Nuevo Radiotelescopio de Arecibo
Nuevo Radiotelescopio de Arecibo
Nuevo Radiotelescopio de Arecibo
THE FUTURE OF THE ARECIBO OBSERVATORY:
THE NEXT GENERATION ARECIBO TELESCOPE
White Paper, ver 2.0, 02-01-2021
______________________________________________________________
Contact Author: D. Anish Roshi1, [email protected]
Authors: N. Aponte1, E. Araya2, H. Arce3, L. A. Baker7, W. Baan35, T. M. Becker4, J. K.
Breakall34, R. G. Brown5, C. G. M. Brum1, M. Busch6, D. B. Campbell7, T. Cohen24, F.
Cordova1, J. S. Deneva8, M. Devogèle1, T. Dolch30, F. O. Fernandez-Rodriguez1, T. Ghosh9,
P. F. Goldsmith10, L. Gurvits27, M. Haynes7, C. Heiles11, D. Hickson1, B. Isham12, R. B.
Kerr13, J. Kelly28, J. J. Kiriazes5, S. Kumar14, J. Lautenbach1, M. Lebron15, N.
Lewandowska16, L. Magnani17, P. K. Manoharan1, S. E. Marshall1, A. K. McGilvray1, A.
Mendez36, R. Minchin18, V. Negron1, M. C. Nolan19, L. Olmi26, F. Paganelli9, N. T.
Palliyaguru20, C. A. Pantoja15, Z. Paragi27, S. C. Parshley7, J. E. G. Peek6,21, B. B. P. Perera1,
P. Perillat1, N. Pinilla-Alonso22,1, L. Quintero1, H. Radovan37, S. Raizada1, T. Robishaw23, M.
Route31, C. J. Salter9,1, A. Santoni1, P. Santos1, S. Sau1, D. Selvaraj1, A. J. Smith1, M. Sulzer1,
S. Vaddi1, F. Vargas33, F. C. F. Venditti1, A. Venkataraman1, A. K. Virkki1, A. Vishwas7, S.
Weinreb32, D. Werthimer11, A. Wolszczan29 and L. F. Zambrano-Marin1.
Affiliations are listed after the acknowledgements, immediately before the appendices.
Please click here to endorse the contents of this white paper.
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Executive Summary
The Arecibo Observatory (AO) hosted the most powerful radar system and the most
sensitive radio telescope in the world until the unexpected collapse of the 1000-ft
“legacy” AO telescope (LAT) on December 1, 2020. For 57 years, the facility uniquely
excelled in three separate, major scientific areas: planetary science, space and
atmospheric sciences, and astronomy. Through its final day of operation, the LAT
continued to produce new, groundbreaking science, adding to its long history of
extraordinary achievements, including a Nobel Prize in Physics. Its collapse has produced
a significant void in these scientific fields, which echoed across the extensive,
world-wide scientific community. It also produced a deeply-felt cultural, socioeconomic,
and educational loss for Puerto Ricans, and a tragic deprivation of opportunity,
inspiration, and training for Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
students in Puerto Rico and across the U.S., all of whom represent the next generation of
America’s scientists and engineers.
In the tremendous wake of the LAT, we envision a new, unparalleled facility, one which
will push forward the boundaries of the planetary, atmospheric, and radio astronomical
sciences for decades to come. A future multidisciplinary facility at the site should enable
cutting-edge capabilities for all three of the science branches that form the cornerstones
of AO exploration. To facilitate the novel, consequential science goals described in this
document, the new facility must meet the capability requirements described below, which
ultimately drive our telescope concept design.
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In the following sections of this summary, we describe the key scientific objectives and
novel capabilities that the new facility will offer to the three science areas and space
weather forecasting, a unique new interdisciplinary application.
Planetary Radar Science
A key role of the LAT as the host to the world’s most powerful radar system was to
characterize the physical and dynamical properties of near-Earth objects (NEOs), in
support of NASA’s Planetary Defense Coordination Office and in line with national
interest and security. In recent years, AO observed hundreds of NEOs as a part of
NASA’s mandate by the US Congress [George E. Brown, Jr. [ADD: Near-Earth Object
Survey] Act (Public Law 109-155 Sec. 321)] to detect, track, catalogue, and characterize
90% of all NEOs larger than 140 meters in size. Post-discovery tracking of NEOs with
radar is an unparalleled technique for accurately determining their future trajectory and
assessing whether they pose a real impact threat to Earth. These radar measurements
secure the position and velocity of NEOs with a precision of tens of meters and
millimeters per second, respectively. The LAT radar was also used to map the surfaces of
Mercury, Venus, Mars, and the Moon, supporting human and robotic exploration of the
Moon, Mars, and near-Earth asteroids. A new facility, with a more powerful radar
system (5 MW at 2 to 6 GHz) and large sky coverage, will support Planetary Defense,
Solar System science, and Space Situational Awareness by providing the following
capabilities:
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Space and Atmospheric Sciences
Space and Atmospherics Sciences (SAS) at AO has traditionally utilized multiple
approaches to atmospheric research. The LAT’s Incoherent Scatter Radar (ISR), the Light
Detection and Ranging (Lidar) facility, the onsite and remote passive optical facilities,
and the High Frequency facility formed the cornerstones of SAS research at AO. The
powerful LAT’s ISR was the only instrument of its kind and was capable of profiling
ionospheric parameters beyond 2000 km of the Earth’s atmosphere. The high resolution,
range-resolved observations of electron concentrations, temperatures, ion compositions,
and inference of electric fields in the ionosphere are important for the investigations of
the coupling processes between different atmospheric regions, influence of solar and
space weather disturbances on the Earth’s environment, and fundamental plasma
processes, since the ionosphere acts as a natural plasma laboratory. The LAT’s ISR
provided unique contributions in the space sciences due to its high sensitivity and power.
However, a major drawback was its limited beam steering capabilities, which will be
overcome with the proposed new facility. Increased sky coverage (>±45° zenith
coverage), and more power (≳ 10 MW at 430 MHz; a 220 MHz radar is also under
consideration) open up new possibilities that will lead to innovative research and
discoveries in the following topics.
Investigate coupling
Disambiguate between the
between Earth’s Understand the neutral and
influence of meteorological
atmospheric layers to ionized atmospheric
and space weather on the
improve satellite behavior by combined
neutral and ionized
navigation, radio wave active and passive
coupling phenomena in
propagation, and weather observations
Earth’s atmosphere
forecasting models
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Radio Astronomy
LAT’s unique capabilities enabled several key discoveries in radio astronomy. The loss
of the instrument was felt most keenly by pulsar, galactic and extragalactic researchers.
The new facility should enable complementary observations with other existing and
upcoming radio facilities. For example, the new facility must provide a substantial
increase in sensitivity for Very Large Baseline Interferometry, of which the LAT was a
contributing instrument whenever higher sensitivity was required. In addition, wider sky
coverage, greater collecting area, increased frequency coverage, and a larger
field-of-view (FoV) will substantially increase the research potential in a wide range of
fields, some of which are highlighted below.
Illuminate underlying physics
of pulsars, the emission Gain new insights into the
Test General Relativity with
mechanism, and propagation causes and physical processes
Galactic Center pulsars
of radio waves in the of Fast Radio Bursts
interstellar medium
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Interdisciplinary science - Space Weather Studies
The US “space weather preparedness” bill [116th Congress Public Law 181
(10/21/2020)] emphasizes the importance of space weather research and forecasting
efforts. It is important to efficiently track and understand the propagation and dynamics
of solar storms to improve space weather forecasting and to provide sufficient warnings
for the safety of the technological systems and humans in space. The new capabilities for
interplanetary space observations enabled by extended FoV coverage will facilitate solar
wind measurements that probe the dynamics of space weather between the Sun and Earth
at several points inaccessible to current space missions, with the goal of improving the
lead time and advanced warning capabilities for space weather events.
The Concept of a Next Generation Arecibo Telescope
In order to accomplish the overarching scientific goals stated above, we present a concept
for the Next Generation Arecibo Telescope (NGAT) - an innovative combination of a
compact, phased array of dishes on a steerable plate-like structure. Compared to the LAT,
the NGAT will provide 500 times wider field of view, 2.5 times larger sky coverage, 3
times more frequency coverage, nearly double the sensitivity in receiving radio
astronomy signals, and more than four times greater transmitting power required for
both Planerary and Atmospheric investigations. We summarize the new capabilities and
direct applications of this facility in Table 1. The new telescope will coexist with an
extended High Frequency (HF) facility, and a diverse set of radio and optical
instrumentation that continue to operate at AO and at the Remote Optical Facility (ROF).
The largely new proposed concept for a radio science instrument requires extensive
engineering studies that will be the next step to ensure the new facility achieves the
driving scientific requirements for the aforementioned science objectives.
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Table 1: The significant technical improvements of the proposed concept and their
impacts on the science studies.
Comparison with legacy
New NGAT Capability Enabled/Improved science
Arecibo Telescope (LAT)
High sensitivity 1.8 - 3.6 times more All fields of science enhanced
(Gain > 18 K/Jy) sensitive from 0.3 to 10 by increased sensitivity, field of
GHz view, and frequency coverage
Large sky coverage; zenith 2.5 times coverage increase All fields of science benefit
angle range ±48 deg. from increased sky coverage
1
For the configuration given in Table 2a in the document.
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The Necessity to Rebuild in Arecibo, Puerto Rico
We propose that NGAT be located at the Arecibo Observatory, preferably at the location
of the LAT to take advantage of the existing infrastructure and the extension of the RFI
active cancellation system, an active project in development at the AO location. Several
other advantages for the Arecibo site include:
Scientific Socioeconomic
● To serve the minority population of Puerto
● The proximity to equatorial latitudes Rico by inspiring and educating new
is ideal for observing Solar System generations while contributing to the
objects. socioeconomics of the island.
● The location uniquely enables ISR ● To take advantage of the existing
studies both parallel and infrastructure, which is on federal property,
perpendicular to the Earth’s magnetic and has the local government support,
field lines. significantly offsetting costs.
● The geographic and geomagnetic ● To leverage the strategic location in the
location provides unique latitude Caribbean Sea, a region with the largest
coverage which is not offered by traffic vessels and for which accurate
other facilities in the world. geopositioning is critical, and the ISR inputs
for space weather forecast models are
● It is a strategic location from which to crucial.
study the effects of the South Atlantic
Magnetic Anomaly (SAMA) in the
Caribbean upper atmosphere as well Technical
as on the trans-ionospheric radio
signals. AO is located in a Radio Frequency Interference
(RFI) Coordination Zone which minimizes the
● The location is critical for studying effects of RFI, protecting the radio bands
acoustic and gravity waves generated needed for science operations.
by extreme weather systems
approaching the U.S. and Caribbean.
Legacy
To extend and further strengthen the ‘long-term
legacy’ ionospheric data for future climate
change investigations.
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Contents of the white paper
This white paper was developed in the two months following the collapse of LAT through
discussions with hundreds of scientists and engineers around the world who support the
construction of a new and more powerful telescope at AO site. Our goal is to acquire
vastly enhanced capabilities that will open exciting new possibilities for the future of
radio science with direct applications for planetary defense and the protection of US
satellites and astronauts. The remainder of this white paper is outlined as follows: the
Introduction (Section 1) includes the context for the push to construct NGAT at the AO
site. We discuss the Key Science Goals for planetary science, atmospheric science, and
astronomy in Section 2 after first defining the new facility’s projected capabilities. In
Section 3 we discuss the NGAT concept. Following the main text, we discuss alternative
concepts considered for the new facility in Appendix A. An important extension of the
NGAT’s capabilities in space and atmospheric sciences relies on relocating the High
Frequency facility within the AO site, and we describe these plans in Appendix B.
Appendix C describes additional science objectives the NGAT concept will enable to
continue or improve, and finally, we discuss other AO science activities that interlock
with NGAT in Appendices D and E. A summary of the contents of Appendix C and D is
listed below. The acronyms used in the document are defined in Appendix F. Page
numbers are provided in a Table of Contents starting on page 11.
Additional science studies that are enhanced by new NGAT capabilities
C.1 Additional Planetary C.4 VLBI Studies including C.9 Additional Space and
Science Studies including Atmospheric Science studies
● General Relativity
● Radar of comets field tests ● Ion-Neutral Interactions
● Spectroscopic studies of ● Applications to in the Atmosphere
comets and interstellar Stellar Physics ● Sudden Stratospheric
visitors ● Observations of Warming Events
● Additional missions for Extragalactic ● Plasmaspheric studies
spacecraft support Continuum and modeling
Polarization ● Inter-hemispheric flux
of particles and its
C.2 Solar Wind and Space impacts on the
Weather Studies including C.5 Radio Astronomy at Caribbean Sector
high frequencies ● Atmosphere-ionosphere
● Tracking Coronal Mass -magnetosphere
Ejections (CMEs) ● Probing the nature of interactions (AIMI)
● Faraday Rotation and the early and late-type ● Vertical Coupling of the
internal magnetic field of stellar evolution from Earth’s atmospheric
CMEs the local to the distant layers
Universe ○ Science driver for the
● Solar Radio Studies NGAT 220MHz
● Pulsars and Coherent Radar
Transients at high
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● Solar Wind and Space frequencies ○ Wave energy in the
Weather Impacts on the ● Zeeman F-region
AIMI System Measurements to thermosphere
● In-situ Data Comparison detect Galactic ○ Climatology,
morphology and
and Cometary Plasma Tail magnetism equatorward
Investigations propagation of
C.6 A Comprehensive MSTIDs
C.3 Pulsars Studies Snapshot of the Galactic ○ Tropospheric Forcing
including plane on the upper
atmosphere during
● Wide searches for C.7 Further discussion of Extreme Weather
new pulsars Near-Field HI 21 cm Line Systems
● Binary pulsar studies Cosmology ○ Aerosol and Coupling
Processes in the
● Pulsar emission Lower Atmosphere
mechanism and individual C.8 Detection of Cold Dark
pulses Matter and Testing the
Standard Model of Particle
Physics
Other Science Activities at the Arecibo Observatory that interlock with NGAT
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction 14
11
C.2 Solar, Heliospheric and Space Weather studies 58
C.2.1 Solar Wind and Space Weather Studies 58
C.2.2 Highly Efficient Heliospheric Sampling and Tracking of Space Weather Events 59
C.2.3 Tracking Coronal Mass Ejections 59
C.2.4 Internal Magnetic Field of CMEs and Faraday Rotation 60
C.2.5 Solar Radio Studies 61
C.2.6 Solar Wind and Space Weather Impacts on AIMI System and the Role of NGAT 61
C.2.7 In-situ Data Comparison and Cometary Plasma Tail Investigations 62
C.3 Pulsar studies 63
C.3.1 Pulsar searches 63
C.3.2. Binary pulsars 65
C.3.3. Pulsar Emission Mechanism and individual pulses 65
C.4. VLBI studies 66
C.5 New high-frequency explorations in Radio Astronomy 67
C.5.1 Probing the Nature of Early and Late-type Stellar Evolution from the Local to the Distant
Universe 67
C.5.2 Pulsars and Radio Transients at High Frequencies 69
C.5.3 Zeeman Measurements to detect Galactic Magnetism 69
C.6 A Comprehensive Snapshot of the Galactic Plane 70
C.7 Near-Field HI 21 cm Line Cosmology 71
C.8 Detection of Galactic Cold Dark Matter and Testing the Standard Model of Particle Physics 72
C.9. Space and Atmospheric Sciences 72
C.9.1 Ion-Neutral Interactions 73
C.9.2 Sudden Stratospheric Warming Events (SSW) 75
C.9.3 Plasmaspheric studies and modeling 75
C.9.4 Inter-hemispheric flux of particles and its impacts on the Caribbean Sector 76
C.9.5 Atmosphere-ionosphere-magnetosphere interactions (AIMI) 77
C.9.6 Vertical Coupling of the Earth’s Atmospheric Layers 77
C.9.6.1 Science Driver for the NGAT 220MHz Coherent Radar 77
C.9.6.2 Wave energy in the F-region thermosphere 79
C.9.6.3 Climatology, morphology and equatorward propagation of medium scale traveling
ionosphere disturbances (MSTIDs) 79
C.9.6.4 Tropospheric Forcing on the upper atmosphere during Extreme Weather Systems 80
C.9.6.5 Aerosol and Coupling Processes in the Lower Atmosphere 81
Appendix D: Other science activities at the Arecibo Observatory interlocking the NGAT 82
D.1 Space and Atmospheric Sciences 82
D.1.1 Ion Transport Processes using Lidars and ISR 82
D.1.2 Climate Studies and Forcing of the Ionosphere from below using Lidars 82
D.1.3 Geocoronal hydrogen: Secular change and storm response 83
D.1.4 Horizontal winds as a function of altitude: New wind measurements above the exobase 83
D.1.5 The AO Remote Optical Facility (ROF) in Culebra Island 83
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D.1.5.1 High Doppler resolution measurements of vertical motion in the thermosphere 84
D.1.5.2 Field line diffusion of HF produced electrons as a function of energy 85
D.1.5.3 First Caribbean meteor radar and its application to enhance the atmospheric probing
85
D.2 12m Telescope 85
D.3 e-CALLISTO spectrometer 86
Appendix E: Study of planetary subsurfaces with 40-60 MHz radar observations 87
References 91
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1.0 Introduction
The Arecibo Observatory (AO) is a multidisciplinary research and education facility that is
recognized worldwide as an icon to astronomy, planetary, and atmospheric and space sciences.
The AO hosts multiple radio and optical instruments onsite as well as a Remote Optical Facility
(ROF) in Isla Culebra. AO’s cornerstone research instrument was the William E. Gordon
telescope, referred in this document as the legacy Arecibo Telescope (LAT). This telescope,
completed in 1963, was a 305-meter spherical reflector dish built into a natural sinkhole of the
karst topography near Arecibo, Puerto Rico. The optics to correct for spherical aberration, radar
transmitters, and radio receivers to cover multiple frequency bands were housed in the Gregorian
dome, suspended on a platform 150 meters above the dish.
For over 57 years the AO has led in scientific research and discoveries. Among the many
profound achievements enabled by the LAT, we highlight here the discovery of binary and
millisecond pulsars, the first detection of exoplanets, the determination of Mercury’s rotation
period, and more recently, the telescope’s critical role towards the detection of long-wavelength
gravitational waves, and the characterization of asteroids for NASA mission support and
planetary defense purposes. To date, the data collected at AO-- generated from over 1,700
observing proposals from the scientific community, has resulted in more than 3,500 scientific
publications, 376 masters and PhD theses, 1,000 student STEM projects, and a number of
prestigious awards including the 1993 Nobel Prize in physics, the Henry Draper Award, and the
Jansky Lectureship in 2020.
On August 10, 2020, an auxiliary cable that supported the LAT’s 900-ton platform experienced a
failure, resulting in damage to the telescope’s primary reflector dish and the Gregorian dome. In
the following weeks, structural models were developed for the platform, towers, and suspension
cables so that the appropriate temporary and permanent repair plans could be developed. On
November 6, 2020, before the temporary repair efforts could be implemented, a main cable
connected to the same tower unexpectedly snapped, possibly as a result of bearing the additional
weight due to the loss of the auxiliary cable. Following the second failure, two of the three
commissioned engineering reports recommended a controlled decommissioning of the telescope.
Based on this report, the National Science Foundation announced on November 19, 2020 that the
telescope will be decommissioned. However, on December 1, before the controlled
decommissioning could be executed, the remaining cables attached to the same tower failed,
causing the collapse of the platform into the 305-m receiver dish below, irreparably damaging
the telescope.
In the three weeks following the collapse, AO’s scientific and engineering staff and the AO users
community initiated extensive discussions on the future of the observatory. The community is in
overwhelming agreement that there is a need to build an enhanced, next-generation radar-radio
telescope at the AO site. From these discussions, we established the set of science requirements
the new facility should enable. These requirements can be summarized as (see also Executive
Summary) - 5 MW of continuous wave transmitter power at 2 - 6 GHz, 10 MW of peak
transmitter power at 430 MHz (also at 220MHz under consideration), zenith angle coverage ± 48
deg, frequency coverage 0.2 to 30 GHz and increased FoV. These requirements determine the
unique specifications of the new instrument.
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The telescope design concept we suggest consists of a compact array of fixed dishes on a
tiltable, plate-like structure that exceeds the collecting area of the LAT. This concept,
referred to throughout this text as the Next Generation Arecibo Telescope (NGAT), meets all
of the desired specifications and provides significant new science capabilities to all three
research groups at AO. We discuss the specifics of this unique concept in Section 3.
2.0 Key Science Goals
We delineate in the following section the key science goals of NGAT. These science goals were
the drivers for the capabilities of the new concept described in Section 3. In order to better
discuss these objectives in the context of the new, unparalleled capabilities, we first illustrate the
new parameter spaces NGAT will open up. As shown in Fig. 1 (divided in four panels below),
the NGAT will have a field of view 500 times larger than the LAT and 3 times more
frequency coverage. It will also have 2.5 times more sky coverage, more than 4 times the
radio signal transmitting power, and nearly double the sensitivity to receive radio signals
when compared with the LAT.
Figure 1a. Comparison of the sky coverage (see also Appendix C.3, Fig. 15) of NGAT with the legacy
Arecibo telescope (LAT).
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Figure 1b. Comparison of the telescope gain of NGAT with the LAT. The NGAT covers a frequency
range from 200 MHz to 30 GHz, which is 3 times larger than that of the LAT. The system temperature
above 10 GHz was estimated using the ATM model (Pardo et al 2004; Luca Olmi, private
communication).
2
Figure 1c. Comparison of the field of view of NGAT with the LAT.
2
For the configuration summarized in Table 2a
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Figure 1d. Comparison of the transmitter power of NGAT with the LAT. NGAT will provide a significant
increase in the capabilities and therefore science return. The 220 MHz transmitter is under consideration.
For additional context, we present below in Fig. 2 a comparison of the capabilities of the NGAT
concept with other existing and upcoming facilities in radio astronomy, planetary radar, and
incoherent scatter radars (ISRs) used in atmospheric science.
Figure 2a. Comparison of the sensitivity of the NGAT with ngVLA, FAST, SKA1, and GBT. We
followed the metric defined in Dewdney et al. (2015) for the comparison. The system temperature above
10 GHz was estimated using the ATM model (Pardo et al 2004; Luca Olmi, private communication).
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3
Figure 2b. Comparison of the survey speed of the NGAT with ngVLA, FAST, SKA1, and GBT. We
followed the metric defined in Dewdney et al. (2015) for the comparison. The system temperature above
10 GHz was estimated using the ATM model (Pardo et al 2004; Luca Olmi, private communication).
Figure 2c. Comparison of the transmitter power of NGAT with other planetary radar facilities.
3
For the configuration summarized in Table 2a
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Figure 2d. Comparison of the transmitter power of NGAT with other ISR facilities. The frequency of
operation of the facilities in MHz is marked on the top of the bar. A significant increase in NGAT
capabilities compared to all existing facilities is evident from these plots.
2.1 Planetary Defense
Over the past two decades, the legacy AO’s S-band (2380 MHz) radar system has been the most
powerful and most sensitive planetary radar system in the world, observing far more targets than
any other planetary radar facility. The majority of the S-band radar observation time was used for
the tracking and characterization of near-Earth objects (NEOs). These efforts have been part of
NASA’s mandate by the US Congress to discover and characterize 90% of NEOs larger than 140
m in diameter (D) by 2020 [George E. Brown, Jr. (GEB) Act (Public Law 109-155 Sec. 321)].
According to current estimates, approximately 40% of NEOs with D ≥ 140 m have been
identified, and the currently operational NEO surveys such as the Catalina Sky Survey (Larson et
al. 1998), PanSTARRS (Kaiser et al. 2002), NEOWISE (Mainzer et al. 2011), ZTF (Bellm et al.
2019), and ATLAS (Tonry et al. 2018) cannot reach this goal for at least several decades due to
their limited sensitivity and field of regard (Mainzer et al. 2020). The rate of NEO discoveries is
expected to increase over the next decade. More capable NEO survey systems such as the Vera
C. Rubin Observatory and the NEO Surveillance Mission (NEOSM) are in development. Once
they come online, they are expected to achieve the goal of discovering 90% NEOs larger than
140 m within ten years of operation (Ivezić et al. 2007). NGAT will be able to follow up most of
these new discoveries. NEO tracking and characterization will undoubtedly continue for decades.
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In 2020, almost 3000 new NEOs were discovered4, and ~10% of these were deemed virtual
impactors (VIs)5. This means that they possess a nonzero probability of impacting the Earth
during the next 100 years. Thus, post-discovery tracking of NEOs is crucial to reduce the
uncertainties in their orbital parameters (providing information to prevent them from getting
lost), and to determine whether close approaches of large NEOs pose any real threat. It should be
noted that approximately 50% of newly discovered VIs cannot be removed from the list during
their discovery apparition. Ruling out all of an object’s potential impacts typically requires
several months of optical-only observations. In contrast, the high-precision range and Doppler
measurements by the Arecibo radar system provided invaluable information, and just a single
radar observation is usually enough to rule out all potential impacts. In 2019, AO had an
observation record of 126 NEOs, of which 78 were recently discovered objects. Very recently, in
July 2020, Arecibo radar observations of NEO 2020 NK1 (shown below in Fig. 3) ruled out
possible impacts later in this century (Venditti et al. 2020).
Figure 3: Radar delay-Doppler image of 2020
NK1 with vertical delay resolution of 0.05 μs
(7.5 m) showing an elongated shape
approximately 1km (0.6 mi) along the long
axis.
The new system proposed here will enable observations of more than 90% of the VIs larger
than 20 m during their discovery apparition, compared with less than 10% enabled by the
LAT, due to the greater sensitivity (see Fig. 4) and range of sky coverage (see Fig. 5) enabled by
this design. Radar observations are not only unparalleled at obtaining high-precision astrometry
for accurate trajectory predictions (e.g., Giorgini et al. 2002, 2009), but also at producing
physical shape models (e.g., Ostro et al. 2006), detecting satellites (e.g., Margot et al. 2002;
2015), and determining compositional information for asteroids (Benner et al. 2015). All of these
are invaluable information for impact mitigation planning within the strategic Goal 2 of the
National NEO Preparedness Strategy and Action Plan6. Goldstone Deep Space Communications
Complex is currently the only facility in the world capable of providing NASA with active radar
observations, which places all current radar observations at risk of a single-point failure that
could follow from a major earthquake in California, or even a smaller scale technical failure such
4
https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html
5
https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/sentry/
6
https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/National-Near-Earth-Object-Preparedness-Strategy-and-
Action-Plan-23-pages-1MB.pdf
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as the 18-month Goldstone downtime between May 2019 and September 2020 due to klystron
issues. Also, because that facility is part of the Deep Space Network, there are time constraints
for when the facility can be used for asteroid observations. (In contrast, asteroid radar
observations with the LAT could be scheduled on short notice.) Furthermore, Goldstone’s largest
dish is 15 times less sensitive than Arecibo was, and therefore will not be able to observe as
many NEOs; for example, in 2015, Arecibo observed 77 (30%) and Goldstone 32 (24%) of
NEOs that were observable at each facility, respectively (Naidu et al. 2016). Compared to having
optical astrometry only, having radar astrometry increases by a factor of five (on average) the
time interval over which an asteroid’s trajectory can be accurately predicted (Giorgini et al.
2009). In practice, in the vast majority of the cases, radar astrometry makes it possible to rule out
any impact in the next few centuries. NGAT will be able to detect six times more NEOs per
year than the LAT, enabling observations of both smaller and more distant asteroids and
resulting in the accurate determination of many more asteroids’ orbital parameters.
Figure 4: Comparison of the proposed NGAT with existing and in development (GBT) planetary radar
facilities. The shaded areas correspond to regions of the celestial sphere where each telescope could detect
a PHA that is 140 meters in diameter with a 2.1 hour rotation period and a radar albedo of 0.1, above the
detection threshold of SNR = 6 (7.8 dB). NGAT = Next Generation Arecibo Telescope, GBT = Green
Bank Telescope, LAT = Legacy Arecibo Telescope, GSSR = Goldstone Solar System Radar DSS-14.
Green Bank Observatory is planning a Ka-band (35 GHz) radar system (Bonsall et al. 2019).
Ka-band is more weather-dependent because atmospheric absorption is significantly more
effective at Ka-band frequencies than S- and C-band (2-8 GHz) frequencies. Furthermore, GBT’s
radar will have a narrower beam than NGAT, which means there is less room to account for the
large plane-of-sky uncertainties in some newly discovered asteroids’ positions. NGAT will have
a wider beam (and also more transmitter power and a greater effective area) than GBT, giving
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NGAT the advantage when attempting to observe asteroids whose orbital parameters have large
uncertainties.
Figure 5: Fractional increase of the detectable number of objects as a function of the maximum zenith
angle. Increasing the zenith angle from 19° to 48° increases the number of observable objects by more
than 100% (factor of two), relative to the LAT. This plot only illustrates how the number of detectable
asteroids increases as maximum zenith angle increases. NGAT will have an additional increase in
detectable targets (relative to LAT) due to its greater transmitter power and effective area.
2.2 Exploration of Planetary Surfaces and Ocean Worlds
The first major findings of the AO in the 1960s were observations that established the rotation
periods of Mercury and Venus (Pettengill & Dyce 1965; Dyce et al. 1967). Right up until its
collapse, the Arecibo S-band radar system continued to provide the world’s most powerful
capabilities for obtaining ground-based observations of the surface of Venus to search for active
volcanism (e.g., Campbell & Burns 1980; Filiberto et al. 2020), polar ice in the permanently
shadowed craters of Mercury (e.g., Harmon & Slade 1992; Harmon et al. 2011a; Rivera-Valentin
et al. 2020a), and lakes on the surface of Saturn’s moon Titan (e.g., Campbell et al. 2003;
Hofgartner et al. 2020). It has also provided radar imagery of Mars (Harmon et al. 2012; 2017),
characterizing the landing site for NASA’s Insight lander (Putzig et al. 2017). No other
ground-based radar instrument has the capabilities needed to observe the moons or rings of
Saturn. Also, observations of the surface of Venus and Titan are better performed while
using frequencies in the C-band or below (Neish & Carter 2014). Goldstone’s X-band and the
Green Bank Telescope’s planned Ka-band are absorbed by Venus’ or Titan’s atmosphere. Similar
to the complementary Arecibo and Cassini radar observations, NASA’s planned Dragonfly
mission (expected to launch in 2027) will benefit from further characterization of Titan’s surface
with the unprecedented sensitivity of the NGAT telescope in advance of, and in conjunction with,
the mission. When the Jupiter and Saturn systems were at southern declinations, there were
periods of years at a time when they could not be observed with LAT, but NGAT’s wider
declination range will make it possible to observe them every year.
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Lower frequency (longer wavelength) radar systems not only enable observations of the surfaces
of celestial objects with appreciable atmospheres, but also provide data from below the regolith
surfaces. This provides a more comprehensive view of the near-surface properties than
observations acquired at shorter wavelengths. We can find intriguing examples as close as the
Moon, such as the ongoing debate over the presence of water ice in the polar regions of the
Moon (Campbell et al. 2006; Spudis et al. 2013), which could provide invaluable resources for
future space exploration if verified to exist in large quantities under the lunar surface or the study
of superposed ejecta layer on the Moon’s southern hemisphere (Thompson et al. 2009). In the
new era of exploration of the Moon, Mars, and near-Earth asteroids, ground-based radar
observations will be key for supporting the robotic and human exploration of the Solar
System through landing site characterization, including identification of hazards, volatile
reservoirs for in-situ resource utilization, and ultra-precise astrometric measurements
(Rivera-Valentin et al. 2020b).
Moreover, the unprecedented power and sensitivity of the NGAT radar system will
revolutionize our ability to study the surfaces and subsurfaces of the ocean worlds of our
Solar System, parallelling the advancements achieved in the 1960’s and 1970’s through the
LAT’s mapping of the rocky terrestrial planets. Comparative radar studies that probe below the
surface layers of the liquid-harboring moons of Jupiter and Saturn are a new field of research to
explore, not possible from any of the current (or in development) ground-based radar facilities.
The NGAT will support and extend the science return for missions including NASA’s Europa
Clipper and Dragonfly missions and ESA’s JUICE mission.
In the past decades, radar characterization from AO has supported several missions to small
bodies, such as JAXA’s Hayabusa mission to asteroid 25143 Itokawa (Fujiwara et al. 2006),
NASA’s EPOXI flyby of comet 103P/Hartley 2 (Harmon et al. 2011b), NASA’s ongoing
OSIRIS-REx mission to asteroid 101955 Bennu (Lauretta et al. 2017; Scheeres et al. 2019), and
JAXA’s upcoming DESTINY+ mission to asteroid 3200 Phaethon (Arai et al. 2018). Radar data
provided the mission planning teams with fundamental information about the target, such as
high-precision astrometry, size, and shape. Furthermore, an important part of ground-based radar
characterization is the ability to reveal whether an asteroid has a satellite, which helped to select
targets for two of NASA's upcoming missions to binary NEOs. The first of these is the Double
Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) to the binary asteroid system 65803 Didymos, which will be
the first planetary defense demonstration (Cheng et al. 2018). The second, Small Innovative
Missions for Planetary Exploration (SIMPLEx) mission Janus, will explore two binary NEOs,
(175706) 1996 FG3 and (35107) 1991 VH, to better understand how primitive bodies form and
evolve into multiple asteroid systems (Scheeres et al. 2020). The NGAT will continue this legacy
of spacecraft mission support, and an additional VHF site (see Appendix E) could expand the
support to possible direct measurements of internal structures of small bodies.
2.3 Space Debris Monitoring
With increased accessibility to Earth orbit, the amount of space debris increases, and the risks of
them causing significant damage to a satellite are imminent. Space debris is a continuously
growing problem in the Earth’s orbit, placing satellites and the International Space Station at risk
of micro-impacts. The number of pieces of space debris larger than 1 centimeter officially
23
cataloged by the U.S. Space Surveillance Network is more than 20,000 (Anz-Meador 2020). In
addition, more than 500,000 pieces of debris ≥1 cm, and approximately 100,000,000 of size ≥
1mm are estimated to be orbiting the Earth at a speed of approximately 8 km/s. Furthermore, the
collision between objects having an average impact speed of ~10 km/s generates more debris
with new physical and dynamical properties (Kessler et al. 2010). Objects on the order of
millimeters are harder to detect and catalog by debris surveys, but even a fragment size of
millimeters could cause significant damage if it hits a vulnerable part of a satellite. Space debris
characterization is an important part of Space Situational Awareness (SSA) efforts, and
will likely continue to be so through the next decades as multiple companies are planning to
launch large constellations of satellites that will quickly increase the number of spacecraft
in orbit (Virgili et al. 2016; Foreman et al. 2017). Radar observations are a powerful method
for characterizing space debris due to the metallic composition that is highly reflective at
microwave wavelengths. Due to decreasing detectability as distance increases, radar facilities for
space debris detection and tracking are focused on low Earth orbit (LEO), and optical systems
are used for geostationary orbit (GEO). Thus, there are no current radar facilities dedicated to
monitoring the GEO region (a key region for numerous essential satellites). In addition, only
larger debris can be tracked in GEO with existing debris monitoring capabilities. NGAT will
have the ability to observe space debris smaller than one meter in GEO, due to its enhanced radar
power, field of view, and fast transmit/receive switching capability. NGAT also will be able to
observe more distant debris, in cislunar space, beyond the reach of existing radar facilities.
2.4 Incoherent Scatter Radar
One of the most important capabilities of LAT was its ability to perform the world’s most
sensitive Incoherent Scatter Radar (ISR) studies at 430 MHz. These active experiments measure
electron density, ion and electron temperatures, ion composition, and plasma velocity in the
Earth’s ionosphere. It is now well documented that ionospheric and plasmaspheric density
irregularities are the prime candidate for the failure of our navigation and communication
systems, especially during magnetically active periods. Understanding the turbulent regions of
the ionosphere and their effects on satellite communications has important applications for
the Department of Defense communications, planned networks of mobile communications
satellites, and high-precision applications of global navigation satellite systems such as
GPS. In fact, the initial construction of the LAT was funded in order to monitor the ionosphere
as part of the U.S. Advanced Research Projects Agency’s Defender Program for ballistic missile
defense.
The advantages of the LAT’s ISR capabilities were primarily associated with the instrument’s
high sensitivity associated with the sampling speed, information storage capability, and
computational power. With the increase of steering, and sky view capacity, the NGAT’s ISR will
enhance its spatial and temporal resolution of altitudes close to the mesosphere up to the
plasmasphere, which will make possible unprecedented studies of very small scale structures of
the thermosphere. The increase in transmitter power and transmitter bandwidth, both the results
of the new solid state transmitter modules of NGAT, will enhance nearly all areas of Space and
Atmospheric studies. Observations of the plasma line, which traces the effects of the Sun on the
Earth’s ionosphere, will have as much as five times the spatial resolution, and as much as ten
times the temporal resolution, depending on specific circumstances. Similarly, ion line
24
observations in the lower thermosphere will improve by similar amounts. We will be able to
observe >2000 km, the limit with the LAT’s ISR system with about 2 MW of power.
The incoherent scatter spectrum is a significant function of the angle at which the radar observes
with respect to the earth’s magnetic field, and so observations over the full range from parallel to
perpendicular give the most information about the physics. Over Arecibo, the dip angle is about
45 degrees, and so the full range can be obtained without looking more than about 45 degrees
from the zenith. Thus, the full angular range is achieved without greatly increasing the distance
to observation regions or encountering the problems from looking to near the horizon. The NGAT
concept, which increases our sky coverage, together with the AO’s location, improves our ability
to study the plasma lines and vector plasma velocities, which are produced by the most
fundamental behaviors of the ionosphere. Overall, these observations are important for studies of
atmospheric dynamics, driven by the neutral atmosphere, but manifesting as complicated plasma
motion as a function of altitude due the magnetic field and ion neutral collisions.
NGAT will unlock new areas of plasma research never before studied. Fine structures of the
ionosphere will be observable (short period waves as well as variations of electron density of
small amplitude); a new understanding of the effects of solar radiation on the ionosphere will be
possible; nighttime detection of plasma line would help for the understanding of the complexity
of interhemispheric plasma flux; and studies of ionospheric irregularities and its impacts on radio
transmission will be made. These new areas of research will strengthen our overall
understanding of the Earth’s upper atmosphere and its interaction with the solar flux, which is
becoming increasingly important as we continue to use radio frequencies for communication
with satellites in Earth orbit.
2.5 Climate Change Investigation
Climate change is the long-term alteration of the average weather pattern in a particular location
or the planet as a whole. Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less predictable (short
term), impacting our society. Many of the effects of climate change have been attributed to the
release of greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide and methane) into the atmosphere, which
ultimately results in warming of the lower atmosphere but cooling of the upper atmosphere. In
the thermosphere, where the density of carbon dioxide is too low to absorb much infrared
radiation coming from below, greenhouse gasses promote cooling by radiating energy acquired
via collisions to space in the infrared wavelengths (NRC, 2013).
To address the challenges of climate change, adequate science and operations support is
required to enable frontier research that adds to the long-term record necessary for analyzing
space climate over several solar cycles. This includes the knowledge of the responses of the
lower and upper atmosphere to energy deposition coming from the Sun as well as galactic
and extragalactic sources (radiation; solar wind flux/density; interplanetary magnetic field;
energetic particles, relativistic or not, etc). Also, the peculiarities of a given geographic location
and the knowledge of the atmosphere's responses to local seasonality are critical for establishing
baselines and distinguishing fluctuations related to climate change (Brum et al., 2011).
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In this context, LAT’s ISR have long been collecting high quality ionospheric, thermospheric,
and exospheric data since the 1960s. In addition, a cluster of optical (passive and active)
instruments and radio receivers have been supporting the radar observations, helping to solve
numerous questions about the responses of the upper atmosphere to different forcing, local
weather or from outer space. All together, these AO’s data have resulted in the most
comprehensive, long-term, ground-based database in existence with exceptional temporal and
spatial resolution.
The analysis of such data set at AO revealed unique long-term changes in the ionosphere never
seen before. These include a steady lowering of the ionosphere’s F-region peak altitude of about
700 m per year and a slight increase/decrease in its peak density before/after the local midnight
over a period of 30 years (Santos et al., 2011, Fig. 6a). AO data also revealed a long-term trend
in the meridional and zonal components of the thermospheric neutral winds which can be larger
in magnitude than the seasonal, solar cycle, or geomagnetic activity influences (Fig. 6b) (e.g.
Brum et al. 2012; Tepley et al. 2011, Brum et al. 2019). These variations, which required
continuous observations over the past four decades, may point to important atmospheric
variations provoked by climate change but a clear understanding of their origin has not yet
been reached.
Figure 6. Combined long-term
observations using ISR and Fabry-Perot
techniques at the LAT’s site; (a) The
yearly rate of the long term trend of
F-region ionospheric peak ISR
parameters, foF2 and hmF2, in
MHz−1yr−1 and km−1yr−1, respectively
(adapted from Santos et al. 2011). (b)
Variability of the thermospheric neutral
winds residual registered by Fabry-Perot
at Arecibo over the last 40 years (1980 to
2019) showing a remarkable change in
the rate of the components of the neutral
wind.
As climate change forecasts become an urgent national enterprise, research-to-operations (and
the reciprocal), data collection and dissemination should continue to be a daily routine and
responsibility for the future of the Space and Atmospheric Sciences group at AO. It is only by
distinguishing between the influence of meteorological and space weather on the neutral and
ionized coupling phenomena in the Earth's atmosphere that we will be able to understand global
climate change. Not only will the NGAT’s increased sensitivity and improved ISR
capabilities enhance our observations of these climate change-induced phenomena, but
more critically, it will also allow us to build directly on the existing baseline derived from
26
decades of data collected from the same location to establish long-term and periodic climate
trends and changes. Besides, an additional 220MHz frequency will enhance NGAT’s capability
to provide new inputs to weather forecasting models and, in the long term, contribute to the
understanding of the climate change impacts on extreme weather systems occurrence and
severity.
The NGAT’s observations will be augmented by the existing onsite Arecibo Optical Laboratory
(AOL), lidars, radio receivers, the High Frequency (HF) Facility (see Appendix B) and the
offsite Remote Optical Facility (ROF, see Appendix D) in Isla Culebra.
2.6 Space Weather Forecasting
The effects of “space weather” at the Earth are determined by the continuous flow of highly
variable solar wind plasma, the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) carried by the solar wind into
the heliosphere, and the large-scale transient interplanetary disturbances propagating away from
the Sun. Transient events such as coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and co-rotating interaction
regions (CIRs) both cause moderate to severe space weather disturbances on Earth and other
planets. Additionally, electromagnetic radiation produced at the time of solar flares/CMEs can
also affect Earth’s atmosphere and ionosphere in several ways. The above space weather
processes can have negative effects in many technologies, including satellite operations,
telecommunications, navigation systems and power grids. For instance, the greatest solar
storm event of 1-2 September 1859, the Carrington Event was the most powerful space weather
event, due to which a significant part of the world’s telecommunications were adversely affected
and led to a real economic impact. If a similar event happened today, it could grind halt the
high-tech infrastructure of the entire world. A reliable prediction of space weather is
necessary to provide sufficient warning to take effective measures against its adverse effects
on human technology and astronauts participating in manned space missions.
The arrival of CMEs at the Earth has the propensity to cause intense geomagnetic storms.
Several institutions and centers, like NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC) and the
U.S. Air Force’s Weather Agency (AFWA), are interested in predicting/forecasting the arrival of
space weather CME events. However, predictions based on models are limited by the dynamical
evolution of CMEs due to various fluid and kinetic instabilities evolving at the interface between
the CME ejecta and the sheath as the CME propagates away from the Sun. On the other hand, the
lead-time currently available from L1 point space mission observations is significantly less for
reacting to or mitigating the effects of propagating disturbances. The efficient tracking of CMEs
in between the Sun and the orbit of the Earth calls for solar wind observations at consecutive
locations of the heliosphere. The radio remote-sensing technique of interplanetary scintillation
(IPS) provides the properties of the solar wind in three-dimensions (e.g., Hewish et al. 1964;
Coles 1978; Manoharan 1993, 2012; Tokumaru et al. 1994). Since Earth-directed CMEs could
cause interplanetary disturbances, IPS observations can be used to track and forecast their arrival
at the Earth. Several instruments are available to study IPS (e.g., the Ooty Radio Telescope in
India, the Solar Wind Imaging Facility in Japan, and the Mexico Array Telescope). The
predominant limitation constraining the usefulness of current IPS measurements and their
science output is the sampling resolution of the heliosphere in space and time. Additionally, most
27
of the current IPS arrays are operated at meter wavelengths (i.e., in the frequency range of ~100
to 327 MHz), which can be useful to probe the solar wind at distances >50 solar radii (~0.25 au)
from the Sun. IPS observations over a wider frequency range are essential to probe CMEs from
the near-Sun region to Earth as has been demonstrated with LAT (see Fig. 7). NGAT’s wider
frequency coverage (200 MHz to 30 GHz), increased sensitivity, greater sky coverage, and
multi-beaming capability can revolutionize investigating the solar wind and detecting CMEs all
the way from the Sun to near-Earth orbit (Manoharan 2006).
Figure 7. Scintillation index observed with LAT plotted as a function of observing frequency for the
compact radio source B0742+103. These observations cover a period between 03 July to 09 August 2020.
On some of the days, measurements have been taken at multiple frequency bands, nearly simultaneously
within about 1-hour time, and these observations are joined by the best-fitted straight line. The
scintillation index seems to nicely scale with the observing frequency as a power-law form. The S-band
observations (>2700 MHz) can be extended to closer solar offset, <20 solar radii. For each day, the solar
offset in solar radii and the slope of the best-fitted straight line are shown (Manoharan, Perillat, et al., in
preparation). NGAT can provide a much better understanding of space weather studies at an improved
frequency coverage.
The solar magnetic field is the main cause for all kinds of solar activities. A quantitative
knowledge of the solar/coronal magnetic field is essential to understand solar energetic eruptive
phenomena above the photosphere. The flux density spectrum of moving type IV radio bursts at
frequencies >200 MHz, along with the routinely available space-based solar images and
ground-based radio images from the dedicated heliograph (e.g., Nancay Radio Heliograph), will
allow to determine the gyro-synchrotron components and their associated magnetic field within
the CME (e.g., Bastian et al. 2001; Dulk & Marsh 1982; Maia et al. 2007; Simoes & Costa
28
2006). The wide-frequency coverage capability of NGAT will be used to study the CME
associated radio bursts at meter wavelengths, which can provide accurate CME magnetic field
strengths along with space-based and ground-based solar images well as the characteristics of
the distribution of non-thermal electrons causing the radio emission. This information is
essential to understand and predict space weather.
In summary, for the first time, NGAT will be able to efficiently track the magnetized plasma
clouds released from the Sun into the interplanetary medium and to understand the impact on
Earth's atmosphere, virtually from the troposphere up to the protonosphere/plasmasphere. This
will enable detection of the strong propagating disturbances during particularly powerful solar
storms and, with a prediction and mitigation plan in place, it could significantly minimize their
effects in communications on Earth and on humans and instrumentation in Space.
2.7 AO as a laboratory to test theories of Global Climate Change
The human race is becoming increasingly concerned that secular changes are occurring in the
Earth’s climate and that the effects of those changes may be increasingly inimical to current
behaviors and lifestyles. Active measures to influence or control perceived climate changes, or
even to reverse them, will not be addressed by systems such as the NGAT but the prerequisite
understanding of the Geospace system and the mechanisms that mediate change certainly are. It
has become increasingly clear that the large-scale interactions between the Sun, which ultimately
drives the climate throughout the inner Solar System, and the entirety of Geospace take place
through relatively small-scale processes that are not yet fully understood. Without full
understanding of the operation of all those small-scale processes, it is not possible to fully
understand the entirety of the Geospace environment far less to predict its behavior and evolution
on either short or long time scales.
The NGAT will provide the best and most detailed observational basis to describe the entire
atmosphere behavior in three dimensions and over extended intervals supporting progress in
elucidating and understanding all the processes which control its behavior. Together with the
HF facility (see Appendix B), NGAT will also have the ability to disturb pre-existing states
of the atmosphere to test developing theories. Currently, there is no other facility in the world
able to support these critical investigations in the vast volume of Geospace contained within the
closed shield provided by the Earth’s magnetic field. Only the EISCAT3D system, currently
under construction in Northern Scandinavia, will provide comparable capabilities. However, it
will be dedicated to studies of the northern auroral zone.
2.8 Searching for Habitable Worlds
The search for exoplanets, especially Earth-like planets, is one of the most important endeavors
in astronomy both now and in the coming years. Cutting-edge radio telescopes have for the first
time the capability to detect and assess exoplanets by observing both bursts of circularly
polarized, coherent, emission - referred to as Electron Cyclotron Maser Emission (ECME) -
induced by the magnetic interaction between a star and planet (e.g. Nichols and Milan, 2016),
29
and by observing characteristics of their atmospheres during transits. We discuss each of these
possibilities in turn.
ECME emissions from a wide variety of systems are expected in the ~100 MHz to 30 GHz
frequency range. These systems include:
● Very young, highly magnetized, and rapidly rotating pre-main sequence stars, often
detectable in the radio (Güdel 2002);
● Hot, young planets that may possess a strong magnetic field that could be detected along
with stellar radio emission at GHz frequencies (Reiners and Christensen 2010, Route &
Wolszczan, 2013, Bower et al. 2016, Donati et al. 2016, and Bastian et al 2018);
● Stellar flares may be induced by the interaction of the magnetic fields of hot Jupiter
exoplanets and stellar active regions that are detectable at radio wavelengths (Cuntz et al
2000; Route 2019)
● Brown dwarfs at temperatures of 1,000 K and below exhibit radio emission (Route and
Wolszczan 2012, 2016), which implies that even the coolest dwarfs are capable of
generating bursts of ECME signals;
● Close-in planets in habitable zones of sufficiently magnetized low-mass stars and brown
dwarfs are potentially observable at GHz frequencies by exploiting the unipolar dynamo
(or inductor circuit) mechanism (emission similar to the Jupiter satellite system; Zarka et
al. 2018);
● Low-mass stars exhibit stellar flares that can be observed with dynamic radio
spectroscopy to further characterize the related magnetic activity and its impact on
planetary habitability, and such studies have produced interesting results (Villadsen and
Hallinan, 2019).
Detection of radio emission from exoplanets would dramatically extend the experimental basis
for studies of their physics and their habitability (e.g. Lazio et al. 2019), as this would enable
measurements of planetary magnetic field strengths and topologies, constrain their stability, and
provide insight on the nature of the dynamo mechanism. The unknown magnetic fields in these
systems require an ECME search over a wide frequency range well outside the protected bands
for radio astronomy. The NGAT will provide the community with a new tool with optimal
capabilities to perform this search. The wide frequency coverage of NGAT, its sensitivity, and
its ability to mitigate RFI are ideal for searching for ECME emission from exoplanets and
identifying those that could harbour life.
In addition to tracing ECME emission, the broader sky coverage of NGAT would allow for the
characterization of many targets of interest discovered by NASA K2 and the Transiting
Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), such as systems like TRAPPIST-1 (see, e.g., Pineda and
Hallinan, 2018). In particular, stellar emissions of all radio wavelengths are obstructed by a
rocky planet and its atmosphere during a transit. The obstruction due to the planet's atmosphere
is different at radio and optical wavelengths. Thus, the combination of optical and radio transit
measurements would quantify properties of the atmospheres of rocky exoplanets. Further, radio
observations can make use of the sharp features of star-spots allowing for significantly improved
transit depth measurements (Pope et al., 2019). The sensitivity and frequency range of the
NGAT will complement observations of optical transits of exoplanets providing new insights
into their atmospheres and plasma environments.
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2.9 Multi-Messenger Astronomy and Gravitational Waves
The clock-like behavior of millisecond pulsars (MSPs) makes them excellent laboratories to
probe fundamental physical phenomena such as gravitational waves (GWs – Detweiler 1979,
Hellings & Downs 1983). These are fluctuations in space-time caused by accelerating massive
objects and a key prediction of Einstein’s theory of general relativity (GR). The North American
Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational waves (NANOGrav) is a collaboration of scientists and
students in the US and Canada, aiming to directly detect nanohertz GWs and uncover a new
observational window in the low frequency regime of the gravitational wave spectrum (Ransom
et al. 2019, Cordes et al. 2019). NANOGrav monitors regularly an array of more than 70 highly
stable MSPs mainly using the largest radio telescopes in the US – the Green Bank telescope in
WV and the Arecibo telescope in PR (until the collapse) – to achieve the required high timing
accuracy necessary for the GW detection. The nanohertz frequencies are accessible by only
MSP timing and not through any other methods of GW detection. The most promising
sources that produce GWs in this frequency regime are supermassive black hole binaries
(SMBHBs – Colpi et al. 2019, Taylor et al. 2019). They are billions of times more massive than
those recently detected by LIGO, reside at the centers of galaxies, and merge when galaxies
collide.
A detection of these GWs will revolutionize our understanding of galaxy formation and
evolution through cosmic time. NANOGrav’s primary objectives are: detect a stochastic
background of nanohertz GWs; characterize this background in terms of the demographics of the
expected emitting population of SMBHBs; detect individual SMBHBs, and perform
multi-messenger follow-up with large synoptic photometric and spectroscopic surveys
operational in the 2020s; constrain fundamental physics by probing the neutron star equation of
state, cosmic strings, primordial GWs, first-order cosmological phase transitions, beyond-GR
theories of gravity, and dark matter (Ransom et al. 2019).
The first NANOGrav detection is likely to be the stochastic GW background, i.e. the cumulative
emission of GWs from unresolved SMBHBs throughout the universe. A stochastic signal was
detected in the recent NANOGrav 12.5-yr data set that included 47 MSPs; however, this signal
did not show a statistically significant “Hellings & Downs” correlation (see Fig. 8, bottom panel)
to claim a detection of GW background (Arzoumanian et al. 2020). The high-quality timing data
collected with LAT over 15 years until its closure supported 50% of NANOGrav’s sensitivity to
GWs. With more data and MSPs in the timing campaign, NANOGrav expects to detect the GW
background within the next 3 – 7 years (see Fig. 8, top panel – Ransom et al. 2019). The
sensitivity of NANOGrav improves over time and it is in the regime of detecting continuous
GWs from individually resolved, sufficiently nearby (z < 0.5) and/or massive SMBHBs (chirp
mass 109—1010 M⊙). They expect to detect one or more individual SMBHBs as a
quasi-monochromatic GW signal by 2030 (Ransom et al. 2019). The searches for GWs produced
by individual SMBHBs will be cross-validated with near-future EM surveys that can register
photometric (e.g. LSST) and spectroscopic (e.g. SDSS-V) signatures of dual active galactic
nuclei (AGNs), allowing for a complete multi-messenger portrait of merging SMBHs (Ransom et
al. 2019, Kelley et al. 2019). However, the loss of LAT will impact and delay their efforts, since
it was used to monitor approximately half of their pulsars and it obtained high signal-to-noise
timing data.
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Figure 8. Top: NANOGrav’s detection projection for nanohertz GW background. The simulation
assumed the existence of LAT and is based on forecasting of pulsar noise properties, adding future
surveys, and modeling the properties of SMBHB population. Bottom: The expected “Hellings & Downs”
correlation in the GW background detection as sampling with pulsar pairs by the NANOGrav. The
number of pulsar pairs per angular separation bin for the 12.5-yr NANOGrav data (GBT only, Arecibo
only, both telescopes), and also the sampling for a projected 200-pulsars. A single telescope alone
provides a poor sampling, and a 200-pulsar array produces over an order of magnitude improvement in
the number of samples per angular separation bin. The figures are taken from Ransom et al. (2019).
As shown in Fig. 8 (bottom panel), the sampling of “Hellings & Downs” correlation becomes
poor with a single telescope alone. Therefore, NGAT will be a vital instrument for
32
NANOGrav, and the large collecting area and advanced instruments (e.g., broadband feeds
and RFI mitigation capability) will produce even better-quality high signal-to-noise MSP
timing data. Further, including more MSPs is important for Pulsar Timing Arrays (PTAs) as their
sensitivity improves directly with the number of pulsars in the array (Siemens et al. 2013).
Therefore, the improved sky coverage of NGAT will allow NANOGrav to observe more MSPs
that were not visible before with LAT. Also, the improved NGAT sensitivity will provide pulsar
surveys to discover more highly stable MSPs that can be included in NANOGrav’s timing
campaign in the future (see Appendix C.4). NANOGrav also works together with the
International PTA (IPTA -- Perera et al. 2019b) and NGAT timing data would drive not only the
national, but also the international effort of low frequency GW detection over this decade.
2.10 Probing innermost regions of AGN using Multi-Messenger
Astronomy and VLBI
The co-evolution of galaxies and central supermassive black holes is observationally evident
from several scaling relationships: black hole mass-stellar velocity dispersion of the host galaxy
bulge, black hole mass-galaxy bolometric luminosity correlation, etc. (Kormendy & Ho 2013).
These correlations came about due to mergers of less massive galaxies and the subsequent
growth of the black holes. The correlations were observed to be tighter near black hole masses
~106 MSun but no clear evidence has been observationally established at higher masses.
Furthermore, our understanding of active galactic nuclei (AGN) feedback on the co-evolution is
incomplete particularly in systems with SMBHBs. Enabling the NGAT as an element in Very
Long Baseline Interferometer (VLBI) networks provides a very powerful tool to detect nuclear
activity from massive black holes and SMBHBs, especially in regions of space where emission
from other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum is absorbed by dense nuclear dust and gas. This
allows us to separate emission from AGN powered by black holes and radio emission from
star-formation in the early Universe. Though VLBI observations can be used to infer the
presence of SMBHBs from detecting interactions with accreting gas (for example, Doppler
broadened spectral lines from AGNs), these signatures could also be mimicked by single AGNs.
Detecting continuous GW emission with pulsar timing arrays (see Section 2.9) and upcoming
space interferometers such as LISA unambiguously identifies the presence of SMBHBs in their
late stages. Thus, combined VLBI observations of such systems to study the bulge of the host
galaxy and AGN properties along with GW measurements are the only way to probe the
co-evolution of SMBHBs and post-merger systems (Simon & Burke-Spolaor 2016).
The radio emissions from AGNs are in general very weak. Studies of products of the events
detected via their GW emission typically require milli- and sub-milli-jansky level of detection. It
necessitates use of the most sensitive elements of VLBI network and phase referencing. The
latter has made it possible to study very weak radio sources by increasing the effective coherence
time from a few minutes to hours. This technique can be successfully carried out for observations
at 1 GHz and above. However, at frequencies below 1 GHz the raw coherence times become
very short due to ionospheric effects, requiring the phase calibrator to lie within the (voltage)
primary beam of all antennas in the array. The high sensitivity, increased field of view and
multi-beam capability of NGAT will provide efficient phase-referencing with two phased beams
over 200 MHz to 30 GHz, thus enabling imaging or detection of radio emission from AGNs and
SMBHBs. AO is currently a member of the European VLBI network (EVN) and the high
33
sensitivity array (HSA), and with improved capabilities of NGAT the contributions to VLBI
observations will be invaluable.
2.11 Prebiotic Molecules: the Precursors to Life in the Universe
High-sensitivity observations at centimeter wavelengths are a powerful tool that can result in
unambiguous detections of heavy molecules, the precursors to life in the interstellar medium
(ISM). Such molecules, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, can be practically
impossible to identify at high frequencies due to line-forests at mm/sub-mm wavelengths, i.e.,
heavy molecules generally have lower abundances, and in the millimeter regime their spectral
lines fall below the confusion level of the sea of lighter molecules (Heiles et al. 2019). In the
1-15 GHz range, the heavy molecules stand out clearly and unambiguously, and hence this
frequency range provides an effective window into the life-bearing astrochemical processes of
the ISM. Previous detections of carbon-chain molecules, such as C4H at 9.5 GHz, toward TMC-1
(Kalenskii et al. 2004), one of the closest molecular cloud complexes to Earth, exemplify the
potential for such studies. In addition, numerous extragalactic detections transform our
expectations of the scale over which we can hope to investigate the building blocks of life. A
ground-breaking example is the detection of multiple new molecules in the Ultra Luminous
Infrared Galaxy Arp 220, including pre-biotic CH2NH (methanimine) and HCOOH (a possible
detection; known as formic acid) both of which play a role in the formation of glycine, the
simplest amino acid (Salter et al. 2008). NGAT’s vast sensitivity, wider frequency and sky
coverage (which provides greater access to the Galactic plane) and its ability to efficiently
mitigate RFI (and hence discriminate between prebiotic molecular spectral lines and RFI) will
enable the launch of the next generation of Galactic and extragalactic searches for prebiotic
molecules.
2.12 Pulsars near Sgr A*: a new test bed for General Relativity
The Galactic center (GC) region has some of the most extreme conditions and environments in
the Galaxy due to high stellar and gas densities and the central black hole (Sgr A*). Pulsars in
the GC are important to study GR, stellar formation and evolution, stellar dynamics, and the
interstellar medium (Bower et al. 2019, Perera et al. 2019a). In particular, discovering a pulsar
orbiting around Sgr A* would provide the opportunity to study and test GR and the black hole
(BH) physics, measuring BH mass and the spin. Due to the high stellar formation rate and
high-mass star density, we may expect to detect thousands of pulsars in the GC region (Pfahl &
Loeb 2004, Rajwade et al. 2018), and the massive stars around the BH could be the progenitors
for neutron stars and pulsars (Pfuhl et al. 2011). However, this large pulsar population is not
accessible with current telescopes due to sensitivity limitations. The extreme propagation effects
such as interstellar scattering in the central region make it difficult to discover this population.
Thus, observations at frequencies >9 GHz are essential to probe the GC (Rajwade et al. 2018).
Many searches have been conducted near the GC, but they discovered only six slow and isolated
pulsars within 0.5° of Srg A* (Johnston et al. 2006; Deneva et al. 2009; Eatough et al. 2013).
The GC magnetar (located only 0.1 pc in projection from Sgr A*) is the most interesting among
these sources; however, its orbit around the central BH is not sufficiently short for relativistic
effects to be observed.
34
The main limitation of earlier searches is the telescope sensitivity. The FAST radio telescope has
a large collecting area, but its declination coverage is limited and current operating frequency is
not favorable for GC searches. NGAT, with its high sensitivity, sky and frequency coverage will
enable us to probe the GC and discover more pulsars in the region, including a pulsar in a tight
orbit around the central BH, allowing us to carry out unprecedented tests of fundamental physics
and gravity theories including GR, and also discover new classes of radio sources through
transient events.
2.13 Elucidating the mysterious nature of Fast Radio Bursts and other
energetic events in the Universe
The FoV of the telescope potentially helps the rate of the Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs) detection
(e.g. the Canadian CHIME Telescope). NGAT will have a larger FoV, sky coverage, and higher
sensitivity, placing it in a better configuration to detect many more FRBs than was possible in the
past, including particularly distant and faint FRBs. FRB160102 has the largest measured
dispersion measure (DM; 2583 pc cm-3) to date, leading to a redshift of 3.06 (Bhandari et al.
2018). This particular source was detected with the Parkes telescope with a S/N of 16. Using a
high sensitivity telescope, e.g. FAST, it is shown that the same FRB can be detected up to a
redshift of 10.4 (with a S/N threshold of 10), leading to a DM of ~ 6500 pc cm-3 (Zhang 2018). It
is also shown that sensitive telescopes can search FRBs up to a redshift of ~15, setting up a DM
upper limit of ~9000 pc cm-3 (Zhang 2018). The high redshift FRBs provide unique opportunities
to probe deep in the intergalactic medium which is crucial for constraining the epochs of
hydrogen and helium reionization incited by the ignition of the earliest stars and galaxies
(Keating et al. 2015, Beniamini et al. 2020). FRB detection and localization is one of the highest
ranked sciences in the current era. Large collecting area is very important to detect low fluence
short bursts. The highest sensitivity of LAT together with its dedicated pulsar backend made
possible the detection of three out of four VLBI detected pulses and all of them have low
fluences compared to the known FRB population7 (Petroff et al. 2016), indicating that sensitive
telescopes are important in detecting faint FRBs. The improved sensitivity with the NGAT will
enable us to detect more faint FRBs. NGAT as a station in the VLBI network is indispensable in
localizing repeating FRBs and probing spectro-temporal structure in any repeating bursts. A
real-time FRB detection via a burst triggering system will be used at NGAT for commensal and
other observations while recording and processing the data on petabyte storages and GPU
clusters. Such observations involving NGAT have potential to reach the highest baseline
sensitivity which is critical for decisive astrometric observations of FRBs (Marcote et al. 2020).
With these improved capabilities, NGAT will detect more FRBs compared to the legacy Arecibo,
including very faint ones accompanied by low fluences and/or located further than ever before,
leading to key insights into the physics behind these mysterious events, the nature of the
intergalactic medium, and the history of the universe.
NGAT will also offer significant new capabilities for the exploration of Gamma-ray Bursts
(GRBs), the most energetic electromagnetic events in the universe at cosmological distances
whose origin is still unclear (Chandra et al. 2016). Our understanding of GRBs has drastically
improved with the detection of their afterglows at X-ray, optical, and radio wavelengths (Kann et
7
http://frbcat.org
35
al. 2010). Only 31% of all GRBs have been detected in radio bands due to the sensitivity limit of
the current telescopes (Chandra & Frail 2012). The high sensitivity of LAT significantly
contributed to the detection and investigation of the afterglows of GRBs (e.g., Taylor et al. 2004,
2005, Pihlstrom et al. 2007). It has been estimated that sensitive telescopes such as FAST can
detect GRBs up to a redshift of ~15; however, its frequency coverage (< 3 GHz) does not have
enough sensitivity to detect sub-luminous GRBs. With the enormous sensitivity throughout its
broad frequency coverage (from 200 MHz to 30 GHz - see Fig. 2), NGAT will enable detection
of all GRBs including sub-luminous events, allowing investigations into their origin and physics
far better than before. Combining NGAT’s large collecting area with the VLBI network will be
particularly useful to precisely locate and monitor the GRB afterglow. Recent VLBI studies, for
example, provided decisive physical diagnostics on the products of first detection of gravitational
waves from neutron stars collision (Mooley et al. 2018, Ghirlanda et al. 2019).
2.14 Quantifying the local Dark Matter content with Near-Field HI 21
cm Line Cosmology
According to the ΛCDM paradigm, the local Universe should be teeming with dark matter
mini-halos with masses < 109 M☉. While the ΛCDM model is extremely successful in describing
the overall evolution of cosmic structure, observational results fail to detect its predicted large
numbers of “satellites.” While the number of known satellites in the Local Group has increased
dramatically in recent years, the number with small circular velocities remains too low.
Interactions between satellites and the hot coronae of large galaxies can explain the dearth of
stars and gas in small halos, but explaining the kinematic mismatch between the smallest
galaxies and their host halos is harder. In fact, the occupation of low mass (< 109 M☉) halos by
visible galaxies is poorly constrained, and the observed luminosity and velocity functions fall
well below the predictions of ΛCDM. Converging the paradigm with our local Universe requires
a complete multiwavelength census of low mass galaxy populations and their general
characteristics. A cornerstone of these studies rests on observing the HI content of the low mass
populations, as it provides not only information on the HI mass but also dynamical information
including recessional velocities and velocity widths. The large field of view, sky coverage, and
sensitivity of NGAT are essential in order to detect faint HI 21cm line emission from a large
sample of galaxies with low halo mass. (see also Appendix C5.5)
2.15 Probing Dark Energy with HI Intensity Mapping
The question of the nature of dark energy remains one of the most perplexing cosmological
mysteries of our time. Modern radio telescopes have a unique opportunity to participate in the
steps to uncover this mystery in the coming decades, particularly because neutral hydrogen both
provides an excellent tracer of baryonic matter, and is, in principle, easily observable.
Large-scale intensity mapping projects help determine not only the distribution of galaxies (and
hence the distribution of dark matter) at various redshifts, but also the rate at which cosmic
structures grow, providing unique constraints on dark energy. The onset of cosmic acceleration is
a particularly important region to probe. However, observing the z=1 region is also prohibitively
difficult at shorter wavelengths due to the opacity of Earth's atmosphere. Therefore, observing
neutral hydrogen with highly sensitive radio telescopes offers an opportunity to constrain
cosmological models in a very useful way.
36
Known as HI intensity mapping (Chang et al. 2010, Masui et al. 2013), measuring the power
spectrum of intensity fluctuations in the 21 cm line can yield useful observations on the
distribution of matter as well as the size of baryonic acoustic oscillations at low to moderate
redshifts. In addition, by mapping the same line redshifted to different wavelengths, this
technique can effectively reveal the distribution of matter in 3-dimensions and hence over large
co-moving volumes. Resolving individual galaxies is not required for such large-scale
measurements, and hence high sensitivity radio telescopes are uniquely poised to contribute to
these observations. NGAT’s sensitivity, frequency coverage, and correlation mode of observation
will provide unique capabilities that enable it to serve as a prime instrument in such studies.
2.16 Searching for Advanced Life in the Universe
We now know that our Galaxy, and indeed the Universe, is awash with oases for life. As such,
one of the most profound questions of this century is the search for life beyond Earth. The Search
for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), more recently known as the search for ‘technosignatures’
is a viable method for uncovering evidence of advanced (technological) life, particularly because
it probes many simultaneous targets over large volumes of space (Margot et al. 2019, Grimaldi
and Marcy 2018). Radio emission at centimeter wavelengths is an especially promising tracer of
advanced life, both because radio waves easily permeate the interstellar and intergalactic media
and because they are easily generated, as demonstrated by our own use of radio waves on Earth
(Grimaldi and Marcy 2018). As the Terrestrial Microwave Window, the portion of the radio
spectrum from 1 to 10 GHz, is largely free of naturally generated cosmic and terrestrial noise
sources, it is therefore ideal for technosignature searches (see, e.g., Fig. 5.2 in the Cyclops
Report by Oliver et al. 1971), and this range will be fully covered by NGAT.
The relative probability of successful technosignature detections compared to other search
methods depends on both the likelihood that life evolves technological capacities and the length
of time over which it produces technosignatures (Grimaldi and Marcy 2018). Maximizing sky
coverage, sensitivity, frequency coverage, and spectral resolution are the most effective means to
increase the probability of a detection. Over the coming years, the enormous FAST telescope in
China will be one of the premier instruments for technosignature searches on the planet due to its
large collecting area. NGAT will have a field of view 58 times larger than the current 19 element
L-band system (centered at 1.2 GHz) on the FAST telescope. Thus NGAT (centered at 1.5 GHz)
will have a Drake figure of merit ~37 times that of FAST assuming similar processing
bandwidths for both telescopes.
The detection of technological life beyond the Earth would represent the most profound
discovery in the history of humankind. The significantly enhanced performance of NGAT over
most available instruments in the current and next generation of technology will also constrain
our estimates of the prevalence of advanced life in the Universe, an important result that
reinforces the rarity of our own species. Even in the absence of a technosignature detection, null
results serve as quantitative and specific evidence of the need to carefully care for our home
planet and boldly plan for extending our own reach beyond the bounds of Earth.
37
2.17 Molecular Gas in the distant Universe
The star formation history of the universe is well summarized by the so-called ``Lilly-Madau''
plot. This plot (not shown here), which illustrates the total star formation rate (SFR) in galaxies
in a comoving volume as a function of redshift, essentially describes the evolution of star
formation in galaxies across cosmic time. The SFR density increases from an early epoch (z > 8),
peaks near z~2 and then declines by a factor of ~20 by z=0 (for a recent review, see Madau &
Dickinson 2014). Understanding the physical process driving this evolution is fundamental to
understanding galaxy evolution. At least three key quantities drive this evolution: the growth rate
of dark matter halos, the gas content of galaxies (specifically the molecular gas available for star
formation), and the efficiency at which molecular gas is transformed into stars.
The low energy rotational transitions of CO are good, direct tracers of the bulk of the molecular
gas in galaxies which fuel the star formation (Carrilli & Walter 2013). However, detecting these
lines over the cosmic history is most demanding in terms of telescope time. A fruitful strategy is
to search for CO lines from the more massive galaxies (> 1010 MSUN) such as the sub-millimeter
wave galaxies (SMGs). SMGs typically have molecular gas mass ~5x1010 MSUN and their SFRs
are 50-1000 MSUN yr-1. They contribute to ~20% of the total SFR density, at an earlier epoch of
the Universe, ~10 Gyr ago. They reside in massive dark matter halos (MDM~5x1013 MSUN) which
ultimately evolve into virialized galaxy clusters with a hot IGM (Casey et al. 2014). Their high
CO luminosities and high number densities in proto-galaxy clusters make them ideal tracers of
massive dark matter halos over a wide swath of cosmic time.
As an example, consider the proto-cluster SPT2394-56 (z=4.31), a bright (S1.4mm=23.3 mJy)
un-lensed object discovered in the South pole telescope 2500 sq. deg. survey (Vieira et al. 2010).
There are 14 gas-rich galaxies in this proto-cluster, and the CO(2-1) transition was detected with
the ATCA (see Fig. 9) providing a molecular gas mass of ~1011 MSUN. The 14 line-emitting
objects are located in a region of ~130 kpc in size (Miller et al. 2018).
The potential impact of NGAT to survey the redshifted CO transitions from distant (z > 3)
proto-clusters will be enormous. The interferometric mode of operation of NGAT will provide
excellent spectral baselines, which is crucial for the detection of such weak lines. Further, the
large field of view of NGAT will allow simultaneous searches for line emission from almost all
members of proto-clusters. Such a system will allow astronomers to measure the gas content of
these proto-cluster members providing crucial information for the advancement of this field.
38
Figure 9. (Top): APEX 850μm image of SPT2349-56 showing the extended emission associated with the
proto-cluster. (Bottom): CO(2-1) detection toward the central core of the proto-cluster by ATCA Miller et
al. 2018).
2.18 High Mass Star Formation in the Galaxy
High-mass stars, or O and B stars (M > 8 MSUN), play a major role in the energy budget of the
Galaxy through their radiation, stellar wind, and eventual death in supernovae explosions. Their
formation, however, is not as well understood, although it is generally known that the collapse of
dense, sub-parsec sized cores in the molecular interstellar medium (ISM) produces both low and
high mass stars. These dense cores as well as almost all young stars are located in large scale
(extending over several pc) filamentary structures observed in the molecular phase of the galactic
39
ISM. Although a large body of observations of structures in molecular gas exists there are
several open questions (for a complete review, see Motte 2018), including: (1) How is the
formation of massive stars related to the large scale structures such as the filaments? (2) What is
the dominant physical process that results in the formation of filamentary structures? (3) How are
dense cores formed from filaments? Are cores formed from mass accretion or instabilities in
filaments? How are the high-mass star formation activities distributed over the disk of the
Galaxy?
While there are many ways to study these processes in the molecular ISM, one of the most
powerful means involves using spectral line observations of various transitions of ammonia,
NH3, near 23 GHz. These transitions require high densities (> 103 cm-3) for excitation and have
moderate optical depth. Thus, NH3 observations can filter out the foreground and background
contamination as they preferentially trace dense regions in molecular gas (see, e.g., Fig. 10). The
line ratios also serve as a thermometer, yielding both velocity, density, and temperature
information for the gas clouds. These data are crucial to understand and differentiate between the
theories of high mass star formation (Motte 2018).
Figure 10. Composite image of the 3.6 μm (blue), 8 μm (green) and 24 μm emission from a star forming
region from GLIMPSE and MIPSGAL superposed with RAMPS NH3(1,1) integrated intensity contours
in white. The NH3 emission preferentially originates from dense regions in the cloud complex. (Image
from RAMPS project website8, Hogge et al. 2018).
8
http://sites.bu.edu/ramps/project-summary/
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Surveys of NH3 line emission from Galactic molecular clouds with modest angular resolution
(~1 arcmin) exist but are limited to ~10 sq. deg. due to survey speed limitations (Hogge et al.
2018, Friesen et al. 2017). As high-mass stars comprise less than 1% of all stars, observing a
statistically significant sample of high-mass star forming region requires probing a large number
of cloud complexes. The large survey speed of NGAT and its excellent surface brightness
sensitivity will make it a powerful instrument both to conduct NH3 surveys over several 100 sq.
deg. and to probe the faint, diffuse emission surrounding the very dense regions. These
observations complement the wealth of information obtained by ongoing ALMA observations at
sub-parsec scale resolution by providing information on scales ≳ pc. In this respect NGAT will
greatly transform our understanding of star formation in the Galaxy.
3.0 NGAT Design Concept
3.1 Compact dish array on a single plane
The science requirements for the three research groups (Planetary Radar, Space and Atmospheric
Science, and Radio Astronomy) at AO can be summarized as follows:
a) sky coverage ±48 deg in zenith angle;
b) large collecting area;
c) excellent surface brightness sensitivity; and
d) several megawatts of transmitting power.
We considered the merits of meeting these requirements with both a single dish or a compact
array with large collecting area. However, as was the case for the LAT, preliminary investigations
showed that a 305-m single dish would not be able to meet the zenith angle range required.
Further, there is no proven technology that ensures the possibility of transmitting several
megawatts of transmitter power with a single dish. If we were to use an array of individually
steerable dishes, the desired high surface brightness sensitivity would require a ‘tight’ packing of
the dishes. Such a packing would create significant shadowing which would effectively render
such an array not useful for observations. Brief descriptions of the single dish and the array of
dishes considered are given in Appendix A.
The limitations of the single dish and of individually pointable dishes led us to the concept
of the ‘compact dish array on a single plane’. A schematic of this idea is shown in Fig. 11. An
array of dishes are packed so as to be on the same plane, either on one very large plate-like
platform or on smaller plates each with its own platform. Sky coverage is achieved by tilting the
packed array so that it can point to different zenith angles.
It would be ideal if the entire array of dishes could be placed on one single movable structure
that could be tilted; however, if this is not mechanically feasible, the array support structure
could be divided into smaller, individually movable segments. Compact arrays mounted in a
single plane are in existence, in much smaller sizes (see Fig. 12).
41
Fig. 11a Fig. 11b
Figure 11: Schematic showing the concept of the NGAT. In the example configuration discussed in Table
2a, there are 1,112 parabolic reflectors each of size 9 m. These dishes are to be fixed on a structure in a
single plane within a circle of diameter 314 m. The view of such an arrangement from the zenith is shown
in Fig. 11a and the side view is shown in Fig. 11b. Each parabolic reflector is fed with prime focus
receivers (Fig. 11b). In this diagram, we assume that the parabolic reflectors are symmetric, but off-axis
reflectors are another possibility.
Fig. 12a Fig. 12b
Figure 12: A much smaller version of such a telescope, the AMiBA9, is being used for radio astronomy
observations, and is shown in Fig 12a. A similar configuration is used by Pluton10 deep space
communications and planetary radar in Crimea, which consists of 8 reflectors of 16 m diameter (Fig.
12b).
9
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMiBA
10
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluton_(complex)
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Detailed engineering and design studies will be undertaken. We discuss below the major design
considerations.
3.1.1 Dish size, shape and packing: Maximally packing the dishes on the plate/segment is
important so that the largest possible total collecting area is realized. The shape of the individual
dish could also be hexagonal if it increases the net collecting area compared to a circular dish.
Individual dish parameters also need to be optimized in order to maximize the sensitivity over
200 MHz to 30 GHz, minimize grating lobe amplitude, reduce cost and provide maintenance
access to the feed and front-end electronics. Two example configurations are shown in Fig. 13
and a summary of the configuration and capabilities provided by them is given in Table 2. The 9
m size provides only 6 wavelengths across the dish when operating at 200 MHz, which certainly
is not an optimal solution for the lowest frequency but could be a cost effective way to make
reflectors with good surface RMS values for 30 GHz operation. Note that the VLA 25 m
antennas were used for imaging at 75 MHz.
Figure 13: An array of 1,112 dishes of 9 m in diameter within a ~314 m diameter circle is shown on the
left. The number of dishes could be reduced by increasing the dish diameter, as shown in the right figure
where an array of 400 dishes of 15 m diameter within a 331 m diameter circle. In both cases, the array
will provide an equivalent collecting area of a 300 m diameter dish. It is evident that the packing
efficiency is not optimum when the diameter of the dish is increased. Dishes with hexagonal shape could
be considered during the engineering study to investigate whether higher collecting area can be achieved
with less number of dishes.
3.1.2 Dish optics: The reflectors could be symmetric or off-axis parabolic. The optics could be
simplified with prime focus operation. With a prime focus configuration, the focal-length over
diameter (F/D) ratio could be varied to achieve optimal performance in the 200 MHz to 30 GHz
frequency range. A combination of primary and secondary reflectors could also be considered if
costing is viable.
43
3.1.3 ‘Plate’ configuration and pointing: The plane of the entire array needs to be moved to
point at different zenith angles. The entire array could be placed on either one single large
movable platform or be segmented and placed in smaller structures with each one movable for
pointing individually, if deemed structurally necessary. Inevitably, segmenting the plate would
result in loss of collecting area at large zenith angles so minimal segmenting would be ideal. To
reduce effects due to shadowing at zenith angles away from zero, the segments should be as large
as possible and they must be placed as near as possible. Segment shape could be a polygon, if it
helps closely pack the array. Each segment could be moved using a set of jack mechanisms for
pointing at different sky positions. Another benefit of this segmented design is that we could
begin with a single segment, and build up capability with time.
3.1.4 Radio receivers: We envisage that 200 MHz to 30 GHz frequency range could be covered
using 4 broadband (~1:4 frequency ratio) feeds for reception. The feeds will be optimized to
provide the maximum gain over system temperature in the frequency ranges 200 MHz to 800
MHz, 0.7 GHz to 2.5 GHz, 2.0 to 8 GHz and 8 to 30 GHz. To reduce the number of cryostats and
required maintenance, room temperature low-noise amplifiers (LNAs) with Peltier cooling can
be used for frequencies below 2.5 GHz (Schleeh et al 2016; S. Weinreb, Caltech, Private
communication). Arecibo is not located in an RFI quiet zone; it is located in an RFI coordination
zone. Room temperature LNAs are expected to have enough dynamic range to accommodate the
power in the RFI, but the bandwidth of the successive receiver stages need to be reduced to filter
out strong RFI signals. The bandwidth of each receiver is to be determined based on various
considerations such as RFI power, achievable noise performance, etc. The 2.0 to 8 GHz and 8.0
to 30 GHz receivers need to be cryogenically cooled. The 2.0-8.0 GHz receiver will be used by
planetary radar for signal reception. This radar receiver needs to be cooled to maximize the
performance of the planetary radar facility. Optimization of the power consumption of the
cryostat can be achieved by reducing the cooling load (for example, by not cooling the horn),
using high-efficiency cryo-coolers11 and also exploring the operation of LNAs at 60 to 80 K
temperature. This optimization is essential to keep the operating cost of the telescope low.
3.1.5 Radio Transmitters: A key objective of the new telescope is to rebuild the world’s most
powerful and sensitive planetary and atmospheric radar systems. The new radar systems could
take advantage of new advances in microwave and radio transmitter technology, using a large
number of low-power radar transmitters rather than one high-power transmitter. The great
disadvantage of high-power klystrons has been their high cost and long manufacturing time. In
addition, a single transmitter will face more serious power density issues such as arcing. When
using cumulative power from several transmitter units with relatively less power, arcing can be
avoided. Use of a large number of low-power (5 - 25 kW), high efficiency transmitters reduces
operational risks and cost, although the investment in the beginning is greater than using 1-2
high-power transmitters.
We plan to divide the transmitters into two groups. The 430 MHz ISR will use a 200 MHz to 800
MHz feed and a broadband (200 to 500 MHz) power amplifier. We envisage that each dish could
be equipped with a 10 to 25 kW amplifier (depending on the telescope configuration; see Table
11
https://www.northropgrumman.com/wp-content/uploads/HighEfficiencyCryocoolerPerformanceICC18.pdf
44
2), thus providing a peak power from the array of ~10 MW. The second transmitter, to be used
for planetary defense purposes, will consist of a 2 to 8 GHz feed, and a narrow-band (centered
between 2 and 6 GHz; yet to be decided), high efficiency power amplifier. We envisage the
amplifiers could provide a total power from the array of ~5 MW in continuous wave operation
using a set of 5 - 12 kW power amplifiers depending on the telescope configuration.
The planned transmitter at 430/220 MHz, which is primarily for atmospheric studies, can also be
used for planetary exploration. For the planetary radar, frequency range 2 to 6 GHz is considered
optimal in terms of weather factors and beam width. The specific frequency could be determined
near the time of construction, as WiFi systems also use frequencies in this range. Specific bands
will possibly be assigned for new systems, and the selected frequency band should not overlap
with those that could cause significant RFI. The ideal solution would be a dual-band or a
wide-band transmitter, if one were available at the time of construction at a reasonable cost, as it
would allow both flexibility and easy access to multiwavelength data. The design summary table
lists options for optimal powers per frequency; however, only one will likely be selected if high
efficiency dual-band or wide-band transmitters are not available. A highly efficient transmitter is
essential to keep the operational cost low.
Greater total power requires more power generation for the facility, which has been restricted by
the pollution levels of existing generators. More environmentally-friendly power generation for
the new facility with newly emerging technologies should be investigated.
3.1.6 Frontend instrumentation and configuration: The front-end structure depends on the
optics of the dish. Broadly speaking, each dish will have a turret to house the 4 receiving and the
2 transmitting feeds. The receiver and transmitter for the higher frequencies will be located
nearby in the turret so that they could be switched between transmit/receive applications (e.g.,
planetary defense application). The high-power amplifiers for the transmitter need to be located
close to the dish. They could be placed below the dish, attached to the support structure of the
telescope. Wave guides equipped with dehydrators can carry the output of the power amplifier to
the feed. The approximate estimate of the length of the wave guides is about 10 m. For the
430/220 MHz transmitter, we will use high-power heliax cable to connect the feed to the power
amplifier. The power amplifiers require cooling. Liquid cooling is used in many commercial
amplifiers, but to reduce the weight on the structure, we explore the possibility of using air
cooling.
3.1.7 Signal conditioning and processing: The signals will be digitized close to the frontend for
the receivers using 14-bit Analog to Digital Converters. The digitized signals must be passed
through fiber optics to the backend room after minimum signal processing. All further processing
(delay compensation, beamforming, correlation) will be done in the backend room, to be located
in RFI shielded rooms near the telescope control room. Telemetry signals to control the turret,
receiver monitoring, etc. will also be transported through the fiber optic link. The waveform of
the modulated signals to be transmitted will also be sent digitally to the telescope. We envisage
that all the amplifiers for the transmitter could be located close to the frontend. A separate
network of fiber optic cables will carry the telemetry signal for telescope pointing.
45
3.1.8 Grating Lobe Suppression: The spatial frequencies are sampled at half the Nyquist rate in
the array configuration, which implies the far-field pattern will have grating lobes. A variety of
techniques exist to suppress grating lobes/sidelobes inherent to a close-packed multi-dish design,
such as: array thinning, tapering, non-uniform dish placement, dish size variations, and annealing
(Steinberg 1983). Tradeoffs of the array sensitivity (including aperture efficiency) versus
sidelobes will be assessed during the engineering study. Our preliminary simulation study12
shows that non-uniform dish size or keeping the edge taper of dish illumination < 10 dB are
promising ways to suppress grating lobes without reducing the net collecting area.
3.1.9 Phasing the array: The phasing of the array in receiving mode can be done using the
techniques used in interferometers by observing radio sources. However, phasing the transmitter
requires additional calibration techniques. Methods to phase arrays with a large number of
transmitters have been investigated in the context of solar power satellite antennas in the
microwave regime (Chernoff 1979). In recent years, significant progress has been made in
phasing individually steerable dish arrays for planetary radar applications near 7 GHz
(Geldzahler et al 2017, D’Addario et al 2009). We plan to build up on these techniques to phase
the proposed transmitter array.
3.1.10 Structure and structural deformation: The telescope structure has to support the weight
of the reflector and the electronic instrumentation. This weight depends on the number of
reflectors required. We approximately estimate the weight of the reflector and electronic
components by considering carbon composite reflectors (Lacy, G., NRC, Canada, private
communication), SKA estimates on the front-end electronics weight (Swart & Dewdney 2020),
and commercial brass transmitter waveguide and power amplifiers to be 1800 or 1300 tons for
dish sizes in the range 9 to 15 m, respectively. Thus, if the entire array were on a single support
structure it would weigh about 1800 tons. If the array is segmented, then the weight of the
reflector and equipment to be supported will reduce accordingly.
The structure will deform during tracking due to gravity, thermal expansion, and other
perturbations (wind, etc.). Assuming a 9 m antenna size, we estimate a tolerance for the
deformation at 30 GHz to be ~0.8 cm for an array size of ~314 m. The tolerance requirement will
be lower if the array is segmented as it is proportional to the size of the array. The large tolerance
is due to the larger primary beam of each individual dish and hence depends on the assumed dish
size. For phasing the array, however, we need to know the deformation length in the direction of
the source to a fraction of wavelength (i.e. ~1 mm at 30 GHz). A finite element model (FEM) of
the structure would accurately provide this pathlength as demonstrated by the operation of the
Green Bank telescope (GBT). The panels of the GBT are adjusted using FEM model predictions
to achieve a high aperture efficiency up to ~28 GHz. Whether we could use the FEM model
prediction to aid array phasing depends on the amplitude of the fluctuations of the structure
deformation due to external perturbations (like wind) as well as how accurately the FEM can
predict the effects due to a temperature gradient. Feedback from a laser metrology system will be
required to phase up the array if the latter two effects dominate the structure deformation.
3.1.11 Locating the telescope in the sinkhole: The sinkhole in which the LAT was located is
surrounded by karst hills which provide good RFI shielding. We would like to take advantage of
12
http://www.naic.edu/~aroshi/misc/GratingLobeSuppression.pdf
46
the RFI shielding property of the sinkhole. However, the suitability of the site for this telescope
needs to be assessed. If the sinkhole is not found to be suitable, it is certainly our preference (as
described in the Executive Summary) that another, suitable location is identified within the
Arecibo Observatory site.
3.1.12 Other challenges to overcome:
● Understanding the coupling of the antenna elements and its effect on the beam shape and
array performance.
● The telescope must be secured against fire hazard, which is expected for high power
transmission arrays.
● Feed, receiver and transmitter support structure must be designed in such a manner so as
to enable regular maintenance. For such large arrays an electrical maintenance cart that
can transport one or two people and equipment will be required.
● Environmentally-friendly power generation methods to support the radar transmission
should be explored.
3.2 New Capabilities
● Increased sky coverage and better sensitivity will allow observations of more targets,
including the galactic center, pulsars, other stars, and fast radio bursts, small bodies of the
Solar System, etc.
● Increased frequency coverage will significantly enhance the ability to search for
technosignatures, prebiotic molecular emission, redshifted CO observations and pulsars
orbiting Sgr A*.
● Greater field of view will allow simultaneous multiple phased beam observations. This
capability allows multibeam space weather monitoring observations and is useful for
VLBI phase referencing.
● The combination of sensitivity and field of view will provide increased survey speed.
● The NGAT will provide imaging capability when used as an interferometer. The dense
sampling of the spatial frequencies will allow use of the array for imaging the Sun,
extended structures in the ISM, as well as several cosmological experiments.
● Greater radar transmitter power will increase the number of observable NEOs by a factor
of ~15 and allow observations of most of the newly discovered virtual impactors and
remove most of their impact solution. It will also allow us to observe smaller and more
distant bodies of the Solar System and improve observations of those objects that have
been observed before. (Received power increases in proportion to the square of the
target’s diameter. Received power decreases with the fourth power of the target’s
distance.)
● Greater radar transmitter power and sky coverage for atmospheric science studies,
making it possible to observe along parallel and perpendicular directions to the
geomagnetic field.
● The compactness of the antenna array could provide short spacing measurements for
other interferometers (eg. ngVLA).
47
● Radar transmitter power and swift Tx-Rx switching will allow space debris monitoring in
geostationary orbit and cislunar space monitoring, while other facilities monitor below
low-Earth orbit.
● The array will enable the usage of RFI mitigation techniques like the phased beam
‘nulling’.
● The radar transmission beam and reception beam can be shaped by weighting the array
elements, which may be useful to study asteroids larger than the size of the phased beam.
3.3 Summary of example configurations
Table 2a: An example configuration of NGAT with 9 m dishes
Dish diameter 9 m
48
Table 2b: An example configuration for NGAT with 15 m dishes
Dish diameter 15 m
ZA coverage ± 48 degrees
49
Table 3: NGAT ROM
Design studies $8M
Receivers (LNA, cryostat, post-amplifier, signal processing circuit, fiber optic $12M
transceivers, fiber connection)
Transmitters (waveguide, heliax cable, power amplifiers, signal processing network) $83M
Backend signal processing, data storage and public data archive $17M
Total $454M
4.0 Summary
The Next Generation Arecibo Telescope (NGAT) satisfies the overwhelming scientific and
public desire to rebuild a telescope at the Arecibo Observatory. Although constructed in 1963,
the legacy Arecibo telescope (LAT) continued to produce high-impact scientific discoveries, with
planetary science, astronomy, and space & atmospheric science results published in scientific
journals like Nature and Science even in the months just prior to its collapse. Rather than simply
replacing the now-lost facility, we propose building a new telescope that would significantly
advance research in all three areas of science pursued at the Arecibo Observatory. The NGAT
will use state-of-the-art radio and transmitter instrumentation and will implement active RFI
cancellation techniques. In this paper, we presented the extensive scientific objectives that will
be achieved and enhanced by the NGAT concept. Some of the exciting new possibilities with this
instrument include searching for pulsars orbiting Sgr A*, observing molecular lines from early
Universe, climate change, ISR studies both parallel and perpendicular to the geomagnetic field,
space debris characterization, accurate velocity measurements of a larger fraction of near earth
objects, space weather forecasts, dark energy and dark matter studies, gravitational wave
50
detection through pulsar timing, etc. These capabilities will vastly increase the user base of the
facility and enable cutting-edge science for decades to come.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Arecibo Observatory users’ community for the invaluable support,
comments, and discussion that helped us to write this white paper with a short notice. Special
thanks to Joanna Rankin from University of Vermont, who led the organization of the AO’s user
community. We thank the technical staff of the AO, as well as Dr. Shaffer and the UNC-URSI
community for their suggestions and inputs while preparing the white paper. We also greatly
appreciate valuable input from Gordon Lacy, Mohammad Islam, and Dean Chalmers at NRC
Canada; Peter Dewdney from SKA; Larry D’Addario from Caltech; Anthony van Eyken from
SRI international; Alex Kraus from MPIFR, Bonn; Jean-Luc Margot from UCLA; Chip Cohen
from Fractal Antenna Systems; Tim Bastian from NRAO and Catherine Neish from Western
University.
51
26. INAF-Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory , Florence, Italy
27. Joint Institute for VLBI, ERIC, Dwingeloo, Netherlands
28. SRI international, Menlo Park, CA, USA
29. Pennsylvania state University, PA 18512, USA
30. Hillsdale College, MI 49242, USA
31. Purdue University, IN 47907, USA
32. California Institute of Technology, Pasadena CA 91125, USA
33. Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 306N.
Wright St., Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
34. Electrical Engineering East, Penn State University Park, PA 16802, USA
35. ASTRON, the Netherland Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, NL
36. Planetary Habitability Laboratory, UPR, Arecibo, PR 00612
37. University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, Calle Post, Mayagüez, P.R. 00681-9000
52
Appendix A: Alternate Design Concepts Considered
A.1 A Single Dish
The possibility of rebuilding a new single dish at the same location as the LAT was discussed
extensively. Most single dish concepts involve a primary reflector with a fixed surface of size at
least 305 m and a movable secondary reflector. The secondary could be deformed to improve the
aperture illumination, sky coverage, and even to reduce the physical range of the movement of
the receivers while pointing the telescope. The secondary could be on a central tower, or
suspended by a set of cables, or suspended from an arch or a crane-like mechanism. We
discussed the possibility of Cassegrain optics, in which the elevated secondary reflector would be
movable but all receivers and transmitters would be near the ground, in an opening near the
center of the primary reflector. Preliminary investigations indicate that the major limitation with
all these approaches is limited zenith angle coverage with a 305m diameter dish, which might not
satisfy some science requirements for ISR studies. Furthermore, there is no technical solution we
are aware of that can increase the peak transmitted power above about 2 MW, as desired for the
next generation ISR and planetary defense applications. However, we note that their design
discussions occurred over the three weeks following the collapse of LAT, and viable design
options other than the ones presented here are possible.
A.2 An Array of Individually Pointing Dishes
One possible design we considered is an array of individually steerable dishes. Like the proposed
NGAT configuration in Table 2a, the number of antennas required will be approximately 1,100
and the diameter of each dish will be about 9 m. Since each antenna will be pointed individually,
conventional servo systems could be used for steering the antenna. The required radar power
could be achieved by injecting smaller transmitter power to each antenna and phasing them up,
as demonstrated in the KaBOOM experiment for Ka Band, but with only three 12 m antennas
with spacing of 60 m between each antenna (Geldzahler et al., 2017). The surface brightness
sensitivity requirement of ISR studies would require that all the antennas be placed very close to
each other. This close spacing of elements is required even if a larger dish size of 15m (see Table
2b) will be used for the array. However, this would mean that the far field pattern of the array
would be modified by both geometric shadowing and electromagnetic interaction between
antennas in the array. For instance, consider antennas operating at 430 MHz. The near field of a 9
m antenna will be about 20 m at this frequency. This means that for each antenna, all antennas
within two antenna diameters will be in its near field, causing them to be electromagnetically
coupled. This interaction between the antennas will change constantly as they point to different
positions in the sky. This interaction only increases with higher operating frequency. Accurately
predicting the radiation pattern of such an array will be a formidable challenge. In the NGAT
design, the relative orientations of the dishes in a segment are fixed, which enormously
simplifies understanding the electromagnetic coupling in the system.
53
Appendix B: A High Frequency Facility with Extended Capabilities and its
Application to Space and Atmospheric Sciences
The ionospheric modification program (or the High Frequency facility - HF facility) together
with the collocated LAT’s ISR was considered a centerpiece of SAS research at AO. The LAT’s
HF facility was a Cassegrain design using the main 305-m dish as a primary with a light hanging
secondary, illuminated by dipole arrays located just above the primary. This facility was partially
damaged during the LAT’s collapse and will be relocated in the proposed NGAT concept. Below
we provide the scientific rationale to relocate the new HF facility to a location near the proposed
NGAT.
The HF facility excites irregularities, instabilities, and various radio frequency emissions, from
extremely low frequencies through high frequencies, in the ionospheric plasma. The HF facility
contributes to improved understanding of (1) the electron acceleration process, (2) the generation
of Langmuir/Ion oscillations in the narrow interaction region, (3) electron thermal balance and
heat transfer in the ionosphere as heating extends from the illuminated volume (a dual-beam ISR
capability permits precise temperature gradient measurements along a field line), (4) the
aeronomy of heated electrons and the generation of airglow (experiments with concomitant
imaging, photometry, and optical interferometry can provide new information with
unprecedented sensitivity), (5) the structuring of field-aligned irregularities at sub-kilometer and
meter-scale lengths, and (6) mesospheric structure and dynamics using the system as a
mesosphere–lower thermosphere (MLT) radar.
Observations of the LAT’s HF facility include the surprising generation of flat structures of
electron density that have properties that appear to be partly under the control of the
experimenter and partly controlled by ionospheric dynamics (gravity wave propagation). Also,
this facility was able to generate very deep high altitude irregularities and study their
characteristics in remarkable detail using special HF signals and new 430 MHz analysis
techniques.
The LAT’s HF had only vertical pointing capability. In the future, it will need to be able to
propagate in different directions, including the ability to study the effects of different HF
propagation directions with respect to the magnetic field, and different radar viewing angles for a
given propagation direction to the field.
The NGAT concept design will preclude using the main facility as the primary reflector for the
new (long term) HF facility. However, wire antennas will be constructed near the NGAT. The
new antenna array will have the ability to switch between various fixed directions, in order to
fulfill many of the needs described above. We pointed out that a radar facility located at AO,
looks almost vertical when it propagates with a 45 degree angle to the field. 45 degrees from
vertical makes perpendicular and parallel propagation accessible without extreme increases in
range for a fixed altitude. A similar advantage would apply to the HF facility. A wide range of
angles will be within the reach of the radar. In addition, the extended HF facility will be used in
NGAT different radar modes, to potentially open many new science paths. Some of these include
use as a coherent lower atmosphere radar (to study wave interactions in the troposphere and
54
stratosphere), use as a lunar surface radar, use as a solar radar, and imaging ionospheric
interactions using an “off-dish” receiver antenna array.
It is not possible to predict the breadth of inquiry possible with the new, extended HF
system. However, it is inevitable that coupled with the sensitivity of the NGAT, the
ionosphere above AO will serve as an unprecedented natural plasma laboratory, which we
will exploit with national and international proposal competitions.
55
Appendix C: Additional Science Studies that are enhanced by NGAT
C.1 Planetary Science
Overall goal: Delay-Doppler radar imaging of near-Earth asteroids and other Solar System
objects
● We want the effective area and transmitter power to be as high as possible.
● We want system temperature to be as low as possible, perhaps with a narrow-band
receiver that is optimized for the frequency of our radar, like the previous S-band narrow
receiver.
● Wider zenith angle coverage will permit observations of more targets.
Better sensitivity and transmit power will improve existing data on:
● Galilean satellites: these have some of the most peculiar radar signatures in the Solar
System (Campbell et al. 1977). Comparative studies of these bodies provide a unique
opportunity to study different physical and chemical processes in the Solar System,
because radar techniques provide unique access to study surface properties at different
depths (compared to shorter wavelengths), and the Galilean satellites have widely diverse
surfaces from hot to icy, and active to ancient.
● Venus: look for evidence of recent/ongoing tectonic or volcanic activity, impact
processes, and aeolian sedimentary transport.
● Mercury: polar ice deposits, volcanic history (especially with longer wavelengths)
● Mars and its moons: Geologic studies of the surface and subsurface. Comparison of radar
observations to one of the most surveyed planets in the Solar System help us understand
radar observations
● The Moon: volcanic history (lava flows, lava tubes, pyroclastic deposits), impact basin
stratigraphy; these will also benefit from longer wavelengths
And possibly allow these new targets and experiments:
● Earth Trojans: For example, 2010 TK7 has a diameter of ~300 m and its oscillation
around Earth-Sun L4 brings it to within 0.2 au. This is likely observable with NGAT,
depending on the spin rate.
● The largest Jupiter Trojans will be detectable with NGAT, as well as the largest members
of asteroid families such as Hildas.
● More main-belt asteroid (MBA) radar astrometry could help to detect orbit perturbations
that lead to orbit changes; this could potentially showcase near-Earth object source
regions. Until 2020, 138 MBAs have recorded radar observations, while the proposed
NGAT design will enable the observation of more than 15,000 MBAs. Radar astrometry
of asteroids belonging to collisional families would potentially allow for detection of the
non-gravitational Yarkovsky effect and improve their age estimation (e.g. ~80% of the
inner main-belt Phocaea family members will be observable). The Yarkovsky effect is
also the mechanism that allows an asteroid to get close to orbital resonances and then
enter the near-Earth space. The main belt also opens doors to studies of active asteroids:
These asteroids pass through physical processes strongly related with the cohesion of the
regolith.
56
● More comets: Only 21 comets have been observed using planetary radar, and increased
transmitter power will increase this count. Comets typically have lower radar albedos
than asteroids, so on average they require better observation conditions (proximity, size,
rotation period) than asteroids. Better sensitivity and sky coverage also can help with
passive radio observations of OH and other gases in coma.
● Interstellar asteroids and comets: spectroscopic studies enabling the study of the
sublimation rate of water ice and the detection of molecules of prebiotic interest on
comets in our Solar System and also, those visiting from interstellar space, such as Comet
2I/Borisov.
● Radio occultations of asteroids: diffraction pattern in the Fraunhofer regime
● Look for asteroids’ thermal emission at the higher end of AO’s frequency range, e.g.
C-band (Lovell et al. 2019). Long-wavelength thermal investigations are a key tool to
probe the sub-surfaces of asteroids and comets to constrain density and composition,
which relate to accretion and collisional history. Opportunities for these observations had
been deemed rare due to the lack of sufficient sensitivity, but possibilities for these
experiments using NGAT’s increased sensitivity and sky coverage should be revisited.
● Assistance to possible future space missions: AO has a long history of spacecraft mission
support: OSIRIS-REx benefited from Arecibo's support through radar data based shape
modeling, as well as will Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART), Psyche, and
DESTINY+. Mini-RF benefited from Arecibo’s S-band radar system illuminating the
lunar surface after the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter’s own radar transmitter failed.
NGAT could continue this legacy through support for missions planned beyond 2025,
such as Europa Clipper, Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE), Dragonfly, and any future
missions to other planets.
Faster transmit-receive (Tx-Rx) switch time compared to the old radar system will allow us to
observe objects that are closer to the Earth:
● Moon
● Asteroids closer than 4 light-seconds (3.1 lunar distances)
● Cis-lunar space monitoring (out to the Earth-Sun Lagrange points)
● Lunar debris, depending on the size
Adding additional antenna outside of the sinkhole (bistatic observations with planetary radar)
Adding a second (smaller) receiving dish near the main facility (compare to the Los Caños
antenna; e.g. Stacy 1993); or faster switching between radar transmitter and receiver (on one
telescope) will enable:
● Observing targets that are closer than we could previously observe, since we normally
took eight seconds to switch from transmit to receive
● Detection and characterization (especially down to mm scale) of space debris in
geocentric orbit as done in the 1990s (see Thompson et al. 1992).
● Cis-lunar space monitoring (out to the Earth-Sun Lagrange points) and lunar debris.
● Detection of mini-moons (of Earth), or asteroid Apophis on the day of its closest
approach in April 2029.
● (Bistatic) observations of the Moon
● Increased integration time for improved Doppler frequency resolution
57
C.2 Solar, Heliospheric and Space Weather studies
58
shocks, and severe geomagnetic storms (e.g., Kumar et al. 2011), IPS observations via NGAT,
coupled space-based images (e.g., SOHO, SDO and STEREO), and sophisticated modeling
analysis, are of critical importance for the physical understanding of space weather science and
forecasting capabilities.
59
need to explain the range of turbulence scales in the solar wind and kinetic physical processes
involved in the dissipation of energy at small scales as functions of the source region on the Sun
and distance from the Sun.
The proposed large sky coverage of NGAT and its multi-beam and multi-frequency facilities will
be extremely useful for near-simultaneous monitoring of a grid containing a large number of IPS
sources at a given time (refer to the sky coverage Fig. 1 and Fig. 15, in Appendix C.3). Such
observations (e.g., in the frequency range of 327 MHz to 10 GHz) in the Sun-Earth distances will
be particularly important in deducing the properties of the solar wind at regions inaccessible to
spacecraft and to track CMEs (e.g., Yamauchi et al 1998). Regarding LAT, although its beam
switching and the number of sources observed in a given time period were limited, its high
sensitivity and the low-level of sampling of the interplanetary medium detected even a weak
CME at around 120–140 solar radii from the Sun. This CME was launched from the Sun on 16
July at 04:12 UT, its width was only ~80 deg in the LASCO/SOHO field of view and propagated
with a speed of ~350 km/s. Fig. 14 displays the normalized scintillation index measured at the
Arecibo as a function of time on 2 days, 17 and 19 July 2020 and an image from LASCO C2
coronagraph. Each day’s observations included measurements of several sources and at multiple
frequencies (one or more of P, L, and S bands).
Such CME detection and tracking will be much more efficient with the high sensitivity and finer
temporal/spatial resolution of the NGAT, which as well as being a good instrument for space
weather science studies, will provide advanced predictions of arrival of CMEs at the near-Earth
environment. Another important point is that the software being developed for handling the
Arecibo IPS data could provide a common interface and analysis tools for IPS data from
telescopes across the globe.
60
C.2.5 Solar Radio Studies
The solar magnetic field is the main cause for all kinds of solar activities. A quantitative
knowledge of the solar/coronal magnetic field is essential to understanding solar phenomena
above the photosphere, including the structure and evolution of solar active regions, release of
magnetic energy, acceleration of charged particles, flares, CMEs, coronal heating, formation of
the solar wind and, eventually, space weather and its impact on Earth. In the case of the quiet
Sun, the radio emission is dominated by free-free opacity, which is proportional to the square of
the electron density, and whose polarization is proportional to the longitudinal magnetic field.
For instance, the radio spectrum of moving sources of synchrotron emission (moving type IV
bursts) at frequencies >200 MHz, combined with the routinely available space-based solar
images and ground-based radio images from the dedicated heliograph (e.g., Nancay Radio
Heliograph), have provided the useful diagnostic of magnetic field strength of CMEs (e.g.,
Bastian et al. 2001; Dulk & Marsh 1982; Maia et al. 2007; Simoes & Costa 2006). The magnetic
field strength estimated from various radio observations at 100 to 450 MHz range between 0.3
and 5 G at solar offsets below 4 solar radii. The spread of these field strengths is possibly due to
the different electron energy ranges as well as the spectral slopes employed in the analysis
(Carley et al. 2017). It is clear from these studies that moving type IV bursts can be used as a
useful diagnostic of CME magnetic field strength. Thus at frequencies above 200 MHz, the
studies of the CME site can provide a more accurate value for CME magnetic field strength, as
well as the characteristics of the distribution of non-thermal electrons causing the radio emission.
Such a combined effort with the array of antennas of the NGAT will provide the valuable inputs
to the understanding of basic physics of CME onset (magnetic reconnection) and the 2-D
distribution of CME associated magnetic field, which is the essential component to
understanding the space weather effects.
C.2.6 Solar Wind and Space Weather Impacts on AIMI System
and the Role of NGAT
The solar wind energy transfer to the AIMI system is controlled by the mechanism of the
magnetic reconnection between southward components of the interplanetary magnetic field
(IMF) and the Earth's northward magnetopause field (Dungey, 1961). The coupling process
results in varying geomagnetic responses during different phases of the solar cycle due to
varying solar and interplanetary causes, and associated IMF structures.
Around solar maximum, the main features present on the Sun are sunspots and active regions.
These structures are related to sporadic coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and associated flares, and
their interplanetary counterparts or interplanetary CMEs (ICMEs) (Burlaga et al., 1981; Klein
and Burlaga, 1982). The ICMEs are known to be the main causes of major geomagnetic storms
during solar maximum (Tsurutani et al., 1988; Gosling et al., 1990). On the other hand, during
the declining and minimum solar cycle phases, flares and ICMEs become less frequent and
coronal holes become the dominant solar features leading to geomagnetic activity. The coronal
holes are open magnetic field regions, from which emanate high-speed solar wind streams
(HSSs).
61
Figure 14. Normalized scintillation index observed with LAT on 17 and 19 July 2020. The CME crossing
at around solar offset of ~120–140 solar radii is seen on 19 July ~19 UT. Each day’s data sets include
observations of multiple sources, as well as different observing frequencies. The image on the right: the
white-light image of the CME from the LASCO C2 coronagraph on 16 July, at 07:36 UT is shown (image
courtesy, http://sidc.oma.be/cactus/catalog) (Manoharan, Perillat, et al., in preparation).
CMEs and HSSs can cause different responses of the AIMI system as a whole, which makes key
the development of a comprehensive program of research to improve understanding of the
mechanisms that drive the Sun’s activity and the fundamental physical processes underlying
near-Earth plasma dynamics; to determine the physical interactions of Earth’s atmospheric layers
in the context of the connected Sun-Earth system; and to greatly enhance the capability to
provide realistic and specific forecasts of Earth’s space environment that will better serve the
needs of society, as pointed out by the Decadal Survey for Solar and Space Physics. The new
NGAT facility and the cluster of supporting devices will enormously improve our knowledge of
the impacts of the Sun on the AIMI system. For the first time, a single institution (AO) will be
able to track the plasma clouds released from the Sun into the interplanetary medium and their
impact on the Earth's atmosphere, virtually from the troposphere up to the
protonosphere/plasmasphere. For instance, phenomena such as geomagnetic storms and
sub-storms and High-Intensity Long-Duration Continuous AE Activity (HILDCAAs) will have
their intricate physics unraveled, and the dynamic and chemical responses of the Earth's
atmosphere will be investigated.
62
The scintillations caused by the plasma tails of comets are of great utility for investigating the
properties of “comet - solar wind” interaction. Such observations with the LAT system provided
sensitive measurements of the tail plasma density structures. NGAT will provide much improved
sensitivity, plus better sampling of the plasma tail of comets, to evaluate its spatial density
structure, as well as studying its associated magnetic field as a function of the comet's
heliocentric distance.
63
Table 4: Pulsars visible based on the sky coverage of NGAT. The second and third columns show the
declination and the sky coverage, respectively. The fourth column presents the number of known pulsars
that can be observed (MSPs with spin period < 20 ms and normal pulsars) with the two designs based on
the sky coverage. The fifth column gives the number of simulated pulsars detectable in an all-Arecibo sky
survey with a phased-array feed system at 1.4 GHz. The sixth column gives the number of simulated
MSPs that could be timed with precision required for PTA experiments.
Design Dec. Sky Known pulsars Pulsars PTA-quality
coverage coverage (MSPs/Normal) detectable with MSPs†
(deg) all-sky survey
(MSPs/Normal)†
†
Pulsar timing simulations described in detail at http://www.aoc.nrao.edu/~tcohen/research/popsynth.shtml
Figure 15: Sky coverage for NGAT design. The coordinates are in Right Ascension and Declination. The
different shaded areas represent the sky coverages for LAT (dec = [-1,+37.5]0) and NGAT (dec =
[-30,+66]0). The FAST telescope declination range [-14,+66]0 is denoted by black dashed lines. The
known pulsars (gray circles) and FRBs (blue circles) are over-plotted, and the Galactic center is denoted
by the red circle. NGAT design is capable of probing a larger sky coverage than before. The Galactic
(cyan) and ecliptic (orange) planes are over-plotted.
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C.3.2. Binary pulsars
The binary neutron star systems are excellent laboratories to understand the gravity and the
neutron star matter. The first double neutron star was discovered with LAT (Hulse & Taylor
1975), and its timing revealed the existence of GWs, leading to the authors receiving the 1993
Physics Nobel prize. The timing of double neutron star systems is used to test GR and the double
pulsar system provides the stringent GR test in the strong field regime (Kramer et al. 2006b). The
triple systems are important to understand the gravity further, and also improve the tests of
universality of free fall (Archibald et al. 2018). Timing double neutron star systems allow us to
measure their neutron star masses accurately. Finding massive neutron stars is highly important
to improve our understanding of their interiors, equation of states, moment of inertia, and their
formation and evolution. The recent discovery of the most massive neutron star (2.14 M⊙)
known to date resulted in improvements to the current equation of state models for neutron star
matter (Cromartie et al. 2020). The legacy Arecibo was recently used to discover the most
asymmetric-mass double neutron star system (Ferdman et al. 2020). Understanding and
characterizing this double neutron star population is vital in gravitational wave astronomy as
they are among the main targets in the LIGO experiment (Abbott et al. 2017). With the high
sensitivity, NGAT will be able to discover and time more binary pulsars, including the heaviest
neutron star, possibly an exotic binary such as a pulsar-black hole system, leading to
understanding the formation and evolution of neutron stars and stellar mass black holes and to
probe the space-time around a black hole, and study and test gravity.
65
detection with PTAs, and to test gravity theories with binary pulsars. Therefore, studying the
whole range of different individual pulse phenomena with NGAT will lead to an understanding
of their (common) emission mechanism which will answer the question of what makes pulsars
shine and facilitate tests of fundamental physics with pulsars.
C.4. VLBI studies
VLBI offers a very high spatial resolution that is necessary to investigate, for example, never
explored regions close to SMBH, to get accurate distances and proper motion measurements of
galactic and extragalactic sources. When a VLBI station is equipped with a high-sensitivity
telescope like the proposed NGAT, one can achieve lower noise levels, approaching a few
microJy/beam. Several areas that will benefit immensely from such a high sensitive telescope
include but not limited to the following:
Strong Field Tests of General Relativity: This key science goal of several international
collaborations (and future telescopes) is projected to be achieved via; (a) timing relativistic
systems such as pulsar-neutron star (and potentially pulsar-black hole) binaries; and (b)
monitoring an array of millisecond pulsars (pulsar timing array), to directly detect gravitational
waves. However, accurate distances and proper motions for the observed systems are essential to
correct for the acceleration that affect intrinsic system parameters such as spin and orbital period
derivatives. These are the parameters used to test alternative theories of gravity. We note that the
current limitation on the test of GR using the Hulse-Taylor pulsar, B1913+16, is due to the
uncertainty in its estimated distance, derived using the pulsar's dispersion measure and a model
for the distribution of the ionized interstellar medium, that has a precision of only ~30%
(Weisberg et al., 2008). Trigonometric parallax measurements using phase-referencing VLBI
techniques can determine model-independent distances to much higher precision, supplying vital
input to such studies. Future pulsar surveys (well into the "SKA era") will hopefully discover
many relativistic binaries whose pulsars will be an order of magnitude weaker than current
examples. NGAT’s sensitivity will be indispensable for such measurements (as demonstrated for
the micro-Jansky stars in the Pleiades cluster, Melis et al. 2014).
Stellar Physics: High-sensitivity VLBI is useful in the detection of weak sources (exoplanets,
distant pulsars, SNR, star clusters) and accurate measurement of basic astrometric parameters,
viz position, proper motion, and trigonometric parallax. This will lead to accurate and model
independent distance measurements and luminosity estimates of stellar objects. It will be
possible to localize the repeating FRB within their host galaxies. Proper motion measurements
help determine the distances of GRBs, and the estimation of angular expansion and deceleration
rates. These facilitate the study of jet emission and the evaluation of surrounding environments.
Extragalactic Continuum Polarization VLBI: Continuum polarization of compact
extragalactic radio sources is usually at most a few percent of their total intensity, and hence
requires the presence of the most sensitive possible telescopes in VLBI arrays planning to
investigate it. However, broadband imaging of the Stokes Q and U parameters allow derivation
of the Rotation Measure over the jet of a source, allowing recovery of the intrinsic angle of
polarization of the emission, and hence derivation of the magnetic field in the emitting region.
By making repeated observations of the Stokes-Parameter images as the source expands, a study
66
can be made of the overlying magneto-ionic material in the nuclear region of the host galaxy via
secular changes in the measured distribution of Rotation Measure.
NGAT will continue to be part of the VLBI network and find answers to numerous outstanding
questions (Venturi et al. 2020). Launching a global array of sensitive telescopes like NGAT,
SKA1-MID, and FAST will provide a huge increase in sensitivity opening up a whole new set of
scientific opportunities.
C.5 New high-frequency explorations in Radio Astronomy
A combination of high telescope gain at frequencies above a few GHz, wide-band receivers and
backend capabilities will allow sensitive studies of a plethora of spectral transitions that serve a
wide range of scientific purposes. We describe in Table 5, a sample of the interesting molecular
transitions in the 1-30 GHz range, followed by a brief description of their scientific applications.
Table 5: A sample of the interesting molecular transitions in the 1-30 GHz range.
67
produces one of the strongest and the most commonly observed masers in massive star-forming
regions and can be used to probe different parts of protostars, such as accretion discs and
outflows. Masers from other molecular species (OH, H2CO, and also the 12.2 GHz transition of
CH3OH; e.g., Al-Marzouk et al. 2012), are sometimes exhibited in periodic stellar flares (e.g.,
Goedhart et al. 2007; Szymczak et al. 2018), and may trace accretion events in binary systems,
proto-stellar pulsations, and periodic enhancements of ionized wind shocks in young eccentric
binaries, among other possibilities (e.g., Araya et al. 2010). The K-doublet transitions at 2 cm
and 6 cm of H2CO can be used as an effective densitometer (Ginsburg et al. 2011) and provide an
effective probe to obtain the physical characteristics of molecular gas.
In addition, higher excitation transitions of OH (at 4.8 GHz), for example, have been shown to
trace expanding gas in pre-planetary nebulae (Strack et al., 2019), a discovery made at LAT and
the first detection of this particular OH transition in a late-type stellar object. The increased
sensitivity and sky coverage of NGAT along the Galactic place will widely open the
opportunities for similar novel discoveries. These capabilities are also conducive to exploring
unconventional tracers of stellar formation. For example, the CH 3.3 GHz lines are common
tracers of molecular gas in both the atomic-molecular transition regions and dark clouds of the
ISM (Sakai et al. 2012; as discussed in C.5.4) and likewise might be useful to trace outflows in
high-mass star forming regions.
The capabilities of NGAT ensure such studies are not limited to our own Milky Way. An exciting
facet of NGAT’s capabilities is that it could more than double the collecting area of the upcoming
ngVLA if included as part of the array. Just as LAT did in the High-Sensitivity Array, a
combination that could function as a high resolution follow up opportunity following new NGAT
detections. This powerful combination could enable the detection of megamasers across various
cosmic distances. As a stand-alone telescope, NGAT will enable searches for highly red-shifted
megamasers such as the H2O line near 22 GHz13 and H2CO line near 4.8 GHz14 that would
provide a unique opportunity to investigate the molecular environment of active galaxies at
cosmological distances, including starbursts and AGNs. In addition, extending earlier surveys of
the methanol 6.7 GHz maser line (as done for part of the sky visible with LAT by Pandian et al.
2007) could be done both along the plane of our galaxy and in nearby (e.g., M3315 and M31) and
distant galaxies.
Finally, there has long been interest in the OH 18 cm lines which, in addition to their prevalence,
offer the possibility to measure magnetic fields via Zeeman splitting, as demonstrated by
Robishaw et al. (2008) who made with LAT the first extragalactic detection of the Zeeman effect
in an emission line. Sensitivity is key for Zeeman observations which provide direct
measurements of the magnetic fields of their host galaxies. For example, the sensitivity of the
13
The H2O 22 GHz line would be redshifted to ~11 GHz at z=l. Existing receivers were already capable of searching
this redshift regime, so extending to higher redshifts with the capabilities of NGAT is quite reasonable.
14
Extragalactic detections of this maser line as well as OH megamasers were made with the legacy telescope (Baan
et al. 1992, Baan et al. 1993), and the enhanced capabilities of NGAT allow similar studies to further redshifts.
15
A methanol search in M33 was done with the Arecibo legacy telescope, the most sensitive at the time, and yielded
a non-detection (Goldsmith et al. 2008). In addition, a search of M31 conducted with the VLA resulted in one
positive detection (Sjouwerman et al. 2010). The increased sensitivity of NGAT will justify a new search, and
provide an opportunity to determine whether the 6.7 GHz maser line is as prevalent in our galactic neighbors as it is
in our own.
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LAT (as part of the HSA) enabled McBride et al. (2013) to map the magnetic field of distant
starburst galaxy Arp 220. Thus, widespread searches of Zeeman splitting in OH megamasers
with NGAT could sample the magnetic fields of ultra-luminous infrared and starburst galaxies. In
fact, NGAT is the only instrument that, if used in conjunction with other components of the
HSA, could provide the additional sensitivity needed to enable the simultaneous study of the
magnetic fields in these galaxies. If these capabilities are not restored, such studies can no longer
be done.
While NGAT’s sensitivity is expected to be slightly larger than China’s FAST telescope, they
may have similar capabilities for detecting masers at < 3 GHz. However, the required sensitivity
for the higher frequency maser searches can only be provided by NGAT since FAST is
frequency-limited. In addition, because of their geographic locations, only NGAT can be used to
more than double the collecting area for ngVLA and VLBI in general for high resolution studies,
much less maser searches. The next generation of maser science in the Milky Way and other
galaxies is very bright, and NGAT will be a powerful force for investigating the physics of stellar
evolution and various additional science products that come from maser studies over galactic and
extragalactic scales.
69
Such observations are not possible currently due to enormous observing time requirements with
existing narrow-band systems and would be revolutionary not only with respect to measuring the
Zeeman effect on RRLs but in various other astrophysical regimes as well.
C.6 A Comprehensive Snapshot of the Galactic Plane
The interplay between gas and stars dictates the evolution of spiral galaxies, both large and
small. By the mid-1970s, CO(1-0) surveys of the Milky Way had established that the coldest,
densest portion of the interstellar medium was mostly contained in large entities called Giant
Molecular Clouds (GMCs) which were the sites of copious star formation. It became clear fairly
quickly that the molecular clouds originated from the surrounding cold atomic medium (known
as the Cold Neutral Medium or CNM), but the exact mechanism for how these objects form is
still debated. Equally troubling are the details of how these large clouds are supported against
large-scale gravitational collapse. Magnetic fields and turbulence are clearly involved, but the
exact nature of the supporting mechanisms has, thus far, avoided elucidation.
Perhaps more disturbingly, gamma-ray and infrared data revealed that a substantial amount of
molecular gas may have been missed by the large-scale CO mapping (Grenier et al., 2005). This
gas is now known as ‘CO-dark gas’ and many studies have tried to address how much of the ISM
is tied up in this material (e.g., Planck Collaboration XIX, 2011; Donate and Magnani 2017). If
the CO-dark gas is not amenable to CO mapping, there are other spectroscopic ways to detect it
and map its distribution. Spectroscopy is critical here because it provides velocity information
whereas the gamma-ray and infrared maps may reveal its presence but say nothing about the
kinematics. The velocity structure of this low-density, extended molecular gas holds the key to
unraveling its relationship with the atomic hydrogen medium from which it condensed. This gas
is likely to be gravitationally unbound and thus carries the primordial kinematic signature from
its formation processes. Several studies have shown that the OH 1665 and 1667 MHz and the CH
3335 MHz hyperfine, ground state, main lines are capable tracers of CO-dark molecular gas (for
OH: Wannier et al. 1993; Barriault et al. 2010, Cotten et al. 2012; Li et al. 2018; Donate et al.,
2019; Busch et al. 2019; for CH; Magnani and Onello 1993, Liszt and Lucas 1996; Xu and Li
2016).
In an effort to resolve the above issues, the NGAT will be ideal for conducting a large-scale
Galactic survey using the OH 18 cm lines16 and the CH 9 cm lines to detect all of the Galaxy’s
molecular gas and determine its relationship to the cold atomic hydrogen gas (i.e., the CNM).
This project would complete the great CO plane surveys (Dame et al., 2001; Solomon et al.,
1985) by including the lowest density, outermost portions of the CO-traced molecular clouds. In
addition, simultaneous observations of the 21-cm neutral hydrogen line would be possible, and
could be done in full polarization mode such that one could measure Zeeman splitting in both the
HI and OH lines. This will allow for more accurate cloud properties and modeling and allow us
to better study the interface regions between the atomic and molecular gas as well as how the
16
To ensure an accurate assessment of the OH content, one should observe it in both emission and absorption, as the
low excitation temperatures and their proximity to the background can have a large effect on their emission line
intensities. See, for an example, Tang et al. 2017. However, there is a good chance sightlines toward the outer
Galaxy could be observed in emission only, as the OH emission, albeit weak, is ubiquitous and observable, and the
profiles rarely switch into absorption (Allen et al. 2012, Allen et al. 2015, Busch et al. 2019).
70
atomic-molecular transition is affected by magnetism. Finally, because of the wideband
capabilities, one could observe numerous hydrogen RRLs simultaneously to include the
inventory of ionized gas and capture all phases of the ISM.
The NGAT will provide enough resolution to resolve GMCs out to 10 kpc and the large
declination coverage will permit complete mapping of three of the Galactic quadrants. Such a
study would provide a truly comprehensive picture of the most fundamental processes in the ISM,
and the NGAT will provide the wide FOV, largely unparalleled sensitivity, wideband receiving
capabilities, and RFI mitigation necessary to make it possible and efficient. These large-scale
projects would also complete our view of GMCs and, because of the kinematic information,
finally allow us to study the relationship between molecular gas and the CNM on a Galactic
scale.
C.7 Near-Field HI 21 cm Line Cosmology
According to the ΛCDM paradigm, the local Universe should be teeming with dark matter
mini-halos with masses < 109 M☉. While the ΛCDM model is extremely successful in describing
the overall evolution of cosmic structure, observational results fail to detect its predicted large
numbers of “satellites.” While the number of known satellites in the Local Group has increased
dramatically in recent years, the number with small circular velocities remains too low.
Interactions between satellites and the hot coronae of large galaxies can explain the dearth of
stars and gas in small halos, but explaining the kinematic mismatch between the smallest
galaxies and their host halos is harder. In fact, the occupation of low mass (< 109 M☉) halos by
visible galaxies is poorly constrained, and the observed luminosity and velocity functions fall
well below the predictions of ΛCDM.
Converging the paradigm with our local Universe requires a complete multiwavelength census of
low mass galaxy populations and their general characteristics. A cornerstone of these studies
rests on observing the HI content of the low mass populations, as it provides not only
information on the HI mass but also dynamical information including recessional velocities and
velocity widths. Studies like the Arecibo Legacy Fast ALFA (ALFALFA; Haynes et al. 2018)
survey, the AGN and Galaxy Evolution Survey (AGES; Auld et al. 2006), and Arecibo
Pisces-Perseus Supercluster Survey (APPSS; O’Donoghue et al. 2019) have delivered a wealth
of data to that effect. In conjunction with optical studies such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey
(SDSS) and the Widefield Infrared Explorer (WISE) survey these studies have allowed the
characterization (stellar, gas, dust and dark matter content) of diverse populations of galaxies
both near and far as well as illuminated their distributions within the large scale Cosmic Web
while simultaneously challenging our understanding of the local Universe in many ways (Haynes
et al. 2018, Minchin 2020).
For example, some of the nearby sources in ALFALFA have extremely faint optical counterparts,
e.g., Leo P (Skillman et al. 2013) and AGC 198691 (Hirschauer et al. 2016). Such low
metallicity dwarf galaxies constitute 40% of the known population in the local universe, and
represent some of the targets of the next generation of HI galaxy surveys. NGAT’s tremendous
sensitivity, large (~1.0 deg) FoV, and high resolution (~2.5’) at 1.4 GHz will enable both fast and
71
highly sensitive surveys of such galaxy populations, ushering in a new generation of 21-cm line
cosmological studies.
C.8 Detection of Galactic Cold Dark Matter and Testing the Standard
Model of Particle Physics
The question of the existence of the hypothetical axion is one of the remaining mysteries in the
Standard Model of Particle Physics, primarily because its existence provides the most
well-known solution to the strong CP problem in Quantum Chromodynamics (Peccei & Quinn
1977; Weinberg 1978; Wilczek 1978).
Within the context of cosmology, axions may address the matter-antimatter asymmetry in the
Early Universe (Co & Harigaya 2019), and are one of the leading candidates for constituents of
cold dark matter (Preskill et al. 1983; Dine & Fischler 1983; Abbott & Sikivie 1983). The
frequency range covered by axion-related signals (discussed below) is accessible to radio
telescopes that meet the high sensitivity, high resolution requirements, ushering in for the first
time the possibility of detecting this particle.
Axions are thought to be converted into photons by strong magnetic fields. The transition is
expected to occur when an axion is located at a region within a magnetosphere at which the
plasma frequency is equivalent to the axion mass, inciting a resonance which allows the particle
to convert into a photon (Hook et al. 2018). Hence, magnetars or similar sources of intense
cosmic magnetism provide test beds for detecting axions and illuminating the aforementioned
long-standing questions. To date, one study has put constraints on the axion mass using radio
data, but higher sensitivity, high resolution, and RFI-free observations will be needed to cover
the entire parameter space (Darling 2020).
The expected frequency range of photons generated in this axion-photon conversion (based on
expected axion mass) is 240 MHz - 24 GHz (Hook et al. 2018), which is entirely covered by the
frequency capabilities of NGAT. In cases where confusion of the axion-photon conversion (see
Darling, 2020) signal is not a serious issue, NGAT’s high sensitivity and spatial and spectral
resolution, especially at the higher frequencies, would be sufficient to conduct such searches
alone. The very detection of their existence would be groundbreaking on multiple fronts, and the
capabilities of NGAT will poise the telescope to contribute to constraining the axion mass or
detecting the particle which has eluded the realm of observational possibilities for the past 50
years.
C.9. Space and Atmospheric Sciences
AO is strategically located in the Caribbean, a region with the largest traffic of vessels in
the world that connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the Panama Canal. Over
14,000 vessels cross the Caribbean Sea every year transporting more than 470,000,000 tons of
products (numbers of 2019). Also, the Caribbean Sea hosts a large number of offshore oil and
gas exploration vessels and hundreds of floating production, storage, and offloading units
(PSOU). All of these are geo-positioned by transionospheric radio signals (GPS). On the other
hand, a reliable forecast of the upper atmosphere is crucial for geo-positioning accuracy.
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Building the NGAT at AO is critical to supply data inputs for forecasting models and
mitigate the effects of the space weather impacts on the Caribbean region, as well as to
serve as a tool to better understand the local and global climate change. Moreover, the
NGAT data taken at AO is critical to technologies that employ the bottomside ionosphere as a
reflecting layer in order to extend the range of radio communications or sensing, such as
over-the-horizon radar (OTHR).
NGAT together with lidars and passive optical observations (AOL and ROF) can support
spacecraft missions in terms of temporal and spatial resolution as well as calibration. For
instance, the AO is uniquely located to provide simultaneous measurements of ionospheric
features along with the GOLD NASA mission. This global v/s local dynamics can be linked to
provide new insights into (a) How global dynamics influences coupling of different atmospheric
regions, (b) what are the timescales involved in the disturbance propagation during a transient or
a geomagnetically disturbed event? (c) how do different atmospheric regions respond to such
events?
Below we highlight additional SAS science objectives the NGAT concept will enable to continue
and improve.
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differences in the layer morphology at Antarctica and has opened up new questions regarding the
factors causing variability in the neutral layer distribution (Chu et al., 2020). Thus, it is important
to continue neutral metal measurements at AO using different resonance lidars, since these will
provide new insights into neutral layer characteristics at a low latitude site. Such observations in
conjunction with the NGAT improved radar system will result in the profound understanding of
the factors responsible for such differences.
Figure 16. Potassium and sodium lidar data (left and middle panels), and electron concentrations obtained
using ISR data (right panel) illustrate different descent rates of the neutral and ionized layers at
thermospheric altitudes. (Adapted from Raizada et al., 2015).
The new proposed beam steering capabilities of the NGAT radar system promise investigations
of two-dimensional characteristics of Es in both space-time dimensions. This in conjunction with
high-resolution wind measurements with lidars can provide shed new light on the role of
advection, shears and evolution of the Es layers.
Further daytime temperature lidar capabilities in conjunction with the NGAT’s ISR will provide
accurate estimation of ion-neutral collision frequency in the lower E region. In addition, high
resolution wind measurements using a Doppler lidar system together with the NGAT’s ISR will
provide new information about the role of dynamical instabilities in the triggering E region
irregularities, their evolution and influence on F region coupling.
Above the E-region ionospheric, the ion-neutral interactions also can be used to retrieve the
neutral atomic oxygen. Resonant charge exchange between O and O+, the principal constituents
in the terrestrial atmosphere between 200 and 500 km, is the dominant mechanism governing
momentum and energy exchange between the ionosphere and the thermosphere. The efficacy of
this ion-neutral coupling offers a unique means of ground based remotely sensing of
thermospheric neutral O density [O] (Josh et al., 2018).
Due to the geomagnetic geometry of AO, the plasma drift velocity arises from an imbalance
between ion diffusion velocity and momentum transfer due to collisions with neutrals moving
along the field line. Thus, through the most important source of momentum exchange of O+
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(O−O+) charge exchange collisions on the molecular diffusion term of plasma equilibrium, it is
possible to retrieve the [O] combining ISR plasma drift velocities, ISR electron density and the
Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) neutral winds (Fig. 17). The continuity of FPI observations at
AO and ROF, associated with a better temporal and spatial resolution from the NGAT’s ISR will
provide a better altitudinal coverage to retrieve the neutral O.
Figure 17. Ratio between MSIS
model and the neutral atomic oxygen
density obtained by this ion-neutral
coupling method with altitude using
30 years of ISR data and an empirical
model developed using AO
Fabry-Perot data (Brum et al., 2009).
This effort is further complemented by the state-of-the-art Rayleigh and Resonance Lidars
systems, as well as the cluster of passive optical instruments and radio receivers from AOL and
ROF.
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perform active experiments that address issues related to the plasmasphere plasma refilling.
Observations indicate that plasma refilling (following erosion of the "outer" plasmasphere)
proceeds very rapidly: e.g. flux tubes at L~6.6 refill within 24-48 hours as observed by in-situ
satellite instrumentation close to the equatorial plane. This rate of refilling is far in excess of
refilling rates predicted by theoretical first-principle models. Additionally, the plasmasphere is
known to play an important role in scattering more energetic ions and electrons in the Earth's
radiation belts. Such scattering can cause these energetic particles to enter the loss cone and
precipitate into the upper atmosphere. However, the precise nature of this interaction (e.g. the
conditions under which it is maximized, the rate of scattering, the temporal and spatial extent of
the scattering) are not known in any detail. The high altitude coverage of the NGAT’s ISR will
provide information of the plasma population at heights of plasmasphere/protosnosphere and
thus, making possible the understanding of plasma refilling at geomagnetic middle latitude.
C.9.4 Inter-hemispheric flux of particles and its impacts on the
Caribbean Sector
The conjugate magnetic points of AO and ROF are moving northward from the vicinity of Bahia
Blanca (Argentina) towards Rio Grande state (southern Brazil). At the same time, the South
Atlantic Magnetic Anomaly (SAMA) is moving westward, and will hit the AO and ROF
conjugate points in a few years (Fig. 18). We expect an interhemispheric flux of plasma towards
the Caribbean though the second adiabatic invariant (Ganguly et al., 2014a and b). The
development of NAGT at AO (and the maintenance of ROF) is crucial to understand the impacts
of the SAMA in the local upper atmosphere as well as the impacts on the trans-ionospheric radio
signal, which is responsible for geo-positioning service and radio communication.
Figure 18. AO and ROF geographic location
in respect to the American Sector (red dots 1
and 2 on the northern hemisphere) and its
respective conjugate points for the years
2020 and 2030 (red dots on the southern
hemisphere). The green southern “oval” is
the SAMA based on the magnetic total
intensity of 25000nT, while the northern one
is the SAMA conjugate point at 350km of
altitude (magnetic total intensity was
retrieved from IGRF13).
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C.9.5 Atmosphere-ionosphere-magnetosphere interactions (AIMI)
ISR can study AIMI in different ways. For example, the topside ionospheric response to an
interplanetary high-speed solar wind stream (HSS) or to external solar wind forcing was never
explicitly studied before. At AO, scientists have analyzed the HSS impacts on the topside
ionosphere and their finds reveal an expansion of the topside ionosphere and retraction of the
protonosphere using the LAT’s ISR (Hajra et al., 2017). The noontime and midnight peak
electron density was ~7.5 and ~2.7 times higher in average, respectively, during the HSS event
compared to the non-HSS interval while the O+ ion concentration exhibited an overall
enhancement, deep penetration of the H+ ions below O+/H+ transition height (hT) were observed
during the day and the night. The hT increased by ~200 km during the day and by ~100 km at
night. At the hT, the peak ionospheric electron and ion temperatures increased by ~200-500 K
during day and by ~50-70 K at night. What is the source of this ionospheric heating? At the
present time we do not understand this. Building the NGAT’s ISR at AO is crucial to answer this
open scientific question because this is a location where magnetospheric particle precipitation is
not expected.
Though the Geospace inputs to the Earth's atmosphere are more explored, the potential
tropospheric forcings are not (e. g., Immel et al., 2018). For instance, there are multiple
unresolved questions of how atmospheric gravity waves (AGW) couple the different atmospheric
regions and trigger the energy and momentum transfer between neutrals and plasma in the
ionosphere-thermosphere (IT) system (Trinh et al., 2018), and on the physical origin of Medium
Scale Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances (MSTID).
The AO’s lidar systems (see section D.1.2) and the passive optical instruments from AOL and
ROF (see Section D. 1. 5) have been important resources for untangling the role of wave
propagation in the atmospheric coupling and in the generation of ionosphere irregularities. These
facilities continue operating after the collapse of the LAT’s ISR. Thus, building the NGAT at
AO’s location will provide the community a powerful and unique set of tools to investigate the
Earth’s atmospheric coupling from the troposphere to the thermosphere and IT system via wave
propagation. Unique experimental results will be provided to model predictions on the
dissipation of AGW in the lower thermosphere.
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mixing (Gardner, 1994). Given the importance and effects on global circulation, AGW
research remains one of the highlighted topics in the scientific community.
Adding the 220MHz frequency on the NGAT’s radar system is in consideration to improve AO’s
capability and enable multi-layer measurements beyond the altitude range covered by other
facilities. This effort will contribute to a better understanding of the Earth’s atmosphere vertical
coupling via AGW. The 220MHz frequency lies in the inertial subrange of turbulence within the
lower-middle atmosphere, as shown in Fig. 19 by Hocking (1985). The red line indicates the
Bragg wavelength of 0.7m corresponding to 220MHz.
Figure 19:Typical inner and inertial range/buoyancy range transition scales for turbulence in the
atmosphere (modified from Hocking,1985) .
The 220MHz coherent radar will help to better understand the lower and middle atmospheric
structure and dynamics in extended height coverage than 430 MHz (Bragg wavelength of 0.35
m), whereas the upper limit for turbulence investigation of 430MHz is below 30 km. A power
spectra of 212MHz radar is shown in Fig. 20 (a) by Devi et al. (2019). Echoes of turbulence
origin are used for quantification of turbulence by Jaiswal et al. (2019), using ARIES-ST radar at
frequency of 206.5MHz. Fig. 20 (b) shows the energy dissipation rate of PMWE turbulence in
the mesosphere estimated from EISCAT-VHF radar at 224 MHz. It can be noted that, in the
mesosphere, the UHF of 430 MHz at AO is not capable of obtaining echoes from mesospheric
turbulence, whereas these can be observed even with a low-power VHF radars which was
demonstrated by Rottger et al. (1981).
Thus, VHF radars in the range of 206-224MHz are capable of measuring the echoes of
turbulence originating from the troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere. These echoes could
also be used for quantification of turbulence and instability processes in order to understand the
energetics and dynamics of the lower- and middle-atmosphere.
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(a) (b)
Figure 20: (a) Doppler Power Spectra (from 3 km to 22 km) from the Gauhati-ST Radar of 212 MHz
(26N, 91E); (b) Energy dissipation rates inside the PMWE layer (Strelnikova and Rapp, 2013).
The optical instruments from AOL and ROF will continue to be important resources for
unraveling the role of tides and AGW in the generation of quiescent mid-latitude
ionosphere-thermosphere-mesosphere system irregularities. Bi-static observations of the same
wave event from AOL and ROF provide accurate altitude triangulation as a powerful new
diagnostic for this research. The NGAT radar frequencies (220MHz and 430MHz) will leverage
these studies by providing information of the vertical atmospheric coupling from the lower- to
middle- and upper- atmosphere and ionosphere-thermosphere (IT) system.
C.9.6.3 Climatology, morphology and equatorward propagation of
medium scale traveling ionosphere disturbances (MSTIDs)
MSTIDs are the most common ionospheric irregularity phenomenon at middle latitudes, with
defining wavelengths of approximately 150-250 km and periods of 10 – 60 min. Propagation
direction is characteristically to the southwest in the northern hemisphere, and to the northeast in
the southern hemisphere, implying the influence of a polarization electric field in their
79
generation. Morphology and climatology of MSTID events at AO and ROF have been described
by Martinis et al. (2010) and recently by Terra et al. (2020), respectively.
The seed of nighttime midlatitude MSTIDs is generally attributed to the perturbation of the
neutral wind field by AGW activity (e.g. Hysell et al. 2018). Those winds induce electric fields
as ion-neutral collisions create polarization, and inhomogeneous conductivity manifests as the
ionospheric wave disturbance). Vertical Pedersen currents driven by differences in zonal neutral
winds and zonal plasma drift in turn drive small scale instabilities that may trigger mid-latitude
spread-F (Hysell et al. 2018).
Modeling of MSTID origins, morphology and climatology, and evaluating the roles that MSTIDs
play in different ionospheric irregularities (e.g. midlatitude spread-F, and equatorial plasma
bubble) formation, are now supported by the wind measurements from AOL and ROF serving as
the northern post in a distributed FPI chain across the magnetic equator. That chain now
formally includes similar FPIs and imagers at Manaus and Cachoeira Paulista, Brazil. APL
collaborates with CPI and AO in this research initiative.
The information retrieved from the proposed NGAT will leverage the existing research at AO
with new inputs to improve the current knowledge of the occurrence and generation of MSTIDs.
NGAT will provide measurements with an exceptional altitudinal and temporal high resolution of
ionospheric parameters essential for a better understanding of the MSTID phenomena.
On the other hand, EWS are a primary tropospheric forcing system and a prominent source of
AGW. These waves can reach well into very high altitudes and propagate in all directions from
the convective source (Vadas and Fritts 2004). However, there is neither a consistent theory on
how these oscillations are transferred to the ionosphere nor how the ionosphere responds to
AGW generated by EWS (Zakharov et al. 2019). The literature shows separate lines of
investigation: 1) studies evaluating the impact of these tropospheric forcing on altitudes of the
D-region (e. g. NaitAmor et al. 2018), and 2) studies focusing on that impact on the E- and
F-regions, without the inclusion of the D-region (e. g. Bishop et al. 2006). This segregation is
mostly due to the observational difficulty probing the Earth's atmosphere with enough altitude
and spatial coverage. The strategic location of AO in the Caribbean Sea and its fusion of optical
and radio instruments can fill up these observational gaps.
80
The all-sky imager systems (ASIs) co-allocated at AO and ROF cover hundreds of kilometers
away from Puerto Rico and can detect waves generated by EWS along their trajectory. The ASIs
also provide the direction of the wave propagation and allow performing common-volume
observations. The improved NGAT radar operating at 220MHz and 430Mz will provide an
optimal altitude coverage of the atmosphere (from the troposphere to beyond 2000km), being the
most powerful ground based tool availed nowadays to study the wave propagation from their
source in the troposphere through the IT system.
Furthermore, the continuous operations of LAT’s ISR from the 1960’s to 2020 guarantee a
long-term database that, together with the future NGAT observations, are crucial to retrieve new
proxies to improve weather forecast and also uncover the effects of climate changes on Extreme
Weather Systems (EWS).
The proposed NGAT operating at 220 MHz can contribute to the study of aerosols at the main
site of AO. Thus, the two distinct locations (AO and ROF) give further insides of the transport of
aerosol over Puerto Rico. This research has a direct impact on the public as aerosols and the
SAL influence hurricane formation, weather, and the health of the Puerto Rican population,
among others.
81
Appendix D: Other science activities at the Arecibo Observatory interlocking
the NGAT
D.1 Space and Atmospheric Sciences
The AO’s scientific leadership in Space and Atmospheric Sciences (SAS) during the past 57
years is especially compelling due to the extraordinary capabilities of the LAT’s ISR and the
nested observational resources that supported the radar investigations: several radio receivers (e.
g. GPS, Riometers, HF receiver, VLF/LF receiver, among others), the Arecibo Optical
Laboratory (AOL), the Lidar facility, and most recently HF facility and the Remote Optical
Facility (ROF) at the island of Culebra. Below we highlight some current (and under study)
investigations carried out at the SAS that interlock with the proposed NGAT.
D.1.2 Climate Studies and Forcing of the Ionosphere from below
using Lidars
The combination of Rayleigh and potassium resonance lidar systems can deliver temperatures
from 30km to 105km. Adding a Raman channel will further extend the temperatures down to
tropospheric altitudes. With this, the forcing of the ionosphere from below can be studied by
delivering coupling and wave propagation from the lower stratosphere, mesosphere into the
ionosphere. Knowledge about different atmospheric parameters are crucial for weather forecast.
Current limitations of the models arise due to undersampling of these parameters. Lidars at AO
can fulfill these gaps and make significant contributions in this field. Research accomplished
using the state of the art lidars that are capable of autonomous measurements of temperatures
from troposphere to mesosphere will be extremely beneficial to society. Continued observations
of temperatures are required for Madden-Julian Oscillation, vertical coupling between different
regions of the atmosphere, stratospheric warming events, and can shed new light on the lower
atmosphere as a driver for the ionospheric variability.
82
D.1.3 Geocoronal hydrogen: Secular change and storm response
AO has monitored the geocoronal Balmer-alpha emission since Meriwether et al. (1980)
measured a decrease in the emission line width with increasing shadow height at night. This
“gravitational cooling” due to the thermal escape of outbound H atoms exceeding the escape
velocity – which decreases with altitude. An increase of [H] in the upper thermosphere predicted
by Roble and Dickinson (1989) (and a decrease in F2 region temperature) remains a compelling
bellwether of global atmospheric change to validate. Brightness data gathered from 1983-2001
analyzed by Kerr et al. (2001) showed a weak but inconclusive increase in H column abundance
during the period. Using new calibrated measurements and data acquired from 2001-2020, that
investigation should continue. Using a 10-fold improvement in FPI existent sensitivity and an
improved instrument design, new H-alpha line profile analysis is a timely research initiative. An
outstanding question is the detail of the altitude profile and velocity distribution of H atoms
between the 500 km exobase and the plasmapause, and how this distribution is throttled by
charge exchange with protons and O+. The H distribution in this region is the source of cold
ions in the magnetosphere.
83
Figure 21. ROF location in the Caribbean Sea/Puerto Rico sector. The ROF2 and ROF1 denote the current
and previous locations of ROF, respectively. The container with the domes on top in the left bottom pane
hosts the optical and radio instrumentation and a control room, while the other one is lodging for
scientists and technicians (Terra et al., 2020).
The ROF promises expanded sampling of upper atmospheric dynamics as a second potentially
clear-sky site near AO, in addition to the purpose of novel common volume experiments with the
onsite AOL.
84
D.1.5.2 Field line diffusion of HF produced electrons as a
function of energy
HF induced electron heating can produce photoelectrons with sufficient energy to excite the OI
3p3P state, at 11 eV above the ground 2p3P state, which decays to the 3s3S state producing the
8446Å emission. By observing this emission in the HF heated volume above Arecibo from the
AOL, with simultaneous measurements up the field line from ROF in Culebra, this experiment
seeks to quantify the generation and field-aligned diffusion rate of >10 eV electrons in the
F-region. This project requires the sustenance of the AOL and the ROF, and a timely
reconstruction of the HF facility.
85
D.3 e-CALLISTO spectrometer
The e-CALLISTO spectrometer has proven to be a valuable tool for monitoring solar activity
and for space weather research. It provides dynamic spectra of type II, III and IV radio bursts in
the frequency range of 45 - 900 MHz. This instrument is under commissioning and the
deployment will also support education and training of space weather observers.
86
Appendix E: Study of planetary subsurfaces with 40-60 MHz radar
observations
A direct measurement of planetary bodies’ interiors requires a radar system using lower
frequencies than those commonly used in ground-based planetary radar observations, as lower
frequencies allow the radio waves to propagate through the regolith with less absorption. The
lower boundary is set by the ionosphere, which becomes increasingly opaque at frequencies
below 20 MHz. Spacecraft missions from Rosetta’s COmet Nucleus Sounding Experiment by
Radiowave Transmission (CONSERT) to the future mission Europa Clipper’s Radar for Europa
Assessment and Sounding: Ocean to Near-surface (REASON) have used or planned radar
systems in the frequency range of 60-90 MHz for direct measurements of the targets’
subsurfaces. In fact, asteroid tomography at the frequency range 40-60 MHz could provide the
first direct measurement of the internal structure of an asteroid (Haynes et al. 2020). Arecibo
could collaborate with a spacecraft that has an instrument such as CONSERT, REASON, or
MASCOT (Herique et al. 2019). Future missions to near-Earth destinations, such as the ESA
Comet Interceptor, could also plan to collaborate with Arecibo for small body bistatic radar
tomography experiments. Potential targets could be 99942 Apophis, which will pass the Earth at
less than 40,000 km in April 2029, or similar close passes of (137108) 1999 AN10 on 7 July
2027 at 400,000 km, or (153814) 2001 WN5 on 26 June 2028 at 250,000 km. High-power radar
systems in this frequency range could also enable improved subsurface studies of the Moon and
the terrestrial planets, and could support planned robotic missions and human exploration of the
Solar System.
Such a radar system is not available at the Arecibo Observatory at this moment, but its science
interest and implementation has been an open discussion at AO since early 2020. Such a radar
system could work in a facility independent of NGAT, perhaps in coordination with the new,
extended HF system (see Appendix B). Thus, further development of this idea should be subject
to discussion in the science, operations, and management AO teams.
87
Appendix F: Acronyms
AGN Active galactic nuclei
AGW Atmospheric gravity waves
AIMI Atmosphere-Ionosphere-Magnetosphere Interaction
AMiBA Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy
AO Arecibo Observatory
AOL Arecibo Optical Laboratory
AOSA Arecibo Observatory Space Academy
APL Applied Physics Laboratory
APPSS Arecibo Pisces-Perseus Supercluster Survey
ATCA Australian Telescope Compact Array
ATLAS Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System
BH Black hole
CARLA Culebra Aerosol Research Lidar
CIR Corotating Interaction Region
CME Coronal Mass Ejection
CNM Cold Neutral Medium
CPI Computational Physics Inc.
DART Double Asteroid Redirection Test
DESTINY+ Demonstration and Experiment of Space Technology for INterplanetary voYage Phaethon
fLyby dUSt science
DM Dispersion measure
ECME Electron Cyclotron Maser Emission
EPOXI Extrasolar Planet Observations and Characterization (EPOCh) and Deep Impact Extended
Investigation (DIXI) extended mission
ESA European Space Agency
ESF Equatorial spread-F
EVN European VLBI Network
EWS Extreme Weather Systems
FAST Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical radio Telescope
FoV Field of view
FPI Fabry-Perot interferometer
FR Faraday Rotation
FRB Fast Radio Burst
GC Galactic center
GMC Giant Molecular Cloud
GPS Global Positioning System
GR General relativity
GSSR Goldstone Solar System Radar
GW Gravitational Waves
HF High Frequency
HILDCAA High-Intensity Long-Duration Continuous AE Activity
HSA High Sensitivity Array
HSS High-speed Solar wind Stream
IGRF International Geomagnetic Reference Field model
IMF Interplanetary Magnetic Field
IPS Interplanetary Scintillation
ISM Interstellar Medium
88
ISR Incoherent Scatter Radar
JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
JUICE JUpiter ICy moons Explorer
LASCO Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph
LAT Legacy Arecibo Telescope
LEO Low Earth Orbit
LF Low Frequency
Lidar Light Detection and Ranging
MBA Main-Belt Asteroid
MLT Mesosphere–Lower Thermosphere
MSP Millisecond Pulsar
MSTID Medium Scale Travelling Ionospheric Disturbances
MTM Midnight Temperature Maximum
NANOGrav North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational waves
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NEO Near-Earth Object
NEOSM NEO Surveillance Mission
NGAT Next Generation Arecibo Telescope
NS Neutron Star
OSIRIS-REx Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer
OTHR Over-the-Horizon Radar
PanSTARRS Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System
PMWE Polar Mesospheric Winter Echoes
PDF Probability density function
PSOU Production, Storage, and Offloading Units
PTA Pulsar Timing Array
RM Rotation Measure
RFI Radio frequency interference
ROF Remote Optical Facility
RRAT Radio Rotating Transient
RRL Radio Recombination Line
SAL Saharan Air Layer
SAMA South Atlantic Magnetic Anomaly
SAS Space and Atmospheric Sciences
SDO Solar Dynamics Observatory
SDSS Sloan Digital Sky Survey
Sgr A* Sagittarius A*
SIMPLEx Small Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration
SMBH Supermassive Black Hole
SMBHB Supermassive Black Hole Binary
SNR Supernova remnant
SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
SSA Space Situational Awareness
SSW Sudden Stratospheric Warming
STAR STEM Teaching at Arecibo Academy
STEM Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
STEREO Solar-Terrestrial Relations Observatory
TESS Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite
TRAPPIST Transiting Planets and Planetesimals Small Telescope
VHF Very High Frequency
VI Virtual impactor
89
VLBI Very long baseline interferometer
VLF Very Low Frequency
WISE Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer
90
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