Omd551/Basics of Biomedical Instrumentation Two Marks With Answer Unit I Bio Potential Generation and Electrodes Types

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OMD551/BASICS OF BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWER

UNIT I BIO POTENTIAL GENERATION AND ELECTRODES TYPES

1. Define Absolute Refractory Period (ARP).


During the initial portion of the action potential, the membrane cannot respond to
any stimulus,no matter how intense the stimulus is. This interval is called ARP.
2. Define Relative refractory period (RRP).
ARP is followed by relative refractory period. During this period, action potential
can be elicited by a super threshold stimulus.
3. What are resting potential?
The membrane potential measured when a equilibrium is reached with a potential
difference across the cell membrane negative on the inside and positive on the outside is
called resting potential.
4. What is action potential?
When a stimulus is applied to a cell at the resting stage, there will be a high
concentration of the positive ions inside the cell. So there will be slightly high potential on
the inside of the cell due to imbalance of potassium ions. This is called action
potential.Range:20Mv.
5. What is bio electric potential?
Certain systems of the body generate their own monitoring signals conveying useful
information about the functions they represent. Such signals are bio electric potentials and
are related to nerve conduction, brain activity, heart beat etc.
6. State all or nothing law.
Regardless the method of excitation of cells or the intensity of the stimulus, which is
assumed to be greater than the threshold of stimulus, the action potential is always the
same for any given cell. This is known as the all or nothing law.
7. What is meant by sodium pump?
It is an active process, by which the sodium ions are quickly transported to the
outside of the cell and the cell again becomes polarized& assumes its resting potential. The
operation of this pumpbis linked with the influx of potassium into the cell, as if a cyclic
process involving an exchange of sodium for potassium existed.
8. List the types of bioelectric potentials.
Bio electric potential related to
 Heart – ElectroCardioGram (ECG)
 Brain – ElectroEncephaloGram (EEG)
 Muscle – ElectroMyoGram (EMG)
 Eye (Retina) – ElectroRetinoGram (ERG)
 Eye (Cornea - Retina)– ElectroOculoGram (EOG)
9. Define electrode and list its types.
The device that convert ionic potential into electronic potential are called as electrode.
The types of electrode are
 Micro electrode
 Depth and needle electrode
 Surface electrode
10. What are perfectly polarized and perfectly non polarized electrodes?
Electrodes in which no net transfer of charge occurs across the metal electrolyte
interface is called perfectly polarized electrode.
Electrodes in which unhindered exchange of charge occurs across the metal
electrolyte interface is called perfectly non polarized electrode.
11. What are the types of electrodes used in bipolar measurement?
The types of electrodes used in bipolar measurement are
 Limb electrodes
 Floating Electrodes
 Skin electrodes

12. Name the electrodes used for recording EMG and ECG.
Electrodes used for recording EMG are
 Needle electrodes
 Surface electrodes
Electrodes used for recording ECG are
 Limb electrodes
 Floating Electrodes
 Pregelled disposable electrodes
 Pasteless electrodes
13. What are the basic components of biomedical systems?
The basic components are
 Patient
 Transducer
 Signal processing equipment
 Display
 Control unit
 Stimulus
14. List the lead systems used in ECG recording.
The lead systems used in ECG recording are
 Bipolar Limb leads or Standard leads
 Augmented unipolar limb leads
 Chest leads or precordial leads
15. Define – Conduction Velocity
Conduction velocity is defined as the rate at which an action potential moves down a
fiber or is propagated from cell to cell. It is also called as Nerve conduction rate.
16. Give the disadvantage of using surface electrodes with EMG
• Surface electrodes can be used only for superficial muscles
• They are sensitive to electrical activity over too wide area.
17. Draw the Wave form of the resting and action potential.
UNIT II BIO-SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ELECTRODE CONFIGURATIONS

1. How is EINTHOVEN TRIANGLE used in ECG measurement?

The closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called Einthoven triangle.


According to Einthoven, in a frontal plane of the body
The cardiac electric field vector is a two dimensional one.
 Lead-I Position: It gives voltage drop V1 from LA to RA
 Lead-II Position: It gives voltage drop V2 from LL to RA
 Lead-III Position: It gives voltage drop from LL to LA

2. Define LATENCY in EMG.


It is defined as the elapsed time between the simulating impulse and the muscle’s
action potential.
3. What are the different types of ECG lead configurations?
 Bipolar limb leads
 Augmented unipolar limb leads
 Chest leads
 Frank lead system
4. What is Preamplifier?
A preamplifier (preamp) is an electronic amplifier that prepares a small
electrical signal for further amplification or processing. A preamplifier is often
placed close to the sensor to reduce the effects of noise and interference. It is used
to boost the signal strength to drive the cable to the main instrument without
significantly degrading the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
5. State the frequency range and amplitude of a normal ECG bioelectric Signal.
6. Parameter Specifications

Amplitude Duration Frequency


mV Sec in Hz
P Wave 0.25 0.12 to 0.22 8.3 – 4.54
R Wave (QRS Complex) 1.60 0.07 to 0.1 14.28 - 10
T Wave 0.1 to 0.5 0.05 to 0.15 20 – 6.66
S-T Interval
< 0.1 0.2 5
U Wave

Generally, for ECG signal, the frequency range is 0.05 to 100 Hz and amplitude
is 10 – 5000 µV.
7. What are the important parts of ECG recorder?
 Patient cable and defibrillator protection circuit.
 Lead selector switch
 Calibrator
 Bio- amplifier
 Auxiliary amplifier
 Isolated power supply
 Output unit
 Power switch
8. What is Electroencephalography?
It deals with the recording and study of electrical activity of the brain. By
means ofelectrodes attached to the skull of a patient, brain waves can be picked up
and recorded.
9. What is Electromyography?
It is the science of interpreting and recording the electrical activity of the
musclesaction potentials. Meanwhile, the recording of the peripheral nerve’s
actionpotential is called electroneurography.
10. What is Electrooculography?
It deals with the recording of the corneal- retinal potentials associated with
eye movements
11. What is Electroretinography? (MAY 2013)
It deals with the recording and interpreting of the electrical activity of the eye.
If the illumination of the retina is changed, the potential changes slightly in a
complexmanner. The recording of these changes is called Electroretinograph.
12. List the brain waves and their frequency.
Frequency Range of ECG Brain Waves:
 Alpha 8 t-13 Hz
 Beta 13 - 30 Hz
 Theta 4-8 Hz
 Delta 0.5-4 Hz
13. What is Electrocardiography? (MAY 2012)
It deals with the study of the electrical activity of the heart muscles. The
potentials originated in the individual fibres of heart muscle are added to produce the
ECG waveform.
14. What are the different sounds made by the heart?
Valve closure sounds, Ventricular filling sounds, Valve opening sounds, Extra
cardiac sounds
15. Name the parts of the heart conduction system.
Sino atrial node, Atrio ventricular node, Bundle of His , Purkinje fibres.
16. What is the color coding of the different leads?
White –RA, Black- LA, Green- RL , Red- LL, Brown- Chest
17. Mention any four specifications of the ordinary ECG recorder.
 Maximum sensitivity – 20 mm/mV,
 Input impedance –5 mega ohms,
 Output impedance -<100 ohms,
 CMRR- 10000:1.
18. Draw the electrode configuration of aVr output. (NOV 2011)

aVr = -V1-V3/2[V1,V3 are bipolar lead voltages]


LA and LL are connected with two resistors and common point is connected to
negative terminal. RA is connected to positive terminal of operational amplifier. RL is
the reference terminal.
19. What are different reasons for leakage current flow?
Many devices have a metal basis and cabinet that can be touched by the
medical attendants and patients. If they are not grounded, then an insulation failure
or short circuit results and lead to macroshock or micro shock. Hence the patient
must be isolated or insulated from the electrical circuit.
Leakage current is due to:
 ungrounded equipment
 Broken ground wire
 unequal around potentials.
UNIT III SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

1. What is the need of bio-amplifier?


Generally biosignals are having low amplitude and low frequency. So, amplifier is needed to
boost the amplitude level of the biosignals.
2. Enumerate the merits and demerits of a dc amplifier?
It is easy to calibrate at low frequencies. It is able to recover from an overload condition
unlike it is AC counterpart.
3. What are the advantages of chopper amplifier? (MAY 2013)
 It can give stable gain and
 Low noise operation.
4. What are the types of bio-amplifiers?
 Differential amplifier,
 Operational Amplifier,
 Chopper Amplifier,
 Instrumentation Amplifier and
 Isolation Amplifier.
5. What are the advantages of the pre amplifier or instrumentation amplifier?
 High stability
 Higher fidelity
 High CMRR
 High input impedance with the required gain.
6. What is chopper amplifier?
The chopper amplifier is used convert the dc or low frequency signal into a high
frequency signal. Then this modulated high frequency signal is amplified by conventional ac
amplifier. Then this is demodulated and filtered to get low frequency or dc signal.
7. What are the types of chopper amplifier?
 Mechanical chopper amplifier.
 Non mechanical chopper amplifier.
8. What is CMRR in a differential amplifier?
It is the ratio of the amplification of the differential voltage ti the amplification of the
common mode voltage. CMRR=Ad/Ac.
CMRR in db=20 log10 CMRR.
9. What is differential mode?
The two input signals are equal but have opposite polarity at every instant of time.
Vo=Rf/Ri (V2-V1)
In this case, the input signals are called differential mode signals.
10. What is common mode signal?
The input voltages appearing at the input terminals 1 and 2 are identical both in
amplitude and phase at every instant of time and the circuit is said to be in common mode.
V1=V2=Vcm; Vo=0.
11. What are the requirements of physiological signal amplifier or biomedical pre amplifier?
 The voltage gain should be more than 100 db.
 It should have low frequency response.
 There is no drift in the amplifier.
 The output impedance of the amplifier should be very small.
12. What are the different modes of operation of differential amplifier?
 Single ended mode
 differential mode
 common mode
13. What is the purpose of the right leg electrode?
The right leg electrode acts to reduce interference, and can be placed anywhere
without an effect on the ECG results. Each lead measures the electric field created by the
heart during the depolarization and repolarization of myocytes.
14. How do you remove noise from ECG signal?
To remove it, a high-pass filter of cut-off frequency 0.5 to 0.6 Hz can be used.
Powerline interference (50 or 60 Hz noise from mains supply) can be removed by using a
notch filter of 50 or 60 Hz cut-off frequency.
15. What is power line interference in ECG?
Power Line Interference: The power line interference of 50/60 Hz is the source of.
interference and it corrupt the recordings of Electrocardio- gram (ECG) which are
extremely important for the diagno- sis of patients.
UNIT IV MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS

1. What are the methods involved indirect blood pressure measurement?


 Auscultatory method
 Palpatory method
Auscultatory method locates the systolic and diastolic pressure valves by listening to the
Korotkoff. Diastoslic pressure can be easily measured.
Palpatory method is a alternative method that the physician identifies the flow of blood in
the artery by feeling the pulse of the patient downstream from the cuff instead of listening
for the korotkoff sounds. In this method, systolic pressure can be easily measured.
2. What is meant by mean arterial pressure(MAP)?
Mean Arterial pressure is the weighted average of the systolic and diastolic pressure MAP
falls about one- third of the way between the diastolic low and systolic peak. Formula for
calculating MAP is, MAP = 1/3 (systolic –diastolic) + diastolic
3. What are the methods involved direct blood pressure measurement?
 Percutaneous insertion
 Catheterization (Vessel Cutdown)
 Implantation of a transducer in a vessel or in the heart
 Other methods such as clamping a transducer on the intact artery have also been
used. But they are not common.
4. Explain the two ways involved in measurement of blood pressure with a catheter?
Measurement of blood pressure with a catheter can be achieved in two ways.
 The first is to introduce a sterile saline solution into catheter so the fluid pressure is
transmitted to a transducer outside the body a complete fluid pressure system is set
up with provisions for checking against atmospheric pressure and for establishing a
reference point. The frequency response of this system is a combination of the
frequency response of the transducer and the fluid column in the catheter.
 In the second method, pressure measurements are obtained at the source. Here, the
transducer is introduced into the catheter and pushed to the point at which the
pressure is to be measured, or the transducer is mounted at the tip of the catheter.
This device is called a catheter-tip blood pressure transducer.
5. Discuss the technique involved in direct measurement?
 A catheterization method involving the sensing of the blood pressure through a liquid
column. In this method the transducer is external to the body and the blood pressure is
transmitted through a saline solution column in a catheter to this transducer.
A catheterization method involving the placement of the tranducer through the
catheter at the actual size of measurement In the bloodstream or by mounting the
transducer on the tip of the catheter.
 Percutaneous methods in which the blood pressure is sensed in the vessel just under
the skin by the use of a needle or catheter.
 Implantation techniques in which the transducer is more permanently placed in the
blood vessels or the heart by surgical methods.
6. What are the different types of blood flow meters?
 Magnetic blood flow meter –Based on the principle of Magnetic induction.
 Ultrasonic blood flow meter-Based on the principle if Doppler.
 Thermal convection-The rate of cooling is proportional to the rate of the flow of the
medium. This principle is also used to measure the gas flow.
 Determination by Radiographic method-By the injection of a contrast medium into
ablood vessel, the circulation pattern can be made visible. Record of the X-ray image,
obstructioncan be detected and the blood flow in the blood vessels can be estimated.
This technique is known as ‘angiography’.
7. What is cardiac output?
The blood flow at any point in the circulatory system is the volume of blood that
passes that point during a unit of time. It is measured normally in millimeter per min or
litres per min. Blood flow is highest in the pulmonary artery and the aorta, where the blood
vessels leave the heart. The flow at these points is called ‘cardiac output’.
8. Give the name of the instrument used for respiratory volume measurements and what are
its types?
The most widely used instrument for respiratory volume measurements in the
recording spirometer. The different types of spirometer are
 Standard spirometer
 Waterless spirometer
 Wedge spirometer
 Electronics pirometer
 Broncho spirometer
9. Give the name of the instrument used for measuring airflow and explain its principle.
Pneumotachometer can be used for measuring airflow. This device utilizes the
principle that air flowing through an orifice produces a pressure difference across the
orifice that is a unction of the velocity of the air.
10. What is the use of blood flow meter in bio medical nstrumentation?
Blood flow meters are used to monitor the blood flow in various blood vessels and it
also helps to measure cardiac output.
11. What are the two different principles used in ultrasonic blood flow measurement?
 Transit Time method: In this method, a peizo electric crystal emits a brief pulse of
ultrasound which propagates diagonally across the blood vessel.
 Doppler effect based method: In this method, as per Doppler effect, there is a change
in frequency of reflected ultrasonic wave, due to motion of blood, when it crosses
blood.
12. Define transit time principle of ultrasonic blood flow meter.
In Transit time method a piezo electric crystal emits a brief pulse of ultrasound
which propagates diagonally across the blood vessel. The pulse reaches a receiving crystal
situated on the opposite side wall of the blood vessel. Electronic circuitry attached
externally interprets transit time to velocity.
13. Differentiate systolic and diastolic pressure.
The maximum pressure reached during cardiac output is called systolic pressure.
The maximum pressure occurring at the end of ventricular relaxation is termed as diastolic
pressure.
14. What are the two types to measure pulse rate.
 Transmittance method,
 Reflectance method.
15. What is the use of infrared thermometer?
It is a device to measure skin surface temperature. It is used to locate breast cancer.
It is also used to identify the spots in which blood circulation is poor.
16. What is the use of blood flow meter in bio medical nstrumentation?
Blood flow meters are used to monitor the blood flow in various blood vessels and it
also helps to measure cardiac output.
17. Give some applications of electromagnetic blood flow meters.
Blood flow measurements during cardiac surgery, blood flow measurements during
shunt operations, blood flow measurements during carotid artery, blood flow
measurements in rural arteries, blood flow measurements during organ transplantation.
18. What are the two methods for counting the blood.
 Conductivity method,
 Laser based cell counting method.
19. What is korotkoff sound?
In the BP measurement, when the systolic pressure exceeds the cuff pressure, then
the doctor can hear some crashing, snapping sound through the stethoscope. This is known
as korotkoff sound.
UNIT V BIO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENT

1. What does a blood gas analyzer do?


Analyzers used to measure blood gas, pH, electrolytes, and some metabolites in
whole blood specimens. They can measure pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide and
oxygen, and concentrations of many ions (sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate) and
metabolites (calcium, magnesium, glucose, lactate).
2. What do blood gases tell you?
The blood gas test can determine how well your lungs are able to move oxygen into
the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood. Imbalances in the oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and pH levels of your blood can indicate the presence of certain medical conditions.
3. What is non invasive monitoring?
Noninvasive monitoring should include a standard five-lead electrocardiogram,
noninvasive BP measurement, pulse oximetry, capnography, and nasopharyngeal and
bladder temperature. Invasive monitoring should include systemic arterial, central venous,
and PA pressure measurements.
4. Which types of monitoring are considered invasive?
Certain patient conditions and surgical procedures require additional monitoring.
These invasive monitoring techniques include arterial catheterization and pressure
monitoring, central venous catheterization and pressure monitoring, and pulmonary artery
catheterization
5. What is a colorimeter used for?
A colorimeter is a light-sensitive device used for measuring the transmittance and
absorbance of light passing through a liquid sample. The device measures the intensity or
concentration of the color that develops upon introducing a specific reagent into a solution
6. What is the principle of colorimeter?
The working principle of the colorimeter is based on Beer-Lambert's law which
states that the amount of light absorbed by a color solution is directly proportional to the
concentration of the solution and the length of a light path through the solution. A ∝ cl.
Where, A = Absorbance / Optical density of solution
7. What is difference between colorimeter and spectrophotometer?
Colorimeter measure the absorbance of light. Spectrophotometer measures the
amount of light that passes through a sample. It isolates broad band of wavelengths using
tristimulus absorption filters.
8. What are the advantages of using a colorimeter?
Compared with other methods, the colorimetric method has some obvious
advantages, such as low cost, simple instruments (or, in the case of naked eye detection, no
instruments), and can be qualitatively or semiqualitatively identified by the naked eye.
However, colorimetry is generally less sensitive.
9. What wavelength does a colorimeter use?
The Colorimeter measures the amount of light transmitted through a sample at a
user-selectable wavelength. Using the front panel arrow keys, you may choose from four
wavelengths: 430 nm, 470 nm, 565 nm, and 635 nm. Features such as automatic sensor
identification and one-step calibration make this sensor easy to use.
10. What is sodium potassium Analyser?
Sodium Potassium Analyzer. Get Latest Price. ECS 2000 is an Electrolyte Analyzer
used for measuring Na+ and K+ accurately. Results are displayed in the Alphanumeric
Backlight display. The unit of Measurement is mEq/Litre.
11. How does an electrolyte analyzer work?
Principle: The electrolyte analyzer has different electrodes, specific for different
ions of interest. Each electrode has an ion selective membrane (for example for sodium)
that undergoes a specific reaction with the corresponding ions (sodium) contained in the
sample being analyzed.
12. What is blood cell counter?
A measure of the number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in the
blood. The amount of hemoglobin (substance in the blood that carries oxygen) and the
hematocrit (the amount of whole blood that is made up of red blood cells) are also
measured.
13. What is the principle of cell counter?
The Coulter method of sizing and counting particles is based on measurable changes
in electrical impedance produced by nonconductive particles suspended in an electrolyte. A
small opening (aperture) between electrodes is the sensing zone through which suspended
particles pass.
14. What is the normal range for blood count?
In general, the normal range for a red blood cell count is 4.5 to 5.5 million
cells/mm3 if you're male and 4 to 5 million cells/mm3 if you're female. For white blood cell
count, the normal range is 5,000 to 10,000 cells/mm3, and for platelets, the typical range is
140,000 to 400,000/mm3
15. How does an AutoAnalyzer work?
AutoAnalyzer uses air segmentation to separate a flowing stream into numerous
discrete segments to establish a long train of individual samples moving through a flow
channel, FIA systems separate each sample from subsequent sample with a carrier reagent.
16. What is analyzer machine?
An analyser or analyzer is a tool used to analyze data. For example, a gas analyzer
tool is used to analyze gases. It examines the given data and tries to find patterns and
relationships. An analyser can be a piece of hardware or software. Autoanalysers perform
their work with little human involvement.

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