BIO REVIEWER: Communication, Transport, release,

collection.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM
- Aqua porins – enters a facilitated
 Simple Diffusion – Molecules move diffusion
from higher concentration to lower  Exocytosis – active transport,
concentration. moving out of cell, carrier
- Passive process which means no vesicle, release through.
energy is used.  Endocytosis – Moving in,
- Particles moving down to, also collecting water molecule
known as the concentration  Pinocytosis – most common
gradient. form, cell drinking
 Facilitated Diffusion – process of  Receptor – mediated,
diffusion facilitated by transport binding site, picky, collected
proteins in the cell membrane in a vesicle
- All small polar molecules are  Phagocytosis – cell eating,
transported across membranes by capture of parasite.
proteins that form transmembrane
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
protein channels.
 Osmosis – diffusion of water across the  Biomolecules – molecules that are
membrane present in living organisms
- Moves from higher concentration - Four major classes of biomolecules
to lower concentration. namely: Carbohydrates, lipids,
 Isotonic – solute = solute proteins, and nucleic acids)
(Internal = external)  Carbohydrates – most abundant,
 Hypotonic – a solution whose energy source, produce in abundance
solute < solute (Internal > by photosynthesis,(carbon, hydrogen,
External) (cytolysis) oxygen) (CHO)
 Hypertonic – a solution whose  Fischer projection – devised by emil
solute > solute concentration fischer in 1891, two-dimensional
in a cell (Internal < External) organic molecule projection
(Plasmolysis)  Haworth projection – common way of
- Solute attracts solvent. writing a structural formula to
- Cytolysis – destruction of cell represent the cyclic structure of
- Plasmolysis – shrinking/shrivel of monosaccharides with a three
cell dimensional perspective
 Passive transport (No energy)
*Glycosidic linkages – linkages of
- Simple – moves high to low
carbohydrates.*
(oxygen)
- Facilitated – transport proteins high - Serves as the backbone of other
to low (Glucose/ amino acids) molecules
 Active Transport (has energy) - Serves as stored energy such as
- ATP (Sodium potassium pub) starch, cellulose and glycogen
- Proteins gives structure (support), - Combine with proteins
cell identification (Recognition), (Glycoproteins and proteoglycans)
 to form structural components of  A starch is a mixture of two
living cells. polysaccharide: amylose and
Simple: amylopectin.
- Monosaccharides – building blocks,  Glycogen – formed from units
simplest carbohydrate, compost of of glucose
one sugar molecule, (Monomer of  Cellulose – a long straight
carbohydrates) polymer consisting of 2 to 3k
 Isomers – any of two or glucose linked together
more substances whose through glycosidic bond.
molecules have the same  Eg, starch glycogen, cellulose
atoms but in different and chitin.
arrangements - Oligosaccharides – composed of
 Note that glyceraldehyde three to ten monosaccharides.
and dihydroxyacetone is an  Lipids – largely hydrocarbons, dissolve
isomer in non-polar substances. (CHO)
 Other isomers are ribose, - Insoluble in water but are soluble in
glucose and fructose organic solvents such as benzene, ether
and chloroform.
*Monosaccharides are reducing sugars*
- Highest energy-giving foods
- Disaccharides – composed of 2 - Building blocks of steroids
monosaccharides that is linked - Constituent of protoplasm of living
through condensation, covalently cells.
bonded by dehydration synthesis - Part of the structure of cell
reaction. (Double sugar C12H22O11) membrane.
 During condensation
*Glycerol & Fatty acids – monomer*
enzymes remove a hydroxyl
(OH) *Estherlinkages – linkages
 One water molecule is
- Through the process of
removed during
dehydration
condensation, which is called
dehydration or displacement Groups:
reaction.
 Triglycerides – body’s main reservoir
 The bond that is formed is
- Made of one glycerol backbone and
called glycosidic bond/
three fatty acids, fat and oils
glycosidic linkages.
- The bond formed between glycerol
 Hyrolysis – broke down to its
and fatty acids are ester bonds.
components by enzymes
- Saturated fatty acids – maximum of
 Eg, maltose, sucrose and
number of hydrogen atoms
lactose.
- Unsaturated fatty acids – contains
- Polysaccharides – series of
one or more double bonds.
connections of mono. (Consist of 3
- Essential fatty acids – linoleic acid,
or more mono)
linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid,
*All three fatty acid are unsaturated and are  Amino acids – Building blocks
necessary for the formation of phospholipids - 20 standard amino acids
(cannot synthesize by the body and must be - 11 non-essential – can synthesize
obtained)* by the body
- 9 are essential – obtained by food
*all other fatty acid are non-essential fatty acids
- Semi essential – can obtain by food
which means it is not necessary to obtain since
and can synthesize by the body
the body is able to synthesize them*
- May common backbone
 Sphingolipids – complex lipids made up  Dipeptide – consist of 2 amino acids
of sphingosine linked through a  Tripeptide – one more amino acid is
complex polar head to one long fatty linked through dipeptide
acid chain.  Polypeptide – series of chains,
 Phospholipids (phosphatides) – connected by peptide bonds.
phosphate group replacing one of the PROTEIN STRUCTURE:
fatty acid in triglyceride.  Monomeric proteins – consist of single
- Form micelles when dispersed in polypeptide chain that undergoes
water to form a bilayer. folding and coiling.
- Micelle – attachment of  Multimeric protein – two or more
phospholipid to form a structure. polypeptide chain
 Steroids – common basic structure is FOUR LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN THE
ste THREE DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE OF
- Similar solubility properties as lipids PROTEIN:
but are not fatty acids or esters  Primary structure – linear sequence of
- Cholesterol amino acids.
 Testosterone – primary - Sequence of amino acids is
characteristic in males, determined by the genetic code
development of pubic hairs, carried in the DNA molecule
figure/bulky in boys  Secondary structure – particular
 Estrogen – development & peptide chain is coiled to form one of
maintenance of the female the following:
body  Simple helix – loops that look like
 Cortisone – released in the wires of a telephone, the
response to stress shape of the helix is maintained
 Vitamin D – calcium by hydrogen bonds.
absorption.  Double or triple helix – two or
three polypeptide chains are
PROTEINS coiled together to form fiber.
 Proteins – Building blocks of life -keratin, protein that forms
- Consists of (CHON), some with hair, horns, nails etc, form of
phosphorus and sulfur. double helix.
-collagen, protein that forms
*Amino acids – monomer of proteins* tendons, ligaments, and
*Phosphodiester linkages – linkages* cartilage, has triple helical
structure.
  Tertiary structure – overall three  Anabolic – synthesis of large molecules,
dimensional shape digestion, requires energy.
 Quaternary structure – relative  Alpha helix – stairs
arrangement of polypeptide  Beta sheet – ribbon
chains.  Primary structure – all enzymes
 Quaternary – 4 above
Classification of proteins
 Kidney and liver – responsible for
 Fibrous proteins – involved in the glycogenesis.
formation of body structures of  Nucleic acids – informational molecules
animals. that carry the code of life.
 Globular proteins – tightly coiled and - Use in order to form the protein
folded to form a sphere. - Blueprint
 Simple proteins – pure proteins that do - Nucleotide – monomer
not contain any other substance.  Nucleotides – building blocks
 Conjugated proteins – made up of two - Carry messages
portions attached together.
Types:
 Prosthetic group – attached to a
non-protein. DNA – deoxyribose nucleic acid

ENZYMES RNA – ribonucleic acid

 Enzymes – all enzymes are proteins but NUCLEOTIDES

not all proteins are enzymes.
 Nucleotides
- Special proteins that are catalytic in
 Pentose sugar –DNA
action.
(deoxyribose) or RNA (ribose)
- Coenzymes – organic molecules
 Phosphate
acting as cofactors
 Nitrogen bases (adenine-thymine,
- Cofactors – non-protein chemical
guanine-cytosine) u – uracil (in
compound that tightly and loosely
RNA)
binds with an enzyme or other
 In DNA – double stranded
protein molecules.
 In RNA – single stranded
- Amylase – digestion of carbs
 Substrate – enzymes that works on. ATP – ADP Cycle
 Enzyme-substrate complex –
combination when the active site Autotrophs – are organisms that make their
interacts with the substrate own food, also known as producers. Most
 Competitive inhibition – inhibitor bind autotrophs use the energy in sunlight to make
first than substrate food in a process called photosynthesis. On the
 Semi competitive – binds at the same other hand, heterotrophs – are living things that
time cannot make their own food. Instead, they get
 Uncompetitive – inhibitor binds at their food by consuming other organisms, which
allosteric site; changes active site so is why they are also called consumers.
substrate can’t bind (Induced fit model) Energy Molecules
 Catabolic – breakdown of large
molecules, release of energy
  Glucose is a basic carbohydrate with Step 2: At the same time, enzymes in the
C6H12O6as a chemical formula. It thylakoid membrane use light energy to split
stores chemical energy in a stable and apart a water molecule. This produces:
concentrated form. Glucose in your
1. two electrons (2 e−). These electrons
body is the form of energy that is
replace the two electrons that were lost
carried in your blood and is taken up by
from the chlorophyll molecule in Step 1.
every trillion of your cells. Glucose is
2. an atom of oxygen (O). This atom
the end product of photosynthesis and
combines with another oxygen atom to
it is the almost universal lifelong food.
produce a molecule of oxygen gas (O2),
 ATP(adenosine triphosphate) is the
which is released as a waste product.
energy-carrying molecule that cells
3. Two hydrogen ions (2H+). The
use for energy. In the first half of
hydrogen ions, which are positively
photosynthesis, ATP is generated and
charged, are released inside the
then used for energy during the second
membrane in the thylakoid interior
half of photosynthesis, when glucose is
space.
made. It is also used by cells for energy
in most other cellular processes. When Step 3: The two excited electrons from Step 1
ATP gives up one of its three phosphate contain a great deal of energy; they need
groups and changes to ADP (adenosine something to carry them. They are carried by a
diphosphate), it releases energy. series of electron-transport molecules, which
 Photosynthesis – is often considered as make up an electron transport chain. The two
the single most important process of electrons are passed from molecule to
life on Earth. It transforms light energy molecule down the chain. As this happens,
into chemical energy and also emits their energy is captured and used to pump
oxygen. Without photosynthesis, the more hydrogen ions into the thylakoid interior
atmosphere would not contain space.
oxygen. Photosynthesis involves many
chemical reactions in chloroplast, but in Step 4: When the two electrons reach
a single chemical equation they can be photosystem I, they are no longer excited.
summed up as: 6CO2+ 6H2O + Light Their energy has been captured and used, and
Energy → C6H12O6+ 6O2. they need more energy. They get energy from
light, which is absorbed by chlorophyll in
Stage I: is called the light reactions. This stage photosystem I. Then, the two re-energized
uses water and changes light energy from the electrons pass down another electron transport
sun into chemical energy stored in ATP and chain.
NADPH (another energy-carrying molecule).
This stage also releases oxygen as a waste Step 5: Enzymes in the thylakoid membrane
product. transfer the newly re-energized electrons to a
compound called NADP+. Along with a
Step 1:Units of sunlight, called photons, strike a hydrogenion, this produces the energy-carrying
molecule of chlorophyll in photosystem II of the molecule NADPH. This molecule is needed to
thylakoid membrane. The light energy is make glucose in the Calvin cycle.
absorbed by two electrons (2 e−) in the
chlorophyll molecule giving them enough Step 6: By now, there is a greater concentration
energy to leave the molecule. of hydrogen ions and positive charge in the
thylakoid interior space. This difference in
concentration and charge creates what is called
a chemiosmotic gradient. It causes hydrogen
ions to flow back across the thylakoid
membrane to the stroma where their
concentration is lower. Like water flowing
through a hole in a dam, the hydrogen ions
have energy as they flow down the
chemiosmotic gradient. The enzyme ATP
synthase acts as a channel protein and helps
the ions cross the membrane. ATP synthase
also uses their energy to add a phosphate group
(Pi) to a molecule of ADP, producing a molecule
of ATP. The energy in ATP is needed for the
Calvin cycle.

Stage II is called the Calvin cycle. This stage

combines carbon from carbon dioxide in the air
and uses the chemical energy in ATP and
NADPH to make glucose. It has three major
steps: carbon fixation, reduction, and
regeneration. All three steps take place in the
stroma of a chloroplast.

Step 1: Carbon Fixation. Carbon dioxide from

the atmosphere combines with a simple, five-
carbon compound called RuBP. This reaction
occurs with the help of an enzyme named
RuBisCo and produces molecules known as
3PG (a three-carbon compound, 3-
Phosphoglyceric acid).

Step 2: Reduction. Molecules of 3PG (from Step

1) gain energy from ATP and NADPH (from the
light reactions) and re-arrange themselves to
form G3P (glycerate 3-phosphate). This
molecule also has three carbon atoms, but it
has more energy than 3PG. One of the G3P
molecules goes on to form glucose, while the
rest of the G3P molecules go on to Step 3.

Step 3: Regeneration. The remaining G3P

molecules use energy from ATP to form RuBP,
the five-carbon molecule that started the Calvin
cycle. This allows the cycle to repeat.