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INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS
 Dynamics is the branch of science which deals with the study
of behavior of body or particle in the state of motion under
the action of force system.
 Dynamics branches into two streams called kinematics and
kinetics.
 Kinematics is the study of relationship between
displacement, velocity, acceleration and time of the given
motion without considering the forces that causes the
motion, or Kinematics is the branch of dynamics which deals
with the study of properties of motion of the body or particle
under the system of forces without considering the effect of
forces.

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INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS
 Kinetics is the study of the relationships between the forces
acting on the body, the mass of the body and the motion of
body, or Kinetics is the branch of dynamics which deals with
the study of properties of motion of the body or particle in
such way that the forces which cause the motion of body are
mainly taken into consideration.

Technical Terms Related to Motion

 Motion: A body is said to be in motion if it is changing its
position with respect to a reference point.

 Path: It is the imaginary line connecting the position of a

body or particle that has been occupied at different instances
over a period of time. This path traced by a body or particle
can be a straight line/liner or curvilinear.

 Displacement: Displacement is a vector quantity, measure of

the interval between two locations or two points, measured
along the shortest path connecting them. Displacement can
be positive or negative.

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Technical Terms Related to Motion

 Distance Travelled: Distance is a scalar quantity, measure of
the interval between two locations measured along the actual
path connecting them. Distance is an absolute quantity and
always positive.

 Velocity: Rate of change of displacement with respect to time

is called velocity denoted by v.
Mathematically v = dx/dt

Technical Terms Related to Motion

 Average velocity: When an object undergoes change in velocities
at different instances, the average velocity is given by the sum of
the velocities at different instances divided by the number of
instances. That is, if an object has different velocities v1, v2, v3, ... ,
vn, at times t = t1, t2, t3, ..., tn, then the average velocity is given by
V = (v1+v2+v3+….vn)/n

 Speed: Rate of change of distance travelled by the particle with

respect to time is called speed.
 Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity with respect to time is
called acceleration
Mathematically a = dv/dt

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Technical Terms Related to Motion

 Average Acceleration: Consider a particle P situated at a
distances of x from O at any instant of time t having a velocity
v. Let Pl be the new position of particle at a distance of (x +
Δx) from origin with a velocity of (v + Δv).

Average acceleration over a time t, is given by

aavg = Δv/Δt

Technical Terms Related to Motion

 Acceleration due to gravity: Each and everybody is
attracted towards the centre of the earth by a gravitational
force and the acceleration with which the body is pulled
towards the centre of the earth due to gravity is denoted by 'g'.
The value of g is normally taken as 9.81 m/s2.

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Newton's Laws of Motion

 Newton's first law: This law states that 'everybody continues
in its state of rest or of uniform motion, so long as it is under
the influence of a balanced force system'.

 Newton's second law: This law states that 'the rate of change
momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
impressed force and it takes place in the direction of force
acting on it.

 Newton's third law: This law states that 'action and reaction
are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction'.

Kinematics
This is the study of the geometry of motion. It
describes the motion of bodies without reference to the
forces which cause the motion. It is used to relate
position, velocity, acceleration, and time without
reference to the cause of the motion.

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Kinetics
This is the study of the relation existing between
the forces acting on a body, the mass distribution of the
body, and the motion of the body. It is used to predict
the motion caused by given forces or to determine the
forces required to produce a given motion.

Rectilinear Motion

 Velocity, V = x / t
 Rate of change of position or displacement of particle
at any point is defined by velocity,
V = limΔt →0 (Δx / Δt)
V = dx/dt

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 If particle moves with variable velocity then, rate of

change of velocity at any point is defined by,

Acceleration, a = limΔt →0 (ΔV / Δt)

a = dV/dt

a = dV/dt = (d/dt) (dx/dt) = d2x/dt2

a = dV/dt = (dV/dx) (dx/dt) = V * dV/dx

Case-1 Motion With Uniform Velocity

 Initial value: x = x0 at t = 0
 Final value: x = x at t = t sec
dx = V * dt

∫ dx = V ∫ dt
x - x0 = V * t

x = x0 + V * t

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Case-2 Motion With Uniform Acceleration

 Initial value: x = x0, V = V0 at t = 0
 Final value: x = x, V = V at t = t sec
dV = a * dt

∫ dV = a ∫ dt
V - V0 = a * t
V = V0 + a * t ----- (1)

 V = dx/dt

Substituting V = V0 + at from eq.(1)

dx/dt = V0 + at

Further integrating: x0 to x (LHS) and

0 to t (RHS)

∫ dx = ∫ (V0 + at ) dt
2
x - x0 = V0 t + a t /2 ------ (2)

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 a = V * dV/dx

V * dV = a * dx
Further integrating: V0 to V (LHS) and
x0 to x (RHS)
∫ V dV = ∫ a dx
(V2 – V02)/2 = a * (x - x0)
2 2
V = V0 + 2a * (x - x0)
2 2
V = V0 + 2a * (x – x0) ------ (3)

Case-3 Motion With Variable Acceleration

 Variable acceleration expressed as a function of x, V and t.

a = a(t), a = a(x), a = a(V)

1) a = a(t)

a = dV/dt

dV = a * dt

Further integrating: V0 to V (LHS) and

0 to t (RHS)

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∫ dV = ∫ a dt

V - V0 = ∫ a (t) dt ------ (1)

Also, dx = V * dt

Further integrating: x0 to x (LHS) and

0 to t (RHS)

∫ dx = ∫ V dt
x - x0 = ∫ V (t) dt ------ (2)

2) a = a(x)

a = V * dV/dx

V * dV = a(x) * dx

Further integrating: V0 to V (LHS) and

x0 to x (RHS)

∫ V * dV = ∫ a(x) * dx
2 2
(V - V0 )/2 = ∫ a(x) dx ------ (3)

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3) a = a(V)
a = V * dV/dx
dx = V * dV/a
Further integrating: x0 to x (LHS) and
V0 to V (RHS)

∫ dx = ∫ V * dV/a

(x - x0) = ∫ V * dV/a(V) ------ (4)

Curvilinear Motion
 When a particle moves
along a curved path, it is
called as Curvilinear Y
Motion. Δs
 Vector r – referred as the
position vector of the
particle at time t.
 Vector r’ – referred as the
position vector of the
O X
particle at time t + Δt.

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 r’ = r + Δr
 Average velocity of the particle over the time interval
Δt is termed as

V = Δr / Δt

At any time, V = limΔt →0 (Δr / Δt)

As P’ and P comes closer Δr = Δs

V = limΔt →0 (Δs / Δt)

V = ds/dt

Cartesion Co-ordinate System

 r = PP” + P”P’

 V = limΔt →0 (Δr / Δt)

= limΔt →0 (PP”/Δt + P”P’/Δt)

= limΔt →0 (Δx/Δt + Δy/Δt)

V = Vx + Vy

 Vx = dx/dt, Vy = dy/dt

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 a = ΔV/Δt

 At any time t,

a = limΔt →0 (ΔV / Δt)

= limΔt →0 (PP”/Δt + P”P’/Δt)

= limΔt →0 (ΔVx/Δt + ΔVy/Δt)

a = ax + ay

 ax = dVx/dt, ay = dVy/dt

Motion of Rigid Bodies

 The relationship between the TIME, POSITIONS,
VELOCITIES and the ACCELERATIONS of the various
particles forming a rigid body. (i.e. motion
parameters)
 At present our study will be limited to the PLANE
MOTION OF A RIGID BODY.
 To study the plane motion of the body, consider body
as a thin slab with its mass centre lying in plane of
motion.

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 PLANE OF MOTION: The plane in which the mass

center of the body moves is defined as the plane of
motion.
 The plane of motion of rigid body may be divided in
to three different categories:
1) Translation
2) Rotation
3) General plane motion

 TRANSLATION: A rigid body has a motion of

translation when it moves in such a way that the line
joining any two particles keeps the same orientation
throughout the motion.
 When a rigid body is in translation, all the particles of
the body have same displacement and therefore same
velocity and same acceleration at any particular instant
of time.

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 If these paths are the straight lines, the motion is said

to be a rectilinear translation.
 If these paths are the curved lines, the motion is said
to be a curvilinear translation.

 Rectilinear translation Curvilinear translation

 ROTATION: If a body rotates about a fixed point in

such a way that all it’s particles move in circular path,
the body is said to have the motion of rotation.

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 GENERAL PLANE MOTION: Any motion which is

neither a pure translation nor a pure rotation, but the
combination of translation and rotation is known as
general plane motion.
 General plane motion can always be considered as a
combination of pure translation motion and a pure
rotation motion.
 The body translates itself from one position into
another at the same time rotating about some axis.

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Kinetics
 Study of relationship between, motion parameters
and the forces.
 When the body is at rest or moving in a straight line or
rotating about an axis, it obeys certain laws. These laws
are often known as LAWS OF MOTION.
 MASS: Mass is defined as the matter contained in the
body.
 WEIGHT: It is defined as the force by which the body
is attracted towards the center of the earth.

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 MOMENTUM: It is the quantity of motion possessed

by the body moving in a straight line. I.e. The product
of mass of the body and it’s velocity.
 FORCE: It is defined as an agent which produces or
tends to produce, destroys, or tends to destroy the
motion. It is expressed in N, kN.
 INERTIA: It is an inherent property of a body which
offers resistance to change in it’s state of rest or of
uniform motion.

Newton’s first law of motion

 It states “every body continues to be in a state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is acted
upon by some external force to change it’s state.”

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Newton’s second law of motion

 It states “The rate of change of momentum is directly
proportional to the external force acting on the body
and takes place in the direction of the straight line in
which the force acts.”
 This law enables us to measure the force acting on the
body and to establish the fundamental equation of
dynamics.

 Let, m = mass of the body,

V0 = Initial velocity of the body
V = Final velocity of the body
F = Force acting on the body for time t,
a = Uniform acceleration of the body for time t
 Initial Momentum = m * V0
Final Momentum = m * V
Change in momentum = m * V - m * V0
Rate of Change of momentum = [m * V - m * V0] / t
= m [V - V0] / t
= m a ----- (1)

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 As per Newton’s law,

Fma
F=Kma
 If we define unit of force as that which produces unit
acceleration to unit mass , then in that case F= 1 , a=1
and m=1 therefor k=1, so we can write the above
equation as,
F=ma

Newton’s third law of motion

 It states “To every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.”

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Motion of a lift
 W = Weight of lift + Weight in lift
 a = Uniform acceleration of lift
 T= Tension in cable

For Upward Motion of lift

 Net force in upward direction
F = T – W,
 As per Newton's second law of motion,
F=ma
T–W=ma
T–mg=ma
T=mg+ma
T = m (g + a)

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For Downward Motion of lift

 Net force in downward direction
F = W - T,
 As per Newton's second law of motion,
F=ma
W–T=ma
mg – T = m a
T=mg- ma
T = m (g - a)

Example
 An elevator cage of mass 900kg when empty is lifted or
lowered vertically by means of a wire rope. A man of
mass 72.5 kg is standing on it. Find:
(a) Tension in the rope
(b) The reaction of the cage on the man for
following conditions;
(i) When moving up with an acceleration of
3m/s2, and
(ii) moving up with uniform velocity 3 m/s

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 Given data: mass of the cage, M = 900 kg

mass of the man, m = 72.5 kg
a = 3m/s2

 FOR UPWARD MOTION

Let T = tension in the rope
Forces acting on the cage are:
(i) T (up), and (ii) Total mass Wt = (M+m) (down)

The net force in upward direction

T – Wt = (T– (M+m) g)

 As per Newton's second law of motion,

F=ma
(T– (M+m)g) = (M+m) a ------(1)
Solving above equation

T = 12458 N
 FOR REACTION
 Let ‘R’ be the reaction of the cage on the man
Equation of motion (of man),
R – mg = m a ------(2)
R = 928.7 N

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 FOR UPWARD MOTION WITH UNIFORM

VELOCITY
(T– (M+m)g) = (M+m) a ------(1)
Put a = 0 in equation - 1
(T– (M+m)g) = 0
T = (M+m) g
T = (900+72.5) 9.81
T = 9540 N

 FOR REACTION
 Let R’ be the reaction of the cage on the man
R’ – mg = m a ------(2)
Putting a = 0 in the equation - 2
R’ – mg = 0
R’ = mg
R = 711.2 N

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Motion on a rough inclined plane

  = angle of the inclined plane with horizontal
W = weight of the body
a = acceleration
m = mass of the body
μ = coefficient of friction
FF = frictional force
g = gravitational acceleration of the body
 As the surface of the plane is rough, while moving
down, the body will experience a frictional force,
acting in opposite direction of the motion.

 FF = μ R, But R = W cos
FF = μ W cos
 Force acting down the plane, F1 = W sin
 So net downward force acting on the body , down the
plane will be,
F = F1 - FF
F = W sin - μ W cos
 According to Newton’s law this must be equal to the
product of mass and acceleration, F = m a
F = W sin - μ W cos = m a
(W sin - μ W cos) = (W/g) a

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a = (sin - μ cos)g

 This is the acceleration with which the body is moving

down the rough inclined plane. If the body is moving
up the plane then the acceleration will be negative.

a = - (sin - μ cos)g

Example
W1 = 60 N; W2 = 8 N Angle of inclined plane = 15° with
the horizontal. If coefficient of friction between the
inclined plane and the block 2 is () = 0.22. Find: (i)
2
Tension in the string. (ii) The acceleration in m/s with
which the body moves up the inclined plane, and (iii) the
distance moved by the body in 2 seconds, starting from
rest.

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 Motion of 60 N block; W1
60 – T = (60/g) a ------- (i)
 Motion of 8 N block; W2
T – W2 sin - FF = (8/g) a
T – 8 sin - N = (8/g) a ------(ii)
N = W2 cos = 8 cos 15
Adding equation (i) and (ii)
a = 8.11 m/s2

2
 Substituting the value a = 8.11 m/s in equation (i) ;
60 – T = (60/g) 8.11
T = 10.39 N

 Distance moved in 2 seconds;

S = V0 t + ½ a t2
S = 16.22 m

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D'Alembert's Principle
 A body of mass “m” is moving with a uniform
acceleration “a” under the action of external force “F”.
 As per Newton’s Second law of Motion,
F = m a ------ (1)
This equation can be written in the form:
F - m a = 0 ------ (2)
 From above equation, if we apply a force of “- m a” on
the body, the body will be in equilibrium as the sum of
all the forces acting on the body is zero.

 At this instant the body is said to be in “DYNAMIC

EQUILIBRIUM” and the force “-m a” is called
D’Alembert’s Force or Reversed Effective Force or
Inertia Force.
 “The body will be in Dynamic Equilibrium under the
action of external force “F” and the inertia force of the
body”. This is known as D’Alembert’s Principle.

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Example
A 2kN crate is pulled by a pulling force of 1 kN at an
angle of 30 with horizontal. The coefficient of static and
kinetic friction between level road and crate are 0.4 and
0.3 respectively. Calculate maximum acceleration of the
crate.
 Assuming the crate at rest
 ∑ FY = 0.5 +R – 2 = 0, R = 1.5kN
 Frictional force F= 0.4*1.5 = 0.6kN
 As per D’Alembert’s principle
∑FX = 0, 0.866 - 0.6 – (2/9.81)a = 0
a = 1.305 m/s2

 Assuming the crate as moving

 ∑ FY = 0.5 +R – 2 = 0, R = 1.5kN
 Frictional force F = 0.3 * 1.5 = 0.45N
 As per D’Alembert’s principle
∑FX = 0,
F – ma = 0, Acceleration
0.866 – 0.45 – (2/9.81)a = 0
a = 2.04 m/s2

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Dependent Motion
System is released from rest. If mA = 100 kg and mB = 20
kg , find velocity of block A and B after time t= 5 s.
 L = XA + XB
dL/dt = 0, dXA/dt + dXB/dt =0
VA = -VB
a A = - aB
numerically, aA = aB
 Equation for block A;
Block A will move in downward
direction.
Net force acting in downward
direction, WA – T

 As per Newton's second law of motion,

F=ma
WA – T = mA aA
100 (9.81) – T = 100 aA---Eq (I)
 Equation for block B;
Block B will move in upward
direction.
Net force acting in upward
direction, T - WB
 As per Newton's second law of motion,
F=ma
T- WB = mB aB

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 T - 20 (9.81) = (20) aB ------Eq (II)

But, aA = aB
 Solving the two equations,
100 (9.81) – T = 100 aA ------- Eq (I)
T - 20 (9.81) = (20) aB ------Eq (II)
aA = 6.54 m/sec2, aB = - 6.54 m/sec2
 VA= V0+ aA.t = 32.7 m/s downward
 VB= V0+ aB.t = 32.7 m/s upward

Example
 L = 2 XA+ 3 XB + cons.;
 dL/dt = 0
2 dXA/dt + 3 XB /dt = 0
2 VA+ 3 VB = 0
2 dVA/dt+ 3 VB /dt = 0
2 a A + 3 aB = 0

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Work Done and Energy

 WORK DONE: Work is measured by the product of
force (F) and displacement (S), both being in the same
direction.
Work done = Force * Displacement = F * S
 ENERGY: The energy of a body is it’s capacity of doing
work.
Various types of energy :
a) Mechanical Energy
b) Electrical Energy
c) Thermal Energy
d) Chemical Energy
e) Nuclear Energy

Mechanical Energy
 A body may posses one or both of the following types
of mechanical energy.
Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy
 POTENTIAL ENERGY: The energy which a body
possesses by virtue of it’s position is called Potential
Energy.

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 KINETIC ENERGY: The energy which a body posses by

virtue of it’s motion is called “Kinetic Energy ”. It is
measured by the amount of work required to be done
to bring the body to rest.
 Kinetic Energy (K.E.) = Work Done by the force
= F * ds = m*a*ds = m(V*dV)
By integration: F*S = ½ m v²
So, Kinetic Energy (K.E.) = ½ m v²

Law of conservation of energy

 The total amount of energy in the universe is constant.
 Energy can not be created or destroyed although it
may be converted into various forms.
 If the work done on the particle due to force depends
on the path followed between the positions. Then
work done by such forces can not be expressed as a
change in potential energy. These forces are called non
conservative forces. e.g. frictional force.

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 A body of mass ‘m’ falls from a height ‘h’ above the

ground. The sum of it’s potential energy and kinetic
energy remains constant throughout the motion.”
 P.E. = m g h K.E. = 0

 P.E. = m g y K.E. = ½ m VC²

 P.E. = 0 K.E. = ½ mVB²

Impulse and Momentum

 IMPULSIVE FORCE: Large force acts for a very small
period of time.
 The Impulse of a Force ‘F’ acting from time t1 to t2 is
defined by the following integral.
 I = ∫ 𝐹 ∗ 𝑑𝑡
Impulse of a Force F acting
from time t1 to t2 can be
calculated as the area covered
under the force-time
diagram.
I = Favg * t

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 MOMENTUM: Product of mass and Velocity.

 As per Newton’s second law of motion,
F=ma
F = m dV/dt
F = d/dt (mV)
 Force = rate of change of momentum of the particle.
 Taking components of Force in X and Y directions.
FX = d/dt (m VX) FY = d/dt (m VY)
FX dt = d(m VX) FY dt = d(m VY)
Where, FX dt = Impulse of the force FX
FY dt = Impulse of the force FY

 d(m VX)= Differential change in the momentum of

particle in X direction.
 d(m VY)= Differential change in the momentum of
particle in Y direction.
 Differential change in the momentum of particle over
time t1 to t2 is equal to the impulse of the force acting
for the same time period.
∫ 𝐹𝑋 ∗ 𝑑𝑡 = (m VX)t2 - (m VX)t1

∫ 𝐹𝑌 ∗ 𝑑𝑡 = (m VY)t2 - (m VY)t1

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This can be written as,

∫ 𝐹 ∗ 𝑑𝑡 = (m V)t2 - (m V)t1 , Limits t1= 0, t2= t

∫ 𝐹 ∗ 𝑑𝑡 = (m V)t - (m V)0
 Impulse of a force = Final momentum – Initial
momentum

Law of conservation of momentum

 When sum of the impulses due to external forces is
zero then the momentum of the system remains
constant.
Or
 “If no external force is acting then total momentum of
the system remains unchanged”.
 ∫ 𝐹 ∗ 𝑑𝑡 = (m V)t - (m V)0

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 Let’s take the case of collision of two balls, A and B

 BALL A,
Mass of the ball = m1
Velocity before collision = v01
Velocity after collision = v1

 BALL B ,
Mass of the ball = m2
Velocity before collision = v02
Velocity after collision = v2
 Before collision,
Momentum of mass ma = m1 v01
Momentum of mass mb = m2 v02
Total Momentum = m1 v01 + m2 v02 ----- eq (I)

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 After collision,
Momentum of mass ma = m1 v1
Momentum of mass mb = m2 v2
Total Momentum = m1 v1 + m2 v2 ----- eq (II)
 The law of conservation of momentum requires that,
the total momentum before the collision must be
equal to the total momentum after the collision.
So,
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v01 + m2 v02 ------ eq (III)

Example
A bullet of mass 25g is fired with a velocity of 500m/s in
to a wooden block resting against rigid vertical wall. If
the bullet is brought to rest in 0.05m, determine the
average impulsive force exerted by the bullet on the
block.
 Impulsive force = Change in momentum
F dt = (mV)2 - (mV)1
 Before collision,
Momentum of bullet = m v1
= 0.025 * 500
= 12.5 kg m/s

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 After collision,
Momentum of bullet = m v2
= 0.025 * 0
= 0 kg m/s

 Equation of Distance travelled in the wood;

V2- V02 = 2 a s
02- 5002 = 2 * (a) * 0.05
a = -2.5*106 m/s2

 V = V0 + a.t
t = 0.0002 sec

 Impulsive force = Change in momentum

F dt = (mV)2 - (mV)1
F * (0.0002) = 12.5
F = 62.5 kN

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