Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Classrooms

CLASSROOMS tween seat centers is adequate for most seating centers, let two triples of seats be placed with
arrangements that use strip tables for writing. seat centers 2 feet apart laterally and with a
Major factors to be considered in designing a Tablet armchairs are commonly used for seat- 4-foot central aisle from front to back between
classroom are the following: ing in college classrooms in the United States triples. In 5-foot aisles at the sides, let movable
l . Seating and writing surfaces and permit rows to be spaced every 3 feet. They tablet armchairs be placed next to the fixed seats
2. Space and furnishings for the lecturer are satisfactory for most classes that do not make for lectures and recitations (keeping the 3-foot
3. The use of wall space, including chalkboards, use of special equipment (such as desk calculators aisle by the walls), but let these chairs be moved
screens, size and location of windows, etc. or slide rules), provided they have a large writing over next to the walls during examinations . If
4. Facilities for projection and television surface and a shelf underneath for books and the center chair in each fixed triple were left
5. Coat racks, storage, and other conveniences papers . Tablet armchairs may be found either vacant, there would still be 30 widely spaced
6. Acoustics and lighting fixed to the floor, fastened together in sets of chairs available for an examination. Another pat-
7. Heating and air conditioning two to six that can be moved as a group, or tern involves joint activity by two instructors
8. Aesthetic considerations individually movable. When chairs are fixed to whose adjoining classrooms are separated by a
the floor the arrangement should be one that folding partition, and can be combined into a
Classroom Seating The seating arrangement is permits good visibility and ready access . Good larger room for 60 for appropriate portions of
the most important feature in determining the visibility may be achieved in three ways : by slop- the instruction (Fig . 3) .
size and shape of a classroom . Seating arrange- ing the floor, by staggering seats in consecutive
ments in a mathematics classroom should provide rows, or by wide spacing . A Front Platform In front of the students' seating
all students with a good view of the front chalk- An arrangement permitting a class of 30 to area, there should be enough space for the lec-
board, ready access both to the seats and to spread out for examination purposes in a 26' X turer to walk back and forth before a long chalk-
chalkboards on other walls, an adequate, well- 26' classroom seating 40 students would be the board . In rooms with more than five rows of seats
illuminated writing surface at each seat, a place following (Fig . 2) : in each of five rows, spaced there is an advantage in having a platform, possi-
to set books and papers, reasonable comfort, and 3 feet apart from front to back between seat bly 8 inches above the floor and extending the
privacy in taking examinations. In a class of 50
or fewer students, where a long front chalkboard
is desirable, it seems better to have the front
wall longer than the side walls . This presupposes
that there are more students in a row of seats
than there are rows ; for example, visibility is bet-
ter in a classroom having five rows of seven seats
than in one having seven rows of five seats. In
a room measuring 26' X 30' (Fig . 1), with separate
tablet armchairs for 35 students, the seven seats
in a row might have a spacing of 3'6" between
seat centers laterally and 4'6" between the end
seat centers and side walls (6 X 3'6" -f- 9' _
30') . Spacing from front to back in a column
might be 3 feet between seat centers with 4 feet
behind the back-seat center and 10 feet between
the front-seat center and the front chalkboard
(4 X 3' + 14' = 26') . This pattern allows for
aisles of about 20 inches between columns, a
width just under the 22-inch "unit width" used
as a standard in estimating the number of persons
who can walk abreast in a corridor or stairhall.
This arrangement requires about 22 square feet
of space per student . Lecture halls whose seats
Fig. 1 Seating arrangement in a classroom for 35 students.
have folding tablet arms may allow 15 square
feet or less per student .
Close-packed seating arrangements are not the
most desirable, but sometimes are necessary be-
cause larger rooms are not available. Laws in
some states provide that no person shall have
to pass more than six others to reach an aisle ;
hence 14 persons in a row between aisles is an
absolute maximum. If 10 to 14 students sit next
to each other in a row behind a long strip table
or writing ledge, the ledge should be at least
12 inches wide and should provide at least 2
feet of length per person . An arrangement
whereby the nearer half of the writing surface
in front of each person can fold up and away
from the writer gives more room for students to
pass . A spacing between rows of 42 inches be-

J. Sutherland and John W . McLeod, Buildings and

Facilities for the Mathematical Sciences, Conference
Board of the Mathematical Sciences, Washington, 1963 . Fig. 2 Classroom for 40, with 10 side seats movable.
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Lecture Rooms

full width of the room, on which the teacher may

walk the length of the board without danger of
falling off the end. The chalkboard should then
be raised correspondingly higher above the class-
room floor for better visibility . The mathematics
teacher needs a table on which he [she] can place
his [her] lecture notes and papers, but it is better
to have this table either movable on casters or
fixed at the side of the platform where it does
not block the view of the chalkboard from the
first two rows of students . If an overhead projector
is to be used, there must either be a place where
it can be mounted permanently at the front of
the room, or there must be provision for rolling
it in on a cart and connecting it electrically. In
the latter case, the front platform might be slightly
lower and be accessible by a ramp . The mathe-
matics teacher seldom sits during a lecture but
may wish to sit down during an examination.
There should be a chair by his [her] table or desk .
A lecture room should be so placed in a building
that it is accessible to students without overcrowd-
ing of corridors or stairways. Coat racks, ade-
quate bulletin boards lining the corridors, and
ample toilet facilities should be provided nearby . Fig . 3 A classroom divisible into two seminar rooms.
The room itself should be arranged so that the
audience can see well, hear well, and be comfort-
able . In part this depends on temperature, humid-
ity, background of light and sound, and seating
space.

Projection Systems The large lecture room should

be built to accommodate a variety of projection
systems that may be used immediately or in the
more distant future . An overhead projector re-
quires an electrical outlet near the lecturer's table,
placed so that the lecturer will not trip over the
cord, and also a screen properly mounted to as-
sure that the entire class has good visibility with
minimum distortion . More screens or a wide screen
may be needed to enable the lecturer to use two
or more overhead projectors at once . If movies,
films, or slides are projected from the rear of
the room and reflected from a front screen, the
room should have a projection booth, or at least
a suitable stand and electrical outlet for the pro-
jector . Remote controls for operating the projector
are desirable. Shades may be required for dark-
ening a room with windows. If the "rear screen"
method of projection is to be used, in which the
image is thrown onto a translucent screen
mounted in the front wall from a projector in
an adjacent room beyond the front wall, the build-
ing plans must include adequate provision for
this projection room .
A room or space for the preparation of tran-
sparencies or other visuals is a corollary of their
use. Material can be prepared on ordinary paper
and copied quickly onto a transparency by a ther-
mal duplicator or similar equipment. Such copies
can be posted after the lecture for inspection
by students . Storage for such materials must also
be provided, as well as for any materials distrib-
uted to students to supplement their lecture notes.
Provision for receiving and transmitting televi-
sion is also an important consideration in planning
a lecture room for large group instruction .

Seating and Visibility Good visibility depends

not only on the arrangement of chalkboards and
of projection screens and equipment, but also
to a large degree upon seating arrangements.
Factors to be considered are avoidance of ob-

J. Sutherland and John W. McLeod, Buildings and

Facilities for the Mathematical Sciences, Conference
Board of Mathematical Sciences, Washington, 1963 . Fig. 4 Optimum viewing angles.
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Lecture Rooms

structions, slope of the floor and height of the to see over or around the heads of those in front more than six times the width of the screen image
speaker's platform, viewing distance, and the ex- of him and to give the impression of a smaller to be viewed and that the distance from a person
treme vertical and horizontal viewing angles . It room . If the seats in successive rows are staggered to the chalkboard should not exceed 400 times
is clear that a good lecture room will not have so that the line of sight from one seat to the the size of the smallest letter or digit being writ-
columns or supports so placed as to block the lecturer goes directly between the centers of two ten. Thus, if the back row of students is 64 feet
front screen and chalkboard from any seat in seats in the next row, the rise required per row away, the lecturer should make his letters and
the room . However, when a large demonstration may be reduced by half. Closely interdependent digits at least two inches high . Similar studies
table stands on a platform between the chalk- are the slope of the floor and the height of the indicate that the angle of elevation from the eye
board and the audience, the lower 12 to 18 inches speaker's platform . The use of a raised platform to the upper part of an object on the screen or
of the board often cannot be seen by people for the teacher has advantages in increased visi- chalkboard should not exceed 30 degrees (see
in the first few rows. In this case, vertically sliding bility in any room seating more than about 40 Fig. 4) . If lecture rooms are built in a fan shape
chalkboards are needed so that the writing may persons, provided that the table or other furniture instead of a rectangular shape, the minimum an-
be raised to a level where it can be seen by on the platform does not block the chalkboard gle between line of sight and the blackboard
all. A sloping floor in a lecture room will generally for those in the front rows . [A possible plan is should be at least 30 degrees and preferably
add somewhat to the cost of construction, but shown in Fig. 5.1 more than 45 degrees. These limitations of view-
in many instances it will be worth the extra cost Studies of distances and angles for satisfactory ing distance and angle impose restrictions on the
in providing good visibility for all . The object of viewing indicate that seats should be placed at placement of seats for adequate viewing .
a sloping floor is to make it easier for a person a distance from a screen not less than twice nor

Fig. 5 Three auditoriums with common preparation room .

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Gymnasiums

GYMNASIUMS access to all areas from both the men's and ings are scheduled. If the building is to be used
women's locker rooms. This type of planning for unscheduled participation of students, how-
Basic Considerations permits the flexibility necessary for efficient ever, the amount of use will vary inversely
The type and size of gymnasium facilities utilization and control . with the distance from housing and other cam-
needed for a given college or university will de- The space used for permanent seating of pus buildings .
pend upon many factors, one of the most im- spectators at athletic events should be kept
portant of which is the anticipated enrollment to a minimum unless space and funds present The Main Gymnasium
of the institution . A gymnasium planned to no problem to be considered . Roll-away or
folding bleachers should be used in order to The criteria for determining the size of the gym-
serve 2,000 students will, obviously, be con-
utilize efficiently the space available. Most col- nasium are : (1) the nature of the total physical
siderably smaller than, and different in design
leges and universities cannot afford to invest education program; (2) student load as deter-
and construction from, a facility planned for a
university of 10,000 or more students . In other large sums of money nor give large areas of mined by enrollment and attendance require-
space to permanent seating which is used only ments per week ; (3) spectator interest ; and (4)
words, planning must be done with future en-
rollment in mind, and as part of the master plan a few times each year. anticipated enrollment growth .
The health and safety of those using the The physical education building should in-
for the college or university . If a college or
university has a definite enrollment ceiling, the building should be a prime consideration in clude one main gymnasium to be used for
building may be planned for this enrollment . If planning of all activity areas. The disabled and general physical education classwork,
the enrollment ceiling is indefinite, however, the aging should also be considered . intra-muls, iantdercolg athcleiv s in
the structure should be planned so that addi- The construction of the types of facilities basketball and wrestling . Ideally, the size of
tions to the building are feasible . Most univer- and the allocation of adequate square footage the main-gymnasium floor for an enrollment of
sities or colleges should plan for and build for to handle a broad athletic and intramural pro- 4,000 students would be approximately 140 by
gram will provide more than enough gross 140 it . (Use a rectangular dimension if the
expansion. Gymnasium space is usually
planned to take care of enrollments for at least space for a two-year physical education re- facility will be heavily used for spectator
quirement for all students . sports .) This size would provide for one official
ten years in advance. Universities of 15,000 or
The traffic patterns for a building should be and three junior-size (35 by 84 ft) basketball
more students may find it desirable to build
carefully studied . Lockers, showers, and courts, with adequate space between the courts
more than one gymnasium structure, each ser-
vicing an area of the campus . toweling rooms should be centrally located in and between the courts and walls. If desirable,
Another factor that will affect the type of the building so that they may serve all activity folding partitions can be used to provide three
areas. Easy access should be provided from the practice gymnasiums, each 48 by 140 ft . For
building constructed is the philosophy of the
locker rooms to the playing fields adjacent to the basketball courts, backboards that swing
administration concerning athletics and phys-
ical education. Many questions need to be the building . up to the ceiling are needed, since nonfolding
answered before planning begins . Some of Storage rooms for equipment and supplies backboards would interfere with the court us-
these questions are: should be carefully planned and functionally age for volleyball and badminton . In order to
- Will all students be required to take phys- located . These rooms should be of three types : increase the number of other instructional
ical education for one, two, three, or four - Central receiving storage room, to which units, electrically controlled wooden partitions
years? all equipment and supplies are delivered . The or nets (nylon or Fiberglas) should be installed.
warehouse storage room should be accessible If the gymnasium is to be used for intercol-
Is the required program in physical educa-
by truck. legiate athletics, seating must be provided for
tion to be broad in scope; i .e ., will a greet many
opportunities to develop sports skills be ex- " Utility storage rooms located adjacent to spectators (3 sq ft per person). Portable folding
tended to students? gymnasiums so that bulky equipment may be bleachers which can be easily moved are rec-
moved to the floor and back to storage with ommended for seating . Portable knock-down
" Is teacher education in physical educa-
tion to be part of the program? limited difficulty . Overhead doors or double bleachers are not recommended because they
" What responsibility does the college or doors should be large enough to permit free interfere with classwork while they are being
university take for the physical education, rec- movement of heavy equipment. erected, used, and removed. Cost is also an
reation, and fitness of its faculty? " Supply rooms with an attendant's window important factor .
" Is it anticipated that research in physical opening to the locker rooms . The number of seats to be provided will be
education, health, and recreation may become Off-season storage rooms are critically determined by the size of the student body, the
an important aspect of the program? needed . The type of equipment to be moved and college community, and the degree to which
" What is the scope of the varsity athletic stored will define the dimensions of the room there is public demand for admittance . The
and size of the doors needed . Reserve storage seating capacity should be set at a minimum of
program? (The facility requirements are con-
should also be provided . one-half to two-thirds of the student-faculty
siderably different if varsity teams are to be
population . In larger institutions, it may be
fielded only in the major sports .)
necessary to install roll-away bleacher seats in
" What will be done to provide facilities for Location of the Gymnasium the balcony, which, when combined with the
an expanded program of intramurals and extra-
If physical education and athletic facilities are bleachers on the main floor, will provide the re-
murals?
used by all of the students at a college or quired number of seats.
university, the gymnasium facility should be The varsity basketball court should be laid
Principles of Gymnasium and Construction centrally located in order to be easily reached out lengthwise in the center of the gymnasium.
Indoor facilities for sports end athletics should from both the academic buildings and student If the dimensions of 114 by 145 ft are provided,
housing. Physical education facilities, to serve 25 ft is left on either side for bleachers. A mini-
be planned so that all activity areas will be
as teaching stations, must be close enough to mum of 5 ft should be left between the first ro-
available to both men and women. It is unwise
academic buildings to make it possible for of seats and the outside boundary line of the
to identify facilities as men's or women's
athletic areas. Good planning will permit easy students to move from the classroom into the court.
gymnasium and back within the time provided Where a permanent balcony is required, it is
between classes. necessary to plan the line of vision so that the
Planning Areas and Facilities for Health, Buildings used only for intramural and inter- sidelines of the varsity basketball court are
Physical Education, and Recreation, rev. 1966, collegiate activities may be located farther plainly visible to the spectators . In this case,
The Athletic Institute, Merchandise Mart, Chi- from classrooms and housing than a general- the folding bleachers on the floor should be
cago, III ., American Association for Health,
Physical Education, and Recreation, Washing- use gymnasium would be . This is especially planned to conform to the same line of vision .
ton, D.C . true if the activities promoted in these build- With the use of roll-away bleachers, added
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Gymnasiums

teaching stations can be provided in the bal- locked display cabinets, bulletin boards, and sponsibilities should be provided a private of-
cony area . directories. These units should be recessed and fice. Ideally, each of these offices should oc-
If the gymnasium is to be used for intercol- flush-mounted. Public telephones should be cupy a minimum of 120 sq ft and be equipped
legiate sports, the number of entrances and located in or adjacent to the lobby. Other ser- with necessary office furniture. A workroom
exits equipped with panic hardware should vice facilities needed, as defined by the pro- with space for a secretarial pool should receive
meet fire regulations and be ample in number gram, should be provided . Examples of these serious consideration.
to control spectator traffic. Spectators should needs are ticket booths, planters, and special
be routed in such a manner that they do not decorations. The lobby should be attractive and Classrooms The physical education complex
cross the playing courts or other activity areas of sufficient size to accommodate traffic needs. should include sufficient classroom space de-
in the gymnasium. Vestibules should be included for climate con- signed primarily for lectures, discussion, and
The height from the floor to the beams in the trol . demonstrations . The number, size, and types of
main gymnasium should be such that in normal The general administrative offices of the rooms will depend upon the anticipated enroll-
use of any of the courts, the balls or badminton building should be located near the lobby. Cor- ment and curricular offerings . Institutions of-
birds will not strike the lowest ceiling beam . ridors should lead from the lobby to locker fering teacher-training programs in health,
This height should be a minimum of 22 ft to ac- rooms and spectator areas. Probably the most physical education, recreation, and safety will
commodate the rope climb, basketball, volley- serviceable and attractive floor for the lobby have need for more specialized rooms than will
ball, and badminton. is terrazzo or a material of similar quality. The those concerned primarily with service and
Where intercollegiate basketball is played, walls should be constructed of durable mate- basic instruction courses and varsity athletics.
there should be adequate provision for sports- rial . The sizes of classrooms may well vary to ac-
writers . A press box is recommended if condi- A large checkroom for outer wraps should be commodate from 10 to 150 persons. The space
tions permit. The placing of tables adjacent to placed adjacent to the direct line of traffic, but per student may vary from approximately 20 sq
playing courts is not a good practice . Provision in an alcove or a side room in order to prevent ft per student in smaller rooms to 12 aq ft per
should be made for telephone and telegraph congestion . The location and arrangement of student in rooms for 100 or more persons.
connections, for reception and transmission the checkroom should serve the daily needs of Standard classrooms normally sent an average
lines for television, for timing and scoring de- the building as well as the needs of special oc- of 40 students . The smaller rooms lend them-
vices, and for the operation of a public-address casions. The room should have a long, low selves more readily to seminars, conferences
system, including stereophonic music . counter covered with brass or stainless steel, and informal discussions, while an assembly
When an area is designed for an activity end it should be possible to lock both the room room big enough to combine large groups for
which will require the use of a piano, phono- and counter opening when the facility is not in professional lectures, clinics, and demonstra-
graph, or tape recorder, a space should be pro- use. Racks permanently numbered for checking tions is essential.
vided for storing this equipment. It is prefer- coats and hats should be installed. Shelves Where class size warrants, a wall clock visi-
able to have a space recessed in the side-wall should also be provided for storing packages ble from all seats should be installed. Acous-
near the place where the instructor will stand to and bags . tical treatment, adequate lighting, and thermo-
lead the class. Electrical outlets which will pro- Toilet and washroom facilities for men and statically controlled mechanical ventilation
vide current at all times will be needed for such women should be located near the checkroom . should be considered for all classrooms. Each
equipment as amplifiers . A locking, sliding Adequate stairways or ramps should lead from classroom should be provided with chalk-
door should be installed for the protection of the main lobby to balconies or other spectator boards, tackboards, and hook strips . Electri-
the instruments as well as the students . All areas above the first floor. cal outlets for audiovisual equipment should be
instructional equipment should be on movable strategically located with due regard for the
carts. Offices The central administrative offices serve convenient placement of controls.
In addition to the niche described above for as the nerve center of the entire physical educa- Windows should be equipped with effective
the storage of the piano and phonograph, there tion plant. They should be located near the en- room-darkening devices which are easily oper-
should be a storage room adjacent to the main trance of the building, since all who have ated . A speakers' platform or podium is fre-
gymnasium of sufficient size to accommodate business with the department will first come quently desirable in rooms designed for larger
the storage of all types of equipment, such as to these offices. The office of the director and groups . Large assembly rooms might well be
roll-sway standards, mots and gymnastics ap- those of the various faculty members should be equipped with a projection booth. A rectangu-
paratus, and chairs . adjacent to a large central office which will lar room is more satisfactory for film projec-
Other audiovisual aids can include still and serve as the workroom for the secretarial and tion . Transmission and reception of television,
movie projectors, daylight-projection screens, clerical staff, as a repository for all depart- including closed-circuit programs, should be
television sets, a scoreboard, a clock, chalk- mental records, and as a reception center and considered when planning modern physical
boards, and an intercommunication system . waiting room for persons who have business education facilities .
Concrete is commonly used as a base in con- with the department . In locating room entrances, due regard
structing the floor of the main gymnasium . The work area of this central office should be should be given to traffic control. The rooms
Sleepers of 2 by 2 in . up to 2 by 10 in . are laid separated from the reception-waiting room themselves should be placed where they are
on edge . Maple tongue-end-groove is the most area by a counter. The reception-waiting room conveniently accessible yet removed from dis-
popular type of wood finish . should open into the main corridor of the build- turbing noise and distraction.
It is suggested that a glazed-tile wainscot be ing. A large closet should be provided adjacent In smaller classrooms, movable tablet or
carried up to a height of 7 or 8 ft . From that to the work. area for the storage of office sup- desk armchairs may tie used, or conference ta-
point to the ceiling, the concrete or cinder plies and records. The administrative head bles and straight chairs may be preferred .
block should be painted with a light-colored should have his office in or near the central Large lecture hells and assemblies should be
point. administrative suite. His office should be of equipped with numbered tablet or desk chairs
Experience has shown that, in general, natu- sufficient size to accommodate such things as secured to the floor and so arranged as to pro-
ral lighting methods have not proved satisfac- an executive desk, a number of chairs, a file vide visual efficiency. It is highly desirable that
tory . Mercury-vapor or fluorescent lights with cabinet, and a small work table. This will re- convenient recessed cabinets and closets be
diffusion panels have provided satisfactory il- quire approximately 200 sq ft . The central ad- provided for storing instructional materials
lumination . ministrative office unit should include a con- and personal effects .
There is some evidence that suspended ference .room . This room should be near the
tracks are no longer favored by physical educa- office of the administrative head of the depart- Auxiliary Gymnasiums
tion directors . However, if there is no balcony ment . It should be furnished with a truncated
in the main gymnasium, a track serves as space conference table large enough to seat the entire In addition to the large general gymnasium, or
for spectator seats and also for additional physical education faculty, if possible, or the gymnasiums, several other gymnasiums may
teaching stations . administrative staff in a larger university . be required for
If a track is constructed, it should be at least A small cloakroom and rest rooms should be
8 ft wide and 10 ft above the gymnasium floor. located near the conference room . The chairs
The surface should provide good traction, and for the conference room should be upholstered " Exercise therapy
the curves should be banked . in attractive colors of vinyl materials so they " Gymnastics
can be kept clean. The conference room should " Weight exercise
The Lobby The purpose of the lobby is to fur- be finished in light, attractive colors . It is de- " Wrestling and personal defense
nish an area for the control of admission and sirable to have a small, murphy-type kitchen " Street-shoe usage
distribution of traffic and the provision of in- for refreshments . " Dance studio
formation. It should contain well-lighted and Each member of the faculty with major re- " General games
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Gymnasiums

Exercise-Therapy Facilities Two separate areas equipment to be installed, by space needs for mirrors should be installed on the walls . Bar-
should be planned for this specialized program : performance in gymnastics, and by total school bell and weight racks should be attached to the
(1) an exercise-therapy room, which can be enrollment and interest in gymnastics . Ideally, walls so that the room may be kept tidy .
used as a clinic, designed for individual ame- the size of this gymnasium should be 120 by 90
liorative exercises, is the basic requirement ; ft, with a minimum ceiling height of 23 ft . This Wrestling and Personal-Defense ROOM This room is
and (2) a gymnasium for adapted activity is nec- height permits a clearance of 22 ft for the rope designed for wrestling, judo, and personal de-
essary for students assigned to this program . climb and is ideal for hanging the various me- fense activities . The ceiling should be of
The exercise-therapy room should be on the chanical systems used in gymnastics . Some acoustical material and should be a minimum
ground floor if possible, or accessible to an have found it desirable to install tracks on the height of 12 ft . It should be rectangular in
elevator . It should be well lighted, and the ceiling supports to make it possible to use trol- shape and should contain two square 40- by 40.
walls end floor attractively finished to lend a leys for moving equipment and for attaching ft mats . The floor area not covered by the regu-
cheerful atmosphere . The size of the room is safety belts used in the instruction of trampo- lation mats should be covered wall to wall with
determined by the number of students needing lining and tumbling . the same type of mat material . The room should
this special attention . Approximately 70 sq ft of The safety of performers and instructors be at least 40 by 80 ft . A satisfactory standard
floor space is required per student . To accom- should receive major consideration in planning is 40 sq ft per student during peak usage .
modate equipment, the minimum size of the the location and installation of apparatus, The floor of the wrestling room should be
room should be 1,600 sq ft . Office space should equipment, and wall fixtures . Apparatus used constructed of, or covered with, resilient mate-
be located within this area, and the office in performance should be located so that per- rials to prolong the life of the mats . These mate-
should be equipped with large glass windows formers do not interfere with each other when rials may be rubberlock products, other newly
for adequate supervision of the room . The room going through their routines . Flying rings developed resilient materials, or wood . Con-
should be well ventilated, with air conditioning should be located so that there is at least 1 5 ft crete is not recommended . The mats should be
provided where necessary . The dressing and of free space allowed at each end of the swing- of plastic-type materials and the walls should
toilet facilities should be close to the exercise . ing arc . All equipment should be installed ac- be covered with resilient materials up to 5 ft
therapy roam and should be adjusted to the cording to a plan that will permit, without inter- above the floor on all aides . Adequate lighting
needs of the handicapped . A sink or washbasin ference, a full range of movement, including the which is properly screened and forced ventila-
should be provided in this facility . Doors and approach. Mats should be laid completely tion are essential in this room .
windows to the room should be designed for around the area of performance on horizontal
privacy . A curtained area should be provided and parallel bare. Street-Shoe Usage ROOM This room should be of
for changes of equipment or appliances when Floor plates for attaching equipment should sufficient size-70 by 90 ft-to care for the
privacy in desired . be recessed and flush with the floor . It may be groups for which it is needed . A floor for street-
Permanent equipment installed in the exer- necessary to reinforce the floor to install floor shoe usage may be needed in any size college
cise-therapy room should include stall bars, plates adequately where tension is unusually or university, or in a program with a variety of
wall weights (pulley), press bar, weight racks, severe . Wall boards should be securely in- offerings . The floor most commonly used for
shoulder wheel, finger ladder, hanging bars, stalled to the wall when equipment is attached this purpose is hard maple, tongue-end-groove,
overhead ladder, push-up bars, wall charts and to it. Apparatus suspended from the ceiling conventional gymnasium flooring . Square
anatomical drawings, mirrors (single), mirrors should be securely attached to metal supports . dance, folk dance, social dance, physical educa-
(triple), and walking rails . The ceiling should be acoustically treated . tion for elementary teachers, marching and
Removable equipment should include : Lights should be shielded and adequate for the band practice, and similar activities can be con-
plinths (treatment tables) 26 by 72 by 30 1/2 in . ; program . Doors should be constructed wide ducted on such a floor . The demand of special
stall-bar benches ; incline boards 7 ft by 30 in . enough and without a threshold so as to accom- college and community events which need to be
b y 3 in . ; ankle exercisers ; a bicycle (station- modate the movement of equipment to other served, such as musical and drama production,
ery) ; weights (dumbbells) ; weights (barbells) ; areas . Maple has many advantages over other fairs, and carnivals, may be met . The "make-up"
exercise mate ; iron boots (single) ; iron boots types of flooring . The facility should be air- room or "warming room" for department and
(double) ; parallel bars (low) ; orthopedic stairs ; conditioned in accordance with standard spec- college outdoor programs can be housed in this
rowing-machine stools ; scales ; an Elgin table ifications . Wall construction should be of the area and can be served through a door leading
(or improvisation of quadriceps exercise ta- same materials as recommended for other gym- to a corridor and immediately to the out-of-
ble) ; wrist rollers ; neck-traction halters ; cush- nasiums . doors .
ions or pillows ; crutches ; a wheelchair ; dyna- A common failure in planning is to overlook This street-shoe room, when not scheduled
mometers (hand, spring cable) ; goniometers ; a the need for adequate and conveniently placed in some manner as indicated above, can serve
chalkboard ; end a skeleton . storage space for gymnastic equipment . If mul- the purposes of any regular gymnasium if so
The equipment in an adapted-activities gym- tiple use of this equipment is expected, trans- planned in its equipment and floor markings .
nasium should be the same as in a regular gym- portation carts and dollies should be provided . The floor will need some extra maintenance for
nasium, with necessary adaptations . This Specifications on size and installation of the the hard use it will receive, but the desirabil-
gymnasium should be in close proximity to the various pieces of apparatus and equipment may ity of the activities which may be scheduled on
exercise-therapy room so that a student can be obtained from the manufacturers . Ideally, it will justify the usage and resultant wear .
utilize both facilities . the gymnasium for gymnastics should be
equipped with the following types of items : Dance StudiOS Dance areas should be provided
Gymnastic Facilities With the recent nationwide side horses, horizontal bars, long horses, par- to serve the departmental and student needs
surge of interest in physical fitness, there has allel bars, bucks, trampolines, mats, rings, and and to afford opportunity for individual and de-
been a renewed support of instruction in gym- other special apparatus . partmental development . Some of these areas
nastics . Gymnastics make a unique contribu- A gymnastic landing pit, 10 ft wide, 20 ft are specific and may be limited to forms of
tion toward overcoming a lack of development long, and 30 in . deep, filled with sponge rub- dance activity . Other dance areas are versatile
of the upper body, which is often neglected in ber-for use with parallel bars, horizontal bars, and may serve several purposes. Large colleges
other sports . Gymnastics contribute to building still rings, and tumbling-is anew development and universities with a variety of courses may
strength, agility, flexibility, coordination, bal- in construction for gymnastics . need to plan for one or more of each of several
ance, and posture . They also contribute to the dance-activity rooms . Classes should be advan-
mental qualities of alertness, daring, and pre- Weight-Exercise Room This room should contain tageously scheduled for the purposes of floor
cision ; the character trait of self-discipline ; and a minimum of 2,500 sq ft of floor space . Such maintenance or equipment moving. The types
fun and enjoyment. These values, together with space will provide a weight-training area and of dance areas suggested are discussed in the
those of preventative and corrective action, space for the practice of official events in com- material which follows .
place gymnastics in a position of major impor- petitive weight lifting . It is recommended that
tance in physical education . the floor of this room be covered with a dura- Main Dance Studio This studio, which
In addition to the main gymnasium where ble, resilient material . A flooring of this type should measure no less than 56 by 56 ft, will
gymnastic meets, exhibitions, and other com- makes it unnecessary to use weight platforms, provide for a class of up to 36 students in mod-
petitions are held before a viewing public, a which are essential to protect a maple or other ern dance, ballet, or some other dance form
separate gymnasium should be provided for wood flooring . performed in bare feet or with soft-sole dance
the permanent installation and storage of ap- The weight-lifting area should be roped off shoes . The floor, which should be of conven-
paratus and equipment and for instruction in and should be approximately 15 by 15 ft for the tional gymnasium construction-tongue-and-
gymnastics . The dimensions of this gymnasium practice of official lifts . The rest of the room groove, select maple-should be free of floor
should be determined by space requirements may be used for exercise with barbells, dumb- plates, plugs, and other installations . The
needed to accommodate the apparatus and bells, isometric cables, etc . Several full-length ceiling height should be 22 ft to be proportional
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Gymnasiums

with the room and to give the feeling of height housed in a recessed, lockable cabinet . Other The back wall of s single court need not be
in leaps. lockable cabinets will provide needed storage higher than 12 ft . Shatterproof glass may be
The room should have wall mirrors along one space for dance practice materials . Ballet bars used to enclose the remainder of the back well .
well-24 ft in length, 6 ft high, and with the and mirrors will add to the usefulness of such The use of wire mesh for this purpose is of
bottom being 2 ft from the floor. The mirrors a room . questionable value. Many courts are satis-
should have a draw drapery controlled by cord factorily used with an open upper rear wall .
pulls. Ballet bars (hand rails) should be in- Dance Property Construction and Storage Handball courts may be constructed of hard
stalled on two opposite sides of the room at Room Flats, levels, and other properties can plaster, concrete, shatterproof glass, or a non-
ascending heights of 3, 3'/2, and 4 ft above the be made and stored in a room of approximately splintering, durable wood . While plaster is
floor. 25 by 30 ft . This room should be located adja- sometimes recommended, it would be wise to
Audiovisual equipment should include a cent to the main dance studio and should have consider courts constructed of other materials
tackboard, a chalkboard, a hook rail, and a wide double doors with a removable mullion so because of maintenance costs. Glass courts
lockable glass-front bulletin board. An amplifi- sets and properties can be moved in and out. provide maximum spectator participation, but
cation system-for a record player and tape re- The room should have a high ceiling to allow the initial cost may be prohibitive . Hardwood
corder-on a roll-away table should be re- sets to be constructed and moved to a vertical construction is most satisfactory. Courts con-
cessed into a lockable cabinet with a sliding position or to the finished position for painting . structed with a high proportion of glass walls
door . Other cabinets should provide space for Drawers and cabinets, some lockable, a sink obviously allow for a large number of ob-
musical instruments, records, music, cos- with hot and cold water, lumber racks, work servers . Open-balcony construction interferes
tumes, and other properties . Some dance counters and tables, and electrical outlets are with individual-court air conditioning .
studios may have a grand piano in the room . It essential in the planned structure of the room . Front walls may be constructed of hard
may be desirable to have an area where a grand Tackboards, bulletin boards, and lockable, maple laid on diagonal wood sheathing. Stud-
piano or an upright piano can be stored when glass-front display bulletin boards are desir- ding should be placed close enough to prevent
removed from the floor. Storage cabinets for able . dead spots. A maximum of 16-in. centered
stage equipment, levels, and other items should studs is recommended. A costly but desirable
be provided since floor storage of materials Dance Costume Construction and Storage front-wall construction is to lay maple on edge
not actively used markedly diminishes the floor Room The size of this room will vary ac- grain.
space usable for dance activities . cording to the program needs for costume Side and back walls may be of nonsplin-
construction and the storage needs for cos- tering, durable wood such as yellow pine or
Main-Dance-Studio Balcony Current plans tumes made and retained in the department . hard maple. Some side end back walls con-
of some major institutions may be considered The room will probably be best used by having structed with 1-in . tongue-and-groove marine
desirable in the provision for a hanging balcony cabinets in close-order banks, somewhat as plywood have been satisfactory and economi-
or a balcony over other class or service areas. bookcases are placed in the stacks in a library. cal . Hardwood floors of standard gymnasium
This balcony can provide 100 or more seats for This will free one and of the room for clothing construction are recommended . Plaster
viewing activity on the floor of the main dance construction . Costume-storage cabinets should ceilings have proved satisfactory . All in-
studio or in the auxiliary dance studio, which have racks for hanging and bins and drawers terior surfaces should be painted with eggshell-
can be used as a stage area for the main dance for storage . Units can be planned so as to be white enamel .
studio . Access to the balcony may be gained comprised of several components, which may Entrance doors should open toward the
from the dance-studio floor through a lockable be used as desired for separate assignment to corridor and be provided with flush-type pulls
control door or from the second-floor service clubs, groups, or projects . and hinges . A small shatterproof window
hallway. The balcony will provide opportunity Cabinets for material and equipment storage, installed flush with the interior surface of the
for practice-performance viewing from the wall-attached ironing boards, an automatic door should be located at approximately ever-
balcony level by the members of a dance group washer-drier, a three-way mirror unit, a age-adult-male eye level.
or will make it possible to seat visitors for an washroom basin, a large cutting table of 4 No fixtures, such as heat pipes, ventilating
invitation performance. by 8 ft, and a counter sink are additional ducts, lights, or any other mechanical equip-
necessities . ment, should project into the playing area .
Auxiliary Dance Studio An auxiliary dance Ventilating ducts and lighting fixtures are best
studio of 56 by 40 ft with a ceiling of 22 ft can Game Room This is a multiple-purpose room, located flush with the ceiling surface. Lighting
be located adjacent to the main dance studio on and its use will determine its dimensions . It specifications are available for handball courts .
the side opposite from the balcony and can be should be large enough to accommodate at Provision for replacement of burnt-out light
separated by appropriate folding doors and least six table-tennis tables . A ceiling height bulbs from above is a desirable feature.
draperies. This studio can serve as a stage for of 12 ft is adequate . The room should be A single light switch to control all lights in
small concert productions or class projects . equipped with a public-address system and each court should be placed on the corridor
Several institutions have successfully con- record player for instructional and recreational side and near the entrance door . Warning
structed such a facility . Traveling draperies activities, including social and square dancing . lights, located outside each court, should
suspended from the ceiling can be run on This room should be accessible from the lobby indicate when a court is being used. By use of a
tracks and can be controlled electrically to or from a building corridor . It should have sturdy push button, lights can be turned on
serve as the traditional "flats" used in staging some kitchen facilities and a herd-usage type when an entrance door is closed .
and in making up a backdrop behind which floor. The disabled should be considered in Refrigerated air conditioning, or at least
dancers can cross over . When not used, the the planning . forced ventilation, is essential for individual
draperies can be withdrawn from the staging courts . The ventilation switch can operate in
area and can be stacked along one wall . Stage conjunction with the light switch . Climatic
Special Instructional end Activity Areas conditions may dictate separate switches .
lighting can be developed to give illumination
from the ceiling, from the stage side of the di- Handball Courts Handball is a vigorous com-
vider, from "projecting" semi-cones in the ceil- petitive sport long recognized as an essential Squash Courts Squash is very popular in some
ing of the main dance studio, and from "spots" activity for a college physical education pro- localities and should be provided for in the
in the balcony. gram . Depending on the size of the institution physical education program. It is recom-
This dance studio will need to include those and the expressed interest in handball, one mended that at least one single and one double
features desirable for the program needs as are or more batteries of four-wall handball courts squash court be included in a physical educa-
included in the main dance studio : ballet bars, should be provided . The official size of a hand- tion complex . A singles court in 18 ft-6 in .
mirror, cabinets for classroom materials, and ball court is 20 ft wide by 40 ft long by 20 ft wide by 32 ft long by 16 ft high . A doubles
e roll-away table with record player and tape high . Specifications for handball courts can be court is 25 ft wide by 45 ft long by 20 ft high .
recorder . In addition, there may be a need for found in the official handball rule book . The number of courts should be determined
piano and equipment storage rooms. When more than a single battery of courts by the interest in this activity in a given com-
is to be constructed, the batteries should be munity .
Dance Rehearsal Room One or more dance arranged so the back walls of each battery are It is possible to install movable metal "tell-
rehearsal rooms of a minimum of 400 sq ft each separated by a corridor approximately 10 ft tales" across the front of handball courts so
will contribute to the development of students wide and 8 ft high . A corridor located im- they can be used for squash . Construction
in dance who need small-group practices and mediately above, and at least 12 ft high, may features of squash courts are similar to those
extra rehearsals . A chalkboard, tackboard, and serve an instructor or be used as a spectator of four-wall handball courts relative to floors,
rolling table for tape recorder player should be gallery . Corridors and galleries should be walls, ceilings, lighting, heating, end ventila-
provided in such rooms. The table should be illuminated with indirect light. tion .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Gymnasiums; Physical Education and Sports Facilities

The official rules of the United States Squash room of 300 sq ft be used for a statistical modestly equipped workroom or in a part of
Racquets Association and the National Squash laboratory . some other area already provided . Other
Tennis Association should be consulted in faculties will wish to plan to repair archery-
planning and constructing squash courts . Steam Room Some college gymnasium facili- target stands, covers, field carts, and other
ties include : steam-bath installation . This may larger pieces which require the use of tools
Rowing-Practice Facilities In certain colleges and be desirable if supervision is present when and space. This plan to service and repair
universities, it may be desirable to construct the steam room is in use . Unsupervised steam large pieces, then, will require space for the
facilities for indoor crew practice. Colleges baths or sweat boxes are not recommended . equipment to be repaired end tools with which
engaging in competitive rowing will require If a steam room is constructed, a satisfactory to perform the needed repairs .
either fixed rowing machines with accompa- size is 8 it square, with a ceiling 10 ft high. A well-equipped workroom will contain such
nying mirrors to reflect the action of the A lockable door containing a window should constructional and built-in features as cabinets,
rowers, or a rowing-practice tank . The rowing open outward . The room should be equipped a sink, wood and lumber storage racks,
machines may be installed in a special activity with two or three movable benches of sturdy shelves, a blower discharge fen, a work shelf,
room . If there is space . underneath the spec- wood construction . The steam valve used and drawers . Many, or most, of the storage
tator area in the main gymnasium, they may be should be a type that can be set to prevent areas should be locked individually or as a
installed there . In every case, the area should the temperature in the room from exceeding group with a master key system .
be well lighted and ventilated . 130 ° .
The rowing tank, when used, should simu-
late the conditions to be found in open-water Group Study Rooms If the gymnasium is to serve
rowing . The water should be mechanically the needs of students enrolled in a major pro-
circulated in such a manner as to make pos- fessional program, the inclusion of small-group
sible the actual introduction of the oar into study rooms is recommended . Study rooms
the water end the completion of the stroke . should occupy approximately 150 sq ft end
The crew should be seated on a rigid platform should be equipped with a large table and PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND
which spans the pool et actual shell height . sufficient chairs to accommodate a maximum SPORTS FACILITIES
All the specifications for indoor rowing of eight students . These rooms may serve a
equipment may be obtained from the manu- variety of educational needs in addition to
facturers, and the details of the construction of small-group on-campus study . The following standards are recommended for
a rowing tank are available through the office consideration by those involved in planning
of the Intercollegiate Rowing Association . "In-Uniform" Study-Hour Rooms In gymnasium college and university facilities for physical
buildings, there is a need for rooms where education, intramural sports, intercollegiate
Indoor Archery Range An indoor archery range men end women students who have one free athletics, and recreation .
is much needed in modern college gymna- hour between two activity classes may go in
siums . The popularity of the Chicago Round uniform to read or study .
has made indoor ranges feasible because of the The use of this room will conserve student
decreased shooting distances, requiring lose Type A- Indoor Teaching Stations
time, encourage their reading or studying
space than formerly required for the American habits, and will clear the dressing rooms . " Space requirements : 8 .5 to 9 .5 sq ft per
and York Rounds . A satisfactory indoor range Rooms for in-uniform study should be separate student (total undergraduate enrollment)
should be 45 ft in width and 78 ft in length . for man and women and should be located near " Including : Gym floors, mat areas, swim-
This will provide space for 15 shooters on the the appropriate dressing rooms. ming pools, courts, etc . (adjacent to lockers
line at the same time, each facing a separate and showers and within 10-min walking dis-
target . The length suggested will provide a Workroom Each physical education department tance of academic classrooms)
distance of 60 ft for the Chicago Round, two may wish to concentrate several work or repair - Uses : Physical education class instruction,
feet for backstop material, and 16 ft behind functions in one or more areas according to varsity sports, intramural sports, unorganized
the shooting line for instructors, observers, the program and equipment and dependent informal sports participation, student and
and those preparing to shoot . upon the secretarial and office needs . Two faculty recreation, etc .
Backstops may be constructed of baled types of areas are described below . In some Breakdown of Type A Space
straw treated with fire-resistant materials, colleges, it may be considered practical to Al -Large gymnasium areas with rela-
or may be purchased from archery equipment combine most of the functions of these two tively high ceilings (22-ft minimum) for
manufacturers . The targets may be fastened workrooms into one plan . basketball, badminton, gymnastics, apparatus,
to the backstop or placed on easels in front volleyball, etc . (approximately 55 percent of
of it . The floor in the archery room should Secretarial Workroom Secretaries, ma- type A space)
be constructed of hard-usage materials to chines, and typewriters are assigned to some A2-Activity areas with relatively low
permit street shoes to be worn . The room individual offices or to a group of offices, but ceilings (12-ft minimum) for combatives, thera-
should be well lighted . The target line should it may not be practical to have all individual peutic exercises, dancing, weight lifting, etc .
be illuminated by floodlights which shine only offices so staffed and equipped . Office sup- (approximately 30 percent of type A space)
on the target area . plies, typewriters, duplicating machines, end - A3-Swimming and diving pools (ap-
some other needed and desirable office ma- proximately 15 percent of type A space)
Research Laboratory College and university chines can be concentrated in one or more
health, physical education, and recreation department or college workrooms where
programs are becoming increasingly involved Type B-Outdoor Teaching Stations
services can be performed for faculty members
in research . Graduate studies and faculty re- who have limited or irregular need of secre- Space requirements : 70 to 90 sq ft per
search cannot thrive unless apace is allocated tarial help . In such a room, a workroom student (total undergraduate enrollment)
for this work in the gymnasium building where manager can receive assignments, distribute - Including : Sports fields of all types (adja-
exercise and sports areas are convenient. and allocate this work, receive it from the cent to lockers and showers end within 10-min
Research in physical education may be of workers, and return it to the appropriate walking distance of academic classrooms)
many different types . Some colleges and faculty members . - Uses : Physical education class instruction,
universities emphasize one or more areas . The room should have area enough to ac- varsity sports, intramural sports participation,
The research taking place in physical education commodate desks, tables, and cabinets, which student and faculty recreation, etc.
programs is in the following categories : kine- must be planned according to the anticipated Breakdown of Type B Space
siologic, tests and measurements, organic demands . Acoustical treatment and a generous . B1 -Sodded areas for soccer, touch foot-
(metabolic, cardiovascular, and chemical supply of electrical outlets are essential to ball, softball, etc . (approximately 60 percent
analysis), and statistical . the orderly functioning of such a service area . of Type "B" space)
A laboratory providing opportunities in the A wall-installed washbasin and a hand-towel . B2-Court-type areas for tennis, volley-
kinds of research mentioned requires a mini- cabinet are important to the economy of time ball, flicker ball, etc . (approximately 15 percent
mum of 2,800 sq ft of space for the basic in the work area . of Type "B" space)
equipment needed . The maximum space needs -B3-Specialized athletic areas for track
will depend upon the number of faculty and Repair and Service Workroom The need and field, baseball, archery, varsity football,
students involved and the complexity of the for repair and service of equipment will dictate golf, camping demonstrations, etc . (approx-
research program . Research laboratory space the size of the repair end service workroom . imately 25 percent of Type "B" space)
may be provided in one large room or in several Some departments will perform only minor - B4-Swimming pools (included in B3 ap-
smaller rooms . It is suggested that a separate repairs which can be accomplished in a small, proximation)
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Field House

Type C -Sports Fields and Buildings ; 100,000 sq ft of activity space. In other words, a great deal in early computations of cost
Intramural and General Outdoor Recreation Areas the square footage in the swimming-pool sur- estimates end are also helpful in checking
face and deck, and all gymnasium floors, in- preliminary drawings to determine whether or
" Space requirements : 120 to 140 sq ft per cluding high and low ceiling areas, equals not enough space has been provided in dif-
student (total undergraduate enrollment) 100,000 sq ft . This would mean that the square ferent categories to meet the program needs
" Including : Playing fields and athletic footage needed for ancillary areas would be in of the student enrollment for which the facili-
buildings of all types; softball diamonds, tennis the neighborhood of 40,000 sq ft . Architects ties are planned .
courts, arenas, field houses, etc. (too far re- generally speak of the combination of play
moved from general student lockers, showers, space and ancillary areas in a gymnasium as
living quarters, and academic buildings for "net usable area ." Consequently, the net
use as teaching stations) (maximum distance area in the building would be approximately
from major residence areas-1 mi) 140,000 sq ft .
" Uses : Intramural sports, varsity sports, All other space in a building, including hall-
unorganized informal sports ways, stairways, wall thicknesses, lobbies,
Breakdown of Type C Space public toilets, bleachers for public use, cus- FIELD HOUSE
" C1 -Sodded areas for soccer, touch foot- todial . space, and space needed for service
ball, softball, etc. (approximately 40 percent of Function
conduits of all types, is spoken of by many
type C space) architects as "tare." The space needed for The field house provides enclosed end un-
" C2-Court-type areas for tennis, volleyball, tare varies greatly from building to building, obstructed space adaptable to indoor and
flicker bell, etc. (approximately 10 percent of depending upon the function and architectural outdoor sports activities . It is not intended
type C space) design . A rough estimate of the area needed as a substitute for the gymnasium; it is com-
" C3-Specialized athletic areas for track for this item is a figure equal to 80 percent plementary and supplementary to other facili-
end field, baseball, archery, varsity football, of the activity or play area in a gymnasium . ties for indoor end outdoor physical education
golf, camping demonstrations, etc. (approx- By adding tare, ancillary, and play space, a and recreation activities . The enclosure may
imately 45 percent of type C space) rough estimate of the gross square footage of also serve purposes other than physical educa-
" C4-Swimming pools (included in C3 a gymnasium plan can be computed . This tion and recreation .
approximation) figure is helpful in preliminary discussions of Typical functions of the field house for a
" C5-Sports and intramural buildings pro- costs involved . college are as follows: instruction in the
viding lockers, showers, play space, office service program in physical education; practice
space, lounge rooms, etc. (approximately 5 for intercollegiate athletics (football, track
percent of type C space) Enrollment Relationships and field, baseball, basketball, tennis, soccer,
When standards in terms of square feet per lacrosse, and other sports) ; intramural and
Type O-Informal Recreation Areas student are used as guides in college or uni- intercollegiate competition ; informal play ;
versity planning, it is natural to ask where horseback riding ; demonstrations and exhi-
" Space requirements : included in C3 the cut-off begins . At what point, from 10 bitions which attract large crowds of spec-
" Including : On-campus picnic areas (maxi- students up, do the standards become mean- tators ; commencement exercises ; registration ;
mum distance from residence areas-1 1/2 miles) ingful? Obviously, for a college of 200 students, and final examinations . In addition, community
(approximately 15 percent of total type C 9 sq ft per student of indoor area for sports uses may include interscholastic games,
space) and athletics would be woefully inadequate . matches, meets and tournaments ; bend con-
" Uses : Picnics, outing activities (including It would not even provide one basketball court . certs; school commencement exercises ; ex-
outdoor cookery, evening songfests, story- A university or college meeting the space hibits ; and mass meetings .
telling, etc.) standards for 1,500 students represents the The total physical education program, in-
minimum physical-recreation space needs of cluding co-physical education and co-recrea-
Type E-Off-Campus Outdoor Education, any collegiate institution . As a college or tion, should be considered when plans are
Camping, and Recreation Areas university increases in size, these standards developed, so that facilities for activities such
are applicable regardless of enrollment . as tennis, volleyball, badminton, and golf
" Including : Outdoor camping and outdoor practice may be provided . Unless provided in
education center, off-campus golf course, the gymnasium, handball and squash courts
university country club, etc. (maximum dis- Peak Load After School Hours should be constructed in the field house. A
tance from heart of the campus-25 mi). Through study of utilization problems at the survey of available facilities for activities com-
" Uses : Overnight camping, picnics, outing various universities, it was found that the mon to modern physical education programs
activities, camping demonstrations, golf, greatest load on facilities each day occurred will serve to determine the number and kind
archery, boating, canoeing, outdoor swimming, between 4 P.M . and 10 P.M . In all the univer- of activity units to include in the field house.
formal classes taught outdoors . sities studied, either one or two years of
" Estimate of space needs of this type area : physical education was required of all students . Location
It is difficult to state these needs on a square- As long as the requirement in basic physical
feet-per-student basis . Such areas contribute education is not greater than 2 years, it seems If needed for class instruction, the preferable
materially to the outdoor education and out- that the greatest demand for space comes after location for the field house is adjacent to the
door recreation of both men and women stu- the usual school hours. This may not be true main gymnasium building and the natatorium .
dents, but the many variables in climate, in in universities which require all students to If space is not available in proximity to the
topography, in distance from the heart of the register for physical education each year they gymnasium, the field house will serve well for
campus, and in emphasis on outdoor education are in residence. intramural activities and intercollegiate sports,
make a aquare-feet-per-student standard dif- A few universities have dropped required even though it is constructed in a peripheral
ficult to establish . physical education in the belief that this will area of the campus . It should, however, be
" It has been estimated by intramural leaders reduce the pressures on facilities for sports placed in an area contiguous to athletic fields
that graduate students participate in physical and athletics. The futility of this move is ob- and where parking problems are not critical .
recreation 25 percent as extensively as under- vious. In fact, the elimination of a physical
graduates. Consequently, it is suggested that education requirement may increase the de- SIZE
planners add 25 percent of the graduate enroll- mands for this type of space, since all students
ment in using the standard . will then tend to use after-school hours to The size of the field house should be deter-
meet their physical-activity needs. This concen- mined by careful study of its functions; con-
tration of student activity will likely make it sideration should be given to the size and num-
Ancillary Areas ber of groups (classes, squads, teams) likely
necessary to provide greater play end exercise
Investigation indicates that a reasonable stan- space than needed for a balanced program of to participate simultaneously in the program.
dard for determining the space needed for basic instruction, free-play opportunities, and There should be a minimum of interference of
lockers, showers, toweling rooms, equipment intramural sports competition. groups with each other. The area surrounded
storage, supply rooms, and offices associated by a %r-mi track can include the following
with type A space is a square footage equaling facilities : a regulation basketball court; a ten-
Application of Standards nis court on each side of the basketball court;
approximately 40 percent of the play or activity
area in a gymnasium facility . As an example of Standards are guides for the use of planning broad-jump, high-jump, and pole-vault runways
how this figure may be used, assume that a committees and administrators . They are not and pits ; and a shot-put area .
gymnasium is being planned which will provide substitutes for creative planning . They help The minimum length of the field house
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Field House ; Dormitories

should accommodate a 60-yd straightaway for should be given to the erection of a small Lighting, Heating, and Ventilation
men's track plus sufficient distance for building or a basement, simple in design, with
starting and stopping . A wide door at the end dressing, shower, and toilet facilities, rather Windows should be equipped with means to
of the straightaway to permit competitors to prevent the interference of sunlight with player
than using space for such purposes which
run outside the field house would prevent might be utilized more advantageously for performance at any time during the day. Walls
injuries and eliminate a mental hazard where and ceilings should be light in color. Catwalks
activity units .
space is limited . Six regulation lanes are Convenient and accessible dressing units are necessary for servicing the ceiling lights,
desirable . The track around the portable or equipped with chalk and tack boards for the spotlights, and net.
permanent basketball floor should be of such home and visiting teams should be provided . Condensation problems should be given ma-
size as to be a convenient fraction of a longer When the field house is to be used for inter- jor consideration, particularly where there are
standard distance . scholastic basketball tournaments and indoor extremes of temperature, where sprinkling of
track meets, consideration should be given to surface or dirt areas is required, and where
providing separate locker rooms with ad- large crowds witness events in the field house.
Balconies and Bleachers As a means whereby some of the excess con-
joining shower and toilet facilities . These units
When permanent balconies are planned, they could be used regularly throughout the year densation may be reabsorbed, the building
should be constructed without supporting by intramural participants and intercollegiate should be heated by the circulation of warm
pillars which would interfere in any way with squads . air in addition to fixed radiation . Adequate
the playing or visual area . Balconies should be It is desirable to provide passageways from means should be provided to supply fresh air
served by ramps which connect directly, or by dressing rooms directly to the basketball floor and to exhaust foul air. The walls inside and
means of wide corridors, with convenient to avoid crowd interference . outside should be impervious to vapor pres-
entrances and exits. Temporary bleachers, A dressing room with adjoining shower and sure . Technical heating, ventilating, and
when placed in front of and below the per- toilet facilities should be provided for staff lighting problems should be referred to a
manent balconies, should continue the sight members. These accommodations can also be specialist .
lines of the balconies. Bleachers can be placed used by game officials .
inside a 1/H-mi track on both sides and ends of Separate toilet facilities in sufficient num- Floors
a basketball court to accommodate approx- ber for men and for women spectators should
imately 5,000 spectators . Such bleachers be provided in close proximity to the seating The floor of the field house should be of an
should be inspected thoroughly before they are areas. Toilets should be provided near traffic all-weather-resistant construction . Rubber
used ; their capacity should never be taxed . lanes . Where large crowds attend games, it is asphalt and several patented rubberlike syn-
The field house should be so designed that advisable to place supplementary toilet facili- thetics should be considered . A portable wood
normal flow of traffic will not encroach upon ties off the main lobby. floor for basketball may be used . Dirt floors
the activity areas. It is essential that this be are not recommended.
done in order to avoid interference with in-
First-Aid and Training Rooms
struction and participation and to decrease
maintenance costs. A room for first-aid treatment should be pro-
vided if the field-house program is planned
to attract spectators . This room may also serve
Press, Radio, and Scout Accommodations
the purpose of a training room for emergency
Accommodations for reporters, sports broad- treatment of participants, and the prevention of
casters, and scouts should be planned in the injuries .
original design . Soundproof broadcasting
DORMITORIES
and television booths should be provided for Lounge and Trophy Room
these services when the field house will be Area Requirements for Student Room Furniture
Provision for a lounge room may be advisable
used for attractions of considerable public
after consideration of such factors as available 1 . Furniture sizes and use spaces are the
interest.
space and funds, and the functions of such a average for existing furnishings.
room for clubs, members of athletic squads, 2 . Each furniture layout assumes the item(s)
Entrances letter men, officials and coaches, and visitors . placed along a wall .
An adjoining kitchenette is desirable .
Entrances to the field house should be located
with reference to parking facilities and traffic Use Space The use space of one item may over-
approaches . The main lobby should be large Storage Space lap the use space of another, but no use space
enough to accommodate anticipated crowds should overlap an adjacent item of furniture.
Sufficient storage space should be provided
seeking tickets and admission . This is partic-
to accommodate physical education and main-
ularly important in northern climates . The
lobby should be so designed for ticket selling tenance supplies and equipment . Supply
rooms, built so that supplies and equipment
and collecting that the traffic will flow in a
may be cared for within them and issued from
straight line, or nearly so, from the entrances
them, should be provided where they are
to the box offices to the ticket collectors . To
needed .
avoid congestion, approximately two-thirds
of the lobby should be planned for accom-
modating box offices and ticket purchasers ; Concession Booths
the remainder should be reserved for ticket
When the field house is planned to accom-
holders, who should have direct access to
modate large crowds, concession booths
admission gates.
should be constructed. They should be equipped
with electric or gas stoves, sinks, running
Drinking Fountains water, and sewer connections and should be
located where they do not interfere with the
Drinking fountains should be sufficient in num-
normal flow of traffic.
ber and so located that they do not interfere
with the circulation of the crowd.
Scoreboards and Timing Devices
Fig . 1
Service Units Scoreboards and timing devices should be of
sufficient number and be so placed that they
If the field house is adjacent to the main gym- can be seen readily by players and all spec-
nasium building and the natatorium, the re- tators . They should be easy to operate and designations An item of furniture automatically
quirements for lockers, showers, and toilets readily accessible for maintenance purposes . requires additional space around it to make its
can, in some instances, be reduced. An under- use possible . This space should be allowed for
pass from the gymnasium to the field house in the planning of the room .
Public-Address System
may be desirable in order to make the gym-
nasium service units available to some partici- Provision should be made for the installation
User Requirements, URBS Publication 5,
pants in the field house. If the field house is of a public-address system . Acoustical treat- University Residential Building System, Univer-
not adjacent to the gymnasium, consideration ment of the building is desirable . sity of California, Berkeley, Calif ., 1969 .
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the room . If it is desirable to move

the bed from one section to the other,
the two sections will be approximately
equal in size . If it is not desirable, the
interchangeability of other pieces of
furniture will control the dimensions
and size of each section of the room .
d. An offset room will increase the pos-
sibility of space divisibility . In a rectan-
gular room, the items must create the
space; in an offset room the walls di-
vide the space .

Student Rooms The student room is the smallest

element and the basic space in the housing fa-
cility . It is the core environment of the student
who spends many of his waking hours here
(undergraduate girls, 8 hr ; boys, 6 hr) . In this
space the student studies, sleeps, dresses, and
socializes . He stores all of his clothes, books,
and personal possessions here except for non-
seasonal clothing and larger-size sports equip-
ment . In a very real sense, it is here that his
identity within the university is established,
since it is the only space on campus which he
himself can control in any way .
1 . Study. Individual study is accomplished
within an amazing spectrum of activities . It
takes place while standing, walking, sitting,
lying, singing, whistling, eating, drinking -
alone or with another person . Few participate
in group studying .
People study at different rates . Some subject
themselves to long periods of monklike con-
centration ; others apply themselves for rela-
tively short periods interspersed with intervals
of social or recreational activity . The individual
prefers to study in his own room and, for in-
tense study, by himself . For this type of study,
the roommate must be elsewhere .
The desk apparently is used for reading only
in cases requiring extensive note-taking or use
of several reference sources . Otherwise, it is a
repository for study and personal equipment
including typewriters, calculators, drafting
equipment, radios, and phonographs . Yet it
does not have the height accommodations or
acoustical padding needed to use these mate-
rials quietly and effectively . Its length is inade-
Fig. 2 quate for any use-the 42 in . standard desk is
overtaxed with books and writing material [as
3 . Double rooms with bunked beds well as personal paraphernalia . The space re-
Planning Studies-Single and Double Rooms
a . Minimum recommended area-140 sq quirements for multiple references, collation of
ft materials, or large belongings create overflow
b . Optimum recommended area-160 sq onto the bed or floor . Consequently, work is
General
ft often done on the floor of the room, particu-
1 . Room dimensions must accommodate :
c . Generous recommended area-180 sq larly if it is carpeted, and on the bed .
a . Furniture sizes and design (wall
ft Sometimes an apparent student idiosyncrasy
mounted, freestanding)
4 . Double rooms without bunked beds has a real functional basis . Many students were
b . Furniture use spaces
a . Minimum recommended area-180 sq observed typing on the floor when an adequate
c . Combination of furniture items
ft table was available . The students then dernon-
2 . Room size (and shape) will affect two lev-
b . Optimum recommended area-220 sq strated the drumlike sound of the unmuffled
els of possible room change :
ft typewriter which conflicted with their room-
a . Adaptability of furniture arrangements
c . Generous recommended area-240 sq mate's sleeping . Students often used the cor-
b. Divisibility of spaces-physical or vi-
ft ridors and bathrooms as study spaces when
sual separation of activities
typing and study rooms were missing or occu-
pied and roommates were sleeping .
Bookshelves are generally inadequate in size
Room Areas
1 . Definition of terms used : Offset Single Rooms and length . Moreover, the shelves are usually
a . Minimum-access to furniture items ; 1 . Conclusions in places of difficult access and are poorly il-
overlap of items and use space ; some a . The area of the room with an offset luminated . There is a need for more shelves,
restriction in the use of furniture . may be comparable to a rectangular preferably adjustable and flexible as to place-
b . Optimum-no overlap of items and use room with little or no loss in the adapt- ment .
space ability of furniture . Built-in furnishings are resented because
c. Generous-beginning of space divisi- b . If dimensions of the room and furniture their rigidity impedes both individual living and
bility sizes share a common module, an off- study habits . Students are forced to supple-
set room may have a slightly greater ment the university furnishings with such
2 . Single Rooms
amount of furniture adaptability than a things as orange crates to create an individual
a . Minimum recommended area-90 sq ft
b . Optimum recommended area-110 sq rectangular room of equal area . study environment . The results may appear
ft c . In an offset room, the controlling ob- cluttered to some, but they accommodate the
ject is the bed in determining the pro- occupant . Clearly then, a book, pen, reading
c . Generous recommended area-120 sq
ft portional areas of the two sections of light, straight back chair, and a 42-in .-long desk
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B Bed
D Desk
D2 Desk 2'6" X 5'6"
W Wardrobe
SC Soft chair
BC Bookcase

Fig. 3 Examples of furniture layouts depicting some possible arrangements involved in the planning of the student
room .
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Fig. 3 (cont .) Examples of furniture layouts depicting some possible arrangements involved in the planning of the
student room .
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vide the slight slope for proper sitting ; some

adjustment therefore is necessary . Beds could
be made to resemble couches and have a mech-
anism allowing a shift from sloping for sitting
to level for sleeping position .
3 . Socializing . The student's room has al-
ways attracted social discourse . With more lib-
eral rules, the student's room becomes more of
a social center for both sexes . The student
room, however, with its split emphasis of
study-sleep, presents difficulties as a social
environment . The bed is the chief offender. The
bed as a bed conjures all sorts of social prob-
lems in intervisitation . A bed with cushions or
pillows tossed about is not acceptable because
of the difficulty of sitting upright comfortably .
Its conversion to a sofa, with its contributions
as a living room furnishing, is most desirable
not to mention its more comfortable use for
multiple seating .
Clothes and storage of personal posses-
sions are also a bedroom symbol . Closets look
like closets ; dressers look like dressers . Con-
temporary furniture designers, however, have
provided storage units for studio-apartment
(which arel quite acceptable as living room
pieces . Such pieces have yet to make their ap-
pearance in student rooms . It should be pos-
sible to have either intimate conversations or
sessions with a number of additional individ-
uals within one's own private room . The bed,
hard and soft chairs, and even a desk top may
be brought into use as sitting surfaces to ac-
commodate a congenial group . The space
should be such that furniture can be quickly ar-
ranged to make group conversation easy .
4 . Dressing . The concentration of clothes
storage in the student room not only precludes
its use as a social environment but also re-
stricts its use for dressing . One study discloses
that the normal 4-ft closet and five-drawer
dresser just satisfies the male student, and it
provides only half the female student's storage
requirements . Both sexes require differing vol-
umes and types of storage . Smaller combine-
tion-storage units might well accommodate
student preference and allow flexibility of room
arrangement .

Types of Spaces
1 . Single rooms . The single room provides
controlled privacy for its occupant with respect
to all other students . It may open directly to a
Fig. 4 Diagrammatic arrangements rectangular rooms, corridor and thus provide complete privacy
single rooms. coming and going, or it may be part of a suite or
apartment . Privacy for sleeping can be con-
constitute less than the optimum answer to the access is needed to expand the horizons of the trolled if adequate acoustic separation between
study problem . student room beyond imagination . adjacent spaces is provided .
The telephone is a most important tool to the 2 . Sleep . The student's pattern of activity is The single room should be arranged suitably
student . Its use is restricted only by the univer- rarely consistent ; he may sleep at any time of so that it is possible to study effectively with
sity's ability to provide an individual instrument the day or night . Two occupants of a roorn very an invited second person . In addition, the stu-
and the student's ability to pay thetoll . The tele- rarely follow the same schedule . Exams and dent should be able to play the radio, phono-
phone is finding increased use-both as a social activities modify their patterns even graph, tape recorder, or quiet instruments and
study and a social aid . more extensively . It is the varying patterns that to indulge in reasonable recreational activity
The tremendous and continuing advances of present conflicts in multiple-occupancy rooms . without creating an acoustical problem for his
the electronics industry are only beginning to Interesting improvisations-hanging blankets, neighbors .
be noted in the educational sector . Although relocated wardrobes and beds, and stacked One authority believes the single room is
the student of today is required to attend uni- dressers--were observed in situations where "unlikely to be really humanely satisfactory if
lateral communication lectures in large halls, one student wished to study while the other it is less than 120 square feet . The furniture
the student of tomorrow may view the lecture slept . Perhaps beds with suitable acoustical should be movable, not fixed, to allow the stu-
on TV in his room, coming out for seminars or light-separation screens could be one answer ; dent to organize his own environment ."
laboratory sessions . Future student housing single-occupancy rooms would be better . 2 . Split double rooms . The split double
must accommodate this . Present provisions for sleeping range from room provides the social contact obtained by
The students of all campuses could simul- the studio bed in single rooms to bunkable two students sharing a common space but, at
taneously be able to receive the lecture of one beds in multi-occupancy rooms . Beds acquired the same time, recognizes and solves the prob-
outstanding professor or professional team . a decade ago are increasingly limiting to the lem of conflict of interest in the student's social
Much of this communication will be at the dis- succeeding generations of taller students . and study activities . The split double room con-
cretion of the student . It is but one indication Reading is more often done in the compara- sists of two spaces with a connecting opening .
of the growing importance of the student room tively relaxed attitude of the bed or easy chair . When connected with a door, there is a degree
as a study aid . Only the provision of conduit However, the bed is seldom designed to pro- of acoustic privacy . Without a door, the ar-
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Dormitories

in a traditional double room . Where the habits

of two students come into conflict, the second
smaller space can relieve the situation. For ex-
ample, the second room can provide for a late-
hour study station . This type of arrangement
will not necessarily suffice to provide the ap-
propriate separation between social and sleep-
ing habits, but it may do so if the smaller space
has sufficient room for an extra chair .
If two students must share space, the split
double represents an optimum arrangement,
because easy choice exists for privacy or socia-
bility .
Here again, the space with the two beds
should have the atmosphere of a sitting room
so that one is not consciously in a bedroom .
3. Double rooms. The double room is the
present standard in student housing, largely be-
cause of the tradition and economies it presum-
ably brings to initial construction costs. This
economy is deceptive, however. Since these
rooms irritate their inhabitants because of lack
of privacy and quiet and because of insufficient
study and storage space, it becomes necessary
to provide typing rooms, individual study car-
rels, and large public lounges (furniture show-
rooms) . These factors should be considered
when citing the economies of the standard
double-room residence hall .

Fig. 6

At present, the area of a double room varies

between 145 and 250 sq ft . Within these areas,
possibilities for alternative furniture layouts
and room shapes are particularly important .
Some room configurations make possible the
separation of the two students in their study
activities ; others situate the desks in parallel
arrangements for study. The use of movable
wardrobes to shield the beds from desks pro-
vides the degree of separation between activi-
ties within a room but reduces the apparent
size of the room . Wardrobes which are grouped
to provide dressing alcoves or to line corridors
remove valuable space from the room itself . If
double rooms are to be provided, there should
be sufficient area to convert them into split-
double, single, or other types of rooms in the
future . More than enough conventional double
facilities already exist on most campuses .
4. Triple room . This form has been popu-
lar with some students on a small number of
campuses . Where this arrangement has been
used with movable furniture, the extra area
provided in the single space has made possible
a large number of different space arrange-
ments. The resulting individuality of the layout
of the room would appear to be a major reason
for the popularity of such spaces, since some
Fig. 5 Diagrammatic arrangements rectangular rooms, students do seem to prefer a three-student to a
double rooms. two-student room . The triple room, however,
room with direct communication between tends to breed more serious interpersonal
rangement provides only visual privacy and
shielding from illumination sources. The pro- them . Then the spaces may be separated on an problems .
5 . Four-student room . Four students
vision of two spaces makes it possible for one activity basis, with the desks, study, and living
facilities in one space and sleeping and dress- sharing one room have the same problems as
student to sleep while the other studies or talks
with friends . ing facilities in the other. When one of the two the students sharing double- or triple-occu-
The best arrangement would permit the stu- spaces is large and the other small in size, the pancy rooms . There is a slight advantage in that
students live together much as they would with- the space is usually large enough to be subdi-
dents to treat each of the two spaces as a single
Educational

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Dormitories

vided by wardrobes, lightweight partitions, and

other elements .
Although few students would choose to live
in a single space with three other strangers,
four friends might choose to be together and
succeed at it if provided sufficient options for
the disposition of the space and for the appro-
priate screening of different activities .
Large numbers of students may share a
space, but more than four require that separate
adjacent spaces be provided for conflicting
activities . At this point, one must consider the
suite plan .
6 . Suites . A suite is an arrangement in
which four or more students share the total
space in single and double rooms, with or with-
out a bathroom, and at least one extra common
space . In this way, the group of students
working and living together have at least one
space under their own control which may be
used for any of the three major facets of room
life : sleep, study, or social activities . "The ma-
jor value of the suite plan is the opportunity it
affords for closer student association and the
freedom it gives students using the various
spaces as they wish ." The common space
within a suite (1) reduces some of the pres-
sures felt by two students trying to share a sin-
gle room ; (2) provides for social activities as
does a residential living room, and (3) includes
in social activities those students who might
not have direct or easy association with other
students .
The sharing of a fair amount of space by a
group of students makes possible a variety of
usage patterns and provides considerable flexi-
bility in room rearrangement so the space may
be organized in the best possible way .
Typical patterns are a common room also
used as a study room ; one room used only for
sleeping, with separate rooms for study and Fig . 7
social purposes ; and four single rooms or two
double rooms with a common living room . posed for this reason, especially in regard to common area when going between one's room
Suites composed of single rooms rather than freshman students who desire maximum op- and bathroom .
double rooms increase the potential for pri- portunities to meet fellow students . With eight or more students in double rooms,
vacy . However, if one desires a separate room Another problem in suites composed of four more than one common space in a suite is re-
for each student, additional square footage to seven students is the possibility that strong quired . At least one separate study as well as a
above that normally required for four students friendship patterns may have a detrimental in- social room should be provided to accom-
will be necessary . This space can be regained fluence on a student's academic life . The peer modate privacy for study and typing late at
through a reduction in the large lounge spaces group pressure to go out for coffee or a ham- night and the noisy social sessions that inevi-
on the ground floor . burger is quite strong on one out of six . Ries- tably occur within a suite . Obviously, single
Another way to obtain sufficient area for a man notes this "encapsulation ." One size of an rooms designed so that privacy may be main-
suite is to incorporate some corridor space in encapsulated group has been equated with the tained represent the most ideal solution .
the common room . Corridors may not be neces- six occupants of an automobile . Therefore, the If the suite is entered through a common
sary for a four-student suite ; therefore, this ap- organization of space into suites must be such space, this space is useful only for purposes
proach works best when perhaps eight or ten that the students in different suites may interre. where quiet and privacy are not essential . At-
students share a suite . A major problem in op- late . If, for example, three suites of six students tempts to provide a combined living-study
timum use of the common room of a suite con- share a larger living room so that a group of room in the suite are not successful because
cerns doors that do not provide sufficient eighteen have something in common, it is quite students soon revert to using their bedrooms
acoustical separation between the common unlikely that a small group desiring a coffee for study . The suite telephone must not inter-
room and the individual's room . In such a case, break could interrupt the study pattern of the fere with study activities .
spaces for study outside the suite become nec- other eleven . More likely, they will find only 7 . Apartments . An apartment differs from
essary . one or two others willing to go along . the suite in providing a kitchen . It may consist
Bathroom facilities pose one of the major The shared living room also provides a larger of single or double rooms built around common
questions in the design of suites : should these base for friends and tends to reduce stress . The spaces as in a suite, or it may have a number of
facilities be available just for the suite or for a value of grouping students into a suite where students in a sleeping room with the other
larger group of students? Although initially it is an ordered pattern of relationships may devel- spaces in common for social, dining, and study
less expensive to build gang facilities for larger op (first with a roommate or perhaps with two purposes .
groups, long-term economy can be obtained by or four additional students and then with a A consensus of opinion among students indi-
providing residential-scale bathrooms for larger number) provides some balance in the cates that three to five single students form an
suites wherein students, instead of maids, way outside attachments are formed . Such rela- optimum group for apartment living . This num-
clean the facility . The reduction in maintenance tionships are not well studied at this time and ber tends to work well in arranging cooking
requirements will more than amortize the in- the patterns of change in the future may be very chores for the week, with weekends left on an
creased first cost of smaller bath facilities, considerable . Therefore an approach to the use individual basis . With more than five students,
while also considerably improving the human of suites should leave open the maximum num- assignment of cooking chores becomes diffi-
quality of the housing environment for the stu- ber of options for future living patterns . cult . Indiana University and Michigan State
dent . Within the suite it is important to organize University have extremely popular facilities ac-
Suites must also be considered for the social the common spaces so that privacy is main- commodating four students .
impact resulting from them . Students devel- tained between the sleeping rooms and the Some students believe they get better food al
oping a strong social life around the activities bathroom . Problems occur where the common less cost if they do their own cooking and
of their suite may have less incentive to make room(s) in a suite may be open for coed activ- shopping . Therefore, the apartment requires
friends outside their circle . Objections might be ities and it is necessary to pass through the adequate food supply capacity to handle a
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Dormitories

week's supply of groceries . The apartment's

dining area must be of a size to permit the oc-
cupants to have dinner guests .
Experience indicates that most students
living in apartments tire of the responsibility of
cooking and cleaning . It would seem appropri-
ate to develop central food service to relieve
apartment groups of the cooking chores while
still retaining the benefits of apartment-type
living .
For example, Indiana University has two
living groups of 60 students having common
kitchen facilities with another residence hall
which provides the food service of the small
living unit . Trolleys containing food for 60 stu-
dents are wheeled from the central kitchen to
the serving kitchen within the living units . All
services and cleanup are then handled by the
living units at a very considerable savings in
cost . These two facilities are the most popular
ones on the entire campus .
Much of the attraction of the apartment is its
comparative freedom from behavioral control,
particularly in regard to coeducational activ-
ities . This does not mean complete relinquish-
ment of responsibility on the part of the univer-
sity but rather the more positive recognition of
the student's adult qualities .
Students living in apartments tend to develop
a very close relationship with those sharing the
space . It is a pattern perhaps more appropriate
for upper division and graduate students than
it is for lower division students . These students
have developed a range of acquaintances on a
campus and now are interested in cultivating
specific friendships . Apartments, like suites,
can be grouped to provide activities through
combined use of spaces for recreation, study,
and social affairs so that a wide range of friend-
ship is possible .
Since the key difference between the suite
Fig . 8 Suite organization 1 .
and the apartment is the kitchen, provision
should be included in suites for a plug-in kitch-
enette so that conversion from suite to apart- the furniture he needs, (2) space for the use and ity. radiation, and the quality of air produced by
service of this furniture (make beds or open filtration .
ment may be accomplished quickly . This will
enhance flexibility of use during the summer drawers), and (3) possibility of a variety of fur- The thermal system in student housing al-
sessions for conferences involving families or niture layouts . lows for individual requirements and the wide
for foreign students . range of conditions which personal preference
Environment may demand. In a mixed community of smokers
1 . Thermal . Student rooms require an ap- and nonsmokers, it is important that the air be
Space Allocation
1 . Dimensions of student rooms . Rooms of propriate thermal environment for the func- kept moving and clean, particularly in student
minimum size cause many complaints from stu- tions carried on within them . The environment rooms, interior spaces, lounges, and study ar-
dents ; this was reflected in both the URBS is affected by temperature, ventilation, humid- eas . Because of variations in student hygiene,
and another recent study . The situation has
changed a great deal in the past 25 years . Stern
Hall at Berkeley was built in 1940 and allowed TABLE 1 Recommended Space Standards per Student from a Group of Recent Studies
480 gross sq ft per student with 250 sq ft in the
student room . Present rooms of 85-95 sq ft per ASP OGSF b
student create serious problems of constric-
University Single Double No dining With dining
tion .
Built-in furnishings compound this problem 100 239 265
University of California'' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
by preventing an expressive control by stu-
California State Colleg8S d . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-110 .5 84-91 215 .5 230 .5
dents of the layout of their rooms . Movable
University of Guelph'. . . . . . . . . . . 115 NR 230
furniture, in most instances, would not alleviate
University of Pennsylvania I . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 NR 271 .5 290
the problem because the small room size dic-
470 486
tates only one possible arrangement . The need M .I .T .9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
for expression is so important to the student Aggregate United States h
that he sometimes resorts to an irrational lay- Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 .7 211 .1 234 .7
out, such as placing the bed across the door Wo men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 .5 237 .4 261 .4
opening, in an effort to control his environ-
ment. Assignable square feet per student .
The allocation of space will be the decision of 1, Outside gross square feet per student .
the campus . Adequate space allocation within I University of California . UC Standing Committee on Residence Halls, Meeting of August 29 and 30, 1966, Hilton Inn,
San Francisco International Airport .
the student room must have first priority so d Development Guide for Campus Housing, California State Colleges, July 1968, Table 1, Summary of Project Norms, o . 13 .
that enough space is provided to allow both im-
University of Guelph Student Housing Study, Evan H . Walker, Student Housing Consultant, November 1965, pp 56-66 .
mediate individual expression by the student
t University of Pennsylvania . Study of Undergraduate Men's Housing System, Geddes, Bracher, Dualls and Cunningham,
and future arrangement by the university . Architectural Consultants .
Several studies have recommended that a KMassachusetts Institute of Technology . A Program for Undergraduate Men's Housing, MIT Planning Office, August
single student room of rectangular shape con- 1965 .
tain 100 to 115 act ft . The rationale for this rec- h Eugene E . Higgins, M . Louise Steward, and Linda Wright, Residence Hall Planning Aids, Report OE-51004-9A, College
ommendation is that a room must contain and University Physical Facility Series, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, U .S . Office of Education, Washington,
enough space to provide the student with (1) D.C.
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Dormitories

university's need for ease of maintenance need

not conflict . Walls can be covered with safe,
removable wall-covering panels that provide
the student with unrestricted freedom of color
and decoration . At the same time, these wall
coverings can still protect the underlying mate-
rials to the university's satisfaction . It should
be possible for the student to roll up his wall
coverings at the conclusion of use and use
them again elsewhere if desired .
Such panels would allow women students to
compensate for the universal institutional as-
pect of student housing by softening the en-
vironment through the use of feminine colors,
textures, and materials .
It was observed that in rooms with hard
walls, pinup materials are often fastened to the
softer acoustical tile ceilings . Resawn wood
wall panels, however, would permit unre-
stricted tacking up of decorations.
It was noted that carpeted residence halls are
far more quiet and that the behavior of the stu-
dent was more adult. Since many study and
social activities are performed on the floor, the
comfort and quiet provided by carpeting are
quite desirable .
5. Appliances . A revolution in the design,
production, and marketing of economical per-
sonal appliances has been occurring in recent
years. As a result, the number of electrical ap-
pliances brought by the student to college in-
variably exceeds the number anticipated by the
designers of present-day residence halls. Con-
sequently, this has precipitated problems of
general safety, fire hazards, intolerable odor,
noise levels, and frequent interruption of elec-
trical services .
Another significant new trend is in the per-
sonalization of entertainment and cultural me-
dia; tape recorders, radios, phonographs, and
miniature TV sets are within the economic
reach of most students . The transistor radio
permits the student to listen to the world be-
yond the campus even as he walks from one
class to another. Similarly, the personal, tran-
sistorized TV is making the TV room out of
date, just when most residence halls are specif-
ically providing such space.
Hot plates, coffee pots, and popcorn poppers
are sources of potential fire hazards and odors.
Fig. 9 Suite organization 2.
At the minimal level of food service, there is
need for facilities enabling students to make
their own coffee . This requires but an appro-
priate surface and an outlet, with the student
separate ventilation of individual spaces is re- cluding a reading light for a bunk bed, is nec- providing the appliance . At the next level is a
quired, especially in the more athletic men's essary. Because of the highly individualized desire for cold drink storage facilities . Students
halls. The odors in many residence halls were nature of activities performed in student will sometimes buy old refrigerators-often
found by visitors to be "overpowering ." rooms, light from a number of well-placed but hazardous and awkward in size and arrange-
Although conventional air conditioning is relocatable point sources is far more useful ment . The idea of partitioned refrigerators, as
more economical within a sealed space, it is than light from one central source . in English residence halls where students may
important that students be able to open their 3 . Acoustics. Quiet is the most desired keep track of their own belongings, would
windows to enjoy the soft, fresh morning and characteristic of any living arrangement in the seem to be a good solution . The minimal
evening air, and in the lower-height buildings to opinion of students, so acoustical considera- cooking done on a hot plate introduces the
enjoy communication (but not access) through tions are of great importance . Fundamental to need for clean-up facilities . The sink becomes
an open window . providing quiet environments are walls, floors, necessary ; the problem becomes one of the
2 . Lighting . The quality of lighting in stu- windows, and doors providing adequate reduc- minimal kitchen facility-a project expensive
dent rooms is determined by the quantity and tion of sound from adjacent activities . Doors do enough to require careful consideration of how
brightness of both the light sources and their not facilitate noise reduction . Since standard many students it is going to serve. Where such
general surroundings . High illumination levels doors are poor in acoustic performance and kitchens are provided in addition to full food
are appropriate to study; lower levels to social high-performance doors are too expensive for service facilities, they must inevitably be few
functions . In the daytime, natural daylight may student housing use, a solution isolating noise and far between . Women are far more inter-
provide much of the necessary illumination if at low cost will have to be developed. The best ested than men in such a facility .
windows are well placed and the glare elimi- inhibitor of noise is good planning of the rela- Television, radios, tape recorders, stereos,
nated. However, high illumination levels are tionships between rooms. Wherever possible, movie projectors, and phonographs create dis-
necessary in areas where concentrated study is social areas should be isolated from student turbing noises for others . These require, in
to be done, but the brightness contrast between rooms by at least two doors. most buildings, extensive and expensive noise
the work and its surroundings must be at a 4. Color, texture, materials . Materials pres- abatement policing . The better solution to the
minimum. ently used are hard, unyielding, and chosen for problem of appliance noise, previously men-
Lighting sources in student rooms should be their durability and ease of maintenance. How- tioned, is good planning for adequate isolation
integrated with the movable furnishings. This ever, those used invariably lead to a depress- between rooms.
tends to minimize maintenance and fix the ing, sterile, institutional appearance . Most of all, new buildings must recognize
light's proper level. Light for reading in bed, in- The student's need for expression and the the evolution of electrical use by providing ini-
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Dormitories

tial high capacity with provision for easily problem of student dining facilities . Although spaces and facilities are important in providing
adding to that capacity with minimum disrup- the large kitchen with its extensive equipment, environmental support to the personal interac-
tion . service line arrangements, and building area is tion of students, both new and old, since aca-
the most economical and efficient method of demic assimilation and involvement are not re-
Facilities food preparation, the one large dining room for stricted to the classroom or student room .
1 . Bathing. The gang bath is one of the all students negates a congenial atmosphere However, care must be taken in the areas pro-
most persistent features of residence halls. It for social interaction during mealtime . grammed for recreation so that they truly ac-
has been defended on the basis of economy and Dining facilities that combine the best ad- commodate the intended activities . Otherwise,
its contribution to socialization . vantage of the large kitchen-efficiency, econo- the spaces will fail to accomplish the intended
Certainly, the initial construction cost of one my, and flexibility-while at the same time pro- purposes . Evaluation of the success of social
central gang bath is less than that of smaller viding a pleasant and social dining environment spaces in meeting their intended needs indi-
installations in several locations . It is also evi- can be built . Proper planning permits large cen- cates that a variety of smaller spaces are likely
dent that when a bathroom serves more than a tral areas to be divided by movable walls into to be the most popular and useful .
few students, maintenance becomes nobody's smaller or intimate dining rooms . The walls can Student complaints are universal concerning
business but the university's ; the student does be moved when a large scale is needed for the typical residence hall's main lounge . It has
not realize that he is paying extra for the uni- social events such as dances, etc. been relatively unpopular with students be-
versity's maintenance of the gang bathroom . Food preparation in student rooms presents cause of its large size and lack of individualized
The initial extra expense for smaller baths will a safety and sanitary problem, but the need for space. The tendency is for this space to become
actually result in long-term cost savings if the between-meal snacks can be solved indepen- monopolized by one small group, or even one
students themselves maintain the smaller bath- dently of the central dining room . Students can couple, making other individuals or groups
room, because it eliminates the need for maid be accommodated by automatic vending ma- hesitant to intrude . A recent study shows that
service throughout the life of the building . chines located at strategic points in the resi- 32 percent of student residents use the lounges
Another economic factor against the gang dence hall or by provision of facilities in which less than once a week and that 36 percent of
bath is its inflexibility . Residence halls with they can prepare snacks themselves . Student them use the lounge only one to three times a
gang baths are far less appropriate for partici- food preparation problems cannot be solved by week . The lounge fails because it cannot simul-
pants in conventions, reunions, and institutes unenforceable prohibitions but only by con- taneously accommodate incompatible activi-
where families or both sexes are involved than struction of appropriate areas with automatic ties . The piano, TV set, and sofa are not appro-
are areas with smaller baths serving a few per- cooking devices and controlled food storage priate companions . The main lounge, furnished
sons . facilities . with expensive, hotel-like furnishings, is usu-
2. Dining. There is universal agreement 3. Recreation and social activity . Assimila- ally designed, and is mainly suited, for large,
that the single, large rooms for hundreds of tion into the student society is the foremost quiet groups . It is seldom used by the students
students is not the satisfactory solution to the concern of most new students. Recreational for entertaining friends .
The suite living room can accommodate both
quiet and active uses, although conflict occurs
when the space attempts to serve socializing
and study.
Small "date" rooms, as observed on some
campuses, are popular when not overly super-
vised . However, date rooms seem to be an arti-
ficial solution to a problem better solved by a
wider range of social rooms .
Television rooms are losing their effective-
ness as social centers because the diminishing
cost of television sets makes it possible for
students to have individual sets in floor
lounges or in their rooms .
Spaces allowing vigorous activity are impor-
tant to all students, especially men . At present,
such activities (if provided for) are usually lo-
cated in drab, ill-equipped basements . In those
residence halls where suitable spaces are ac-
cessible to food sources and open occasionally
to both sexes, they are very popular and used
continuously .
The comparison of expenses for furnishings
between main lounges and recreation spaces
shows the letter to be less expensive. Since
main lounges are infrequently used, money
spent on them is largely wasted . To provide
more useful variety than is now available, the
question of area allocation to main lounge-
recreational spaces should be carefully con-
sidered .
One way to provide close at hand recrea-
tional space is to equip the rooftops of resi-
dence halls for recreational activities . Problems
arise in regard to construction, cost, control-
ling vents, and flues ; nevertheless, rooftops are
a desirable location for many activities .
Another important form of recreation, but
seldom provided for, is student hobbies. The
mess and equipment involved in many hobbies
suggest that perhaps older utility buildings on
campus could provide spaces for these activi-
ties . It is more difficult to foresee the needs of
hobbyists and expensive to introduce into resi-
dence halls the sufficient acoustically isolated
spaces for them .
4. Cultural. Residence halls can participate
in the overall academic environment of the uni-
versity with the inclusion of facilities for li-
Fig . 1 0 brary, music, and discussion . It is part of the
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Dormitories

job of housing to smooth the transition from lish a unit . All the rooms on one floor having Economy is the obvious feature of double-
green freshmen to sophisticated seniors. At common access and services may also be con- loaded corridors because core plans require
Harvard University, house libraries relieve sidered as a unit . more circulation area . When each student has
some pressure on central facilities, creating a The predominant traditional pattern is the a single room, economy of circulation space is
sense of academic community as well as familiar double-loaded corridor arrangement difficult since each room must have a window
making books more readily available. Inexpen- wherein the unit is one floor of a residence hall . on the periphery of the building . This arrange-
sive paperback libraries are quite adequate for This plan offers easy control opportunities . ment, in its simplest configuration, requires ex-
providing both stimulating and enjoyable With a group of 48 to 72 students, it facilitates tremely long frontages . Irregular building con-
reading materials within a residential atmos- the organization of intramural and academic figurations to reduce corridor space must be
phere. Eventually these libraries will include activities . Another source of group size deriva- considered in a cost context also .
random-access listening stations ; it is there- tion is the optimum number sharing bathroom Elevators for freight and disabled students
fore advisable to initially provide adequate dis- facilities . are useful in all buildings . In high-rise build-
tribution access into the structure . Efficient space utilization requires that the ings, passenger elevators are essential, al-
Music rooms can also serve as tape and rec- circulation area comprise the smallest possi- though they tend to make insular entities of
ord libraries, although the centrally located ble percentage of the total area . Studies of ex- each floor. This problem can be reduced by
equipment will be used less frequently as more isting student housing show the efficiency per- skip-stop elevators stopping at unit lounges
students can afford their own equipment. All centage varying from 7 percent to 25 percent. linking two floors . The initial expense of good
music involves a noise factor which must be Although it is advantageous to reduce circula- elevators is not offset by cheap ones requiring
considered . tion areas, building safety codes prescribe min- much ,maintenance . Competent servicing can
Formal academic classes in residence halls imum areas and arrangements . Corridors be provided by including maintenance con-
present difficulties in mechanical services and which are mean, cramped, and possibly dan- tracts in purchase agreements . The better ser-
density beyond the capability of most residence gerous in an emergency are not acceptable . vice an elevator gives, the less likely it is to be
hall structures, but informal classes and semi-
nars can be successfully held in the social
spaces in the hall . STUDY BEDROOM
5. Service and storage. The university
must provide facilities for (1) maintenance of
buildings, (2) the mechanical and electrical N0. OF
equipment, and (3) overflow storage from stu- 571-)06N75
dent rooms.
Increasing affluence of students and the BATHROOM
growth of disposable articles have increased
space requirements for efficient trash collec-
tion and removal. Trash chutes, central collec-
tion facilities, and dumping trucks are required
to handle present volumes of trash. Too often
this involves the ugly exposure of the trash
while awaiting collection, as well as the con-
siderable fire hazard . LOUNGE
Efficient maintenance of electrical and
mechanical systems requires easy access with-
out the invasion of student privacy . Equip-
ment should be so located .
Out-of-season and seldom-used student
property is usually stored in inexpensive areas LOUNGE
of a building, but these are often the least ac- LIBRARY
cessible . This situation could be relieved by
more adequate storage provisions in the stu-
LAUNDRY
dent room . Student and service storage should HEAD RESIDENT
be in separate areas and away from heavy traf-
fic areas such as laundry and recreation rooms . 3 KITCHENETTES
Bike shelters, surfboards, skis, and scuba gear DATE ROOMS
present spatial storage problems that require
careful consideration . All student storage areas 2 RESIDENT ADVISORS
must be lockable .
6. Circulation and interrelation of spaces .
The residence hall is a social organist" . The re-
lationship of student rooms one to another and
to the public and service rooms make up a total
environment most conveniently studied as a
hierarchy of spaces . The hierarchy is deter- DINING
mined by the student activities and the physical
characteristics of the building . Following is a RECREATION
hierarchy of typical unit sizes in university MUSIC PRACTICE
housing :
MAIL
Student unit Students
SEMINAR
Room . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12 RECORD ROOMS
Group . . . . . . . . . . . 16-24 LIBRARY
House or floor . . . . . 48-72
Hall, building or VENDING
college . . . . . . . . . 120-800
Complex of hells . . . 1,200-4,800
Campus . . . . . . . . . . 12,000-27,500

Unit size is defined by building spaces, activ-

ities related to space, and by agents of regu-
lation and control . For example, a number of HIERARCHY DIAGRAM.
rooms served by a bathroom constitutes a
suite, group, or floor. A number of rooms under
DOUBLE LOADED CORRIDOR, HIGH RISE BUILDING .
the direction of a resident assistant will estab- Fig. 1 1
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Dormitories

Fig. 12 Basic room-hall plan types.

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Dormitories

abused . Elevator switches, as common targets alteration to new unit sizes to satisfy rapid so- do not impede circulation can be provided by
of student pranks, must be tamper-proof . Esca- cial change . Hence the initial placement of the window seats and railed landings . Although
lators are too expensive and have far too great fixed facilities is a critical decision . stairs must conform to fire regulations, their
a passenger capacity to be viable alternatives A major determinant of environment is the configurations can be a pleasant contribution
in residence halls. access to movement from space to space. to the environment.
The location and intensity of such fixed facil- Those spaces grouped about a room or wide
ities as baths, stairs, and elevators are the main
inhibitors of future rearrangement . The URBS
corridor make up a more residential environ-
ment through the use of attractive carpets, col-
Structural Spans
approach permits choice based on require- ors, and materials . Corridors can be more fully The 40-ft span with a 20-ft bay length derived
ments rather than custom and makes possible utilized ; for example, conversation spaces that from study of many existing dormitory plans as
well as proposed ideal environment spaces . On
the national scale, older dormitory types were
studied along with the newer ones being built.
Whereas 10 years ago most structures were
a simple, rectangular shell, a present-day trend
seems to involve more complex configurations
relating to more complex hierarchies in the
social structure .
As a frame of reference, residence halls were
classified in five basic plan types:
1 . The Double-loaded Corridor-a series of
perimeter rooms on both sides of a five-foot
1 corridor, usually with gang baths and
stairs at either end
2. The Gallery Plan-a variation of the Dou-
ble-loaded Corridor with rooms on one side
only of an open or closed corridor
3. The Extended Core Plan-a series of
perimeter rooms around four sides of a struc-
ture . In the center is a core of service rooms in-
cluding gang toilets, janitor's closets, eleva-
tors, etc. A corridor usually surrounds the core
on four sides
4. Vertical House -a series of 4, 6, 8 rooms,
suites, etc. A stair serving one or two such con-
figurations of rooms or suites is provided, cre-
ating the feeling of an individual house
5. Point Tower Plan-usually but not always
high-rise with vertical circulation such as
stairs and elevators in a center core along with
gang baths and service rooms. The rooms,
suites, and arrangements are on the perimeter.
Shared baths are often used with suites of 4, 6,
8 persons
Once these five types were defined, all plans
were classified accordingly, and a study of
their structural requirements was begun. These
plans were studied not as actually constructed
but rather as they would need to be framed to
permit maximum adaptability .
Based on these studies, frequency of occur-
rence charts showed that very few long spans
over 35 ft were used and that a corresponding
maximum short span of 20 ft was adequate .
Coupling this study with spatial needs and as-
suming a fixed toilet space, it was concluded
that a maximum 35- by 20-ft bay would be re-
quired . Provision by a given system of bays
larger than 35 by 20 ft will, of course, be accep-
table provided the required spans are taken
care of .
I¢% A variety of bay sizes will be needed in addi-
tion to accommodate balconies, overhangs,
stairways, and elevators . The precise condi-
RATIOS OF CIRCULATION TO GROSS AREA tions for these accommodations will be defined
Fig . 13 in the performance specifications for structure .
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Handicapped Students

RESIDENCE HALLS than 1 in 12) with no steps (sight lines should LECTURE HALLS
Sleeping and Study Quarters (Fig. 1) be considered). If this is not possible, accessible
Lecture Seating Lecture halls providing fixed
Space There must be a minimum clear floor and level cross aisles between seating sections
shall be provided with minimum width of 7'-6" seating and desk facilities shall provide spaces
space in such areas of 6' [183 cm] by 6' [183 of level floor area of at least 36" [92 cm] in
cm] enabling a 360° turn by a wheelchair. [228 .6 cm]. (See Fig. 3.)
The placement of seating areas for the
Working Area Space clearance under counter, physically handicapped should not block egress
table, and desk tops to be used by a wheelchair routes used in the case of emergency.
student shall be a minimum of 271/2 " [69.8 cm]
in height and 32" [81 .3 cm] in width. Seating Seating space shall be set aside for
those in wheelchairs who must remain in their
Beds Beds shall have minimum dimensions of wheelchairs and cannot transfer to the regular
3' [92 cm] by 6' [183 cm] and between 19" [48.3 seating . The number of level floor spaces of at
cm] and 22" [55.9 cm] in mattress height from least 36" [92 cm] in width and 4'-4" [132 cm]
floor level. in length to be provided shall be as follows:

Mirrors Mirrors should be adjustably hung (a Capacity of Minimum number of

minimum of 2'-0" [61 .0 cm] in length) so that
assembly space seating spaces
the bottom is 30" [76.2 cm] above floor level .
Where this lower height is not feasible, mirrors 0-75 2
of greater height shall be tilted from the top to 75-300 3
a degree to sufficiently accommodate individuals 3 + 1 for each
over 300
described in rational . add'tl. 100

Electrical Outlets Electrical outlets shall be

mounted no lower than 20" [50.8 cm] above floor
level .

Handles and Switches Protruding desk and

dresser drawer handles shall be installed .
Switches for electrical fixtures and equipment
shall be of a toggle or push-button type or
equipped with pull-chains of a minimum length
of 15" [38 cm].

Closets Where one closet is provided for each

occupant, the clothes bar should provide two
different heights. Three-quarters of the total
length should be at 52" [132 cm] and the
remaining quarter at 62" [157 .5 cm]. To achieve
this, the lower bar, three-quarters of the total
length, can be suspended from the higher bar.
Wall hooks shall be installed within a height range
of 40" [101 .6 cm] to 56" [142 .2 cm]. Shelves Fig. 3
of various height intervals shall be installed on
the side-closed wall . The top shelf shall not exceed
45" [114 .3 cm] in height . Shelves above the
clothes bars shall be provided for long-term
storage . (See Fig. 2.)

Windows, Heating, and Air Conditioning

Fig. 1
Windows shall close and open easily, using hard-
ware latches, cranks, or slides which are within
the accessibility range limits of 20" [50.8 cm]
to 48" [121 .9 cm] above floor level . Heating and
air-conditioning controls and thermostats shall be
mounted within the same height range .

Power Curtain Traverse Rods Power traverse

rods should be installed in rooms occupied by
the physically handicapped. All controls should
be placed within an accessibility height range
of 20" [50.8 cm] to 48" [121 .9 cm].

PERFORMING ARTS

Aisles Where possible all new theater

construction shall have ramped aisles (no greater

Architectural Accessibility for the Disabled of College

Compuses, Stephen R . Cotler and Alfred H . Degraff,
State University Construction Fund, Albany, N.Y ., 1976 . Fig. 2 Fig. 4
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Handicapped Students

width and 4'-4" [132 cm] in length . Desk space [92 cm] in width for passage as measured from
provided in this area shall have a knee clearance the outer edge of the tray slide. (See Fig. 5.)
of at least 32" [81 .3 cm] in width and a height
of 27/2" [69.8 cm] . (See Fig . 4.) The number Self-Service Areas Salad bars, condiment areas,
of desk spaces and accompanying level floor beverage dispensers, utensil racks, and other
areas where self-service is required shall provide
areas shall be provided as follows:
access within the unilateral vertical reach range
of 20" [50.8 cm] to 48" [121 .9 cm].
Minimum number of
Dining Area Tables shall be provided within the
Lecture hall capacity spaces provided
dining area which provide a knee clearance of
0-50 2 at least 27 1/2 " [69.8 cm] in height and 32" [81.3
50-100 3 cm] in width.
101-200 4 Pedestal tables are not recommended because
over 200 4 + 1 for each the center post hinders wheelchair footrests.
Aisle widths shall be at least 6'-0" [183 cm]
add'tl 100
as measured from table edge to table edge (Fig .
6, plan "A"), or 3'-0" [92 cm] from table corner
to table corner (Fig . 6, plan "B"), in those areas
CAFETERIAS
used by persons in wheelchairs .
Fig. 5
Food Lines Food lines of cafeterias shall employ The width of main aisles, in areas of normal
tray slides no higher than 34" [86.4 cm] in height traffic pedestrian flow, shall be at least 6'-0"
and, where a security wall or railing runs the [183 cm] to allow two wheelchairs to pass each
length of the line, the area shall be at least 36" other (Figs. 7 and 8).

STANDARD WHEELCHAIR

ELECTRIC WHEELCHAIR

MANUAL WHEELCHAIR
WITH RIM PROJECTIONS

Fig. 6

MIN. SPACE NEEDED UNDER COUNTER OR DESK

Fig. 7 Fig. E
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

!AMPS I . Column Spacing aisles at right angles to the ranges is also of

importance . (See Fig. 10 .)
graft A ramp shall be at least 4' [122 cm] in A. Stack Areas No one size is perfect for column If practicable, columns should be no greater
+,dxh- sizes or column spacing. than 14 in . i n the direction of a range, and the
Other things being equal, the larger the bay dimension in the other direction should be kept
size, the better . down to 18 in . If over 14 in . i n the direction of
LesyflU The inclined section of a ramp shall not
eueed 30' [9 .14 m] in length . At both ends of Column spacing-that is, the distance be- the range is necessary, the column might al-
tween column centers-is generally more im- most as well be 32 in . i n that direction . It could
each 30' [9.14 m] (or smaller) section and at each
portant in concentrated stack areas than in then occupy the space of a full stack section
srrrrirg point shall be a level area of at least
combined stack and reading areas because in and perhaps enclose a heating duct . If a column
6' [183 cm) in length and the width of the ramp . the latter suitable adjustments are easier to is wider than the range, it will jut into the stack
make . aisle. Irregular length stack sections are incon-
ad"ewM In modifying existing spaces: If an Clear space between columns-this is not venient, and can often be replaced to advantage
area to be romped has a vertical drop of 3" the space between column centers-in a col- by a lectern or consultation table.
7.6 cm) or less and is situated either in an open umn range should preferably be a multiple of Tables 1 and 2 deal with standard layouts in
^rea or at a door with no closing-device pressure, 3 ft (plus an additional 4 in . to provide for ir- commonly used module sizes .
-- _- gradient of not greater than 1 :4 (25%) regularities in the column sizes and for the end The following comments may be useful in
ee used . uprights in the range) . connection with Tables 1 and 2.
Range spacing and range lengths have a 1 . Spacing 3 ft 9 in . or less should be used
An Modifying Existing Spaces If an area to greater effect on book capacity than the dis- for closed-access storage only, with ranges not
be romped has a vertical drop of 2" [5 .1 cm] tance between columns in a column range. The more than 30 ft long and not more than 16 in .
or less and is situated at a door with a closing- reduction of space between range centers by 1 deep .
device pressure, then a gradient of not greater in . increases book capacity by approximately 2 2 . Spacing 3 ft 9 in . to 4 ft 1 in . can be used
*bon 1 :6 (16.66%) shall be used. percent. The reduction of space used for cross to advantage for large, little used, limited-ac-
In New Construction Any vertical drop over
'-j' [1 .27 cm] shall be ramped using a gradient
not greater than 1 : 12 (8 .33%) and preferably
1 : 16 (6 .25I) where feasible . (See Fig. 9.) TABLE 1 Square Modules with the Column Spacing a Multiple of 3 ft
(Plus 1'/~ ft for the Column itself)'

Sections
between
columns, Ranges to Range spacing
Bay size standard 3 ft a bay on centers

19 ft 6 in . by 19 ft 6 in . 6 5 3 ft 10% in .
6 4 4 ft 10y in .
6 3 6ft6in .
22 ft 6 in . by 22 ft 6 in . 7 6 3 ft 9 in .
7 5 4 ft 6 in .
7 4 5 ft 7y in .
25 ft 6 in . by 25 ft 6 in . 8 7 3 ft 7/, in .
8 6 4 ft 3 in .
8 5 5 ft 1 y, in .
B 4 6 ft 4y, in .
28 ft 6 in . by 28 ft 6 in . 9 8 3 ft 6/, in .
9 7 4 ft Oy, in .
Frg. 9
9 6 4h9in.
9 5 5 ft 8% in .

'Columns should not be wider than the depth of range. 14 by 14 in . up to 14 by 18 in . i s suggested .

TABLE 2 Square Modules with Column Spacing Multiple of 3 ft'

By KEYES D. METCALF
Sections
between
columns Ranges to Range spacing
LIBRARIES, ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH
Bay size standard 3 ft a bay on centers
Formulas and Tables
18 it by18ft 5 5 3ft7y,in .
The figures given here are at best only approxi- 5 4 4ft6in .
mations and may be altered by local conditions ; 5 3 6 ft
they are not arrived at by exact scientific calcu- 3 ft 6 in .
lation . 21 ft by 21 ft 6 6
6 5 4 ft 2/s in .
Six groups are dealt with ; those relating to :
I . Column spacing 6 4 5 ft 3 in .
11 . Ceiling heights and floor size areas 24 ft by 24 ft 7 7 3 ft 5y, in .
III . Reader accommodations 7 B 4 ft
IV . Book storage (excluding problems that 7 5 4 ft 9'/ in .
are affected by column spacing) 7 4 6 ft
V. Card catalogs 8 8 3 ft 4y2 in .
27 ft by 27 ft
VI . Government standards 8 7 3 ft 10% in .
8 6 4ft6in .
8 5 5 ft 4/., in .
8 4 6 ft 9 in .
Planning Academic and Research Library
Buildings, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York . 1965 . " Columns should not be wider than the depth of the range. 18 by 32 in. i s suggested .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

case stacks with ranges up to 30 ft long . tangular bays 18 ft, 19%, ft, 21 ft, 24 ft, 25% ft, TABLE S Faculty Studies and Small
Closed-access ranges up to 60 ft long have 27 ft, and 28ji ft in one direction . Multipurpose Roams
been used successfully with ranges 18 in . or If section lengths are changed from 3 ft to
less deep, 4 ft or 4 ft 1 in . on centers . some other size, such as 3 ft 1 in ., 3 ft 2 in ., 3 ft Small Small conference
3 . Spacing 4 ft 2 in . to 4 ft 6 in . can be used 3 in ., 3 ft 4 in ., 3 ft 5 in ., or 3 ft 6 in ., or in coun- faculty room or generous
for open-access stack, preferably held to 18 in . tries using the metric system to 90, 95, 100, or Bay size study' faculty studyt
i n depth with the range length based on the 105 cm . tables comparable to Tables 1, 2 and
amount of use . 3 above should be prepared with those lengths 18 ft 3 2
4 . Spacing 4 ft 6 in . to 5 ft is generous even as a base . 19 ;1, ft 3 2
for heavily used open-access undergraduate 21 ft 3 2
stack if ranges are 15 ft long and 4 ft 6 in . on B . Seating Accommodations
22 h ft 3 2
centers, and in some circumstances up to 30 Column spacing is of less importance in con.
nection with seating accommodations than 24 ft 4 3
ft if 5 ft on centers .
5 . Spacing 5 ft to 5 ft 10 in . i s unnecessarily with shelving . Tables 4 and 5 show the maxi- 25% ft 4 3
generous for any regular stack -shelving and is mum number of carrels available on one side of 27 ft 4 3
standard-size bays and the number of studies
often adequate for periodical display cases and
for heavily used reference collections . available in such bays .
'A room of this size can house a large desk, shelving,
6 . Spacing 6 It or greater is adequate for a filing case, and permit a door to open in .
newspaper shelving and generous for periodi- II . Ceiling Heights and Floor Areas t This will provide for conference rooms for four, an ade-
cal display cases . quate small staff office, or a generous faculty study . It
Minimum and maximum ceiling heights and
Square bays are more flexible then those that should be at least 8 ft in the clear in one direction and have
floor areas involve basic functional and aes- e total area of over 70 sq ft .
form a long rectangle and are generally some- thetic problems . Suggestions from the func- Any small room will seem less confining it it has a window,
what cheaper if the ceiling height is limited . But
tional point of view are proposed as an aid in and since window wall space is generally at a premium, a
if the letter are used, the number of suitable room can well have one of its short sides on the window
reaching decisions .
sizes can be greatly increased . Table 3 shows wall .
possibilities with 22 ft 6 in . i n one direction and A . Ceiling Heights
different spacing in the other one . Table 6 suggests functional minimums and maxi-
Similar tables can be prepared for long rec- mums .
C . Dimensions of the working surfaces for
B. Floor Areas Both the number of floors in a each type of accommodation
library and the area of each floor may be im- D . Average square footage required for each
portant functionally and aesthetically . Deci- type of accommodation
TABLE 3 Long Rectangular Modules, 22 ff
sions in regard to them may properly be in- E . Additional space required for service to
6 In. In One Direction' readers
fluenced by the site surroundings, the slope of
the ground, and the value of the property .
Ranges to Range spacing A . Formulas for Percentage of Students for Whom
Table 7 makes suggestions, which at beat
Bay size a bay on centers are only approximations, as to the percentage Seating Accommodations Are Required The formula
of the gross square footage of a library build- used should depend on :
22 ft 6 in . by 18 ft 4 4 ft 6 in .
ing which functionally should be on the en- 1 . The quality of the student body and fac-
22 ft 6 in . by 20 ft 5 4 ft trance or central-services level in a typical aca- ulty . The higher the quality, the greater the li-
22 ft 6 in . by 20 ft 10 in . 5 4 ft 2 in . brary use .
demic library .
22 ft 6 in . by 21 ft 8 in . 5 4 ft 4 in . 2 . The library facilities provided . The more
22 ft 6 in . by 24 ft it satisfactory the seating accommodations and
6 4 III . Accommodations for Readers
22 it 6 in . by 25 ft 6 4 ft 2 in . the services provided, the greater the use .
Seating accommodations for readers and the 3 . The quality of the collections . Superior
22 it 6 in . by 26 it 6 4 it 4 in .
service to readers are the largest space con- collections increase use.
22 it 6 in . by 27 ft 6 4 it 6 in . sumers in most libraries . The required areas 4 . The curriculum . In general, students in
depend on : the humanities and social sciences use the li-
A bay of this size will give seven sections 3 ft long
between 14-in . columns in the direction of the column A . The number of accommodations provided brary more then do those in the pure and ap-
range . The column sizes suggested in Table 2 are suitable B . The types of accommodations and the plied sciences .
here . percentage of each 5 . The emphasis placed on textbook in-
struction, which tends to reduce library use .
6 . Whether the student body is resident or
commuting and, if the former, whether the
TABLE 4 Carrels' dormitories provide suitable study facilities .
Heaviest library use in most residential institu-
Double- or tions is in the evening ; in commuting ones,
triple- Small Large during the daytime hours .
Bay size Opent staggered$ closed§ closedq 7 . Whether the location is rural, suburban,
or urban . Large population centers tend to de-
18 ft 4 4 4 3 crease evening use because of other available
19h ft 4 4 4 3 activities and attractions .
21 1t 5 4 4 4 8 . Whether the institution is coeducational
22 ,h it 5 5 5 4 or for one sex only . Coeducation tends to in-
4 crease library use, particularly in the evening .
24 ft 6 5 5
9 . The emphasis placed by the faculty on
25y, ft 6 5 5 5
the library and on nontextbook reading .
27 ft 6 6 6 5
10 . The percentage of graduate students and
the fields in which they work .
A carrel, as used here, is an area in which a reader is cut off from any neighbor who is closer than 3 ft on either side or
11 . The institution's policy in regard to use
front and back and one side . The minimum desirable width of an adequate carrel working surface is 2 ft 9 in ., which is as use-
ful as 3 ft for each person at a table with two or more persons sitting side by side . Minimum depth suggested is 20 in . by persons other than those connected with it .
t Distance apart on centers should be not less than 4 ft 3 in ., unless the front table leg is set back 4 to 6 in . and armless 12 . The departmental library arrangements
chairs are used, in which case the distance on centers can be reduced to 4 ft . Any distance over 4 ft 6 in . i s unnecessarily which may make available other reading facili-
generous . A clear space of 27 in. or more between working surface and partition at the rear is recommended A shelf above the ties and reduce the use of the central library .
table interferes with overhead lighting and makes a deeper table desirable . Table 8 suggests formulas for percentage of
t Distance between centers should seldom be less than 4 ft 6 in . ; 5 ft is preferred, anything greater is unnecessarily gen- students for whom seating is suggested .
erous . With triple-staggered carrels, the back of the center oneit should be held down to no more than 10 in . above the tabletop.
The distance between centers should be not less than 4 6 in . ; and 5 ft is preferred . Watch out for ventilation . A window
B. Suggestions for Types of Seating Accommodations
is psychologically desirable . Closed carrels are not recommended for undergraduates or any student not actually engaged in
and the Percentage of Each Type
writing e dissertation . Glass in the door or grills should be provided for supervision .
T A room less than 6 ft long at right angles to the desk will permit shelves above the desk or a bookcase behind the occupant 1 . For Undergraduates
but preferably not both . One less than 6 ft parallel to the desk will not permit a 4-ft long desk, and a second chair, and may a . Tables for four or more . Not more then
make it necessary to open the door outward . 20 percent . Should be largely restricted
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Lihrnriws

TABLF 6 Clear Coiling Heights TABLE 8 Formulas for Percentage of Students

for Whom Seating Accommodations Are
Suggested suggested
Suggested functional
Area minimum' maximumt Type of institution Percentage

Book stacks* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ft 8 in . 8 ft 6 in . Superior residential coeducational

Stacks with lights at right angle liberal arts college in rural area or
to ranges§ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ft 4 in . 8 ft 9 in . small town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-60
Stacks with lights on range tops Superior residential liberal arts college
functioning by ceiling for men or women in rural area or
reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 ft 0 in . 9 ft 6 in. small town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-50
Reading areas under 100 sq ft . . . . . . . . . . 7 ft 6 in . 8 ft 6 in . Superior residential liberal arts college
Individual seating in large in a small city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-45
areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ft 4 in . 9 ft 6 in . Superior residential university . . . . . . 35-40
Large reading rooms over 100 Typical residential university . . . . . . 25-30
ft lone broken by screens or Typical commuting university . . . . . . 20-25
bookcases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 ft 6 in . 10 ft 6 in .
Auditoriums up to 1,500 sq ft . . . . . . . . . . . 9 ft 6 in . 10 ft 6 in .
Entrance or main level with titions in both directions . See Fig .
over 20,000 sq ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 ft 6 in . 10 ft 6 in . 3 . A great improvement over a table
Floor with mezzanineg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 ft 6 in . 18 ft 6 in . for four without partitions .
(4) Pinwheel arrangement for four. See
Heights lower than specified have been used successfully on occasion, but ceiling lights should be recessed and good Fig . Bc. Satisfactory, but requires
ventilation assured . Financial savings will be comparativelY small .
more space than (3) above .
t Greater heights may be useful aesthetically and provide added flexibility by making areas available for a wider range of
purposes . (5) Double carrels with readers facing
t 7 ft 8 in . is the lowest height which permits an adequate protective base and seven shelves 12 in . on centers (standard in different directions . See Fig . 56.
for academic libraries) with suitable clearance at the top. The top shelf will be 8 tt 4 in . above the floor, the greatest height Not as satisfactory as (6) be-
that can be reached without difficulty by a person 6 ft tell . Space above 7 ft 6 in . i s not useful for storage of open-access coi- low.
lections and will be confusing it used for other shelving.
(6) Double-staggered carrels . See Fig .
§ This height used with fluorescent tubes, at right angles to the ranges, permits stack ranges to be shifted closer together
or farther apart without rewiring, and is high enough so that heal from the tubes will not damage the books on the top shelf . 7a .
It the fixtures are flush or nearly flush with the ceiling, the clear height can be reduced a few inches . (7) Pairs of double-staggered carrels on
1( Mezzanines provide inexpensive square footage if they occupy at least 80 percent of the floor area (building codes may both sides of a screen . See Fig . 76.
prohibit them unless mezzanine is partitioned off and made a separate unit), and if the overall height of the two resulting
(8) Triple-staggered carrels in place of
levels is not much more then 611 greater then would be provided if there were no mezzanine .
three stack ranges or in a large read-
ing area .
(9) Rows of single carrels at right angles
to those in reserve-book and reference by aisles or partitions on one, two, or to a wall in book-stack or reading
rooms . three sides . The partitions should be area . See Fig. I a.
b . Lounge chairs . Not more than 15 per- high enough-52 in . for men-so that (10) Single carrels in place of last stack
cent . Should in general be restricted heads do not bob up or down above section of the end of a blind stack
to lounge areas, smoking rooms, cur- them and cause visual distraction .
aisle . See Fig . I b .
rent-periodical rooms, or used to break These accommodations may include :
(11) Typing carrels similar to (10) above,
up unpleasantly long rows of other (1) Tables for one . These can be
but with special acoustic protec-
types of accommodations . In many li- quite satisfactory along a wall or
tion .
braries 8 to 10 percent of seating of screen if the readers all face in
(12) Rows of double carrels in a reading
this kind is adequate . the same direction .
area or in place of two stack ranges .
c . Individual accommodations . Up to 85 (2) Tables for two with partitions
percent . These should provide in most down the center . Sae Fig . Bb . For See Fig . 6 .
cases for working surfaces cut off limited use only. Closed carrels are rarely recommended for
from immediately adjacent neighbors, (3) Tables for four or more with par- undergraduates . Shelves in carrels tend to en-

TABLE 7 Suggested Formulas for Percentage of TABLE 9 Suggested Working Surface Area for Each Person
Gross Square Footage Functionally Desirable on the
Minimum
Central-Services Level'
Type of accommodation size Adequate size
Minimum
Table for multiple seating . . . . . . . . . 33 in . by 21 in .' 36 in . by 24 in .
percentages
Individual table or open
of gross
carrel for undergraduate . . . . . . . 33 in . by 20 in . t 36 in . by 22 in .
area on
Open carrel for graduate
central-
student without book shelf
Gross building Size of collections services
over it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 in. b y 24 in . t
area in sq ft in volumes level
Carrel, open or closed, for
Under 20,000 Under 100,000 40-50 graduate student writing
20,000-45,000 100,000-250,000 33S-40 dissertation, with a book
40,000-80,000 250,000-500,000 25-33h shelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 in . by 27 in . § 48 in . by 30 in .
75,000-150,000 500,000-1,000,000 20-30 Faculty study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 in . b y 30 in . 60 in . by 30 in . if
135,000 + 1,000,000 + 18%-25 there is shelving
over it
"Central services as used here include the main control
point, circulation end reference services, reference and Recommended only for reserve-book use or for a college for women .
bibliographical collections, the public catalog, and acquisi- t A space of 33 by 20 in . goes farther in an individual accommodation than at a large table because others do not intrude
tion and catalog departments . on the space .
These computations are approximations only, but smaller t Shelves are not recommended over open carrels because they make it easier for an unauthorized student to monopolize
figures than those in the lest column will often necessitate one .
shifting part of the central services to other levels and § A shelf over a carrel table requires additional depth because it interferes with lighting . A closed carrel should preferably
incidentally may add considerably to staff payrolls . have a window, glass in the door, and more space around the table than an open one, or claustrophobia may result.
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

courage undesirable monopolization . A shelf

outside the carrel with an open or locked cup-
board provides for books and papers to be re-
served and makes possible longer hours of car-
rel use .
2. Graduate Student Accommodations
a . At tables for multiple seating . Not rec-
ommended .
b . Open carrels of any of the types pro-
posed in t above . Graduate carrels may
have shelves over the working surface,
but this will require deeper table tops
because of lighting problems, unless
the shelves are installed at one side .
See Figs . 2a, b, and c .
c . Closed carrels . See C and D below for
working surface dimensions and
square-footage requirements . Closed
carrels require special care for satis-
factory lighting and ventilation . Unless
larger than necessary to provide ade-
quate working surfaces, claustropho-
bia tends to result . A window for each
carrel or an attractive grill on at least
one side will help .
3 . Faculty Accommodations . If possible,
closed studies should be provided for faculty
Members engaged in research projects which
require the use of library materials . Limited as-
signment periods are suggested . They should
not be used as offices . See C and D below for
working surface dimensions and square-foot-
age requirements .

C. Dimensions of Working Surface for Each Type of

Seating Accommodation Table 9 gives suggested
minimum and adequate dimensions .

Fig. 1 Carrels at right angles to a wall . (a) Suggests sizes and spacing and shows elevations. (b)
Carrel in place of last stack section next to a wall. The working surface of the carrel should be in line
with the stack range instead of the aisle in order to make if easier to get into the chair .

Fig. 2 Carrels with shelves . (a) Shelf in front of reader. The table should be S in . deeper than one
without a shelf, and adequate spacing between carrels may be difficult to arrange . (b) Shelf at one
side instead of in front. (It can be of either side .) This requires more width but less depth . (c) Shelf at
one side facing the aisle . This can provide more shelf capacity and greater privacy ; it also demands
greater total width .
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

dations mentioned above are held to a reason-

0 . Average Square Footage Required for Different
Types of Accommodation The square-footage re- able minimum and careful planning is provided
quirements suggested in Table 10 are at best throughout, the 25 may have to be increased to
approximations, but may be helpful in pre- 35 sq ft .
liminary stages of planning .

E . Additional Space Required for Service to Readers

Space for direct access to seating accommo- Seating Accommodations As an aid in planning
dations is dealt with in Table 10 and else- layouts, suggestions are presented for arrange-
where . Additional space required includes : ments for seating accommodations in reading
areas and book stacks . Remember that aca-
Assignable Areas demic and research (not public) libraries are
under consideration, and the sizes and arrange-
The public catalog . ments suggested are for academic and re-
Space around the bibliographical and refer- search use .
ence and current-periodical collections which 1 . Single open carrels with the long axis of
is required because of heavy use . the tabletops at right angles to a wall . These
Public areas outside service desks . may be in reading areas, or in book stacks with
Special accommodations for microfilm repro- walls on one side, a subsidiary cross aisle on
ductions, maps, manuscripts, archives, and the other, with the end of stack ranges beyond
other collections not shelved in the main stack the aisle, or they may take the place of the last
area . These may include audiovisual areas of stack section in a range . Single carrels should
various types . preferably be fastened to the wall or floor in
Staff working quarters . some way so as not to get out of position . (See
Fig . 1a and b .)
Nonassignable Areas 2 . Single closed carrels along a book-stack
Entrances, vestibules, and lobbies wall and opening into a subsidiary stack aisle .
These are quite similar to the open carrels Fig . 3 Reading-room table with dividing parti-
Corridors
described above, but have partitions and a door tions. Not very satisfactory if fable seats more than
Areas used primarily as traffic arteries four and reader is hemmed in on both sides . If
Stairwells and elevator shafts and, unless considerably larger, they may be
he leans bock, he is too close to his neighbor . If
difficult to ventilate and to light and tend to
Toilets light is hung from the partition, it fends to cause
cause claustrophobia . Partitions to the ceiling
Walls and columns an unpleasant glare. If partitions between readers
are not recommended for undergraduates, but sitting side by side are extended on both sides
It is suggested that not less than 25 sq ft if the area, including the adjacent aisle, is to provide more privacy, they become too confin-
per reader in assignable or nonassignable areas at least as much as 5 ft by 6 ft 8 in ., it can be ing.
will be required for the services in these used for graduate students if there is glass in
groups, and that unless the special accommo- the door . Light from an outside window will

TABLE 10 Approximate Square-footage Requirements for Different

Types of Seating Accommodations"

Require ments, sq ft

Type of accommodations Minimum Adequate Generous

Small lounge chair b . . . . . . . . . 20 25 30

Large lounge chair . . . . . . . . . . . 25 30 35
Individual tablert. . . . . . . . . . . . 30
25 35
Tables for tour . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22y, 25 27 ,/,
Tables for more than
fourf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 22,4 25
Individual carrelsg . . . . . . . . . . . 20 22~/, 25
Double carrels h . . . . . . . . . . . 22', 27',A
25
Doubled-staggered
carrels' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22'/, 25 27h
Triple-staggered carrels r . . . . . . . 22 ,/~ 25 27 ;,
Double row of carrels
with partitions
between, placed in a
reading room or in
place of two stack
ranges k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22y 25 27f

The figures used here include : (11 area of working surface if any;121 area occupied by chair; (3) area used for direct access
to the accommodations; and (41 reasonable share of all the assignable space used for main aisles in the room under consider-
ation .
b These chairs if in pairs should be separated by a small table to prevent congestion and to hold books not in use .
r'Large lounge chairs are expensive, space-consuming, and an aid to slumber . Rarely recommended .
dlndividual tables are space-consuming, are generally disorderly in appearance because they are easily moved, and result
in a restless atmosphere from traffic on all sides . Not recommended except along a wall or screen .
"Tables for four are the largest ones recommended, unless pressure for additional capacity is great .
(Tables for more than tour are space savers, but few readers like to sit with someone on each side . They will avoid using
them as far as possible .
KIndividual carrels are economical in use of space it placed at right angles to a wall, adjacent to an aisle that must be pro-
vided under any circumstances . They reduce visual distraction if partitions 52 in . or more in height are provided on at least two
Fig . 2 (cont .) Carrels with shelves . of the four sides . See Fig . 5a and d.
4 Double carrels are useful, but the staggered ones described below are preferred .
' Double-staggered carrels are as economical of space as tables for four and reduce visual distractions . See
Fig . 7a.
JTriple-staggered carrels are as economical of space as tables for six or more and reduce visual distraction .
kDouble rows of carrels ore economical in space use and reduce visual distraction . See Fig . 6.
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

help . Fig . 46 shows a closed carrel with a to get into the chair because the table top will look out, except directly at the neighbor to the
door . jut out into the ais)e . right or left when leaning back in the chair .
3 . Single carrels in place of a stack section c. Some readers, particularly if there is no They are not recommended, except in an open
of the end of a book range . (See Fig . 16.) As adjacent outside window, will feel too shut in area in groups of four where the reader can
far as space use is concerned, this is the most for comfort . look out in at least one direction, because
economical way to provide a seating accommoda- d . Since the seat is at the end of a blind aisle, few students enjoy facing a blank wall, unless
tion, and it gives a great deal of seclusion, which the length of the range should not be more than they can look out at least a few feet on one side
many readers want . It presents four problems, half that of a range with cross aisles at both without seeing a neighbor close at hand . (See
ends. Fig . 3 .) Single carrels in a sawtooth . or what is
however, as follows:
4 . Single seats facing a reading room or known as a dog-leg arrangement, shown in
a . The space from front to back is limited to
stack wall or a high partition down the center Fig . 4c, are preferable to those directly facing
the distance between range centers, which in
of a regular reading room table, sometimes a wall, as the reader can look out on one side
some cases is minimal.
with a high partition at the sides projecting 6 and still is protected from his neighbors . They
b. Unless the table top is specially designed in . beyond the table top into the aisle, to cut require no additional space .
to occupy the full depth of the double-faced
one off from his neighbors . There is no place to 5 . Double carrels in rows in a reading room
range, as shown in Fig . 3, it may be difficult

Fig . 4 Other types of single carrels. (a) Partly open typing carrel in place of last stack section with
acoustically protected walls and ceiling aided by adjacent books. Absence of other seating close at
hand makes doors unnecessary . (b) Closed carrel with door and shelf. If there is no window, wider
spacing is desirable to prevent claustrophobia . Ventilation and lighting will present problems . (c) A
dog-leg carrel is a compromise for one facing a wall, which is disliked by many, if partitions are extended
enough to provide seclusion . The carrel is open on one side.
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

Fig. 5 Open carrels along a wall or a partition at least 52 in . high. (a) Carrels along a wall all facing the same way . (Recommended .) (b) Carrels along a
wall in pairs . (Possible, but they back up to each other unpleasantly .) (c) Carrels facing a wall. (Not recommended . If there are side partitions, reader has
"blinders." If he leans back, his neighbor is close at hand .) (d) Carrel elevation to show desirable height of partitions to prevent visual distraction . The left-
hand carrel shows a rounded type of construction and the right-hand one a square type .

separated by partitions which are at least 52 cent table tops overlapping by one-half their If ventilation is adequate, alcoves can be
in . i n height in the front and on one side of the depth, placed along walls, with 4' ft minimum partially closed in on the fourth side by a single
working area . Partitions in front can be held on centers and 5 ft preferred . or double-faced book section, which may help
down to no more than 3 to 10 in . above the 8 . "Pinwheel" groups of four carrels, pref- to use space to advantage and make possible
table top because a full view of one's neighbor erably in a reading alcove . If the alcove is 12 the best utilization of the available bay size .
by 12 ft in the clear, table tops 22 by 36 in . The main aisle between double rows of alcoves
all the time is less distracting than a head
bobbing up and down occasionally ; but 52 in . are recommended, with partitions at least 52 can be as narrow as 4',h ft . (See Fig . 86 and c .)
in . i n height, which extend 6 in . beyond the end Pinwheel groups have been successful in large
above the floor is preferable . (Fig. 5d .(
of each table . Shelves are ordinarily not rec- reading areas, but they tend to give an impres-
6 . Double carrels in rows in place of two
ommended for these cases, particularly if the sion of disorderliness when not in an alcove .
stack ranges . A size of 33 by 22 in . can be used
table top is less than 27 in . deep . 9 . Carrels in alcoves with tables for four
in place of two stack ranges when ranges are
This arrangement fits perfectly in a 27-ft installed with 52-in .-high partitions in each
4 ft 3 in . on centers . A size of 36 by 22 in . can
column spacing with two alcoves to a bay . If direction . These alcoves may be as little as 9
be used comfortably with ranges 4 ft 6 in . on
the module size is 25 ft 6 in ., the space in each ft deep and 11 ft 3 in . t o 12 ft wide in the clear .
centers . By placing one or both end pairs at
alcove will be reduced a total of 9 in ., and one With a 25 ft 6 in . bay and 4 ft 6 in . main aisle,
right angles to the others, the carrel range
of the shelf sections will be only 27 in . It can be an unusually large capacity is possible . (See
and the stack range length can be made to
match with table tops and distances between used for shorter shelves or set up as wall space Fig . 8b and c .) With a 27-ft bay, the space
centers of standard size . (See Fig . 6 .) for a bulletin board or for a picture or other utilization is still good, and the main aisle
decoration. can be widened to 6 ft .
7 . Double-staggered carrels with the adja-
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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

Fig. 6 Double rows of carrels in booksfack or reading area in place of two stack ranges.

on : (1) Book heights and the number of shelves 11, include 90 percent of the books in a typical
IV . Book-Stack Capacity
per section ; (2) book thickness ; (3) the deci- collection .
Book-stack capacity is based on : sion in regard to what is considered a full It is suggested that most of the remaining
A . The number of volumes shelved in a section . 10 percent will be concentrated in a compare-
standard stack section 1 . Book Heights and Shelves per Section . lively few subjects, that 70 percent of this 10
B . The square-footage requirements for a Stack sections in academic libraries are con- percent will be between 11 and 13 in . tall, and
standard stack section . sidered standard if they are 7 ft 6 in . high and that six shelves 14 in . on centers will provide
3 ft wide . Sections of this height make possible for them .
A. The Number of Volumes Shelved in a Standard seven shelves 12 in . on centers over a 4-in . 2 . Book Thickness and the Number of Vol-
Stack Section The number of volumes that can base. This spacing is adequate for books which umes That Can Be Shelved Satisfactorily on
be shelved in a standard stack section depends are 11 in . tall or less, which, as shown in Table Each Linear Foot of Shelving. No two libraries
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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

are alike in this connection . The average thick-

ness will depend on (a) The definition of a

TABLE 11 Book Heights`

8 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25°10
9 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
10 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
12 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Over 13 in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

"Adapted from Riders Compact Storage, p 45, which

was based to a considerable extent on research done by
Van Hoesen and Kilpatrick on the height of books in aca-
demic libraries .

volume ; (b) binding policy, particularly for

pamphlets and serials and periodicals ; (c) the
collection under consideration .
A commonly used formula for thickness of
books is shown in Table 12 .

TABLE 12 Volumes per linear Foot of Shelf

for Books in Different Subjects"

Volumes per Volumes per

foot of single-faced
Subject shelf section

Circulating (nonfiction) . . . 8 168

Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 168
Economics . . . . . . . . . . . 8 168
General literature . . . . . . 7 147
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 147
Art (not including
large folios) . . . . . . . . . 7 147
Technical and scientific . . 6 126
Medical . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 105
Public documents . . . . . . 5 105
Bound periodicals . . . . . . 5 105
Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 84

'This table is in common use by stack manufacturers .

3. The Decision on When a Section Is Full.

In Table 10 a suggested number of volumes
per single-faced section is proposed . h is evi-
dent that if books are shelved by subject, it is
unwise to fill the shelves completely, and any
estimate must be an approximation . For many
libraries 125 volumes per stack section is con-
sidered safe .

B . Squera-footage Requirements for a Standard Stack

Section . The square-footage requirements
for a standard stack section depend primarily
on : (1) range spacing ; (2) range lengths ; (3)
the number of cross aisles and their widths ;
(4) cross aisle area charged against adjacent
reader accommodations ; (5) nonassignable
space .
1 . Range Spacing . Range spacing should
be based on column spacing, on shelf depths,
which are discussed in a below ; and on stack-
aisle widths, dealt with in 2 below.
a . Shelf depths . Depths as used here are
based on double-faced bracket shelving with
2 in . between the back of the shelf on one side
of the range and the back of the shelf on the
other side . Shelf depths specified by stack
manufacturers are 1 in . greater than the actual
Fig . 7 Double-staggered carrels. (a) Double-staggered cartel adjacent to a wall. The carrel by the depth, that is, a 7-in . "actual" shelf is called
wall will be helped by a window . Partitions should be S2 in . high or higher. Recommended . (b) Double-
an 8-in . "nominal" shelf, because 8 in . i s avail-
staggered carrels on each side of a screen or partition. A space saver, but recommended only when
necessary to provide required seating capacity. The backs of the inside carrels should be no more than able if half the 2 in . noted above is assigned
40 in. high .
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Libraries

Fig . 8 Tables in book alcove . (a) Standard fable with no partitions . (b) Tables for two
to four persons,
with partitions fitted in different column spacing and with exhibit space replacing
a short section. (c)
Nest of tables in pinwheel form to give additional privacy .
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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

to the shelves on each side of a double-faced TABLE 14 Suggested Stack-Alslo Widths and Stack-Range Lengths'
shelf section .
Table 13 shows depths of books . If these Aisle Range
figures are correct (the author believes they width, in .t lengths$

Typical use of stack Min . Max . Min . Max .

TABLE 13 Percentage of Books In an
Closed-access storage
Academic Collection Below Different Depths
stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 30 30 60
Measured from the Back of the Spine to the
Limited-access, little-used
Fore Edge of the Coven*
stack for over 1,000,000
volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 31 30 42
5 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25%
Heavily used open-access
6 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 stack for over 1,000,000
volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 36 24 38
8 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Very heavily used open-
access stack with less than
10 in . or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97t
Over 10 in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1,000,000 volumes . . . . . 33 40 15 30
Newspaper stack with 18 in .
*Adapted from Rider's Compact Book Storage, p. 45 . deep shelves . . . . . . . . . 36 45 15 30
tAn 8-in . actual, i .e ., a 9-in . nominal depth shelf, will Reference and current-
house a 10-in .-deep book without difficulty, unless there is
periodical room stacks . . . 36 60 12 21
another deep book immediately behind it . Most books over
10 in, deep will be more than 11 in . tall and should be Current-periodical display
segregated on special shelving which is more then 9 in . in stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 60 12 21
nominal depth .
These are suggestions only and not to be considered definite recommendations . Circumstances alter cases .
tStack-aisle widths of 24 in . should be considered an absolute minimum and are rarely justifiable . Anything under 28 in .
represent the average in research and aca- is difficult with a book truck, even when the use is light . The minimum range lengths suggested .
demic libraries), a shelf with 8 in . actual depth, $ Stack-range lengths are often determined by available space, rather then by their suitability . The maximum lengths shown
together with the space available between in the table should generally be used only with the maximum aisle widths suggested .
shelves on the two sides of a double-faced sec-
tion, will provide for practically any book that
does not have to be segregated because of its
height, and 8-in . actual depth shelves (they
are designated by the manufacturers as 9-in .
shelves) are recommended in place of the T- TABLE 15 Suggested Cross-Aisle Widths*t
or 9-in . actual-depth shelves which are com-
monly used . In many libraries a 7-in . actual- Subsidiary
depth shelf is suitable for a large part of the Main aisle cross aisle*
collections .
2 . Stack-aisle Widths and Stack-range Typical use of stack Min . Max . Min . Max .
Lengths. Stack-aisle widths should be based
Closed-access storage . . . 3 it 4 ft 6 in . 2 ft 6 in . 3 ft 6 in .
on the amount of use by individuals and by
Limited-access stack . . . . 3 ft 4 ft 6 in . 3 ft 3 ft 6 in .
trucks and the length of the ranges before a
cross aisle is reached . Other things being Heavily used open-access
equal, the longer the range, the wider the aisle stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ft 5 ft 3 ft 4 ft
should be . Table 14 suggests desirable stack- Heavily used open-access
aisle widths in conjunction with stock-range stack far large collection
lengths under different types and amounts of and ranges 30 ft or more
use .
long . . . . . . . . . . 4 ft 6 in . 6 ft 3 ft 3 in . 4 ft 6 in .
Do not forget that stack-aisle widths must
be based, indirectly at least, on the column
*These are suggestions only and not to be considered definite recommendations . Circumstances aher cases.
spacing, and are affected as well by the shelf
t In determining minimum or maximum widths, keep in mind the length and width of the book trucks used, as well as the
depths discussed in 1 s above, if columns are amount of use . Minimum width stack aisles should not be accompanied by minimum cross aisles . From the widths shown in
not to obstruct the aisles . The distance be- the table, up to 4 in . may have to be subtracted to provide for adjacent stack uprights and irregularities in column sizes .
tween column centers should be an exact mul- t If open carrels adjoin a subsidiary aisle, they will make it seem wider, but traffic will tend to be disturbing to the carrel
tiple of the distance between the center of occupants .
If closed carrels open from a subsidiary aisle, they will make d seem narrower .
parallel stack ranges within the stack bay,
which in turn is determined by the sum of the
depth of a double-faced range and the width
of a stack aisle .
3 . Widths for Main and Subsidiary Cross-
stack Aisles. Cross-aisle widths should be
based on amount of use and are inevitably af- TABLE 16 Square Footage Required for One Single-faced Standard Section
fected by the column spacing . Column spacing
often makes it difficult to provide any cross- Square feet with
aisle widths except 3 ft or a multiple of 3 ft . Square feet Square feet adequate cross
Table 15 suggests desirable cross-aisle Range with minimum with generous aisles combined
widths under different types and amounts of cross aislest with carrels$
spacing cross aisles*
use .
4 . Cross-aisle Area Charged against Adja- 5 ft 0 in . 8 .25 9 .00 8 .4375
cent Reader Accommodations . The effect on 7 425 8.10 7 .60
4 ft 6 in .
square-footage requirements per stack section 7 .65 7 .225
4 ft 3 in . 7 .0125
and volume capacity per net square foot of
4 1t 0 in . 6 60 7 .20 6 .75
stack area, resulting from the provision of
reader accommodations in the form of stack * Based on Fig. 10, with a 15-ft blind-aisle range on each side of a 3-ft center aisle .
carrels, is shown in Figs .10 and 11 These t Based on two 3-ft side aisles and a 6-ft center aisle separated by 30-h stack ranges .
indicate that the assignment of one-half of the t Based on 3-ft side aisles between carrels and 30-ft stack ranges, the latter separated by a 4 ft 6 in . center aisle .
adjacent cross-aisle areas to reader space One-half of the side aisles are charged against the carrels, but even on 5-ft centers the carrels occupy only 221 so ft, and
when carrels are on one side of the cross aisles square footage for a section is low .
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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

and book-stack ranges are on the other, may TABLE 17 Volume Capacity per 1,000 sq ft of Stack Area with Different Number of Square Feet and
increase rather than decrease book capacity Different Number of Volumes per Section
per square foot of net stack area, and in addi-
tion provide desirable and economical seating Volumes per 1,000 sq ft with
accommodations adjacent to the books . See different no, of vols .
Table 16 .
per section f . `
It is evident that a large number of variables
are involved in book-stack capacity. Table 16 Sq ft per No . of sections
is based on the square footage required for a section" in 1,000 sq ft 100 h 125' 150 1 160
single-faced standard section in stack layouts,
with different range spacing, range lengths, 10`f 100 10,000 12,500 15,000 16,000
and cross-aisle widths, as well as stack carrels . 9" 111 11,100 13,875 16,650 17,780
Table 17 shows stack capacity per square By, i 120 12,000 15,000 18,000 19,200
foot of area if 100, 125, 150, or 160 volumes 79 143 14,300 17,875 21,450 22,880
per standard stack section is used in connec-
tion with 7, 8'/ 9, or 10 sq ft occupied by each
section . " Examination of Table 16 and Figs . 9 to 11 should help in determining area to allow for a single-faced section .
5 . Nonassignable Space . Nonassignable This matter has been covered in IV9 .
space includes, as far as its effect on book ° Volumes per section has been covered in detail in IVA .
rlf a period is used instead of a comma in the volume count in the last four columns shown above, it will give
capacity is concerned, the floor space occupied
the number of volumes per square foot available under different conditions .
by columns, mechanical services, and vertical u 10 sq ft per section is the cubook formula proposed by R . W. Henderson .
transportation of all kinds. We mention it here "See Table 16 for an example .
simply to call attention to it . In a carefully de- J The author suggests that this is a satisfactory and safe figure to use for a large collection accessible to
signed stack for 25,000 volumes or more on graduate students and a limited number of undergraduates .
one level, nonassignable space should not KAdequate for a very large collection with limited access .
amount to more than 10 percent of the gross .100 volumes per section is the cubook formula .
stack area, and with a larger installation .The author suggests that this is a sate figure for comfortable working capacity in an average library . See IVA .
IThe number of 150 volumes per section is too often proposed by architects and librarians . While it is a possible figure,
considerably less than that .
it should be realized that it approaches full capacity and should be used only in cases where additional space is immediately
available when capacity is reached . The time to consider what comes next will have passed .
~ The number of 160 volumes per section should not be considered for most academic libraries, unless the collection has
V . Card Catalog Capacity
an unusually high percentage of abnormally thin volumes and individually bound pamphlets .
In planning a card-catalog room, estimates
quite similar to those used for book-stack
capacity must be made . They should include : depth" refers to the overall depth of the cabinet 3 . The space between cabinets set aside for
A . The capacity for each card catalog unit in which the trays are housed . From it 3 in . consultation tables and for those who use the
used should be subtracted to obtain the gross catalog . This should depend on the intensity
B . The square footage of floor space re- filing space available, and comfortable working of use at the time of peak loads . A small cata-
quired to file 1,000 cards comfortably capacity can be estimated at between 70 and log with heavy use requires much more square
75 percent of the gross filing space, with a footage for 1,000 cards than does a large one
A . The Capacity of Each Card Catalog Unit The somewhat larger percentage usable with the with light use .
capacity of each card catalog unit depends longer trays . 4 . The space assigned to main and second-
on : The capacities noted above can be increased ary aisles used to approach the cards .
1 . The number of trays it contains by at least 10 percent before they become
2 . The depth of each tray and the number of completely unmanageable, but it is strongly
inches of cards that can be filed in it without recommended that the lower figure be used in
undesirable and uneconomical congestion estimating comfortable working capacity .
3 . The thickness of the card stock, that is,
the number of cards that will occupy 1 in . of B . Square Footage of Floor Space Required to File
filing space 1,000 Cards Comfortably The space requirements
1 . The Number of Trays in a Card Cabinet. depend on :
This depends on the number of trays in each 1 . The depth of the trays is a somewhat
direction, that is, vertically and horizontally . variable factor, as already noted .
Cabinets are made in a great many different 2 . The height of the cabinets .
sizes, but for large installations 6 trays wide
and 10 to 12 high are considered standard,
TABLE 18 Card Capacity for Standard Card
giving 60 or 72 to a unit .
A cabinet with trays 14 or even 16 high is Cabinets Six Trays Wide*
possible, with fairly low bases so that the top
one will be within reach . This will give 84 or Tray l eng th
96 trays to a unit . Trays high 15 in . t 17 in . $ 19 in .§
Cabinets 5 trays wide of different heights
are also available, but may be more expensive 10 51,000 60,000 69,000
per tray unless purchased in large quantities . 12 61,200 72,000 82,800
They have the advantage of fitting into stan- 14 71,400 84,000 96,600
dard 3-ft-wide stack units .
16 81,600 96,000 110,400
2 . The Depth of the Trays . Trays can be
purchased in almost any depth, but just over Cabinets six trays wide occupy approximately 40 in .
15, 17, and 19 in . might be considered stan- i n width . Five-tray-wide cabinets occupy approximately
dard . A tray under 15 in . i s uneconomical in 33y, in . i n width and can be placed in a standard 3-ft-wide
floor space used if the catalog is large . Those stack section . They will probably cost more per tray, but
over 19 in . are so heavy when full as to make they may fit into the available space to advantage, some-
times combined with the wider units .
their use a doubtful blessing .
3 . The Thickness of Cards and the Number to 15-in . tray is estimated to provide 12 in . of net filing
space, which, it filled to 7 .1 percent capacity, will house
That Will Occupy 1 in . of Filing Space . Ex-
comfortably approximately 850 cards which average 11100
perience indicates that 100 average cards to in . i n thickness,
1 in . of filing space is a safe figure to use today . to 17-in . tray is estimated to provide 14 in . of net tiling
Cards tend to thicken somewhat as they get space, which, if filled to 72 percent of capacity, will house
older . comfortably approximately 1,000 cards which average
1 /100 in . i n thickness .
Table 18 shows the capacity for cabinets 6
§ A 19-in . tray is estimated to provide 16 in . of net filing Fig . 9 Stack capacity with different range spacing.
trays wide with different heights and different space, which, if filled to 73 percent of capacity, will house No allowance is included here for cross aisles. See
tray depths, based on 100 cards to 1 in ., with Figs. 10 and 11 for their effect. Stack capacities
comfortably approximately 1,150 cards which average
the net available filing space filled to a com- 1/100 in . i n thickness . These trays may be uncomfort- used here are on the basis of 125 volumes to each
fortable working capacity . The term "tray ably heavy when tilled to capacity. single-faced section .
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Libraries

Fig . 10 Stack capacity with different range spacing and minimum cross aisle . Cross aisle = ' ; , area .

Fig. 11 Stack combined with stack alcoves. Nonstandard bay sizes can sometimes be used to advantage
without seriously affecting capacity per square foot.
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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

Fig . 12 Width of catalog cases. (a) Cases which are five trays wide can be fitted into a standard 3-ft
wide book section, an arrangement which is sometimes useful . (b) The right-hand case is a standard
six-fray width; both cases are in two parts, each seven frays high for additional capacity . Additional
horizontal support provided by thicker cross pieces (not shown) will be required in each part.

Figs . 17 and 18 show different arrangements of the ends, making an alcove closed on three YI . Government Standards
based primarily on the intensity of use and sides . This may add to the capacity of the area
secondarily on the size of the catalog which by as much as 50 percent, but it must be re- it is possible and in some cases necessary to
result in all the way from 1,000 to 4,000 cards membered that, if corners are flight together, base space-assignment figures on standards
per sq ft of floor space for the whole area . there is danger of bruised knuckles when a promulgated by governmental authorities
Every library building program should indi- tray from the row next to the corner is pulled supervising the institutions concerned . These
cate the number of cards that should be housed out . A 4- to 6-in . break, preferably covered with standards can be helpful but, like all formulas
and any available information about the amount a filler, is desirable on each side of the corner . and tables, they should be used with caution
of use at the time of peak loads . A double row of alcoves with a corridor in be- because, as has been emphasized throughout
Card catalogs are generally placed in double- tween, perhaps 6 ft wide, may give the largest this section, situations differ and circum-
faced rows parallel to each other, at suitable possible capacity in a given area . stances alter cases . With this word of warning,
distances apart, so spaced that it is possible to Suggested layouts for three libraries, each standards for three different groups are noted :
go around either end of each row to reach the representing a different situation as far as
next one . As catalogs become larger, it may be size and use are concerned, are shown in Figs . A. California State Colleges Library Standards Based
desirable and perhaps necessary to fill in one 16, 17, and 18 . upon library volumes to be housed, the fol-
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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

Fig . 13 Consultation table adjacent to catalog cases . (a) If the table is placed between parallel rows
of cases with aisles of suitable width, it will prevent obstruction and not require the trays to be carried
uncomfortably long distances . (b) This shows an end and front elevation of a consultation table indicating
possible widths, heights, and accessories .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

Fig . 14 Consultation table along a wall at right angles to catalog cases. With this arrangement, cases
can be placed closer together but trays must be carried considerably farther, and there will be a tendency
to try to consult cards without removing trays. Congestion and damage to cards may result.

Fig . 15 Consultation tables in line with and between catalog cases . Consultation tables arranged in
this way save steps but partially obstruct use of adjacent trays.

Fig. 16 Catalog for a small library . With 3-ft-wide aisles at end of each row of standard cases six
frays wide and ten high, 720,000 cards can be housed in 480 sq ft, giving 1,500 to a square foot. This
is adequate spacing for a library with 300 seats.
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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries

Fig . 17 Catalog room for a small university library with 1,000 seats . A larger proportion of the area
is required for consultation tables and only 1,000 cards per square foot of floor space is provided .

Fig. 18 Catalog room for typical large university library . Provision is made for 1,500 cards per square
foot of area with adequate space at tables for readers consulting them .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Libraries ; Individual Study Carrels

lowing space standards are to serve as guide- Square feet First 150,000 volumes . . . . . . 0 .10 net act ft
lines for the design of new buildings or addi- Public services per volume
tions to existing buildings : Division head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Second 150,000 volumes . . . . 0 .09
1 . Book-stack areas at the rate of 0 .10 act ft Department head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Next 300,000 volumes . . . . . . 0 .08
per volume . Reference librarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Next 400,000 volumes . . . . . . 0 .07
2 . Readers' stations at the rate of 25 sq ft Special services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Second 1,000,000 volumes . . 0.05
per station, with stations to be provided for 25 Circulation librarian . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
I Note : The total floor area allowed by 1 and 2 above will,
percent of predicted FTE (full-time equivalent Clerical-per position . . . . . . . . . . 80 it is estimated, provide for the necessary carrels, microfilm
students) . Public services points and audio-visual facilities, etc .)
3 . Special materials . An additional area Per librarian's station . . . . . . . . . . . 125
equal to 25 percent of the bound-volume area Per clerical station . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3 . Size of collection :
should be the budget standard for special mate-
B . The California State Department of Edu- State college : 30 volumes per full-time stu-
rials : unbound periodicals, maps, courses of
cation in 1955 included this statement in A dent for the first 5,000 students, plus 20 vol-
study, and sample textbooks .
Restudy of the Needs of California in Higher umes per full-time student beyond 5,000
4 . Special functions :
Education . students .
(These data relate to each person employed
Libraries .-Total library space requirements, University : 100 volumes per full-time stu-
in any of these categories)
including study halls and all library-staff dent for the first 10,000 students, plus 75
Square feet work areas, were computed on the basis of the volumes per student for the second 10,000
following estimates : students, plus 50 volumes per student beyond
Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
20,000 students .
Administrative conference 1 . Reading rooms and study halls, including
room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 circulation desks and staff offices : 30 net C . The United States Veterans Administra-
Secretary-receptio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 square feet per station and one station for tion has prepared tables to indicate library
Technical services every four full-time students, or 7 .5 net square space assignments which are based on the
Division head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 feet per full-time student . number of beds in different types of hospitals .
Department head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2 . Collections housing the volumes listed They are hoping by the use of these tables to
Asst . catalog librarian . . . . . . . . . . 110 below, including work areas, assuming pro- determine through a computer the square foot-
Asst . order librarian . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 gressively greater use of closed stacks as age to be assigned in a library for each group
Serials librarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 collections increase in size, and the use of of space users, library staff, hospital staff,
Documents librarian . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 central storage facilities for the larger col- patients, shelving equipment, and so forth .
Clerical-per position . . . . . . . . . . 80 lections :

INDIVIDUAL STUDY CARRELS

From an Educational Facilities
Laboratories Report*

* "The School Library, Facilities for Independent Study

in the Secondary School," by Ralph E . Ellsworth, Ph.D .,
and Hobart D . Wagerer, A .I .A ., edited by Ruth Wein-
Fig . 1 A variety of possible shapes and arrangements for small-group rooms. stock, Educational Facilities Laboratories, New York,
1963 .
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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Study Carrels

Fig. 2 A variety of possible carrel arrangements .

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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Study Carrels

Fig . 3 Carrels with panel dividers .

Fig . 4 Conventional library table subdivided by panels.

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COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Sfudy Carrels

Fig . S Carrels with storage dividers.

Fig . 6 Library table with storage units as dividers.

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Study Carrels

Fig . 7 Arrangement of carrels for three-student places. Base is a hexagonal table.

 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Study Carrels

Fig . 8 Carrels for four student places using octagonal table .

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Study Carrels

Fig . 9 Hexagon-based carrel with mechanical core .

Fig . 10 Carrels with typing unit .

 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Study Carrels

Fig. 11 Closed carrels for sound and visual equipment.

Fig . 12 Carrels with mechanical equipment built in, based on a steel or aluminum
"X" frame. Frame folds up like a card table, can be used for other purposes as well .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Study Carrels

Fig. 13 Carrel arrangements using standard bookcases and tables .

 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Study Carrels

Fig . 14 Carrels with storage lockers for books.

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Individual Study Carrels

Fig . 15 Various storage units: (1) plan, (2) elevation, (3) tambour door, and (4) sliding doors opening to opposite sides .

Fig . 16 (a) Various panel divider materials : (1) perforated metal or pegboard with acoustical line, (2)
cork with hardwood or metal frame, (3) translucent plastic set in wood or metal frame, and (4) fabric
covered fiberboard set in metal frame . (b) Divider panel and center divider: side panels or storage
units can be slid along tracks of center divider to change carrel size .
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Student Unions

By CHESTER ARTHUR BERRY, Ed .D .

STUDENT UNIONS of the recreational, cultural, social, and civic which occurs among areas is caused because
life on the campus . Needless to say, many ex- all facilities are not likely to be found in any
Organization isting campus facilities such as the library, union building, with the result, for exempla,
Since by definition the term college union has art museum, gymnasium, or theater cannot and that the ballroom or meeting rooms of a the-
two meanings-organization and building-it should not be duplicated in a new union starless building may assume many of the
is necessary to investigate the nature of each . building, but the inclusion of as many such functions which are best performed in the the-
The organization of students, faculty, and facilities as are feasible is desirable to assure ater. Conflicting events also demand alternate
alumni which composes the union usually oper- that the widest possible range of educational expedients, such as showing motion pictures
ates with a governing board at its head . This experiences are made available by the union . in a large meeting room on dress-rehearsal
board, which may or may not include repre- Structurally, of course, the union building night or holding a club meeting in a rehearsal
sentatives of the three groups, is responsible must house efficiently the facilities required by room on an evening when meeting rooms are at
for the operation of the union, although much the union functions while suggesting its pur- a premium . The table does not exhaust the flexi-
of the detail is handled by trained staff mem- poses by its appearance and design . Its atmo- bility of use by any means . Obviously the small
bers and much of the guiding philosophy is sphere should meet the local requirements . If building without cardroom, chess room and
originally that of the professional staff. The the union is considered "the living room of the ballroom can use its lounges for many of the
board itself is concerned largely with questions campus," it is logical that it reflect the friendli- events listed for those areas . The success and
of policy and implements its policies through ness and warmth of a living room . If it exists attendance (not necessarily synonymous) of
the work of various volunteer committees and largely to serve as a convention center and ho- various programs also determine their loca-
the paid staff of the union . tel, it might well offer a more formal environ . tions, so that an exceptional music recital
The committees consist almost entirely of ment but, it should be pointed out, such an might well be held in the theater while a bridge
students and may or may not include members approach may result in a building and an opera- tournament might never require the use of the
of the governing board . At Michigan State Uni- tion which do not meet the terms of definition ballroom .
versity the following standing committees of a college union . Whatever the local require- Not all of the facilities mentioned are dis-
operate : education, library, merit, outings, ments may be, it seems well to remember that cussed here . Some, such an cooperative gro-
publications, publicity, social, and tournament . much of the activity of a union is informal in ceries or ice skating rinks, occur so seldom in
At the University of Nebraska standing commit- nature end that most of the participation in its connection with unions that they can scarcely
tees for 1950-51 included : general entertain- activities is carried on by informal college stu- be considered as union facilities . Others-
ment ; special activities ; convocations and hos- dents . The nature of a college union building, bookstore, faculty space, hotel unit, swimming
pitality ; music activities ; house and office ; then, might well be largely informal to reflect pool, university administrative offices, beauty
public relations ; recreation ; dance ; and bud- the character of the activities which it houses . end barber shops, or chapel-are facilities
gets, orientation, end evaluation . Regardless The well-planned union building separates its about which there is widely varying opinion and
of the titles and varying functions, most of the areas by functions to permit efficient communi- are usually justified only by local circum-
committees serve as the links which connect cation, supervision, and operation . It does not stances .
the boards with the general campus population . place bowling areas next to conference rooms
The committees plan and execute programs, or information desks on upper levels . By sepa- Administrative, Service and Maintenance Areas
attending to such details as scheduling, pub- rating yet coordinating its components, it con-
licizing, decorating, and budgeting . They may tinually offers the opportunity for new experi- A glance at the Classified Facilities Table re-
choose records for the music library, prints for ences, so that the walk from the coffee shop to veals that union program activities as such are
the art collection . They may help in the orienta- the games area, for example, may lead students infrequently held in most of these facilities . The
tion of freshmen or study a proposed change in past a music room or by an art exhibit . It liter- program potential of the barber shop and check
furniture arrangement . They may run the bil- ally surrounds those who use it with opportu- rooms, for example, is not very high . Closer
nities, and this pervasiveness is a part of the examination of the table shows that nearly all
liards tournament or a book review hour . The nature of a union . of the activities are in the nature of services and
committees, sensitive to campus needs and most of them, in all probability, are performed
interests, keep the union dynamic, flexible, and by paid staff members. If the union board has
busy . Facilities and Activities its offices located away from the administra-
The diversity of facilities and activities of a tive offices, the function of staff members is
Building union building makes their classification into a even more pronounced, since many of the ser-
few major categories difficult . Nevertheless, vices rendered, such as interviewing and
The nature of a college union building varies
there are some aspects of similarity of use, training union committee applicants or oper-
with each structure, whether approached from such as noise, service, or supervision, which ating a talent agency or a date bureau, are car-
either the functional or the physical stand- appear to recommend it . The eight classifica- ried on in the student offices .
point . Functionally it is a community center of tions include :
the first order . It may be a library, art gallery, 1 . Administrative, service, and maintenance
art workshop, theater, billiard and bowling Food Areas
2 . Food
room, dance center, scene of concerts and fo- 3 . Quiet Examination of the Classified Facilities Table
rums, informal outing and sports headquarters, 4 . Theater shows that the variety of food services offered
office building, hotel, public relations agency, 5 . Hobby by union buildings equals that of large, modern
ticket bureau, general campus information bu- 6 . Games hotels . They include soda fountains and grill,
reau, convention headquarters, and post office . 7 . Outdoor cafeterias, private dining rooms, service dining
The uniqueness of college unions demands 8 . Miscellaneous rooms, coffee shops, faculty dining rooms,
custom planning, with the result that, physi- Insistence on rigid separation of activities commuters' lunchrooms, women's dining
cally, union buildings differ as local situations into areas is, of course, fruitless . Thus, lis- rooms, and banquet rooms .
differ . While the overall purposes of unions re- tening to records or working on the college Since the dining service is the main source of
main relatively alike, their functional and newspaper are hobbies which might well take union revenue and caters regularly to a large
structural natures very . place in the quiet area, and a bridge tournament segment of the campus, it is extremely impor-
The functions housed by the union building held in the main lounge would defy cataloging, tant that it be planned, constructed, and oper-
ideally are those needed to make it the focus involving as it does a quiet hobby which is a ated properly .
game .
Far from definitive, the table merely indi- Functionality As in other union building facili-
Planning a College Union Building, Teachers College cates the type of program which can fit into ties, the functions of the food service areas
Press, New York, 1960 . each area . Much of the duplication of function vary with the institutions . The existence of
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Student Unions

other eating facilities on and off the campus,

the policies of such facilities (a la carte, five-
or seven-day board bills, semester contracts),
the location of existing places as well as that of Classified F acilit i es T able
the union building, the prevalence and size of
conferences and conventions, and the institu- Administrative, Service, and Maintenance :
tion's future plans are some of the items Offices Duplicating area
which should be considered . Check and coat rooms Rest rooms
Information center Janitorial spaces
Feed Area Components An all-inclusive union
Bulletin boards
Bookstore
food operation, embracing soda fountain and
Non-union offices Bank
grills ; cafeteria ; private, women's, faculty,
Ticket office Delivery area
banquet, and service dining rooms ; coffee
shops ; and commuters' lunchroom includes Barber shop Trash rooms
many components in common with other food Beauty shop Elevator
operations elsewhere, since the flow process is Post office Mechanical rooms
basically the same . Such components include Maintenance shop Storage
receiving, storage, meat cutting, vegetable Employees' lockers and rest rooms
Lobby
preparation, cooking, bakery, ice cream, salad,
Western Union office Pay telephones
service (cafeteria counter or waitress pantry),
Shops Corridors
dining, pot-washing, dishwashing, garbage and
Lost and found P-A system
trash storage, maintenance, employees' facili-
ties, rest rooms, coat rooms, and offices . All Food :
unions neither need nor are able to afford such Soda fountain and grill Banquet room
a comprehensive plant, and only the largest can Cafeteria Offices
use all components . Certainly few small unions Kitchen
Private dining rooms
can afford to hire a butcher for a meat-cutting
Service dining rooms Dishwashing room
room, and many provide only refreshment ser-
Coffee shop Garbage room
vices through a soda fountain or grillroom .
Faculty dining room Refrigeration room
Commuters' lunchroom Trash room
Receiving The receiving facilities of the food
area need not be separate from those for the Women's dining room
rest of the union building . If combined to serve Quiet:
all the other arses, they may permit the employ- Meeting rooms Commuters' lockers
ment of a receiving clerk . A central storeroom Lounges Box lunch lockers
for nonperishable items is quite feasible as Music listening room Commuters' sleeping rooms
well, and such arrangement may make it pos- Library International center
sible for even the smaller unions to use a re-
Guest rooms Student activities area
ceiving clerk-storekeeper . Obviously, both
Dormitory Student organization offices
vertical and horizontal transportation is needed
in such an operation and, since the frequency Chapel Art room
and perishability of food deliveries are high, Other faculty space
the receiving room should be near the food Games :
service department . Table tennis room Bowling alleys
Cardroom Chess room
Storage Storage in the food area includes dry Billiard room
stores or nonperishablea, day stores, re- Hobby :
frigerated stores, frozen stores, garbage and
Photographic studio Outing club headquarters
trash storage . Some may include several sub-
Art shop Amateur radio transmitter
divisions such as freezers for meat, fruit, vege-
tables, and ice cream or dairy and meat, fruit, Craft shop Lending art library
and vegetable refrigerators . Theater :
Auditorium Stage house
Service Areas The service areas are directly Stage Costume shop
between the various preparation areas and the Dressing rooms Costume storage
dining areas in the flow chart . They are usually Shops Rehearsal room
the places where the food is placed on the indi- Lobbies Ticket office
vidual plates and distributed and may take the Projection booth Offices
form of a cafeteria counter, a serving kitchen or
Outdoor :
pantry, a waitress station, a serving counter in
Cement slab Games
the kitchen, or a station in a short-order kitch-
Sun decks Parking
en . In this area food must be kept hot or cold
and dishes stored. Dispensing of food occurs Picnic areas
here for consumption in the dining area . Re- Miscellaneous :
finements and variations of this basic operation Ballroom Swimming pool
differ according to the type of food service Music recital room Ice skating rink
being offered . Music practice room Cooperative grocery
The prepared food in larger union buildings
Television room Ski slide
may go in several directions from the central
Convention hall
kitchen. Cafeterias, counters, banquet service
kitchens, soda fountains, coffee shops, employ- Non-Union :
ees' cafeteria counters, private and public Campus newspaper Student amateur radio club
dining room kitchens, and commuter lunch- College yearbook Religious advising
rooms may all be served from this single area, Student government Outing club
with auxiliary food preparation completed at Student radio station Others
the serving scene .
Supplying food to these service areas calls
for various kinds of transportation . Cafeterias
demand a rather steady stream of food for two
or more hours at a time, while banquets and
private dinners demand that all persons be
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Student Unions

served nearly simultaneously . Public dining used by all students, should adjoin each other, lounge ; a women's college probably finds a
rooms, coffee shops, and soda fountains re- including their lunchroom and lounge . The loca- men's lounge superfluous, although it may
quire more individual service . tion of meeting rooms near each other permits wish to have a room available which can be
Many unions do a brisk take-out business flexibility of use, easy transfer of furniture and converted to serve such a purpose on special
with coffee, sandwiches, and similar refresh- equipment, proper supervision and mainte- occasions. The existence and location of a fac-
ment being purchased for consumption outside nance resulting from concentration of people, ulty club may determine the desirability of a
the building . Much of this business occurs late and economy of time between meetings . faculty lounge, end the facilities and enter-
in the evening when food is taken back to living Lounges may be spread throughout the taining regulations in living units bear on the
units for consumption during study hours. The building to serve various sections and may vary size and number of mixed lounges. The pres-
soda-fountain-short-order facilities with their in kind with the sections they serve. ence and availability of other lounges on cam-
long operating hours end particular menu are Some of the quiet areas may well be served pus should be considered in planning the union
best equipped to handle this operation. by separate entrances, included among which building lounges .
could be the chapel, guest quarters, faculty
Dining Rooms Basically, the function of the lounge, international center, and student activ- Reading Rooms while all colleges have li-
dining room is the housing of eaters . If this ities and office spaces . Problems of control braries, they seem to be considered primarily
were its only function, the most economical arise when this situation occurs and it may places for work, so that much can be done by a
and efficient way to fulfill it would be achieved have some divisive effect on the union, but late union browsing or reading room to stimulate
by using long tables with stools stored under operating hours in the newspaper office or good recreational reading habits on the cam-
them and with one large room used for all guest wing may dictate separation of such ar-
pus. Avoidance of the "library stigma" may be
eating . Since some of the union's education and eas from the whole building, as may the partial
achieved by using comfortable surroundings
service programs are carried out in the dining operation of the building during vacation peri-
with air conditioning, fireplaces, decorative
areas, they must do much more than just house ods . plants, proper lighting, by not numbering the
eaters . In addition to eating, such activities as Music listening (properly soundproofed),
library or browsing, and art display rooms can binding of books and by meeting the reading
card and chess playing, dances, carnivals, en- needs through a selection committee. Certainly
tertainment, concerts or recitals, radio forums, be located together in a sort of cultural center .
If this is done, the issuing of records, books, atmosphere is important if the browsing room
or speeches may occur in them . They may is to be the sort of place where students and
house displays or serve as polling places . and periodicals and prints from a central loca-
others go for intellectual stimulation or satis-
Meetings and private parties may take place in tion and supervision of that area proves eco-
faction, or to while away some time .
some of them, classes in etiquette or home- nomical . These areas are likely to offer less
The normal functions most likely to be car-
making in others . In some, conferences or con- attraction than the game areas, for example,
ried out in the browsing room are book, period-
ventions for hundreds may be occurring simul- while supplying experiences of value in broad-
ical and newspaper storage, reading and book
taneously with intimate tote-a-totes in others. ening the horizons of undergraduates . Their lo-
selection . Books are usually shelved around
Therefore, more than more feeding stations, cation, however, in a fairly prominent spot may
the periphery of the room, end this area should
the dining rooms are really gathering places for encourage more patronage, but since heavy
be separated from furnishings and equipment
people . They are important in bringing stu- traffic and accompanying noisiness may result,
by an aisle wide enough to permit persons to
dents, faculty, alumni, staff, and the public to- a choice may be necessary between promi-
select their books easily . Periodicals and news-
gether, and they further the unifying concepts nence and peacefulness of position .
papers require less browsing room and may be
of the term union. incorporated in a lounge arrangement of furni-
The variety of dining facilities found in the Meeting Rooms Expansibility. A glance et the ture by use of standard racks, or by storage on
larger union buildings attests to the variety of Classified Facilities Table shows e wide variety
coffee or other tables .
dining functions demanding service . There are of uses to which meeting rooms and lounges
the soda fountains or snack bare where a quick may be put and the degree of interchangeability
bite or cup of coffee may be obtained or where which exists between the functions of the two Wilk ROOMS Marked changes have occurred in
acquaintanceships are made and friendships areas. If lounges are not to be used for formal the field of music listening . Record changers,
cemented . This, more than any other single programs but solely for spontaneous, informal the long playing record, tape recorders, and
use, the number of meeting rooms required is high fidelity have increased tremendously the
spot on campus, is apt to be the gathering
larger than that demanded when the use of interest in reproduced music and have offered
place. Smoke, juke box music, laughter, con-
versation and crowds typify it, and informality lounges permits more flexibility . It seems quite unions, among others, a real opportunity for
is its keynote. The coffee shops offer informal certain, at any rate, that the meeting room facil- improving the level of musical understanding
ity will require expansion early. and interest of their students . At the same time,
dining, with or without table service, for a re-
laxed meal or casual entertaining ; the cafeteria The need for many small meeting rooms does problems of control and usage have been
provides the low-priced three meals a day; and not eliminate the demand for larger ones . raised since record and tape playing equipment
the dining room, with its linen, service, crystal, Enough of each is expensive and the compro- is costly and complex, records easily damaged
and other fine appointments, is the place for a mise of dividing large rooms into smaller ones and the noise potential great enough to trans-
full-course meal, special date, or folks from by means of folding or sliding walls is a widely form the so-called quiet areas of the union
home . The banquet hall provides for the nu- accepted one, even though it is a compromise building into pandemonium. The whole music
merous student, faculty, and other organiza- with faults centering largely around the acous- listening program must be thought out well in
tional dinners that occur throughout the year tic problem . advance because this aspect of the union
but which abound each spring, and the private Some small meeting rooms, equipped with building is dependent to a very great extent
dining rooms cater to luncheon or dinner tables and seating, may double as conference upon the manner in which the program func-
meetings for groups, classes, guests, or others . rooms, and the tables themselves may serve as tions. Individuals listening to music may do so
rostrums for meetings as well as conference in booths, small rooms or lounges of varying
tables . sizes. They may be using earphones which can
The addition of a small 16 mm projection disturb no one, commercial combination pho-
Quiet Areas booth at the end of a meeting room simplifies nograph-radios, or custom-built high fidelity
All the quiet areas of the union building need the showing of motion pictures to small groups sets. They may be playing the records them-
not be connected, but they should be isolated and eliminates much of the need for trans- selves or may have requested selections which
from the noisier sections such as kitchens, porting and setting up equipment in a room an attendant is playing from the control point.
workshops, or game areas. Actually, quiet where its noise, light and extension cords de- Records and tapes may be kept with the player
areas subdivide quite easily by function to per- tract from the film showing . Such a booth, and used by anyone, they may be issued by an
mit separation . Thus, the living quarters such separated from the meeting room by a wall and attendant or they may be private property . Per-
as guest rooms, guest dormitories, or com- glass port, can serve many groups and relieve sons using record players may be required to
muters' sleeping rooms should be separated much of the load normally placed on a theatre, pass a test in the operation of the equipment .
from the busier lounges and meeting rooms, particularly if this booth looks into a larger Planned group listening such as record coffee
and their combination permits more efficient room which may be subdivided . hours may be held in a multipurpose lounge
operation, supervision, and housekeeping . Stu- equipped with a player or a speaker from a
dent activity areas (rooms with desks and LOllages A variety of lounges-men's, wom- master system, or they may take place in e
files not permanently assigned) and student en's, faculty, commuters', mixed--may be in- music lounge specifically designed for music
offices (permanently assigned spaces) should cluded in a union building . To a certain extent, listening, recorded and live . Economy may de-
be together for ease of communication and the kind of institution involved determines the mand that listening booths be connected with
supervision. The facilities for day students, if kinds of lounges which are desirable . A resi- the reading room where group concerts are
they are distinguished from those normally dential college does not need a commuters' held . Obviously, many of these items must be
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Student Unions

considered before the building is planned, which the Classified Facilities Table indicates and central materials sources and the camera
because such items as conduits, storage racks, may be held therein, thus making desirable the club and campus publications the same stu-
acoustics, equipment, furniture, electrical out- inclusion of a theater in the union building . dios . The size of the union and the university,
lets, glazed doors for supervision, and cata- With a well-housed drama program already in the organizational scheme and expected use of
loging methods determine much of the utility operation, the theater requirements may be the various shops would determine the pos-
of the music room . pared down so that nothing more than an audi- sibility of such a combination . Among the arts
torium and platform suits the union's needs. and crafts activities which a union might
Commuters' Areas Nonresident students at col- Such a solution appears most questionable, embrace are :
leges near or in metropolitan centers afford however, since it provides little more than a
forum for speakers, a location for motion pic- Painting General woodworking
many problems to unions, a number of which
Sketching Picture framing
center around their nonparticipation in most tures and stage for formal music concerts .
Block printing Cabinet making
of the union's programs . Their demands on the Such activities as variety or vaudeville shows,
Poster making Metal and jewelry work
college naturally differ from those of the resi- fashion shows, orchestral and choral concerts,
Silk screening Ceramics
dents. They need parking space on the campus, sing contests and dance recitals become diffi-
Clay modeling Drafting
a place to eat a bag or light lunch, storage place cult to present without proper stage, scenery,
Weaving Photography
for books, lunches, and similar equipment, e dressing, shops, wing and lighting facilities .
Rug making Leatherwork
spot for resting or, perhaps, an occasional The use of road shows-ballet, drama, opera,
Drawing Graphic arts
overnight stay . While the union is not neces- and the like-by the union is obviated . It may
Fly tying Sewing
sarily the only location on the campus where be that such activities can be housed else-
Plastic work Knitting
such services may be rendered, it seems to be where, but the demands on theaters of dramatic
the logical place for many of them . Further- groups for practice and for rehearsal and While adherents of nearly each art or craft
more, many of the day students are quite staging time, of music groups for practice and could develop a list of reasons why their favor.
likely to eat in the union and to use it as their concert time, of assemblies, meetings and con- its activity should be allocated separate space
headquarters, and so it seems logical to plan ferences for auditorium time, of departments and equipment, much of it with special require-
to meet as many of their demands As possible and organizations for space for motion pic- ments such as north light for sketching or hu-
in advance . If the union building is to be a uni- tures, lectures and demonstrations, indicate midity control for clay modeling, enough com-
fying factor on the campus, it must be prepared that a close study of all present demands upon promises and combinations can be effected to
to serve the offtimes large[nonresident]seg- theater facilities be studied and that future pos- provide a variety of activities within a reason-
ment of the student body . sibilities, particularly as suggested by other able area .
campuses with adequate union theaters, be
Guest Rooms Many union buildings contain considered before plans are drawn up . The Outdoor Games
overnight guest facilities, the extent of which place of other existing theaters and assembly
The extent to which the games area should be
ranges from a single room or suite through halls in the campus scheme of things, including
large, barracks-like halls to elaborate hotels policies governing their use, should be given developed is dependent in large degree on what
is available elsewhere on the campus . The num-
with full commercial service . The facilities may grave consideration.
ber of games within the union's province which
be intended primarily for university guests, A union theater would seem to suit most of
such as convocation speakers, for visiting can be played outside might include badminton,
its purposes if it houses the requirements of a
groups such as athletic teems, for parents or bowling on the green, boccie, croquet, curling,
fairly orthodox collegiate drama program and
returning alumni, for the guests of students or clock golf, horseshoes, shuffleboard, table
adds such items as an elevating forestage-
for conventions . They add to the service as- tennis, giant checkers, deck tennis, roque,
orchestra pit; audience access to stage for
quoits, and a variety of table games such as
pects of the union building and offer little to its variety shows, sing contests end the like ;
educational program aside from the training chess, checkers . or cards .
fluctuating seating capacity by means of sliding
the larger units afford to student employees panels or draperies ; reception or lobby lounge ;
and to students who are majoring in hotel broadcasting facilities ; possible combination Integration of Areas
administration . The inclusion of guest rooms craft-scenery shops, and still and motion-
in the union building depends upon many di- picture equipment to achieve the flexibility Some union facilities must be located on the
verse elements, such as present and future street level; others operate most efficiently on
which is an earmark of the union building .
needs, facilities existing elsewhere, nearby To function completely, the union theater other levels . There are strong reasons for
hotels, curricular development, operating would be composed of : placing food services, information center,
hours, operating costs and other union facili- bookstore, ticket offices, ballroom, and admin-
Auditorium Projection booth istrative offices on the ground floor, while
ties, and careful study is indicated . The fact
that the Association of College Unions lists Stage Sound system other areas such as publication offices or stu-
hotel units among the doubtful facilities to be Forestage Screen dent activity offices may be in less accessible
Orchestra pit Stage house locations . Guest rooms, which receive rela-
included in union buildings should serve to re-
inforce the need for careful study. Proscenium arch Lobby tively little traffic and function better in qui-
Dressing rooms Ticket office et, fit nicely into higher floors and more remote
Scene shop Scenery storeroom wings. The task of putting the various elements
Student Activities Area A student activities area Costume shop Control board of a union building together so that each fulfills
is a space housing a number of desks and filing Light booth Rest rooms its own function while complementing that of
cabinets which can be used by varying student Makeup room Coat room the others is nearly certain to demand com-
organizations for a portion of the academic Rehearsal room Lounge or green room promises . Realism may dictate that such reve-
year . Thus groups which do not need an office nue-producing facilities as a bookstore or soda
or room of their own can be accommodated Some of these facilities, such as lounge,
coat room, rest room or rehearsal room, may fountain take precedence in location over a
with a minimum of space allocation . The num- music room or browsing library, even though
ber of groups end activities on each campus be a part of the union building and serve a
it may be educationally desirable to expose, at
that might use such an area determine its size, double purpose, so that a nearby lounge may be
used for receptions or a properly shaped least by propinquity, those entering the
and it appears wise to consider that the exis- building to the latter rather than the former .
tence of such an area might well increase re- meeting room double for use during live re-
Traffic to the most popular areas of the union
quests for its use, thus making a somewhat hearsals .
building should not be so directed that it
oversized original plan advisable . causes great crowds of people to throng its
passages and stairways to the disturbance of
Arts and Crafts Shops
other sections and to the detriment of building
Theater The variety of offerings which the union's maintenance . Some seldom-used facilities,
Need Like so many other parts of the union shops can provide is large. Some of these such as a ballroom or hobby shop, may finally
building, the theater must be custom-built to offerings, such as photography, demand spe- be placed on the top floor because there is no
suit its campus . It is quite likely that a union cialized facilities and equipment ; others, such room elsewhere for them .
building located near a modern, well-equipped an leatherwork or jewelry making, require little
theater can utilize these facilities for its pro- and can be accommodated in a general shop Segregation by Function Whenever practical, ar-
gram and not need a theater of its own. On the area . The tools of some crafts may be used in eas should be separated by function, as previ-
other hand, the demands on such a theater by common by participants in other union activi- ously described in the section on game rooms,
dramatic and other groups may render the the- ties, so that the scene, maintenance, and wood- where supervision, instruction, and equipment
ater unavailable for the variety of activities working shops may use the same power tools control for all were made possible . Such areas
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Student Unions

rooms can be worked into a unit which is ser- join the foot-meeting-room section . A review
may assist others in their functions when
properly located and so, while complete in viced and supervised by one central control or of this portion of the building so far reveals it
themselves, they can nevertheless help and be which, at least during rest periods or emer- to be a busy place with many persons using it
helped by others. Thus, a self-contained game gencies, can be satisfactorily administered by for eating, meeting, and theater work . Service
area receives players from a nearby coffee one person . facilities such as coat rooms, toilets, and public
shop, and the presence of such a shop induces The kitchen should connect with the ball- telephones are needed, and multipurpose
gamesters to stop for refreshments when room and with certain of the lounges and lounges prove valuable . If the costume and
leaving . It is to be hoped that persons walking meeting rooms, even if only by conveyors or stage shops are to have any connections with
by a corridor case containing a craft display elevators, to provide adequate service for re- the hobby shops, the latter must be included in
might be interested in utilizing the out-of-the- ceptions, coffee hours, intermission refresh- this section of the building . By the same token,
way hobby shop . ments, and, possibly, banquets . Thus, those if the darkroom facilities are to be used by the
Some principles in combining the elements areas served by the kitchen but not on the same campus publications, these offices might well
of the union building into an entity are elemen- level must be vertically aligned with it if they be located here .
tary . The games area is noisy and should not be are to be serviced by a dumbwaiter .
next to sleeping rooms or private dining or Reception Center The main entrance, lobby, and
meeting rooms . Kitchens demand considerable Public SpacesSo far, then, the food areas are information desk go together . In some union
delivery, removal, and storage, hence they best located largely on the ground level with buildings the information center includes tick-
should be near driveways, storerooms, and the games rooms not too remote from the re- et, cigarette, and other sales, a lost and found
receiving spaces . The information center freshment area and with some meeting rooms service, and, possibly, some office functions .
should be near the main entrance . The theater and lounges directly above the kitchen . The
should have its own exits and entrance and is theater crowds at intermission may use the re-
probably best situated in its own wing . Similar freshment service if it is not too far distant,
or related activities may suggest combinations hence this wing, which offers some meeting Figures 1-21 are reprinted from Planning College
such as the ballroom-banquet room or theatre- space while sometimes needing additional Union Facilities for Multiple-use, Association of College
radio station . The browsing, music, and art reception and rehearsal room, might well ad- Unions-International, Madison, Wisconsin, 1966 .

Fig. 1 The core of union facilities at the University of Delaware-solid lines. And the planned future extensions, showing circulation and integration of all
units (including how food would be delivered to the future ballroom and private dining rooms)-dashed lines .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Student Unions

Smaller unions combine this center with an sistance . A maintenance superintendent's of- fices and other less noisy facilities . While
administrative office and even make it the is- fice near the maintenance shop or a reservation outside noise can interfere with the music
suing and supervising center for the music and office near the information center can provide room, the considerable amount of sound which
browsing rooms . Many unions may wish to bonuses in the form of added service . originates therein makes the music room a
place a large lounge for receptions next to the most unlikely component of a quiet area unless
main entrance . Coat rooms should adjoin this Quiet Areas The quiet areas, logically enough, it is well soundproofed .
area, and toilets should be near by. occur away from the noisier, highly trafficked By and large, the quiet areas of the building
ones . Offices ; conference and meeting rooms ; present most of the demands for late or vaca-
Administrative Spaces If the advantages of ad- art, music, and browsing rooms ; and lounges tion-time operation . Guest rooms and adminis-
joining offices outweigh those of decentralized go well together, but they cannot entirely be trative and publications offices are quite likely
offices, an administrative suite can be planned separated from the noisier sections . Meeting to function late at night or during the Christmas
wherein equipment and personnel can be used rooms with their periodic traffic introduce or summer vacations, and locating these to-
with flexibility. Some office space is needed in some noise to an otherwise quiet facility, par- gether with separate access permits their use
the various departments but can be reduced if ticularly when larger rooms are in use, and it after the union's normal operating hours . With
centralization is adopted . Should decentralized may be that larger meeting rooms and lounges this in mind it may seem advisable to place the
offices be used, the social director might well fit into the noisier section, which includes the campus radio station alongside the various stu-
be housed in the student activities section food services, while smaller meeting rooms dent offices . Separate use of other areas of the
where the various student government organi- and lounges and conference rooms are com- building should also be considered in laying out
zations, union committees, and publications bined in a quiet section which embraces of- the floor plans .
hold forth . In this way communication among
the various groups and with the social director
is improved and a relatively quiet group of
activities kept together. If decentralization of
offices is adopted, other offices besides the
social director's can serve double duty . The
business office near the food or bookstore area
can offer closer supervision and emergency as-

Fig. S Main lounge-Used to expand TV viewing area during special

Fig. 2 A union embracing typical facilities usually
event broadcasts, with folding partition open .
required at a university for about 6,000 students :
" Food Service
" Social Facilities
. Recreation Rooms
" Small Auditorium
" Meeting & Conference Rooms
. Offices
" Service Auxiliaries

Fig . 6 Information desk-Requires full-time at- Fig . 7 Private dining or meeting rooms.
tendant.

Fig. 3 Union auditorium-Needed for union cul-

tural program, movies, conferences .

Fig. 4 Separate TV lounge-At minimum size

needed for special event broadcasts. Fig . 8 Combined facilities .
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Student Unions

Fig . 9 Normal main-floor facilities: (a) conference room ; (b) coat checkroom .

Fig. 10 Union food services.

Fig . 11 Space for various functions.

Fig . 12 Facilities for social functions .

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Student Unions

Multi-use spectator area. Fig . 14 Meeting room (plus storage) . Fig . 15 Separate bridge-chess room
Fig . 13
(game-playing only) .

Fig . 16 Game facilities.

Fig. 18
Fig. 17
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Student Unions; Computation Centers

Fig . 19 Special dining facilities .

Fig . 20 Gymnasium . Fig . 21 Union ballroom .

puter or as visitors to see the facilities . Hence Perhaps even more serious than the direct
COMPUTATION CENTERS
it is important that adequate parking be pro- dollar cost is the fragmentation of knowledge
Most experts in the field agree that a computa- vided near the computation center to accommo- that takes place when each small computer
tion center for a college or university should be date both its own staff and these visitors . has its own staff, communicating poorly, if
an all-campus facility, administratively under Access to the computer facilities must also at all, with similar groups on the same campus .
the control either of the Graduate School or of be provided for the computing machinery and Despite this, groups frustrated by inconvenient
an all-campus committee, rather than an ad- for the supplies that will be needed in its opera- or inadequate access press strongly and some-
junct of an academic department such as math- tion . times successfully for their own installation .
ematics, statistics, or electrical engineering . A The functions of a computation center may A separate problem here is the need for ana-
currently emerging pattern is the formation of a be different at different institutions, and must logue or digital equipment tied directly (i .e .
separate department of computer science with be considered in planning its location and "on line") to a real time experiment, such as
some teaching duties ; it usually has some af- space requirements . a reactor, jet engine test stand, or a human
filiation with the department of mathematics A small center with more limited objectives being under some form of medical obser-
and is possibly not fully responsible for the may require a relatively small amount of space vation or treatment . Techniques for inter-
service activities of the computation center . at first. However, experience has often indi- rupting large-scale problems for brief uses of
cated that after a small computer has intro- the computer are under very active develop-
duced research workers in many areas on the ment, but it is difficult at this time to predict
Location of a Computation Center, campus to the potentialities of computer use, whether additional machines of about the
Public Access, and Parking a larger center is not only desired but justified . present size will be installed or whether even
In choosing a central or peripheral location for Wise planning must take this into account . larger machines will be shared by many users,
a computer, the rapid development of computer Furthermore, experience both on university perhaps with the aid of off-site input and out-
use by medical schools, business schools, and campuses and in industrial organizations sug- put devices .
behaviorial science groups, as well as by physi- gests that a single computer of great capability
cal scientists and engineers, should be con- is preferable to a collection of several much Public Viewing and Briefing
sidered . Proximity to users must be weighed slower machines, since both the machine cost
against the almost certain needs for expansion and programing cost per unit of computing The main computer room itself is an important
in the near future . New means are being de- are cheaper on the single large machine than showplace . Good public relations require that
veloped whereby a fast central computer can on several minor machines . It is assumed that it be located where visitors can easily see it
service simultaneously a number of different the large machine is satisfactory to all parties from a corridor or viewing room through a
input-output stations that may be placed strate- concerned, is capable of handling the com- glass wall . Otherwise, there will be crowding
gically at several points on a campus . bined workload, and is not idle much of the that interferes with the work . A classroom,
A computation center is visited daily by time . The tenfold increase in cost required for briefing room, or auditorium, equipped with
large numbers of people who come either as a fast machine may possibly provide a hundred- adequate chalkboard in front, should be placed
clients to have problems done on the com- fold increase in capability, thereby reducing near the viewing area . This room can be used
the cost per unit of computing by a factor of both for briefing groups who may come to see
ten . This is a real saving if the fast machine the computer and for regular instruction in
Buildings and Facilities for the Mathematical computer science, either in short courses,
Sciences, Conference Board of the Mathe- is used to capacity, but not if it is used only
matical Sciences, Washington, D .C ., 1963 . 10 percent of the time . institutes, or regular university courses .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Computation Centers

Computer Space floor with floor areas at a different level in Preparation Areas
order to permit carts with tape or punch cards,
The main computer room is the heart of a com- or other equipment, to be rolled in . For programming there should be a preparation
puting center . It must be accessible to the com- Auxiliary card-punch machines, tape prepara- room, or "ready room," near the auxiliary ma-
puter staff who operate the machines and to tion units, and printers may be included within chine room, where programmers may put their
the maintenance engineers who repair the the vapor seal enclosing the main computer programs on tape or cards that the computer
machines and keep them in running order, as units, but they should probably be separated can read, and where they may check their pro-
well as being strategically located for public from the main room by glass panels to reduce grams for errors . A ready root" should be
viewing (Figs. 1 and 2) . It must also be ac- the noise level and dirt . Acoustic treatment equipped with work tables and desk calculators
cessible to appropriate storage spaces and to of the ceilings is important for noise reduction . in addition to the auxiliary punch units that
the power supply . Efficient operation requires Adequate and well-diffused lighting should may be needed for preparing programs to be
that the individual machine units in the main also be installed in the ceilings of the com- read by the computer .
computing room be so placed that they are puter areas. For efficient operation, many people who do
easily accessible for quick repair in emergency, Some information storage media, such as not have permanent offices in the computer
as well as being conveniently located for the punched Hollerith cards, punched tape, or area need temporary work space there.
operators and the public . If the distance from magnetic tape, are needed for current use and A reception desk or counter may be provided
the back of the computer units to the walls should be readily accessible ; a fireproof stor- in or near the ready room to accept and check
were made 18 in . greater than the distance age closet for such items should be adjacent in programs to be run on the machine, record
needed to open the cabinet doors and carry to the computer room . Magnetic tapes are com- completed work, and return it to an appro-
out repairs, this wall space could be used for monly stored in flat, cylindrical cans, placed priate cubbyhole in a large rack, where it may
storage that would be accessible except during on racks so that their circular bases are in a be picked up by the person who submitted it .
maintenance . (However, fire regulations de- vertical plane . Metal file cabinets with drawers
mand that only the absolute minimum of rec- designed for standard punched cards are also Offices, Conference Rooms, Library,
ords required for efficient operation shall be commercially available . and Lounge
kept in the computer room itself .) An upper
limit to the distances between computer units Maintenance and Mechanical Areas, Spaces required by the computer personnel,
may be set in some installations by the avail- in addition to the preparation areas just
Power, and Air Conditioning
able lengths of information cable. described, include offices, conference rooms,
The machines in the main computer room Adequate space should be provided near the library, and lounge or refreshment corner .
need proper support, cable connections, and main equipment room for the use of mainte- Conference rooms are needed in which several
air conditioning . In the main machine rooms nance engineers, whether they be local person- persons, including the proposer of the prob-
for most of the larger computers, the under- nel or representatives of the equipment manu- lem, may get together to discuss possible
lying fixed floor is built about 18 in . lower facturer on contract to repair the machines . methods of attack for its solution . Private
than the floors in adjacent preparation rooms Undue economy in the space available to main- offices are needed where people working on
or corridors, and it is covered by a strong tenance engineers may be no economy at all in problems can concentrate without interrup-
elevated floor beneath which cable connections the long run, since time wasted in repairing a tion on the complicated series of steps neces-
can be installed without obstructing the pas- fast computer may be worth several dollars a sary to program a problem.
sageways (Fig . 3) . The panels may be covered minute . A reference library should be readily avail-
with carpeting or other types of flooring Spaces for auxiliary mechanical equipment able to computer personnel. This library should
materials, but it is important that the floor be for the computer, including the power supply include not only a collection or "library" of sub-
kept free from dust, lint, and static electricity . and air conditioning, must be provided close routines and other programs that may be stored
In buildings without a recessed subfloor, to the main computer room . There are some ad- on tape or punched cards but also at least a
such as those remodeled for computer use, vantages in having this area adjacent to the minimal collection of technical books and
ramps should be used to connect the elevated working areas for maintenance personnel. journals relating to computing and numerical

Fig. 1 Plan of computation center, University of Texas.

 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Computation Centers

Fig . 2 Plan of computation center, Stanford University.

coffee can be served . Since a computer may be ditto paper, and paper for a high-speed printer .
analysis . A larger departmental collection in
in operation 24 hours a day and programming Suitable provision must be made for receiving
a separate room, including duplicates of some
pertinent mathematics books, may be justified activities require long periods of meticulous and storing these supplies . Printing by machine
work, a kitchenette or at least a hot plate may at slower speeds directly on multilith masters
if the computing center cannot share a library
be needed to restore the energy and efficiency permits the reproduction of computer-pro-
with mathematics or statistics and is not near
of the staff . duced information without the errors arising
the main library .
Offices for computer personnel should in- from human intervention . Supplies for such
work will require storage.
clude the same essentials as for mathematics
professors, namely, a desk, chairs, book- Reception, Administration,
shelving, telephone, and adequate chalkboard Fire Protection and Emergencies
Duplicating, and Storage
on at least one wall . However, the computer
The administrative space for the computing To prevent damage to the computer by fire or
specialist may have more need than the pure
center may closely resemble the administrative water hazards arising outside the computer
mathematician for electrical equipment such
space for a mathematics department . Not to be room itself, the equipment should be housed
as desk calculator or a tape punch . These re-
forgotten are offices for the director and his in a fire-resistive building and should be pro-
quire electrical outlets and either a table or
assistant, office space for reception and for tected by fire doors from the rest of the
writing shelf on which to work .
secretaries and typists, and a workroom building ; the flooring should be of noncom-
Regular staff members of a computer center
equipped with duplicating machines and plenty bustible construction, and the roof or floor
should not only have individual offices where
they can work without distraction but also a of shelving space for all the reports and notes above the computer room should be a water-
that must be reproduced. Of course, adequate tight slab to which the walls are sealed .
staff lounge where they can get together to
space with controlled temperature and humid- Waterproofed walls and proper drainage may
exchange ideas and charge their mental bat-
ity must be provided for the storage of punched be needed to prevent water damage in a base-
teries . At the University of Texas Computation
cards . Clearly, such general facilities as toilets ment installation . Local fire protection for cer-
Center (Fig . 1), ten offices of 180 square
must not be overlooked . tain key computer units may be provided by
ft each and six cubicles of 100 sq ft each are
approved automatic carbon dioxide fire
provided for the use of staff and graduate A computer installation uses large quantities
extinguishers rather than by water sprinklers .
students, and there is a small lounge in which of materials, such as punch cards, paper tapes,
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Computation Centers ; Communications Centers

Fig. 3 Elevated floor for a computation center.

Cards, disks, and drums should be kept in COMMUNICATIONS CENTERS " Special and expensive electrical installa-
waterproof, noncombustible metal cabinets tions.
with controlled temperature and humidity if A new building type resulting from new " Accommodation for weird room shapes ;
required . Those not in current use should be thinking and practice is the communications placing one pie-shaped lecture room in many
stored in a separate room close to the com- center . The emphasis of this type of facility is separate buildings creates waste space and
puter room . Magnetic tape itself is highly flam- on large-group instruction and on the media to odd configurations . Putting many such rooms
mable. Duplicate copies of programs and rec- support it . For this reason, it is becoming a together in one building allows the good de-
ords might be stored in a remote place as college building, centrally located on the signer to cut down if not eliminate these
insurance against their total loss by a fire in campus to accommodate many hundreds of wasted spaces . (See Fig. 2.)
the computer center . Adequate controls should students in large groups throughout the day. " Centralization of production facilities .
prevent the ducts of the computer air-condi- It may also be part of an educational park with Since many of the items produced will be used
tioning system from circulating smoke and fire its facilities available to all school groups in in the large-group lectures, it makes sense to
in case of emergency; it is best to have the the area . (See Fig . 1 .) consolidate all production and "support"
computer air ducts independent of the other air The philosophy behind the communications activities in the building (Fig . 2) .
ducts in the building . All office furniture in the center is a simple one . If the institution feels " A central "focal" point for faculty training
computer room should be metal. that large-group instruction fits its needs for in effectively using presentation and other
Hazards other than fire and water that may economical but effective instruction (as many instructional media.
need to be considered in planning and main- colleges do believe), it makes sense to put The communications center does not be-
taining a computer installation are those from these expensive "supporting" functions to- come the property of any one discipline or
radiation, magnetic fields, static electricity, gether . The communications center can department on campus ; its use will be en-
dust, insects, or rodents. To protect stored economically provide : couraged for all departments needing it . It will
rolls of magnetic tape from loss of information " Shared projection areas, allowing expen- occupy a focal point on the campus, probably
due to local magnetic disturbances, it is best sive equipment to be kept together in one room . at the crossroads of major circulation paths.
to place their containers on edge in a mag- This not only ensures better care of the equip- The types of facilities the communications
netically protected storage place. To minimize ment, but through consolidation, utilization center may include cover those in many areas.
the effects of dust and static electricity, car- rates can go up . (See Fig. 3.)
pets and drapes should be made of materials " Special and expensive lighting and me-
free from lint and static ; the use of dustcloths chanical systems . It is cheaper and less cum- " Lobby and Circulation
or dry mops for cleaning should be avoided. bersome, for instance, to air-condition one Include display, exhibition, reception,
If the incoming power supply for the com- whole building rather then little pieces of many kitchen areas
puter is subject to occasional interruptions, buildings . Generous to accommodate many large
a secondary source of power may be needed groups in the building
to provide continuity of operations . Failure " Instructional Spaces
of the air-conditioning system may, also cause Educational Facilities with New Media, De- Lecture halls (capacity determined by
the computer to shut down within a short time, partment of Audiovisual Instruction. National local programming)
Education Association in collaboration with
so there should be a warning alarm that will the Center for Architectural Research, Rens- Storage and preparation areas
immediately call attention to such a failure. selaer Polytechnic Institute. Seminar and small-group rooms
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Communications Centers

" Film and TV Production

TV and film studios
Central engineering and control
Dressing and ante areas
Equipment storage and work rooms
Prop storage and work rooms
Staff and faculty offices
Film processing and editing
Preview end conference rooms
" Graphics and Aids Production
Art and finishing studios
Photo and finishing studios
Staff and preview areas
" Instructional Materials Distribution
Storage of materials and equipment
Check-out area
Office, records, and work area
" Administration and Research
Office and conference
Library
Records storage
" General Services
Workshop areas
Shipping and receiving
Building maintenance

Fig . 1

Owings
Fig . 2 Communications lecture hall center, State University of New York, Oswego, N .Y. Skidmore
8 Merrill, Architects .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Communications Centers ; Regional Education Center

Necessary work areas

Shipping and receiving
" Production Services
Regional office and conference
Research, testing, and evaluation
Equipment mock-up and repair
Radio origination studios and support
TV origination and support
Film origination and support
Photographic and film processing
Graphics center
Writing and editing publications areas
Publications mock-up areas
Central reproduction facility
Shipping and receiving
" Curriculum Services
Regional office and conference
Curriculum development and project
center
Resource rooms for the various disciplines
Spaces for adjunct and consulting staffs
Student testing area
Pupil personnel services staff area
In-service training areas
Demonstration classrooms
Exhibit areas
" Administrative Services
Legal advisory office
Financial planning, audit, and control
office
Transportation, maintenance, etc . offices
Central personnel interviewing and records
center
" Supporting Services
Lobby and central exhibition spaces
Large-group area
Conference and assembly areas
Cafeteria and kitchen
Central receiving and storage
Central workshop
Maintenance, toilet, services, etc .
Many of these facility types have already
been discussed elsewhere . The design of the
regional center will necessarily become a pro-
cess of "putting them together" with the neces-
sary offices, conference areas, circulation, and
other "support" areas .
Figures 1 and 2 show the kinds of space
relationships that might exist in a regional
Fig. 3 Communications lecture hall center, State University of Now York, Oneonta, N.Y. Toole & center undertaking a broad range of programs
Angerame, Architects. and services .

Regional Education Laboratories

While the regional supplementary center can
perform services and conduct localized re-
REGIONAL EDUCATION CENTER (SUPPLEMEN- services can be accomplished in outlying or search for its members, there is still a need for
TARY) adjacent buildings ; most "centers" will proba- educational research on the larger scale . This
bly be a combination of a central building with larger-scale research has been growing steadily
This concept is not new . There are already many of these scattered adjunct buildings in this post-Sputnik era, but much remains to
many attempts to provide regional programs, housing various parts of the effort . be done . Moreover, overall coordination of
resources, and services ; some are little more The types of spaces that might be included in projects and widespread reporting of findings
than country film libraries while others (like the supplementary center are many, in- are needed if the research is to become an ef-
Toronto's Education Centre) provide a whole cluding fective part of contemporary education .
variety of services, classes, materials, and " Regional Administration These concerns stand behind the creation of
publications . Title III money will begin to fill in Administrative office and conference areas the regional education laboratory . The labora-
the gaps in our fragmented efforts so far, and Clerical staff areas tory steps in to undertake the research and
the future points toward more "comprehen- Regional research and conference areas fill the gaps always present between projects
sive" supplementary centers . Central records and storage areas and dissemination of results .
Despite the constant use of the term "center," Data processing center So far, attempts at these regional research
these regional activities may not be accom- " Program Coordination and development centers have been sporadic ;
plished in a central facility at all . The best pos- Administrative and staff areas some highly successful ones have been set up
sibilities for coordination and cross-fertiliza- Facilities for the programs themselves in large universities to attack specific educa-
tion exist in the central facility, but economics " Resource Services tional problems, but the educational laboratory
may preclude this . Many of the programs and Regional office and conference concept has yet to be adopted on any scale .
Professional resource library Title IV of the Elementary and Secondary Edu-
Search and bibliographic work area cation Act of 1965 calls for aid to support and
Central examination area for books, re- maintain these kinds of centers, though, and
Educational Facilities with New Media, sources, and equipment growth in this direction is bound to result .
Department of Audiovisual Instruction, Na- Central ordering and processing While these laboratories will take on differ-
tional Education Association m collaboration
with the Center for Architectural Research, Central collection of materials for area ent tasks, they will have some similar goals in
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute . borrowing mind, such as the following :
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Regional Education Center

Small project offices closely tied to cen-

tral media and information complexes
" Central Information Complex
Warehouse of resources, reports, data
files, etc.
May include information retrieval and
storage
Entire complex readily accessible to all
in the center and wired to adjunct units
of the laboratory
" Central Media Complex
Production and origination facilities as
required
Work areas for testing and mocking-up
media units
Accessible to all functions in the labora-
tory
Can be used for media research and sup-
port for other research
" Evaluation and Processing
Office and conference area for the evalua-
tion team
Fig. 1

" To carry on a concentrated and coordinat-

ed program of educational research activities .
These activities will most likely be accom-
plished by eminently qualified persons and
will have widespread rather than limited appli-
cation and use.
" To develop new curriculum units, with
special attention to ways of supporting them .
This will make media research, testing, and
evaluation an important part of the laboratory's
program .
" To test, evaluate, and disseminate innova-
tions on a broad scale.
" To provide direction and to encourage in-
novation in other quarters .
" To supplement and coordinate research
throughout the region .
" To provide a training ground for-educa-
tional research personnel .
In order to achieve these goals, the various
regional education laboratories will have a
number of common characteristics,
" Projects may be undertaken "in-house" or
in collaboration with other educational and
community groups .
" Staffing will include at least a corps of
administrators to coordinate activities, a pro-
fessional evaluation staff, and a professional
dissemination unit . Actual project research
may be carried on by other staff members, in-
terim staff, consultants, or a combination of
these.
" The laboratory will remain flexible . It will
adapt to the situation as necessary, changing
its own character as it undertakes different
kinds of projects in different fields .
The regions covered by these laboratories
will be necessarily large; some now envision
perhaps a dozen large centers around the coun-
try. Smaller, more specialized units in colleges
and universities may supplement the labora-
tories or extend their work into specific areas.
Implications for facilities, then, are not con-
crete. Most laboratories will require a variety
of spaces, some of which may be "eked out" of
local college buildings or those of other co-
operating groups . While many of the labora-
tory's activities may be scattered around the
region it serves, it is reasonable to believe that
there will be at least a central administrative
facility and staff. Kinds of facilities may in-
clude
" Administrative and Project
Central administrative offices
Conference areas Fig. 2
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Regional Education Center ; Resource Facilities

Data processing center serving all units

of the laboratory
" Demonstration and Mock-up
Area for mocking-up different facility
types
Large open space that can be arranged in
many ways
Central location for access by staff, stu-
dents, visitors
Provision for visitors and viewing
" Dissemination Area
Office area for professional dissemination
staff
Publications editing and mock-up areas
Printing and finishing areas
Shipping and receiving
" Service and Workshop
Large workshop to serve for all "carpen-
try" activities in the laboratory
Conventional building service spaces

RESOURCE FACILITIES (LIBRARY)

No other educational facility is receiving more
attention today than the library and its des-
cendant, the resources center . There are many
concepts and philosophies for the new form of
the library, and as is appropriate in a time of
change and innovation, the form of the library
is certainly not set. One fact is certain ; the li-
brary (it will be called the resources center
from here on) is more than a repository for
books and printed materials available for
checkout or for use by students at long, drab
tables with stiff chairs . The functional charac-
teristics of the library are still present-the
acquiring, cataloging, indexing, storing, re-
trieving, use, and restoring of information, but
the information has taken on many new forms.
It is in the form of books, periodicals, and
standard references, but also films and slides,
audio tapes and programs, videotapes and kin-
escopes, film strips and miniaturized equip-
ment . The problem is how to handle these
various types of resources logistically and still
have them readily available for student use as
required by the educational philosophy of the
institution . (See Figs . 1 and 2.)
It is certainly the educational philosophy and
the way it is translated by faculty and staff
that dictate how a resources center is used . It
may be simply a more complex library -a place
where students come and check out materials
as required to complete assignments . It may
also be the whole focus of the educational pro-
gram for the institution-a place where a stu-
dent comes and learns independently, and a
place from which information is delivered to
students throughout the entire school plant
working in a number of different learning situa-
Fig. 2
tions. More and more, the resources center is
becoming the focal point, philosophically and
physically, for many new school plants . What-
ever the philosophy, it must be spelled out in
termsof educational objectives before any archi- resources center, either discipline-oriented or
tectural planning can begin. general in content . In such an institution, the
A resources center may function as part of resources center will contain independent
the system of education within a school plant in study facilities and seminar and project rooms,
a number of different ways . Figure 3 indicates as well as the resources themselves . These
a "little school" or "school-within-a-school" resources centers may be interconnected for
concept in which each subdivision contains a call-up of material from any one of them, and in
turn, all the resources centers may be con-
nected with a large, regional electronic storage
Educational Facilities with New Media, De- and retrieval facility .
partment of Audiovisual Instruction, National Figure 4a indicates a single resources cen-
Education Association in collaboration with the ter as the focus of the school and serving the
Center for Architectural Research, Rensselaer Fig. 3
Polytechnic Institute . entire school . Not only would students come to
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Resource Facilities

the resources center to use the resources, but

audio and video materials would be distributed
from the center to carrels and independent
study facilities, classrooms, seminar rooms,
and other kinds of spaces throughout the
school plant. In this case, a student does not
have to come physically to the resources center
to partake of its resources .
Figure 4b might illustrate a large educa-
tional complex-a college or university, an edu-
cational park, or a large, centralized school
plant . A large central resources center serves
the entire complex and, in turn, a number of
subcenters located within specialized academic
units . Here resources will be distributed in a
number of ways and the student will have the
choice of either using his local subcenter or
going to the larger centralized facility . In turn,
the central unit could draw from large regional
or national information centers .
In Fig . 4c a central, electronically based
storage and retrieval facility serves a number
of schools within a district, and each school
contains a small resource subcenter . It should
be noted that in this type of system all materials
must be distributed electronically or physically
from the central facility to the schools for stu-
dent use .
In programming and planning resource facili-
ties, the following points may prove of assis-
tance :
1 . The resources center in school buildings
should be considered as a learning facility as
well as a place to store and use materials . This
means that the spaces must be readily acces-
sible, inviting in character and environment,
well equipped, humanely administered, and an
integral part of the school plant .
2 . Independent study and learning facilities
within or associated with resources centers are
more than "electronic carrels ." A comfortable
lounge chair, some carpeted flooring, a seat at
a table, tables with low dividers, small separate
rooms, and writing cubicles are all independent
study facilities and should be represented
along with the electronic carrel . There should
not be a choice of only "wet" or "dry" carrels,
but a mixture of these and other accommoda-
Fig . 4 tions for individual students learning with re-
sources .
3 . A concern with space utilization has led to
some solutions for independent study facilities
in resources centers that consist of monoto-
nous row upon monotonous row of carrels .
Such planning seems to completely deny a ba-
sic philosophy of the resources center-indi-
vidualization .
4 . In bringing a resources center to physical
reality, it may follow a variety of solutions-
centralized in a single large space, decentral-
ized in small units which are dispersed about,
or a combination of both . Whatever the plan-
ning scheme, the resources center will include
a number of common components . These
would include administrative and work areas,
media storage, book and periodical storage,
soft reading area, independent study area,
simple production and reproduction facilities,
and conference, project, and seminar facilities .
5 . In planning a resources center, considers-
tion should be given to the rapid advances that
have been made in computer-based library op-
erations-processing acquisitions, printing out
bibliographies and special lists, handling
checkouts and due and reserve notices, and
requisitioning materials . Certainly this type of
system should be studied with the idea of ini-
tially incorporating compatible components
allowing expansion of the basic system serving
several centers and subcenters .
6 . Electronically based information storage
Fig . 5 Resources center. and retrieval systems will certainly be a
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Resource Facilities

planning factor in designing resources centers .

Some carrels will be "wired into" such systems
for instant access to information, and in some
cases, the resources centers may be part of the
"input" into a retrieval system . The hardware
and economies of such systems have not been
clearly defined, and they are not universally
available . However, planning must anticipate
their eventual role .

Resource Facility Study-1

This resources center combines many different
types of facilities into a single center . As such,
it would form the resources focus for a high
school, middle school, and, with modifications,
an elementary school . In addition, it has many
of the characteristics appropriate for a re-
source subcenter found at many points in a
large educational complex.
The central area consists of storage facilities
for books, media, independent audiovisual
equipment, and a variety of facilities for inde-
pendent study and learning-soft reading ar-
eas, electronic carrels, reading and writing
carrels, reading tables and chairs, etc. Sur-
rounding this center are a number of significant
supplementary facilities . Small viewing rooms
provide for independent and team work using
projected media. Typing or audio rooms pro-
vide soundproof cubicles for individual use.
Seminar rooms, project areas, and conference
facilities all provide for the use of various kinds
of resources by small groups working together .
Naturally, storage, workrooms, and office Fig. 6
facilities must be provided, as well as reference
files, indexes and a control center. Finally, the
teachers' planning, preview, and simple pro-
duction facility is provided as part of this par-
ticular resources center. (See Fig. 5.)
This center would be located at the heart of a
school plant with other educational facilities
surrounding it, all easily accessible .

Resource Facility Study-2

This resources center would be appropriate
as a subcenter in "schools-within-schools ."
It can be either a general resources subcenter
or discipline-oriented, and provides for long-
term, independent student utilization . Carrels
for audio and video use, and reading and
writing, are provided, as are a soft reading
area, tables and chairs, and enclosed and semi-
enclosed rooms used for typing and recording.
The adjunct facilities include small group
viewing rooms, project rooms, conference
rooms, a small teacher production facility,
and office work and storage space for the
administrators of the center . (See Fig. 6 .)
As a resources subcenter, this facility would
be surrounded by other types of learning
spaces, and the line of demarcation between
the resources and other educational facilities
would be indistinguishable. In fact, if properly
deigned, students would move between these
spaces freely without feeling that they were
moving from one educational world to another.

Resource Facility Study-3

This resources center introduces the basic
philosophic concept that teachers themselves
are significant resources and coordinators in
the use of resources. Therefore, they should
be part of the resources center, and this study
includes a teacher planning and conference
suite composed of teachers' work cubicles Fig. 7
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Resource Facilities ; Large-Group Facilities

surrounding a common conference and work area . mine the most effective room shape . This these adjunct spaces may include project
optimum area is not a fixed function of the areas, conference rooms, end other smaller-
Mere students may come on appointment, or on
combination of screens and/or monitors but group activities used to complement large ,
a "drop-in" basis, and consult with their instruc-
will vary with the type of material presented, group presentation .
tors as readily as they could consult with the
the duration of the presentation, the quality Large-group instruction can include learning
other resources contained in the center. This type
of the equipment, the type of screen, and other functions other than the simple presentation of
of facility would be most appropriate for a non-
factors of environment . (See details of projec- information . Manipulative and laboratory types
graded or continuous-progress type of educa-
tion systems and viewing areas .) of experiences have been employed for many
tional philosophy . It might serve either as a re- years, and this study suggests a combination of
2 . Stepped or sloped floors will always be
source subcenter in a "school-within-a-school" laboratory and lecture-demonstration functions
required in order to provide optimum viewing
concept or as the basic resources center in a within the same facility . The resulting "lecture
conditions . Both horizontal end vertical sight
school which is moving toward continuous prog- lines in these rooms are major design factors . laboratory" permits the experimental and infor-
ress, but which is initially designed for a signifi- Also, raised seating introduces more intimacy mation presentation functions to be carried on
cant program in team planning and teaching . (See in these rooms and may allow the interaction simultaneously and without changing rooms .
Fig . 7 .) desired for case presentations and discussions . The advantages of being able to demonstrate
The remainder of the resources center in- 3 . Once the viewing area has been estab- and present information to a group of students
cludes accessibility to a variety of resources lished, the actual capacity of the large-group seated at laboratory stations is one that may
which may be used individually and in small space becomes a function of the seating type help overcome the problems of amalgamating
and arrangement . Seating types run the gamut media and instruction in science areas .
groups .
from loose seats to fixed seats and built-in The lecture laboratory is a suite of facilities
counters . Whenever possible, aisles and circu- including a large area containing over a hun-
lation spaces should be kept out of the viewing dred student laboratory-desk stations, two
area to assure the maximum number of seats smaller demonstration and special equipment
located within optimum viewing conditions. areas, a rear projection area, a special projects
4 . As long as the display of information room, and storage and preparation space
and the use of media are a significant function serving all parts of the facility. The student
in the large-group room, windows and natural area is arranged on three platforms with a ramp
light are a liability rather than an asset. Al- at one side for wheeling in special equipment,
LARGE-GROUP FACILITIES
though means may be found for controlling reagents, and other materials for student use .
It seems that the effectiveness of media in natural light, the size of required images in the Each laboratory station consists of a stand-up,
education has been tested most extensively room mitigates against natural light with its sit-down work area with complete utilities
in large-group learning situations . Certainly inherent problems of control and "washed out serving every two students . The smaller
in the last ten years many public schools and a images" caused by ambient light . demonstration areas in the front of the room
large number of colleges and universities have permit small groups of students to work more
5 . Complete climatic conditioning is neces-
adopted large-group instruction using media intimately as a team or with an instructor,
sary for this type of space by virtue of the
for an increasingly large proportion of the number of students involved, the lack of natural and also provides space for special equipment
instructional load . In fact, it is through the windows and ventilation, and the concentration used by students during the laboratory exer-
utilization of learning media that large-group required by this type of learning experience . cises ; these can be shielded from the larger
instruction may become truly effective-by Such conditioning will include cooling, air area by movable partitions . (See Fig . 1 .)
bringing to this type of learning system means change, filtration, and humidity control . The projection area allows two 10-ft images
for magnifying and displaying information, 6 . Proper acoustical design, from the out- to be projected simultaneously, and further in-
presenting information from a remote location, set, in necessary for the successful functioning formation display can be provided through two
introducing information that otherwise would of this type of room . Not only should sound overhead projectors . The front of the room also
be impossible to present, and introducing originating within the room be easily heard provides area for demonstrations which are
information in a more demonstratively effec- by all students but the space should be thor- prepared and supplied from the adjacent work
tive way . oughly acoustically isolated from interfering and storage room . These types of demonstra-
There is a current reexamination of large- tions will probably be magnified by closed-
sounds from the outside .
group instruction following on the heels of a 7 . Likewise, the planning of lighting is an circuit TV and projected on the rear projection
general concern for more independent and important consideration . Generally, three levels screen .
individualized learning experiences . Even of illumination will be necessary for the display
though there are proponents of each to the methods used in these spaces ; control of Production-Support Facilities
exclusion of the other, the logical solution ambient light on projection screens is likewise
for most institutions will be the incorporation essential . To reiterate a basic point, the effective and
of both types of learning experience-and 8 . Because lighting, acoustics, and climatic efficient utilization of learning media in educa-
indeed a variety of learning experiences in conditioning are such critical design features tion requires three broad types of space-
between-and in turn the necessary facilities in the large-group room, their integration and learning spaces, resource facilities, and pro-
for their effective use . This "mix" of learning design must be considered from the outset . duction-instructional support facilities . In
experiences is the basis for many organiza- Too often this kind of space suffers badly addition to classrooms, lecture rooms, labora-
tional patterns, and is at the heart of the sys- because these design features are neglected tories, and seminar rooms designed and
tems approach to designing learning . until too late in the planning process . equipped with appropriate media, it ie necessary
For these reasons an examination of the plan- 9 . Educationally, the key to the proper that film, slide, and tape materials and other
ning of large-group facilities with media is functioning of this type of space is the integra- media resources be made accessible to stu-
essential, particularly because the design tion of the systems for displaying information dents end staff for individual use. Also, facili-
criteria and planning considerations in large- end other media uses . The studies which fol- ties must be provided in which learning media
group facilities with media are probably the low illustrate the fact that the display surfaces may be produced and which house the staff
most critical of any type of space that might are an integral part of the room, and that equip- and functions that support the teaching faculty
be provided . The following points summarize ment should be located for proper functioning in their work .
these design and planning criteria : and not to interfere in any way with the process The following points are offered as guidance
1 . An optimum viewing area, as defined by of learning . This consideration includes the in the design and planning of productional-
the various display surfaces which are con- location and planning of the teacher's lectern instructional support facilities :
sidered critical for student viewing, will deter- or control center and suggests that lighting 1 . Production and support functions and in
and equipment be tied in and controlled from turn their facilities vary in complexity and size
this lectern . with their location and level within the educa-
10 . Finally, the success of these rooms will tional system . Within an academic department
New Spaces for Learning : Designing college or "little school," simple facilities should be
depend on the inclusion and relationship of
facilities to utilize instructional aids and media .
Report of Research Project DASFEE : (Design adjunct storage, projection, and preparation available for teachers and students to produce
of Auditorium-Studio Facilities for Engineering areas . This is particularly true when rooms transparencies, photocopies, slides, multiple
Education) supported by grant from Educa- are to be used for science courses requiring copies, graphs, and charts . Usually, this local,
tional Facilities Laboratories, Inc ., revised ad .,
equipment and demonstrations . In addition, simple production area will be located within
June 1966 .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Large-Group Facilities

the complexity and needs of the particular

learning situation .
2 . Production support centers may be com-
posed of a variety of components, each of
which is related according to the echelon of
production and the types of services to be
offered . Some of these components are :

Graphic arts production

Photographic production
Motion picture production
Audio recording
Animation
Television origination
Television control, distribution, and re-
cording
Film editing and processing
Graphic materials production and assembly
Scene, set, and model production
Equipment storage and repair
General storage
Administration and offices for production
staff and visiting faculty and teachers
Conference and preview facilities
Film and tape materials and equipment stor-
age and distribution .

In programming an instructional support

center, it is the manner in which these com-
ponents are arranged and placed together that
creates the appropriate center for a particular
institution .
3 . The instructional support center can per-
form several major services in addition to
producing films, slides, tapes, and other
instructional materials :
" It can design and produce materials that
are not commercially available but which are
needed for specific instructional purposes .
- It can provide technical assistance to
teachers and professors in using instructional
technology effectively. It is this type of assis-
tance which helps teachers overcome a fear of
mechanical devices about which they have
little knowledge and great anxiety .
" It can be the catalyst which causes
teachers to begin planning instruction and
learning together. Producing televised instruc-
tion may bring cooperation among teachers
who otherwise would always function as
independent entities .
" An instructional support center can pro-
vide pedagogical assistance to teachers in
designing learning . The learning systems
designers-the pedagogical consultants-
would logically be housed within this center .
These facilities can provide the profes-
sional focus for teachers and faculty members
by making available professional references,
material, journals, and consultants.
4. Instructional support facilities may be an
integral part of an educational plant or a
separate, free-standing building or unit . In
either case, consideration should be given to
Fig . 1 designing the area to permit changes in areas
and relocation of walls, services, and cables .
Flexibility of this type is very important, as the
functions, staff, and faculty develop . A "loft
space," free of interior partitions and permitting
economical changes, may be the best type of
space .
the resources center or instructional materials all the institutions located in an educational 5 . One of the changes anticipated above
center . park . involves the planning of TV studios . Often
At the other end of the spectrum may be a The important objective is to provide several when studios are initially planned, the faculty
very large and complex production facility as echelons of production and support ranging will wish to provide for a class of students to
part of a large regional service and production from the very large and complex covering a be present in the studio during production .
center . Such facilities may form a part of the region to the very simple and local serving a However, as the faculty becomes more com-
regional service center or educational labora- few teachers . Also, to adequately support the fortable with television, the need for students
tory . In between these two extremes are pro- uses of media, all of these echelons of pro- in the studio is less significant . The building
duction centers which will serve a university, duction and support should eventually be should be designed to permit this evolutionary
a college, a large high school, several schools represented so that the instructional staff change .
within a district, an entire school district, or has many levels to draw upon, depending on 6 . Obviously there is not single instructional
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Large-Group Facilities

support facility which solves all needs at all levels .

There are many, many different systems of pro-
duction and support which can be diagrammed .
Figure 2a indicates a regional center which sup-
ports a number of subcenters within schools
throughout the system . From the subcenter, further
production and support activities are provided
to individual classrooms, resources center, inde-
pendent study facilities, and special rooms. It
should be noted that within the resources center
there is the small, simplified production area for
teacher use. The same diagram might illustrate
the activities within a college or university campus
where, from a central location, major production
and support feeds out into schools and depart-
ments and then into individual facilities and areas .
Figure 2b illustrates a center within a large
central school which not only supports that school
but feeds into other, smaller schools throughout
a school district . This might be the appropriate
diagram to illustrate production-support facilities
within an "educational park ."

Production-Support-1 This production-support

center might serve a high school, a couple of
middle schools, several elementary schoos r or a
combination of all. Figure 3 shows the basic
facilities to support uses of television, graphic
arts, and projected media while providing the
administrative and instructional support activities
necessary for such a situation . The multi-use studio
can be used for live and recorded television pro-
duction, film production, still photography, and,
possibly, audio recording. Control of all of these
production activities would come from the central
control and distribution room .
The graphics room includes drafting space,
copying machines, film editing and copying
equipment, assembly and work tables, and other
equipment associated with these types of pro-
duction . The preparation and storage area adja-
cent to the studio is used for building and storing Fig. 2
sets and models; next to it is maintenance and
repair area for AV equipment used both within
this production facility and throughout the schools
it serves . The administrative facilities include wait-
ing and exhibit areas, preview and conference
rooms, and offices.

Production-Support-2 Figure 4 illustrates a

center producing basic institutional aids and me-
dia, with an emphasis on film production . The
production process is initiated by a conference
between faculty and production staff, at which
time the nature and instructional requirements of
the materials are defined and a production sched-
ule is set up . After production, the finished materi-
als are distributed to the faculty concerned. Even-
tually the material may be deposited in the library
of resources center where it is available to the
student for review ; it may also be distributed
to cooperating institutions .

Production-Supporter Figure 5 illustrates a

center designed for originating televised in-
struction for distribution to a number of re-
ceiving points on the campus or to cooperat-
ing institutions. This center may fulfill a number
of related functions such as reception and dis-
tribution of "off the air" programs, recording
of televised instruction (videotape or kinescope),
distribution of film materials, and coordinating
of remote origination from labs, research cen-
ters, and other potential "studios ." These re-
lated functions affect space considerations
only as far as requirements of engineering Fig. 3
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Large-Group Facilities

and control, and storage of materials and for example, can produce not only visuals and total effect . None of these components, even
equipment . Distribution of the television image graphic materials for direct classroom use but the hardware, can be selected on its merits
may be by open or closed circuit or both ; the also the materials used in film production and alone .
method of transmission does not basically af- television production . This total, more complex Regardless of the projected material or meth-
fect the design of the facility . center is represented in Fig . 6 . od, the effectiveness of the presentation de-
Such a unit would probably serve an entire pends upon the ease with which the viewers
campus, or, possibly, in the case of the large receive the message . With any normal audi-
Projection Systems
university, one or more colleges on the cam- ence, the quality of viewing conditions is
pus . Too frequently the hardware used in audiovisu- chiefly determined by four factors :
al presentations is regarded as a collection of 1 . The appropriateness and efficiency of the
Production-Support-4 An institution venturing individual items-a projector, a screen, and a projection equipment and screens
into a broad program utilizing the aids and speaker-each performing its function more or 2 . The quality of the projected material
media may well consider providing a single less independently . A much broader concept is 3 . The location of the viewer in relation to
facility that combines all the production func- essential if media are to be used with maximum the screen
tions . In the long run such an approach can effectiveness . Not only these hardware items 4 . The visual and auditory environment
probably be justified from the standpoint of but also the seating area and the environment
economy of space, equipment, and personnel, itself must be considered as integrated com- Front and fl88r Projection Before considering any
as often a single activity will support several ponents of a system, each influenced by and of the above matters, it is important to recog-
production processes . A graphic arts studio, depending on all of the others in producing the nize that two different methods may be used

Fig . 4
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Large-Group Facilities

Fig . 5

for projecting images onto a screen, and that Both front and rear projection have their particularly in larger rooms . In rooms where
the choice of method will influence the design inherent advantages and disadvantages, which small image sizes are appropriate, ambient
of a projection system . These two methods become clear by comparing them in respect to light effects may not be critical providing
are : the most important areas of difference . These proper equipment is used. Current develop-
" Front projection, in which both the pro- are : ments in the improvement of equipment indi-
jector and the viewers are on the same side of " The effect of ambient light cate that the size of acceptable images possible
an opaque screen which reflects the image, " Space requirements, and with front projection under useful levels of
and, " Interference with the projected image ambient light will be increased .
" Rear projection, in which the projector and The ambient light level in the room is much An undeniable disadvantage of rear projec-
the viewers are on opposite sides of a translu- more critical with front projection than with tion is that additional space behind the screen
rear projection . This means that with present must be provided to accommodate the pro-
cent screen upon which the image is displayed .
Either one may be used for any type of pro- equipment a much higher level of room lighting jectors and their throw distances . To conserve
jector, including the TV projector, but cus- can be tolerated in the viewing area when rear space, projectors with short focal length
projection is employed . This is considered to lenses are desirable and mirrors may be
tomarily the overhead and opaque projectors
are used in front projection . (See Fig . 7.) be the chief advantage of rear projection, used to "bend" the projection rays . Also self-
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Large-Group Facilities

Fig. 6

contained screen-projector units or media beam, and the freedom of the instructor is is distractine to viewers, and if the instructor
modules may be used . It must be recognized, limited accordingly . must double as an operator, his effectiveness
however, that shortening the focal length of It has been assumed that in both methods the as a teacher is necessarily diminished .
the projector decreases the width of optimum projectors are located in reasonably sound-
viewing areas, and the use of mirrors generally proof enclosures and that remote control is Screens The design of any projection system
diminishes the effective brightness of the pro- provided for the instructor who remains at the must necessarily recognize "the human factor"
jected image . front of the class . Such assumptions are fre- -the needs and limitations of the observer .
One of the important advantages of rear pro- quently not valid for front projection, however . The impact and effectiveness of the image
jection is that the projection rays are protected With relatively small groups of viewers, porta- displayed largely depend on such matters as
from interference by either the instructor or ble front projection equipment is often used, its brightness, its legibility and its contrast
the viewers . The instructor can stand in front and the instructor himself may operate the values .
of the image to point out details without casting projector . Used in this way, front projection The human eye can tolerate and adjust to a
shadows . With front projection this is impos- has several additional disadvantages which remarkably wide range of conditions, but if
sible ; distracting shadows are cast by any should be recognized . Unless precautions are eyestrain is to be avoided, these critical vari-
object or person in the path of the projection taken to minimize it, the noise of the projector ables must be controlled within established
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Large-Group Facilities

Motion Picture Projectors . Currently the

16 mm projector has a monopoly on motion
picture projection in the classroom . However,
with the introduction of the new, large-frame
8 mm film and sound cameras, there may be a
marked changeover to 8 mm for small-group
use, and it will be introduced for independent
study . Film projection using 35 mm film has
never found extensive educational application .
Film Strip Projectors and Previewers . The
low cost and availability of film strips on al-
most every subject make this form of visual
aid attractive to many teachers . Projectors with
remote control are required for rear-screen
projection . Simple film strip previewers may
adequately serve the student studying inde-
pendently . In between are projectors appro-
priate for front projection with small groups .
Television Projectors . Television projec-
tion has its greatest implications for large-
group instruction . Its use as a method of dis-
playing and magnifying gross images is
excellent . Its promise as a first-rate teaching
tool is dependent not only on its ability to have
good contrast, brightness, and definition but
also simple maintenance . Projectors are avail-
able for closed circuit or broadcast in either
black and white or color and black and white .
In general, the more expensive the projector,
the more acceptable the image and the higher
the lumen output . Projected television requires
slightly more than a 2 W throw distance . Prices
vary tremendously from $2,800 to $50,000 or
so .
More Information . For more comprehen-
sive information on projection equipment the
reader is directed to the Audio-visual Equip-
ment Directory, National Audio-Visual Associa-
tion, Inc ., 1201 Spring Street, Fairfax, Virginia .
Space for Rear Projection . In designing for
rear projection, one of the problems the archi-
tect faces is the allowance of the correct
amount of space for the location of the projec-
tion equipment . Figure Sa shows a projector
located at a 1 W throw distance and indicates
Fig . 7 (a) Front projection; (b) rear projection.
the maximum bend angle for seat A as over
75 . This is unsatisfactory for this seat ; the
allowable bend angle is established by the
limits of acceptability . The projection screen is foolproof 35 mm cameras and remotely con- screen characteristics, and at present, the
a major component in determining visual com- trolled projectors . With the low cost of slide pro- maximum bend angle is 60 . Figure 8b shows
fort . duction and the space savings in storage, the a 2 W throw distance and a maximum bend
A variety of screen types are available for 35mm slide is being used more and more exten- angle at seat A of about 60, which is satis-
both front and rear projection . They differ sively than the 3y- by 4-in . slide . For efficient factory. Figure 8c shows a total depth of
significantly in their characteristics, affecting use in classrooms, the projectors should be rear projection area as 1 W, but by using a
both the appropriate size of viewing area and capable of remote on-off, forward-reverse, and mirror, it still permits a 2 W throw distance
the tolerable level of ambient lighting . focus . Ideally, the fan should have a thermal and a 60° bend angle .
device to allow cooling of the projector after Mirrors Reduce Light. The use of mirrors,
Projectors The reader is cautioned that any dis- the lamp is turned off . Highly desirable charac- however, has its drawback in that about a
cussion of projection devices can only report teristics for a projector will be ease of loading, 10 percent loss of image brightness occurs .
on the existing ranges and characteristics of low cost of slide trays that accept all sorts of One must also be careful of reflections of ambi-
commercially available equipment . Technolog- mountings, and freedom from jamming . Lenses ent light of other projectors or classroom light
ical developments can render much of today's are available that will allow projection from as passing through other screens and affecting
equipment obsolete ; at the time equipment is short a distance as 1 W (1 width of the screen) either the mirror or the screen . This can be
selected, the newest models should be inves- for rear projection to 6 W for front projection in combatted by locating black drapes to mask
tigated for improvements in optical systems, larger auditoriums . With improvements in the projectors from this stray light .
lumen output, remote capability, ease of opera- lumen output, mirrors can be used to reduce Some General Rules. A few general rules
tion, and cost . the space required for rear screen projection . are helpful in locating projectors and establish-
Overhead Projector. The overhead pro- Projectors are available with xenon light ing space for rear projection equipment :
jector currently is one of the most popular pro- sources, random access, digital readout, and - The larger the screen, the longer the throw
jection devices in classrooms . Ease and speed audio projector programming . distance .
of transparency-making, high lumen output, 3 Y,- by 4-in . Slide Projector. Most 3y,-by " Conversely, the smaller the screen, the
elimination of the need for room darkening, and 4-in . slide projectors manufactured today are of shorter the throw distance.
ease of operation are among its good character- the manually operated type . For the purpose of " Mirrors may be used to fold the projection
istics . The only special requirement for this this report and where remote control of the beam for space saving with smaller screens or
projector is a tilted screen in order to prevent projection device is necessary, the few re- with projectors with high lumen output on
keystoning of the image . Projectors range from motely operated projectors currently available larger screens .
fanless desktop models to those which include are discussed . Some of the most desirable " For initial schematic design a 2 W depth
the projection of slides and filmstrip through characteristics of these projectors are high behind all the screens should be allocated for
the projector's optical system . lumen output, the capability with an adapter of the rear projection area .
35 mm Slide Projector. The classroom use projecting 35 mm slides, the ability to handle - The use of extra closeup lenses decreases
of 35 mm color slides has substantially in- Polaroid slides, and short-throw lenses for the viewing area, and may result in some dis-
creased with the production of inexpensive, rear screen projection . tortion around the edge of projected images .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Large-Group Facilities

screen size for any given space will be deter-

mined by the number of viewers intended .
Conversely, a given type and size of screen
automatically establishes the size of the
viewing area, and consequently the size of
audience that can be properly accommodated .
The viewing area is the pattern which deter-
mines the seating arrangement in any learning
space where projected images are to be used,
and in the larger spaces, at least, it also in-
fluencesthe shape of the room . (Fig . 11 .)

Planning the Projection System Steps in Design .

Whether front or rear projection is to be used,
Fig. 8
the design of the projection system itself in-
volves determining :
1 . The size of viewing area required
2. The appropriate screen size
The Viewing Area Viewing Area Not Critical distance from the furthermost part of the image 3. The proper type of screen
in Most Classrooms. Before projected ma- to the most distant viewer 4. The appropriate projector(s)-the re-
terials were introduced, the objects to be . The maximum viewing angle (3), which is quired lumen output, focal length and location
viewed in the usual schoolroom were the in- the angle between the projection axis and the 5. The maximum permissible level of ambi-
structor . the chalkboards, and sometimes line of sight of a person located as far from ent lighting on the screen .
maps and charts . The instructor was free to this axis as he can be and still see all image Trial and Error at First. The desired audi-
move about the room, and the other objects detail in proper brilliance ence size is usually predetermined. In some
of visual attention were usually distributed Two Ways of Establishing the Viewing cases, the size of the viewing area, too, may
over several wall areas. All of them received Angle. Whether the apex of the maximum be established by existing conditions . Other-
their illumination by the general lighting of viewing angle should be located at the screen wise, its size and shape should be tentatively
the room itself . With no fixed area of attention, or at some other point on the projection axis
sightlines and viewing were not critical as long is a moot point. There is some disagreement
as the general lighting was adequate . among authorities, too, as to how it should
Projected Images Restrict Viewing Area . govern the side limits of the viewing area .
For the effective use of visual aids, however, Some prefer the use of the "edge angle," while
the requirements for good viewing are much others use the angle at the center of the screen .
more demanding . The projected image neces- By either approach, the limits defined are es-
sarily occupies a fixed position, and, except sentially similar. In this study, an edge angle
on the TV receiver, is in a flat plane. Whereas of 40" has been used in laying out viewing
a three-dimensional object may well be viewed areas for rear projection, since it is felt this
from the side, a flat picture can be seen intel- best represents average screen character-
ligibly only within the limits of a "cone of istics . With front projection, the use of the
view ." To see the image properly, the viewer "center angle" is probably more common
must be within the limits of this cone, and practice, and its values range from 20 to Fig. 10
neither too near the image nor too far from it . possibly as high as 50". The maximum value
The area defined by these limits is referred to of the angle used in determining the viewing approximated in accord with the principles
as the viewing area . Its importance in the plan- area for receiver TV is 45 . already discussed . Because of the relationship
ning of spaces for image viewing is funda- between its dimensions and the width of screen
mental, whether the space be a small informal Minimum and Maximum TV Viewing Distances to be used, the inexperienced designer neces-
conference area or a large formal lecture hall . sarily proceeds by trial and error until he
Shape of the Viewing Area. The shape of Size of Min viewing Max viewing
arrives at a satisfactory arrangement accom-
the viewing area, then, is approximately as TV tube distance, 4 W distance, 12 W modating the specified audience in proper
shown . Its size is always based on the size of relationship with the screen . Sometimes, the
17 in -4 ft-11 in . - 14 ft-9 in
the image to be viewed . The human eye com- problem may be reversed, requiring a deter-
prehends detail only within a limited cone 19 in 5 ft-1 in . 15 ft-2 in .
mination of the optimum audience and seating
angle (about 2'/ min of arc), and the length of 21 in 6 tt-4 in . 19 ft-0 in .
arrangement for projection equipment already
chord subtending this arc, e.g . the image width, 23 in, 6 ft-6 in . 19 ft-4 in .
at hand .
varies with its distance from the observer . Thus 24 in . 7 ft-5 in . 21 ft-5 in .
an object 20 ft away and 6 ft long appears the 27 in 9 ft-8 in . 24 ft-5 in . Standards Professional standards accepted by
same as a similar object 10 ft away and 3 ft the Society of Motion Picture and Television
long . The size of the viewing area is determined Engineers have been developed for viewing
by three dimensions, as shown in Fig. 9. Defining Minimum and Maximum Viewing
front and rear projected images . These stan-
- The minimum distance (1), which is the Distances. Practical minimum and maximum dards provide excellent images . However,
distance from the nearest part of the image distances are both expressed as multiples for the purpose of economy in classroom use
to the eye of the closest viewer of the image width (W). They vary both with
of projected media, it is felt that some stan-
- The maximum distance (2), which is the the medium being used and with the type and dards based on the poorest seat in the room
quality of material being projected, and may
can be lowered, particularly for gross images .
be affected also, in some degree, by personal The following resume of standards indicates
preferences. They have not yet been precisely by asterisk (`) those that are less than the
determined by scientific methods, and it is professional standards.
doubtful that such data would have much Screen Brightness
practical value anyway . The generally accepted Motion pictures :
values, resulting from numerous studies, are
these : (See Fig . 10 .) 5 ft L-Minimum' (gross images)
10 It L- Satisfactory
Film, slides and TV 15 ft L-Excellent
projected TV receivers 20 ft L -Maximum (flicker threshold for some
observers)
Minimum distance 2W 4W
Maximum distance . . 6 to 10 W 12 W Slides :
2.5 ft L-Minimum* (gross images)
Relation of Screen Size and Viewing Area . 5 ft L-Minimum for slides with detail
Since the size of the viewing area is a function 10 ft L-Satisfactory
Fig. 9 of the image width, it follows that the proper 20 ft L-Excellent
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Large-Group Facilities

tively inexpensive answer initially, which also

readily adapts to new and improved equipment.
Mobile units can be designed for flexible
spaces where the regrouping of students fre-
quently is an important functional require-
ment ; fixed installations of media might not
be feasible in such circumstances . As illus-
trated in this study, media modules can be used
to increase the utilization of facilities such
as dining rooms and gymnasiums by also al-
lowing them to be used for instruction .
The accompanying figure (Fig . 12) shows one
type of media module which was designed
and built. The basic cabinet with screen and
display surfaces could be either fixed or
mobile . Various types of projectors can be
mounted in the cart, which is rolled into
position for projection on the rear projection
screen . Remote controls operate the equipment
and the rear screen is of the flexible type .
This media module has a screen surface 32
in . square and the entire unit stands 6 ft-8 in .
high . Naturally, these dimensions will vary
from module to module .

Furnitufe Planning Furniture an Integral Part

of the Design Process. For effective uses of
media in education, the manner in which class-
rooms, seminar rooms, independent study
facilities, and other learning spaces are
furnished is an important design decision .
Unfortunately, too often the selection and
purchase of furniture are left until too late in
Fig. 11 Viewing areas for two- and three-screen projection . the planning process when energies, funds,
and professional services have been expended .
Projected TV : and medium group situations . These "media Furniture, as part of the learning environment,
modules" can be of several types: should be considered an integral part of any
2 ft L-Minimum* (gross images) - A fixed cabinet with self-contained equip- space in which media are to be employed ;
20 ft L-Maximum (flicker threshold for some ment, rear projection screen, and several addi- its selection should be based on careful study
observers) tional "swing-out" display surfaces . and professional advice early in planning . Most
TV monitors : " Same as above, only the entire media importantly, functional, aesthetic, and eco-
module would be mobile . nomic criteria should be established during
100 lumens per square foot " A basic fixed cabinet with rear projection the programming stages when the functional
Brightness Ratio screen and "swing-out" display surfaces . Pro- requirements of the spaces are spelled out.
jection equipment would be mounted on mobile Fixed Seating-Continuous Counters with
2:1 -Excellent carts which would roll into the cabinet and Fixed Seats. Many types of seating for
3 :1-Very good which would permit the interchanging of pro- learning spaces are available, but their indi-
10 :1 -Acceptable* under some conditions jectors . vidual appropriateness varies from space to
Contrast Ratio - Same as above with both the basic cabi- space . Of the three basic types of seating
net and the equipment carts mobile . (fixed, movable, and combined) fixed has had
100:1-Pictorial scenes - Any of the above, but with a cabinet and the advantage of guaranteeing that, once
25 :1 -Good legibility of printed characters rear projection screen sized to accommodate properly positioned, every student will always
5:1-White letters on black background two rear projected images side-by-side . be in the proper relationship to screens and
30 :1 -Minimum* contrast ratio for poorest Media modules have several attractive other display surfaces . Of the various types
seat dictated by higher levels of class- features . They can be fabricated in a shop and of fixed seating, the continuous counter with
room light and many types of pro- installed in existing classrooms with little individual fixed chairs provides a desirable
jected materials disruption of normal class meetings ; in this surface for writing and for holding references .
Contrast ratio is determined in part by non- way, media modules can quickly and inexpen- This is particularly important in secondary and
image brightness which, in turn, is related to sively convert existing facilities for uses of higher education where the learning process
screen reflectance and room ambient light. media. Both in building new facilities and may require extensive use of various types of
Therefore, controlling the amount of ambient remodelling old, the media module is a rela- materials and resources during a class. Also,
light reaching the screen is important. For large
screen installations, if the amount of ambient
light occurring at the screen is held to 1-2 ft
C, the contrast ratio will normally be adequate .
Writing Surface Lighting Levels Ideally, an
average ratio of 1 :1 between writing surface
brightness and screen brightness should be
maintained, while not spilling excessive
ambient light on the screens . Since screen
brightness varies for each seat in the viewing
area, the average condition of brightness for
each broad class of projected material should
be approximately satisfied . For a medium to
large size room, three lighting levels would be
in the range of :
5-10 ft C-Projected TV and films
10-20 ft C-Slides
30 + ft C-Other class activities

Media Module This study led to the design and

development of a self-contained media cabinet
which might be used in many types of small Fig. 12
Educational
COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES
Large-Group Facilities

a continuous counter works well when port- table units or seat-table units that are modular Importance of Good Sight Lines from All
able, audiovisual equipment, small demonstra- to allow conference and discussion groupings Seats. Certainly in rooms where projected
tions, or various forms of teaching machines are desirable . Movable seating mitigates media are to be used extensively, good sight
are to be used by students at their seats, or against the use of any individual student in- lines from all seats to all screens are important.
when student response systems, requiring the structional device requiring wiring, such as Where 40 or more students are Involved, this
use of a response panel at each station, are to response systems, portable recorders or pro- will generally require stepped or sloped floors .
be installed initially or planned for later instal- jectors, and power-operated teaching ma- However, steep slopes such as seen for years
lation . This type of seating does require more chines . Particularly with movable seating, In college lecture halls or amphitheaters are
floor area per unit then most other types of seating should be scaled and designed with not always necessary. These slopes have
fixed seating, but this may be compensated for the age and character of the students in mind . usually been dictated by a functional require-
by the provision of cross aisles between each Combined Seating. Combined seating is ment that every student be able to see the top
row of seating, allowing students to move basically of one type-continuous counter of a demonstration teole at the front of the
freely to and from their seats. with loose seats. This type has the advantages room . Rather than thus increasing the volume
Fixed Seating-Theater Types. There are of flexibility, accommodation to many body of the room, and the cost of the room, elec-
many so-called "theater-type" of fixed seating postures, and reduced cost over the continuous tronic means of magnification should be em-
employing a seat with a folding or lifting counter with fixed seats. However, the inter- ployed which shifts the functional requirement
individual writing surface . Unfortunately, many pretation of building codes may prohibit from viewing a demonstration table to the more
of the tablet arms provided with this type of continental seating in large rooms. The ac- easily accommodated viewing of screens. 8y
seating have the disadvantage of being too companying diagram (Fig . 13) shows several of offsetting the rows of seating, and by using
small to accommodate writing and reference the fixed and combined types of seating that platforms containing two rows of seating each,
materials . Lately, some improvements in are available, together with the average size of the volume of the room can be reduced without
seating have resulted in folding tablet arms that writing surfaces andthe floor area required . Impairing the viewing of screens and informs-
are adequate in size . Generally, fixed seating of A Mix of Seating Is Often the Answer. In tion display surfaces .
this kind requires less floor area than the con- many instances, several types of seating in Investigate the Advantages of Continental
tinuous counters, but student access to his one space may best meet functional needs. Seating. In laying out seating in the larger
individual seat is more limited . Also, the neces- For instance, loose tooles and chairs on a flat rooms, continental seating, which allows cross
sary moving parts to raise and lower the tablet floor area at the front of a large teaching room aisles between the rows of seats, should be
arms can create maintenance and upkeep prob- can be used for case studies, moot courts, and explored . This arrangement can move aisles
lems . Installation of response devices and out- other instructional methods, while the re- outside the viewing area, can allow longer
lets for equipment can be handled in seating mainder of the seating is fixed on a sloped or rows of seats, and can permit students to move
with movable tablet arms, but this again intro- stepped floor. Also, in rooms requiring raised to and from their seats without disturbing
duces maintenance problems . seating, rows of seating may alternate between other students . The square footage per seating
Movable Seating. Movable seating also riser-mounted and floor-mounted types . Partic . unit based on the total room area may not be
introduces a variety of alternatives, and again ularly in medium group spaces, various types mush greater than that for more conven-
the provision of an adequate writing surface of loose seating may meet the varying require- tional arrangements . Each such solution must
is extremely important. In rooms where re- ments dictated by multi-age, multi-class, and be judged in accordance with the applicable
grouping of students is important, separate nongroded approaches to learning . building code .
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Large-Group Facilities

Fig. 13 Seating types.

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Audiovisual

Fig. 1 Rear-screon projection area .

Fig. 2 Phonographs.

Figures 1-17 reprinted from "New Spaces for Learn-

ing: Designing college facilities to utilize instructional
aids and media." Report of Research Project DASFEE :
(Design of Auditorium-Studio Facilities for Engineering
Education) supported by grant from Educational Facilities
Fig. 3 Tape recorders . Laboratories, Inc ., revised ed ., June 1966.
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Audiovisual

Fig . 4 Classroom monitors .

Fig . 5 Rear-screen projection cabinet. Fig . 6 Front projection screens.

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Audiovisual

Fig. 7 Slides and filmstrips; projectors .

Fig . 8 Repetitive film projectors.

Fig . 9 Multiprojector console .

 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Audiovisual

Fig . 10 Microprojectors.

Fig . 11 Opaque projector .

Fig. 12 Overhead projector .

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Audiovisual

Fig. 13 8-mm and 16-mm motion-picture projectors .

Fig . 14 Multiprojector module.

Fig. 15 Film workshop.

 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Audiovisual ; Language Laboratory

Fig. 16

Fig . 17 Language laboratory

Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Theater-Arts-Laboratory Teaching Station

THEATER-ARTS-LABORATORY same dressing rooms, the same lobby space, the occupy space equivalent in size and shape to
TEACHING STATION same ticket offices, the same rest rooms, the same two standard classrooms. The recommended plan
There are many types of space facility which may shop area, and some of the same storage area includes space for normal classroom function,
be employed in the Theater-Arts program. The (see Fig. 1) . Although it is true that on occasion space for arena-type presentation, space for pro-
Theater-Arts-Laboratory Teaching Station is pri- both of these producing units might be in perfor- scenium and thrust stage presentations, and al-
marily a classroom which is designed for, and mance simultaneously, it is not probable that this lows all of this space to be converted to other
specifically allocated to, the teaching of theater- would occur frequently enough to warrant com- multiple-theater purposes .
arts subjects . It is presumed that this room will plete duplication of all these service areas. How- The area designated as the teaching station
probably be assigned to a single teacher, or to ever, such support space is absolutely essential, divides roughly into three parts (see Fig. 2). Part
a small group of teachers, employed in a team- and, if it is not provided in connection with some one: some fixed seating on an inclined floor ac-
teaching concept. With only slight expansion, other function of the building, it will be necessary commodating about 30 students, with chairs
however, it might serve in some instances as a to plan it in connection with the teaching station. equipped with movable tablet arms . Within some
very comfortable and pleasant place for public In the description which follows, it will be appar- individual teaching practices the area might be
performances . It is not designed primarily as a ent that there are a number of advantages to preferred with a flat floor with movable chairs .
having the teaching station accessible from four Part two: an elevated stage, presumably at the
replacement for a conventional school auditorium .
Its existence, however, will emphasize the fact sides. The dimensional data suggest the possibil- opposite end from the fixed seating just de-
ity, but do not demand that the teaching station scribed, and with the usual physical and electrical
that the well-appointed auditorium is not essential
for the successful pursuance of a theater-arts pro-
gram . Under ideal circumstances, such a facility
is employed on a day-to-day basis by the teacher
in the normal progress of instruction, and there-
fore may be considered a supplement to the audi-
torium employed for the larger public perfor-
mances . In addition to the normal daily class
functions, it is entirely appropriate to employ the
teaching station, on occasion, for public presenta-
tion of material adapted to this space, if the
seating will accommodate a small invited, or even
paying audience .
Although some dimensional data are provided,
it should be remembered that they represent only
a suggested treatment and that, in specific in-
stances, a room might change its shape percepti-
bly and be increased or decreased in size . The
basic concept of this room implies that its primary
function is that of a classroom, and a continual
enlargement of this facility approaching a small
auditorium would be undesirable. The term
"teaching station" is employed rather than "lit-
tle" or "studio theater" in an attempt to empha-
size its classroom function .

Separate Service Facilities

If the school has separate auditorium facilities,
it is recommended that the teaching station be
nearby in order that some of the service areas
might be employed by both of these theater units.
As an example-it would be possible for the
teaching station and the auditorium to use the

Architecture for the Educational Theatre, H . W . Robin-

son, 1970. Reprinted by permission . Copyright © 1970
by University of Oregon .

Fig. 1 Functional and space relationships of audi-

torturrr to teaching station. It is highly desirable,
as the text indicates, to have both a stage-audito-
rium and a teaching station in an efficient academic
theater plant. If both are provided, it is not neces-
sary to duplicate all of the support functions; avoid-
ing unnecessary duplication will save space and
construction costs. This diagram illustrates the de-
sirable functional and positional relationships be-
tween the two complementary theater forms.
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Theater-Arts-Laboratory Teaching Station

equipment. When employed as a proscenium to serve as a sound room and a listening room, larged, the space beneath these walkways may
stage, there would be space for seating approxi- as well as to accommodate projection equipment. be employed for storage for seating or other the-
motely 80 in the fixed seating described com- The ceiling of this room should be approxi- atrical equipment.
bined with the temporary seating in the space mately 14 ft above the stage level, and should No attempt will be made here to specify a
next described . Part three: a flat floor area be- provide, in addition to standard room lighting, minimum of equipment for this teaching station,
tween part one and part two for rehearsal, dem- other arrangements for the hanging of special but it is obvious that it must have the usual com-
onstration and arena staging, a playing area of stage lighting instruments and other hanging plement of front traveler, cyclorama, switchboard,
at least 14 by 18 ft, and with the usual lighting units. These supporting members can be exposed and lighting equipment.
and mechanical equipment. When this area is or concealed above a false ceiling. Lighting con- Although it is not planned that all three of
employed for arena staging, and all other areas trol may be located either in the offstage area these areas will be used simultaneously in a class-
adapted to seating, it can accommodate approxi- on the fixed stage floor or in the projection room room teaching station, it is possible to have on
mately 140 . The minimum width of this room is described above. stage the fixed stage scenic, lighting, and prop-
24 ft; widths up to 36 ft would prove additionally A walkway at least 42 in wide should be pro- erty elements to be used for a public presentation
desirable . The total length of the room, if the vided on the two long sides of the room which or for the use of another class while the teacher
areas described are laid end-to-end, is about 70 connect the stage level at one end with the en- lectures or conducts a demonstration in the central
ft . trance level at the opposite end. For classroom area without having to clear this material . In the
If the fixed seating plan is employed for some use, these levels will be employed as display and same way a set-up can remain in the arena section
30 to 50 seats, and if they are on a raked (in- work areas at low table height . When the room and the teacher will still have a lecture area and
clined( or terraced floor, it is recommended that is employed for arena staging, they serve as ele- a drill or rehearsal area unencumbered .
there be at least a 5-in differential in the height vated rows of seating on the two sides. For end The essential features of this classroom teach-
of the rows . Back-to-back spacing of 36 in is staging, they serve as additional side stages or ing station are designed specifically to serve the
recommended for rows, and 20-22 in for individ- for walkways approaching the stage for entrance, purposes of theater instruction, but if, in schedul-
ual seat widths . Other seating to be provided tableau, or processional purposes. If slightly en- ing, it appears that the room will not be in contin-
should be of padded metal folding chairs with
arm rests. Linkable chairs have some advantages
in terms of ease of movement, for regrouping,
and for cleaning .
The center area of the room is recommended
for general demonstration, classroom space, and
as an arena playing area for productions to be
viewed from four sides. It is suggested that the
recessed space might be twenty-one to twenty-
four inches below that of the surrounding areas,
including the service halls . This provides a de-
pressed area for the arena stage with some seat-
ing at that level, with other raised seating on
all sides, and it also allows for the elevated pro-
scenium and thrust stage to be above the central
floor area. Although the raised stage at the end
of the room may be employed as a proscenium
stage, it should not be thought of as that exclu-
sively . Its design lends itself to other, flexible
treatment. There is no fixed proscenium-the
bounding edges of the opening are established
by movable sections of wall or by a simple curtain
framing . This stage space should be the full width
of the room at that end, and should be at least
14 ft deep . Although more-than-usual classroom
height is desirable over the stage area, it is not
necessary to provide the usual stage house or
fly space. It is suggested that two levels (each
3 ft deep( running the full width of the stage
be provided in front of the fixed platform area
with one-third stage height differential for each,
namely 7 or 8 in . These levels can be created
by separate, collapsible, or nesting boxes and
reemployed as terraced seating spaces for the
arena concept, or as variable forestage space
as suggested by the accompanying diagrams (see
Fig. 4) .
A projection room may be provided at the end
of the room opposite that of the fixed stage,

Fig. 2 The teaching station. The teaching station

provides space for all theater functions such as
work areas, rehearsal areas, classroom, and public
seating for all three basic theater forms: thrust,
arena, and proscenium . It is multifunctional in terms
of space, but can seldom accommodate more than
one function of one time . The basic concept calls
for three major tandem spaces, A, 6, C, and two
flanking spaces, D; all are multifunctional . The di-
mensions of these spaces are optional (see text).
This diagram shows the interrelationship of the
spaces and their function, and introduces the plan
presented in Fig. 3.
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Theater-Arts-Laboratory Teaching Station

ual use, it may be employed quite effectively in

the true multiple-function sense . Although specifi-
cally designed for theater purposes, it has not
lost its usefulness as a general classroom regard-
less of subject matter. It has a raised stage for
any type of classroom performance, a large flat
floor space for activities such as dance, and may
even be used as a small lecture hall .

Fig . 3 Teaching station: section and plan. A . Fixed

seating ; B. potential arena staging ; C. elevated
stags, no fixed proscenium ; D. elevated walkways
on each side of the room serve as work tables
and arena seating and provide chair and platform
storage underneath ; E . projection room.

Fig . 4 Teaching station : platform and seating alternatives. The standard teaching station is readily
convertible to many staging forms . A few of the alternates are suggested in this diagram . Portable
platforms of standard modular dimension such as 3 by 6 ft may be used as a base for audience seating
on varying levels, or stacked to change the height of playing levels. These units are stored, when not
in use, under the forestage and under the elevated walkways at each side of the room. Stair units of
compatible height increase the flexibility of the system. Infinite variety is available with the exercise
of imagination (note that the fixed seating remains the same for each alternate) .
 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Programs and Programming

By JAMES A . PADDOCK, Dobor, Paddock,

Upton and Associates, Inc.

2. Projection . Anticipation of numbers and people and equipment and other factual require-
PROGRAMS AND PROGRAMMING
characteristics of people to be accommodated ments which must be met .
Until recent years large building projects were at some point in the future or at some selected 4 . Spatial relationship. The desired relation-
launched by nothing more then a conversation level of activity, population, or enrollment. ship among individuals, groups, and the equip-
between an individual client and the architect a . Criteria. Space plannIng standards for ment they use ; their relationship to visitors,
of his personal choice with, perhaps, some
reference to a historical precedent with which
both were familiar . The resulting inconvenient
planning and lack of facilities and equipment TABLE 1 Sample of Typical Program Sheet
in buildings of all types appeared to be of little Audio visual and TV
consequence . Labor was cheap and plentiful ;
space was at a discount ; client and architect Existing operations . . . . . . . . . Function :
could afford to waste space . The Audio Visual end Television Centers, although headquartered together, are
Recently several changes in society have independent operations . The Audio Visual Center is financed by the College ;
affected the way in which new building is
brought into being : the autocratic statesman, the Television Center is financed by the Education Department.
industrialist, and educator has been supplanted The Audio Visual Center conducts courses required of all Education majors and
by the building committee ; the personal fortune prepares and thstfbutes all films and other audio visual aids, distributes all
has been replaced by the finance committee television tapes prepared by the Television Center, and provides projection end
and program budgeting ; and building require- other technical personnel to all departments .
ments have become vastly more exacting in The Television Center prepares television tapes for teaching purposes .
response to the technological revolution in Facilities :
government, industry, and education . Al the Existing space is cramped and inappropriate to the function housed . IThe tele-
same time, the private conversation and occa-
sional letter between client and architect has vision repair center is in a mechanical equipment room containing steam-operated
given way to a wordy document by which a hot-water boiler and reaches 100° during the summer.)
many-heeded client instructs an architectural Anticipated changes . . . . . . . . Function:
organization and many specialists In building The trend toward interdisciplinary operations will bring the two centers closer
design and construction . This document is together .
sometimes called "user requirements" or Facilities :
"building specifications" ; more frequently it Although the Audio Visual and Television Centers will each require their own office
Is known as the "program ." Generally, pro-
grams are of two types, serving different pur- and studio facilities, technical and support spaces may be shared .
poses . Location criteria . . . . . . . . . . Located adjacent to a space easily vacated to accommodate unforeseen future
expansion.
Master Plan Program Planning assumptions . . . . . . . Separate graphic arts and photography facilities will be provided for the Audio
Visual Center and College Relations and Publications .
The program for the master plan is concerned
with large-scale development to be accom-
plished in several phases over many years . It
deals in building space to the nearest thousand TABLE 2 Space Program
square foot and required site area in sores . The
master plan program may be used to determine Number of Stations Net sq ft Total net
the area of land to be acquired for the new existing p rojected per station sq ft
development, to assess the adequacy of an
existing site and utilities to accommodate Audio visual center:
future requirements, to estimate development Coordinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .
. . . . 1 1 140 140
costs, and to raise funds. Faculty office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
. . . . 1 1 100 100
Supervisor, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
. . . . 1 1 100 100
Secretary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 80 180
Building Program . . .. . . . . . . .
. . . .
Projectionist's study room . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
. . . . .. . ... . . . 100
The building program is concerned with de- .. . . . . 80
tailed space descriptions for immediate new Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . .. . . . . . . . . .
Student viewing cubicles . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . . . - - - 15 30 450
construction and deals in building space to the
8 40 240
nearest hundred square foot . The detailed Studentlfeculty laboratory . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . . . . . .
building program may be used so the basis for Previewing studios:
the architect's design . It also may be used to Group 1151 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 225 225
conduct an architectural competition for the Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 40 180
selection of an architect, to estimate conntruc- Audio visual class/laboratory . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. 20 80 1200
tlon costs, to estimate furniture and equipment 1 400 400
Repair shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . ..
requirements, and to raise funds .
Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . ... . ... . ... .... ... . ... ... . . .. . ... . . 3,375
A program may be concerned with the expan-
sion of existing physical facilities to accommo- Television:
date a growing organization, or with the de- Coordinator of educational activities of TV . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 140 140
velopment of new facilities on a site not yet 1 1 100 100
Faculty office . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .... .... . . . .
selected for an organization in process of 1 1 100 100
formation . In either case, the program is a net Technical coordinator . . . ... ... . . .... .. .. . . . .
Higher education officers . ... ... . .... . ... . . . . . 2 2 80 180
of instructions and criteria derived from con "
Secretary . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 50 00
aideration of many factors, including at least ... ... . ... . ... . . . . . .
the following : Student work stations . . . ... ... . ... . .. . .. . . . . . . . 3 80 180
1 . Policy . The organization's goals and ob- Control room . . . . . . . . .. . ... . ... ... . .. . . . . . . . 1 400 400
jectives for future growth and change . In an Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . ... ... . .. . . . . .. 1 400 _400
educational institution this would be known as Subtotal . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .. . ... . . .. . ... . ... . ... . .. . ... . .. . . .. . . 1,540
the academic plan .
Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Programs and Programming

TABLE 3 Sample of Detailed Building Program Space Description work as it proceeds, to resolve possible con-
flicts over such matters as the allocation of
Area Number: MM-11 space or other resources among competing
Name of Space: Biology/chemistry preparation room divisions, and to approve the completed pro-
Number : One gram document . The committee should include
Floor Area : 180 sq ft a representative of each functional area within
User : Faculty, lab technician the organization . Most of these functional
Purpose : Preparation and setting up of movable demonstration bench, storage of areas can be identified prior to the beginning
of the programming process by reference to
chemicals and apparatus, storage of bench organization charts and telephone directories
Ceiling Height : No special requirements and through consultation with administrators .
Lighting Requirements: No special requirements The size and, consequently, the number of
Heating, Ventilating, Air functional areas specified depend largely on
Conditioning, Exhaust : Fume hood the level of detail to which the programming
Suggested Materials is expected to go . For example, all administra-
for Floors Walls : Acid resistant floor and base tive functions might be subsumed under an Of-
Ceiling : fice of the Vice President for Administration .
If more detail is required, subdivisions might
Doors: It direct access is provided to hall, then door to hall to be solid core or be made to establish separate offices for fiscal
equivalent, gasketted ; window with sliding panel, door width to allow planning, personnel, buildings and grounds,
passage of movable bench etc .
Equipment and Furniture: 1 . Chemical bench 12 ft long with sink, hot and cold water, gas, vacuum, 3 . Interviews . Interviewing individuals and
and air, chemical resistant stop, cupboards and drawer under; reagent groups representing each functional area with-
shelf, acid drain in the organization . The purpose of these inter-
2 . Storage cabinets and shelving views is to ask the individual, Who are you,
3 . Fume hood what do you do, how do you do it, with whom,
and in what kind of space? Ideally, these dis-
4 . Electric wall clock cussions should almost never touch on the
5 . Steel chalkboard, 4 X 3 ft question of how much space is needed . The
6. Pegboard, 4 X 3 ft for drying glassware programmer should know from the space in-
7 . Stool ventory how much space exists, if any ; and he
Special Utility Requirements : Plugmold on wall above bench will be able to observe overcrowding or gross
Spatial Relationships: Adjacent to hall at stage level and to service access under-utilization. The person using the space
is the expert regarding how it is used . The
programmer is an expert in translating need
into square feet . The success of the discus-
sions depends upon each party's ability to stay
the public, and others outside the immediate the client (the people who are going to use the within his own area of expertise .
organization ; and the flow of information, building), the architect, or a consultant . In any 4 . Draft program . Following the interviews,
supplies, and material . case, the process is essentially the same and the programmer writes a detailed sheet for
5 . Constraints . Limitations of budget, time, consists of the following steps . each functional area (see Tables 1 to 3) . The
area of site, zoning restrictions and availability 1 . Existing data . Assembly and review of all draft program sheet will include the program-
of special equipment. existing documents concerning policy deci- mer's analysis of the spaces required and their
sions, enrollment projections, corporate plans, sizes . The sheet is then sent to the person
Programming and other papers that describe the present and interviewed . Review and further discussion
future structure of the organization . take place as required until he is satisfied that
The process by which the program is produced 2 . Planning committee . Appointment of a the program sheet represents his explicit un-
is called programming . This may be done by planning committee to review the programming derstanding of need .

Fig. t Program process outline .

 Educational

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Programs and Programming

5 . Committee review . The planning commit- an approximate estimate of construction cost . resolve the conflict, or the president of the
tee meets to review the draft program sheets . Other costs such as furniture, equipment, site organization and some representative group of
The committee must judge individual space works and professional fees may be estimated advisers may make the final decisions con-
requests in the context of the whole organiza- in order to arrive at a total development cost . cerning allocations of space or development
tion . It must ensure that requests are not re- 7 . Final decision and review. The committee funds .
dundant but complementary and that no inter- now has a list of carefully considered state- The process outlined above reduce* a vast
ests have been ignored . ments concerning the amount and type of space amount of data to a reasonable set of state-
6 . Estimate of building size and cost. The required by each functional area based on ments concerning any one of which there
program consultant totals the net square foot specified assumptions concerning its responsi- should be little or no argument, and so the
space, requests, and estimates the building bilities, and an approximate estimate of the decision-making process should be compara-
area needed in gross square feet . This is done cost of developing a building or buildings to tively easy . When the decisions have been
by applying a "not-to-gross" multiplier to allow accommodate the programmed spaces . It is made, the organization will have clarified its
for circulation space, washrooms, mechanical highly likely that the total demands exceed the goals and established a reasonably firm basis
equipment areas, and wall thicknesses. Typical organization's resources . The task now is to for physical planning and architectural design .
multipliers are 1 .66 for offices, 1 .35 for under- decide how much space should be allotted for Figure 1 illustrates the programming process
graduate libraries, and 1 .25 for suditoria . The each purpose . The planning committee may as it might apply to an educational institution .
total gross square footage is now used to make