3600X0.70)
= 0.39hr.
c. Channel Flow
For channel flow, natural stream channel, curving with hoes and ponds, slope is
0.01m/m, and length is 1100m. By direct measuring the average bottom width of
the stream channel is 2.75m, side slopes are 1V:1.6H, 25-year storm depth is
observed from flood mark and measured to be 1.25m. From Appendix B in Table
2, Manning's roughness coefficient for fallow (no residue) channels is 0.050.
Cross-sectional flow area (A) = by+zx^2
Where b= width, z= depth, y vertical slope and x is horizontal slope
= (2.75 x 1) + 1.25(1.6) ^2
= 5.95m2
Wetted perimeter (Pw) = b+2x (1+z^2) ^0.5
= 2.75+2x1.6 (1+1.25^2)^0.5
= 7.87m

56
Hydraulic radius (R) = A/P
= 5.95/7.87
= 0.756m
From Equation (2.14), V = (R2/3S1/2)/n
V = (0.756)2/3*(0.01)1/2/0.05 = (0.829*0.1)/0.05
= 1.658m/sec.
From equation (2.9), Tt = L/ (3600V)
= 1100/ (3600*1.658)
= 0.18hr
From equation (2.15)
Total Time of Concentration (Tc) is (0.25 + 0.39+ 0.18) = 0.82 hr.

Using the time concentration and the year to find intensity from appendix A
figure1 and Runoff Coefficient(c) based on the soil group to find the from
appendix B table 12
Unit peak discharge (Qu10) = 0.00278*C*I*A= 0.00278*0.13*58*9.02 = 0.209
(Qu25) = 0.00278*C*I*A= 0.00278*0.13*70*9.02 = 0.235
Peak discharge (Qp10) = Qu*Q*A → Qp10 = 0.189*73*9.02 = 135.996
(Qp25) = Qu*Q*A → Qp25 = 0.261 *92*9.02 = 178.359
4.8 Existing culvert design:
general characteristic for culverts design show in the tables below:

Table 4.8: Catchment Parameters for Design and Check (Station 0+30(road3)

Parameters of Design data Review data

Design and Review
Return Periods 25 50
(years)
Time of 1.15 1.15
Concentration (hr)
Curve Number (CN) 91 91
Potential Maximum 25.12 25.12
Retention (mm)
Initial Abstraction Ia 5.02 5.02
Design Storm (24-hr 118 132
maximum rainfall)
Ia/P 0.043 0.038
Direct Runoff (mm) 92 106
Unit Peak Discharge 0.193 0.218
(m3/s/km2/mm)
Peak Discharge 157.85 205.88
(m3/sec)

57
Table 4.9: Catchment Characteristics for Design and Check (Station
0+400(road2)
Parameters of Design data Review data
Design and Review
Return Periods 10 25
(years)
Time of 0.95 0.95
Concentration (hours
Curve Number (CN) 91 91
Potential Maximum 25.12 25.12
Retention (mm)
Initial Abstraction Ia 5.02 5.02
(mm)
Design Storm (24-hr 98 118
maximum rainfall)
Ia/P 0.051 0.043
Direct Runoff (mm) 73 92
Unit Peak Discharge 0.189 0.228
(m3/s/km2/mm)
Peak Discharge 124.500 189.359
(m3/sec)
Table 4.10: Catchment Characteristics for Design and Check at Station
0+85(road38)

Parameters of Design data Review data

Design and Review
Return Periods 20 50
(years)
Time of 0.82 0.82
Concentration
(hours)
Curve Number (CN) 91 91
Potential Maximum 25.12 25.12
Retention (mm)
Initial Abstraction Ia 5.02 5.02
(mm)

Design Storm (24-hr 118 132

maximum rainfall)
Ia/P 0.045 0.038

58
 Direct Runoff (mm) 90 105
Unit Peak Discharge 0.209 0.235
(m3/s/km2/mm
Peak Discharge 135.996 178.400
(m3/sec)

4.9 Analysis design:

On the above tables the design peak discharge calculated and the review
peak discharge calculated of the return period is not equal. From this the road
around this is damaged by over flooding of the water on the road because the
calculated peak discharge for the design was less than the calculated peak
discharge for the review at station, 0+30(road3), 0+85(road38) and
0+400(road2)the difference between them are: 48.03 , 64.859 and 42.404 values.
Therefore before the culverts are constructing the design and the review data must
be checked. Because based on these values the more volume of runoff is very
high on the culvert stations. Initially, one rows of pipe culvert was constructed.
The one rows of pipe culvert could not accommodate the peak discharge during
the rainy season after constructed because the active channel width is greater than
the span of the culvert. In order to mitigate the overtopping problem two row pipe
that has one-meter internal diameter on the left side and the right side was
important additionally to mitigate the overtopping problem of the peak flood
during the rainy season. Always when its design the road it must be follow the
drainage design manual. A flood event larger than the specified review flood
might be used for analysis to ensure the safety of the drainage structure and
downstream development.

The analysis of the peak rate of runoff, volume of runoff, and time distribution of
flow is fundamental to the design of drainage structures. Errors in the estimates
would result in a structure that is either undersized and causes more drainage
problems or oversized road at station 0+30(road3), 0+85(road38) and
0+400(road2), the surface of the road on the downstream side was eroded by
overtopping flood. Therefore when construct the road drainage it consider
hydraulic analysis. Also maintenance and cleaning of the block drainage system
are important.

59
4.10 comparison between new culverts and old culverts:
They are many different between culverts as show in the table below:

4.11 culverts dimension:

4.11.1 Station 0+400
4.11.1.1 design data :

from design:

Q = 0.189 m^3/sec

S = 0.02

n =0.03

Form manning‘s equation:

Q =( (1/n)*A*(R)^2/3*(S)^1/2)

R = A/P

Type of culvert is pipe culvert

A = π r^2

P = 2π r

0.189 = ((π r^2/n)*( π r^2/2π r)^2/3*(0.02)^1/2)

0.189 = 9.3 r^2.67

r = 0.23 m

To calculate velocity from manning‘s equation:

V =((1/n)*(R^2/3)*(S^1/2))

A = π*0.23^2 = 0.166 m^2

P = 2π*.23 =1.45 m

R = 0.166/1.45 = 0.11 m

V = ((1/0.03)*(0.11^2/3)*(0.02^1/2))

60
V = 1.2 m/sec

4.11.2 Station 0+30

4.11.2.1 design data :

Q = 0.193 m^3/sec

S = 0.02

n =0.03

Form manning‘s equation:

Q =( (1/n)*A*(R)^2/3*(S)^1/2)

R = A/P

Type of culvert is pipe culvert

A = π r^2

P = 2π r

0.193 = ((π r^2/n)*( π r^2/2π r)^2/3*(0.02)^1/2)

0.193 = 9.3 r^2.67

r = 0.23 m

To calculate velocity from manning‘s equation:

V =((1/n)*(R^2/3)*(S^1/2))

A = π*0.23^2 = 0.166 m^2

P = 2π*.23 =1.45 m

R = 0.166/1.45 = 0.11 m

V = ((1/0.03)*(0.11^2/3)*(0.02^1/2))

V = 1.2 m/sec

61
4.11.2.2 review data :

Q = 0.218 m^3/sec

S = 0.02

n =0.03

Form manning‘s equation:

Q =( (1/n)*A*(R)^2/3*(S)^1/2)

R = A/P

Type of culvert is pipe culvert

A = π r^2

P = 2π r

0.218 = ((π r^2/n)*( π r^2/2π r)^2/3*(0.02)^1/2)

0.218 = 9.3 r^2.67

r = 0.24 m

To calculate velocity from manning‘s equation:

V =((1/n)*(R^2/3)*(S^1/2))

A = π*0.24^2 = 0.181 m^2

P = 2π*.24 =1.51 m

R = 0.181/1.51 = 0.12 m

V = ((1/0.03)*(0.12^2/3)*(0.02^1/2))

V = 1.3 m/sec

Qd < Qr

62
4.11.3 Station 0+85
4.11.3.1 design data :

Q = 0.209 m^3/sec

S = 0.02

n =0.03

Form manning‘s equation:

Q =( (1/n)*A*(R)^2/3*(S)^1/2)

R = A/P

Type of culvert is pipe culvert

A = π r^2

P = 2π r

0.209 = ((π r^2/n)*( π r^2/2π r)^2/3*(0.02)^1/2)

0.209 = 9.3 r^2.67

r = 0.239 m

To calculate velocity from manning‘s equation:

V =((1/n)*(R^2/3)*(S^1/2))

A = π*0.239^2 = 0.179 m^2

P = 2π*.239 =1. 5 m

R = 0.179/1. 5 = 0.12 m

V = ((1/0.03)*(0.12^2/3)*(0.02^1/2))

V = 1.3 m/sec

63
4.11.3.2 review data :

Q = 0.235 m^3/sec

S = 0.02

n =0.03

Form manning‘s equation:

Q =( (1/n)*A*(R)^2/3*(S)^1/2)

R = A/P

Type of culvert is pipe culvert

A = π r^2

P = 2π r

0.235 = ((π r^2/n)*( π r^2/2π r)^2/3*(0.02)^1/2)

0.235 = 9.3 r^2.67

r = 0.27 m

To calculate velocity from manning‘s equation:

V =((1/n)*(R^2/3)*(S^1/2))

A = π*0.27^2 = 0.229 m^2

P = 2π*.24 =1.70 m

R = 0.229/1.70 = 0.135 m

V = ((1/0.03)*(0.135^2/3)*(0.02^1/2))

V = 1.4 m/sec

Qd < Qr

64
 CHAPTER FIVE

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions are for warded from the investigations of the results of the
research and Recommendations are provided based on the findings of the results
of the research.

5.1 Conclusions

1. The design peak discharge calculated and the review peak discharge calculated
of the return period is not equal. From this the road around this is damaged by
over flooding of the water on the road because the calculated peak discharge for
the design were less than the calculated peak discharge for the review at station,
0+30(road3), 0+85(road38) and 0+400(road2)the difference between them are:
48.03 , 64.859 and 42.404 values. Therefore before the culverts are constructing
the design and the review data must be checked always when its design the road,
it must be the design peak discharge is greater than the review peak discharge to
control the floods that over follow on the road.

2. The most common causes of road drainage problem were found related to
improper road geometry, insufficient capacity of drainage structures, poor
construction, and lack of proper maintenance. There was a general feeling that the
type of drainage system is not adequate .Also the drain suffered from low
capacity, soil accumulation, absence of inlets, lack of proper maintenance and
disposal of solid waste into the drain and the crossing culverts. For these
problems remedies suggests that it is important to perform operations such as
when its design and construct the road drainage it must be follow the drainage
design manual. Maintenance and cleaning regularly the drainage structures and
waste solids remove to prevent these problems.

65
5.2 Recommendations

1. The following are the recommendations are involved on study area:

A hydrologic analysis is prerequisite to identifying flood hazard areas and
determining those locations where construction and maintenance would be
unusually expensive or hazardous. Since many levels of government plan, design,
and construct highway and water resource projects that might affect each other,
interagency coordination is desirable and often necessary. In addition, agencies
can share data and experiences within project areas to assist in the completion of
accurate hydrologic analysis.
2. Improvement of drainage facilities through maintenance redesign and
reconstruction, to improve the role of poor workmanship in the construction of
drainage and roads and provision of proper connections or integrations between
the road network and drainage network systems is required always when
construction of the road.
3. The designer and contractor should follow the minimum requirement set by
ERA regarding to the drainage structure, size, length and alignments of road
drainage structure so as to prevent the impact of poor drainage on the road
pavement. Therefore selection of good drainage system site must involve many
disciplines that include preliminary engineering, hydrology & hydraulics,
geomorphologic concerns, roadway alignment, and environmental & geological
concerns in order to make the structure sustainable and a program for cleaning out
the surface drainage system is essential.
4. For future study, it is recommended that detailed in drainage structure
investigation should be approved out on related project; experience with quality
of man work and construction of methods in accordance with ERA DDM
Standard Specifications in order to avoid future problem of the drainage and need
to clean out open drains and culverts by using manpower or machine.

66
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67
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Engineering Circular No. 22, Second Edition “Urban Drainage Design Manual,”
FHWA- NHI-01-021.
[31] U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (2004), National Engineering
Handbook “Estimation of Direct Runoff from Storm Rainfall”.
[32] Wyatt et al, (2000); effectiveness of subsurface drainage features based on
design adequacy, of transportation research recording 1709,TRB National
Research Council ,Washington, D.C.2000,pp69-76.
[33] Zumrawi, M.(2013),“Pavement design for roads on expansive clay
subgrades,”University of
Khartoum Engineering Journal (UOFKEJ), Vol.3 Issue 1, pp.52-58.

70
Appendix: A, B and C

71
Appendix: A

72
Appendix A: Time of Flow, Unit Peak Discharge, Velocity of flow and SCS CN
Charts.

Figure 1 Intensity –duration –frequency regions of B, C and D (ERA2002 and

2011)

73
Figure 2: the relation between direct run off, curve number and
precipitation (ERA 2002 and 2011)

74
Figure 3 - 24 Hour Depth – Frequency curves

Figure 4: Relationships between Precipitation, Direct Runoff and Curve

Number (ERA, 2011)

75
Figure 5: Unit Peak Discharge, Type II rainfall

76
Figure 6: Overland Time of Flow (ERA 2002 and 2011)

77
Figure 7: Velocities for Upland Method of Estimating Time of Concentration

78
APPENDEX B

79
APPENDEX B: Roughness and Runoff Coefficient Values and Parameters for
the Design of Drainage Structures.

Table 1: Conversion from average antecedent moisture conditions to dry and

wet conditions.

CN For Average Conditions Corresponding CN‟s For

Dry Wet

100 100 100

95 87 98

90 78 96

85 70 94

80 63 91

75 57 88

70 51 85

65 45 82

60 40 78

55 35 74

50 31 70

45 26 65

40 22 60

35 18 55

30 15 50

25 12 43

15 6 30

5 2 13

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Table 2: Roughness Coefficients (Manning’s n) For Sheet Flow
Table 4: Ia Value for runoff curve numbers (ERA DDM 2002)

Table 4: Ia Value for runoff curve numbers (ERA DDM 2002) Table 4: Ia Value for runoff curve
numbers (ERA DDM 2002)

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Table 3: values of roughness coefficient n (uniform flow) (ERA DDM 2002)

82
Table 4: Ia Value for runoff curve numbers (ERA DDM 2002)

Table 5: Recommended Runoff Coefficient (C) for Various Selected Land

Uses (ERA DDM 2002)

83
Table 6: values of roughness coefficient n (uniform flow) (ERA DDM 2002)

84
85
Table 7: Storm Design Return Period –years (ERA DDM, 2011)

Table 8: Runoff Coefficient: Humid Catchment (ERA Drainage Design Manual, 2011)

Table 8: Runoff Coefficient: Humid Catchment (ERA Drainage Design Manual,

2011)

Table 9: Runoff Coefficient: Semi-arid Catchment (ERA DDM, 2011)

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Table 10: Hydrological Characteristics of Soil Groups (ERA DDM, 2011)

Table 11: Antecedent Moisture Conditions (ERA DDM, 2011 for LVRs)

Table 12: Recommended runoff coefficient C for previous surfaces by selected

hydrologic soil groupings and slope ranges

87
Table 13: 24 hour depth (mm) versus frequency (yrs).

Table 14: Coefficient for composite runoff analysis

Table 15 Design Storm Frequency (Yrs) by Geometric Design Criteria

88
Table 16: Runoff curve numbers (ERA DDM 2002)

89
Appendix: C

90
Appendix C: Questionnaire Type One

Causes and Effects of Poor Drainage System on the Flexible Pavement Layers: a
Case Study in Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township Road.
This questionnaire is being administered for the collection of data to investigate
in the study of the Causes and Effects of Poor Drainage System on the Upper
Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township Road. The information collected is
confidential and will strictly be used for related data with the study.
Sector: Practical Perspective.
Practical Aspect
1 What is your academic background or field of training?
A Engineer
B Any other (specify)
………………………………………………………………………………

2 What are some of the considerations that are made when coming up with road
design and appropriate drainage facility in Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a
township road?
A. State of road
B. Cost of construction
C. Class of the road
D. Period of construction
E .Topography

3 From your design experience, was the design appropriate?

A Yes
B No

4 Do you think the contractor observed due diligence in the construction of the
road drainage systems?

A Yes

B No
If your answer above is yes, why do you think so?
…………………………………………
5 If your answer is no, in your opinion what percentage of roads in Ethiopia are
not provided with adequate drainage system?
A 0 – 20%
B 20 – 40%
C 40 – 60%
D 60 – 80%

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E 80 – 100%
6 From your engineering experience and practice, how can you rate the state of
the drainage system in Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township road?
A Excellent
B Very good
C Good
D Poor
E Any other (specify) …………………………………………………………….

7 How often do you carry out inspection to ascertain the state of the drainage
system in Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township road?
A Monthly
B Every three months
C Every six months

D Once a year
E Any other (specify) ………………………………………………………….

8 Have you carried out a research on the effects of the poor drainage system on
the surrounding environment?
A Yes
B No

9 What did you find the causes and effects of poor drainage system on flexible
road and their solution?
A …………………………
B …………………………
C …………………………
D …………………………

10 What do you think is the remedy to the solution state of the drainage system in
Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township road?
Maintenance
B Redesigning
C Reconstruction
D Any other (specify)
……………………………………………………………………

11 Why do you think has hindered the above mentioned measures from being
implemented?
A Lack of resources
B Lack of awareness

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C Poor planning
D Lack of commitment by the government

12 Which of the following descriptions is the best suitable type of drainage

system existing in Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township road? More
than one answer may be ticked.
A Separate system
B Combined system
C Open channel drainage
D Subsurface drainage
E Any other (please specify) ---------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
13 In your own opinion based on the professional experience, is the type of
drainage facility installed in Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township
road with enough capacity to satisfactorily drain the water from the road?
A) Yes
B) No
If your answer above is no, why do you think so?

Appendix C: Questionnaire Two

Causes and Effects of Poor Drainage System on the Flexible Pavement Layers: a
Case Study in Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township Road. This
questionnaire is being administered for the collection of data to investigate in the
study of the Causes and Effects of Poor Drainage System on the Upper Atbara &
Setit Dam Complex, a township Road. The information collected is confidential
and will strictly be used for related data.
Sector: General Perspective.
1) How often do you use Upper Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township road?
A Every day
B Twice a week
C One's a week

D Any other (please specify) ---------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------
2) In your opinion how do you find the condition of the drainage system in Upper
Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township road?
A Very good condition
B Good condition
C Fair condition
D Poor condition
3) How does poor drainage affect the road?

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A Runoff on the road block the road
B Runoff washes away the asphalt
C Cracking of road surface
D Water leaves debris on the road surface
E Any other (specify) -----------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
4) What are the main challenges faced by solving over flooding hazards in Upper
Atbara & Setit Dam Complex, a township road?
A …………………
B …………………
C …………………
D ………………
5) How does poor drainage of the road affect you as the resident?
A Runoff erodes the land
B Runoff create valleys on your land

C Runoff washes away yields

D Runoff washes away asphalt road
E Any other (specify)
………………………………………………………………………………
6) Have you observed any improvements on the drainage system?
A Yes
B No
7) In your own view, how satisfied are you as a road user or resident with the
state of drainage of the road?
A Extremely satisfied
B Satisfied
C Dissatisfied
D Extremely dissatisfied
8) Which one of the following has not responsibility about highway drainage
problems awareness?
a) The commercial sector
b) Service organizations
c) Non-Governmental Organizations
d) All
9) What is your opinion on the responsibility of highway drainage system
problems?
a) Strong responsibility
b) Faire responsibility
c) Limited responsibility

d) No responsibility

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10) In your opinion, which of the following problem is the most serious that
needs immediate Solution?
A). Lack of good drainage systems
B). high traffic accidents due to drainage
C). high soil erosions
D). Other (If any) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

11) How do you perform the assessment taken to solve the drainage problems?

A). Very good

B). God
C). Fair
D). Poor
E). Very poor

95