Discrete Structures

Dr. Rukhsana Kausar

Concordia University, Winter 2017

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Table of Contents
1 1.4 Propositional Logic
Exercise 4
Exercise 6
Exercise 8
Exercise 10
Exercise 12
Exercise 18
Exercise 24
Exercise 31
Exercise 34
Exercise 44
Exercise 46
Exercise 50
Exercise 51
Exercise 61

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Exercise 4
State the value of x after the statement if P(x) then x := 1 is executed,
where P(x) is the statement ”x > 1,” if the value of x when this
statement is reached is,
Remark
Predicate is P(x) : x > 1
if P(x) then x := 1
Domain is: x = {0, 1, 2}

Answer: Make a proposition and based in it’s truth value, find final value
of x
a) x = 0
P(0) : 0 > 1 FALSE → x = 0
b) x = 1
P(1) : 1 > 1 FALSE → x = 1
c) x = 2
P(2) : 2 > 1 TRUE → x = 1
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Exercise 6
Let N(x) be the statement ”x has visited North Dakota” where the domain consists
of the students in your school. Express each of these quantification in English.

Remark
N(x) : x has visited North Dakota
Domain: The students in your school

∃xN(x): Some of the students in our school have visited North

Dakota
∀xN(x): All of the students in our school have visited North Dakota
¬∃xN(x): None of the students in our school have visited North
Dakota.
∃x¬N(x): Some of the students in our school have not visited North
Dakota
¬∀xN(x): Not all of the students in our school have visited North
Dakota
∀x¬N(x): All of the students in our school have not visited North
Dakota
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Exercise 8
Remark
R(x) : x is a rabbit
H(x) : x hops
Domain: all animals

∀x(R(x) → H(x))
Answer: If an animal is rabbit, then it hops
∀x(R(x) ∧ H(x))
Answer: All animals are rabbit and they hop
∃x(R(x) → H(x))
Answer: There are some animals which If they are rabbit, then they
hop
∃x(R(x) ∧ H(x))
Answer: There are some animals which they are rabbit and they hop

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Exercise 10
Remark
C (x): x has a cat
D(x): x has a dog
F (x): x has a ferret
Domain: All students in your class

a) A student in your class has a cat, a dog, and a ferret.

Answer:∃x(C (x) ∧ D(x) ∧ F (x))
b) All students in your class have a cat, a dog, or a ferret.
Answer:∀x(C (x) ∨ D(x) ∨ F (x))
c) Some student in your class has a cat and a ferret, but not a dog.
Answer: ∃x(C (x) ∧ F (x) ∧ ¬D(x))

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Exercise 10 (cont...)
Remark
C (x): x has a cat
D(x): x has a dog
F (x): x has a ferret
Domain: All students in your class

d) No student in your class has a cat, a dog, and a ferret.

Answer:∀x¬(C (x) ∧ D(x) ∧ F (x))
e) For each of the three animals, cats, dogs, and ferrets, there is a
student in your class who has this animals as a pet
Answer: ∃x∃y ∃z(D(x) ∧ C (y ) ∧ F (z))

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Exercise 12
Find The truth value of Q(x)
Remark
Q(x) : x + 1 > 2x
Domain: all integers

a) Q(0)
Answer: 0 + 1 = 1 and 2 × 0 = 0 so 1 > 0 is TRUE
b) Q(−1)
Answer (−1) + 1 = 0 and 2 × (−1) = −2 so 0 > −2 is TRUE
c) Q(1)
Answer 1 + 1 = 2 and 2 × 1 = 2 so 2 > 2 is FALSE
d) ∃x(Q(x))
Answer Find any x which makes above predicate true.
Q(x) : x + 1 > 2x ⇒ x + 1 − 2x > 0 ⇒ 1 − x > 0 ⇒ x < 1
∃x(Q(x)) is TRUE
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Exercise 12(cont...)
Remark
Q(x) : x + 1 > 2x
Domain: all integers

e) ∀xQ(x)
Answer From (d) we found Q(x) is true for x < 1 and not all of
them, so ∀xQ(x) is FALSE
f) ∃x¬Q(x)
Answer
¬Q(x) : x + 1 ≤ 2x
x + 1 ≤ 2x ⇒ x + 1 − 2x ≤ 0 ⇒ 1 − x ≤ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 1
∃x¬Q(x) is TRUE
g) ∀x¬Q(x)
Answer From (f) we found ¬Q(x) is true for x ≥ 1 and not all of
them, so ∀x¬Q(x) is FALSE
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Exercise 18
Remark
Domain: {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}
Write each of these propositions using ∨, ∧, and ¬

a) ∃xP(x)
Answer
P(−2) ∨ P(−1) ∨ P(0) ∨ P(1) ∨ P(2)
b) ∀xP(x)
Answer
P(−2) ∧ P(−1) ∧ P(0) ∧ P(1) ∧ P(2)
c) ∃x¬P(x)
Answer
¬P(−2) ∨ ¬P(−1) ∨ ¬P(0) ∨ ¬P(1) ∨ ¬P(2)

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Exercise 18(cont...)
Remark
Domain: {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}
Write each of these propositions using ∨, ∧, and ¬

d) ∀x¬P(x)
Answer
¬P(−2) ∧ ¬P(−1) ∧ ¬P(0) ∧ ¬P(1) ∧ ¬P(2)
e) ¬∃xP(x)
Answer
¬(P(−2) ∨ P(−1) ∨ P(0) ∨ P(1) ∨ P(2))
f) ¬∀xP(x)
Answer
¬(P(−2) ∧ P(−1) ∧ P(0) ∧ P(1) ∧ P(2))

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Exercise 24
Remark
Translate these statements into logical expressions.
1 Domain: Students in your class
2 Domain: All people

Let C (x) be ”x is a student in your class”

a) Everyone in your class has a cellular phone
Answer Let P(x) be ”x has a cellular phone”
1 ∀xP(x)
2 ∀x(C (x) → P(x))
b) Somebody in your class has seen a foreign movie
Answer Let F (x) be ”x has seen a foreign movie”
1 ∃xF (x)
2 ∃x(C (x) ∧ F (x))

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Exercise 24(cont...)
Remark
Translate these statements into logical expressions.
1 Domain: Students in your class
2 Domain: All people

Let C (x) be ”x is a student in your class”

d) There is a person in your class who can not swim
Answer Let S(x) be ”x can swim”
1 ∃x¬S(x)
2 ∃x(C (x) ∧ ¬S(x))
e) Some student in your class does not want to be rich
Answer Let R(x) be ”x wants to be rich”
1 ∃x¬R(x)
2 ∃x(C (x) ∧ ¬R(x))

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Exercise 31
Suppose that the domain of Q(x, y , z) consists of triples x, y , z, where
x = 0, 1, or 2, y = 0 or 1, and z = 0 or 1. Write out these propositions
using disjunctions and conjunctions.
a) ∀yQ(0, y , 0)
Answer:
∀yQ(0, y , 0) ≡ Q(0, 0, 0) ∧ Q(0, 1, 0)
b) ∃xQ(x, 1, 1))
Answer:
∃xQ(x, 1, 1) ≡ Q(0, 1, 1) ∨ Q(1, 1, 1) ∨ Q(2, 1, 1)
c) ∃z¬Q(0, 0, z)
Answer:
∃z¬Q(0, 0, z) ≡ ¬Q(0, 0, 0) ∨ ¬Q(0, 0, 1)
d) ∃x¬Q(x, 0, 1)
Answer:
∃x¬Q(x, 0, 1) ≡ ¬Q(0, 0, 1) ∨ ¬Q(1, 0, 1) ∨ ¬Q(2, 0, 1)

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Exercise 34
Express the negation of these propositions using quantifiers, and then
express the negation in English.
a) Some drivers do not obey the speed limit.
Answer:
domain and predicate: Let the domain of x be all the drivers, and let
O(x) be the predicate ”x obeys the speed limit.”
Original Quantified: ∃x¬O(x)
Negation Quantified: ¬∃x¬O(x) ≡ ∀xO(x)
Negation In English: Every driver obeys the speed limit.
b) All Swedish movies are serious.
Answer:
domain and predicate: Let the domain of x be all Swedish movies,
and let S(x) be the predicate ”The movie x is serious.”
Original Quantified: ∀xS(x)
Negation Quantified: ¬∀xS(x) ≡ ∃x¬S(x)
Negation In English: There are Swedish movies which are not serious.
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Exercise 34 cont...
c) No one can keep a secret.
Answer:
domain and predicate: Let the domain of x be all people, and let
K (x) be the predicate ”Person x can keep a secret.”
Original Quantified: ∀x¬K (x)
Negation Quantified: ¬∀x¬K (x) ≡ ∃xK (x)
Negation In English: Some one can keep a secret.
d) There is someone in the class who does not have a good attitude.
Answer:
domain and predicate: Let the domain of x be everyone in the class,
and let G (x) be the predicate ”Person x has a good attitude.”
Original Quantified: ∃x¬G (x)
Negation Quantified: ¬∃x¬G (x) ≡ ∀xG (x)
Negation In English: Every one in the class has a good attitude.

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Exercise 44
Determine whether ∀x(P(x) ↔ Q(x)) and ∀xP(x) ↔ ∀xQ(x) are logically
equivalent. Justify Your answer.
Answer: NO
Why?
Let domain of x be 0 or 1, and
P(0) = false
P(1) = true
Q(0) = true
Q(1) = false
Then we have: (P(0) = false) 6≡ (Q(0) = true) which implies
∀x(P(x) ↔ Q(x)) is FALSE.
On the other hand: P(0) = false, implies ∀xP(x) is false, and also Q(1) =
false, implies ∀xQ(x) is false, too. Consequently, ∀xP(x) ↔ ∀xQ(x) is
TRUE.

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Exercise 46
Establish these logical equivalences, where x does not occur as a free
variable in A. Assume that the domain is nonempty.
a) (∀xP(x)) ∨ A ≡ ∀x(P(x) ∨ A)
Answer:
If A is TRUE: Then:

(∀xP(x)) ∨ A ≡ (∀xP(x)) ∨ T ≡ T

and
∀x(P(x) ∨ A) ≡ ∀x(P(x) ∨ T ) ≡ ∀x(T ) ≡ T
If A is FALSE: Then:

(∀xP(x)) ∨ A ≡ (∀xP(x)) ∨ F ≡ ∀xP(x)

and
∀x((P(x) ∨ A) ≡ ∀x((P(x) ∨ F ) ≡ ∀xP(x)

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Exercise 46 Cont...
Establish these logical equivalences, where x does not occur as a free
variable in A. Assume that the domain is nonempty.
b) (∃xP(x)) ∨ A ≡ ∃x((P(x) ∨ A)
Answer:
If A is TRUE: Then:

(∃xP(x)) ∨ A ≡ (∃xP(x)) ∨ T ≡ T

and
∃x(P(x) ∨ A) ≡ ∃x(P(x) ∨ T ) ≡ ∃x(T ) ≡ T
If A is FALSE: Then:

(∃xP(x)) ∨ A ≡ (∃xP(x)) ∨ F ≡ ∃xP(x)

and
∃x((P(x) ∨ A) ≡ ∃x((P(x) ∨ F ) ≡ ∃xP(x)

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Exercise 50
Show that ∀xP(x) ∨ ∀xQ(x) and ∀x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) are not logically
equivalent.
Answer: Using counter-example
Let domain of x be 0 or 1, and
P(0) = false
P(1) = true
Q(0) = true
Q(1) = false
Since, Q(0) = true then (P(0) ∨ Q(0)) = true) and similarly, P(1) = true
then (P(1) ∨ Q(1)) = true) which imply ∀x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) = TRUE.
On the other hand: P(0) = false, implies ∀xP(x) is false, and also Q(1) =
false, implies ∀xQ(x) is false, too. Consequently, ∀xP(x) ∨ ∀xQ(x) is
FALSE.

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Exercise 51
Show that ∃xP(x) ∧ ∃xQ(x) and ∃x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) are not logically
equivalent.
Answer: Using counter-example
Let domain of x be 0 or 1, and
P(0) = false
P(1) = true
Q(0) = true
Q(1) = false
Since, P(1) = true then ∃xP(x) = true) and similarly, Q(0) = true then
∃xQ(x) = true) which imply ∃xP(x) ∧ ∃xQ(x) = TRUE.
On the other hand: P(0) = false, implies (P(0) ∧ Q(0)) is false, and also
Q(1) = false, implies (P(1) ∧ Q(1)) is false, too. Consequently,
∃x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) is FALSE.

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Exercise 61
Let P(x), Q(x), R(x) and S(x) be the statements ”x is a baby”, ”x is
logical”, ”x is able to manage a crocodile”, and ”x is despised”,
respectively. Suppose that the domain consists of all people. Express each
of the following statements using quantifiers; logical connectives; and
P(x), Q(x), R(x) and S(x).
a) Babies are illogical. Answer: ∀x(P(x) → ¬Q(x))
b) Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile. Answer:
∀x(R(x) → ¬S(x))
c) Illogical persons are despised. Answer: ∀x(¬Q(x) → S(x))
d) Babies can not manage crocodiles. Answer: ∀x(P(x) → ¬R(x))
e) Does (d) follow from (a), (b), and (c)? If not, is there a correct
conclusion?
Answer: Yes it follows.



∀x(P(x) → ¬Q(x)) and ∀x(¬Q(x) → S(x)) → ∀x(P(x) → S(x))

∀x(P(x) → S(x)) and ∀x(R(x) → ¬S(x)) → ∀x(P(x) → ¬R(x))
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