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TURBINE
The first device that can be classified as a reaction steam turbine is the aeolipile proposed by Hero of
Alexandria, during the 1st century CE. In this device, steam was supplied through a hollow rotating shaft to a
hollow rotating sphere. It then emerged through two opposing curved tubes, just as water issues from a
rotating lawn sprinkler. The device was little more than a toy, since no useful work was produced.

Another steam-driven machine, described in 1629 in Italy, was designed in such a way that a jet of steam
impinged on blades extending from a wheel and caused it to rotate by the impulse principle. Starting with a
1784 patent by James Watt, the developer of the steam engine, a number of reaction and impulse turbines
were proposed, all adaptations of similar devices that operated with water.

The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Charles Parsons, whose first model was connected to a
dynamo that generated 7.5 kilowatts (10.1 hp) of electricity. The invention of Parsons' steam turbine made
cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare .

COMMON TURBINE TYPE

Hydraulic turbine
Wind turbine
Steam turbine
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World electricity generation by prime movers in 2012 and 2040 (trillion kWh).

WORKING PRINCIPLES
A turbomachine is a machine that exchanges energy between the continuous flow
of a fluid and a continuously rotating blade system, with the energy exchange based
on flow-generated forces.
Energy may be transferred from the flow to the rotating machine components or vice
versa. In the first case, energy extracted from the flow is used to drive a rotating
component, generally called a rotor (bladed drum, bladed wheel or collection of bladed
wheels), driving on its turn a useful external load.
The machine may then be called shaft power delivering, or for short, power
delivering, but typically it is termed a turbine, irrespective of the fluid.
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WORKING FLUID OF TURBINE

Possible fluids are:
• water: water turbine or hydraulic turbine
• steam (vapour): steam turbine
• air in natural wind: wind turbine
• gas produced by combustion of a fuel in pressurised air: gas turbine
• other fluid, as refrigerant in a cooling cycle: expansion turbine.

WORKING FLUID OF TURBINE (2)

When energy is supplied to the fluid by the rotor, the machine has to be driven by an
external motor. It may be called shaft power receiving, or shortly, power receiving.
Specific names are used, depending on the fluid and the energy component that is
mainly increased.
 Energy exchanged between a rotor and a fluid is mechanical energy in a technical
sense.
Mechanical energy essentially can only take two forms within the machine itself:
velocity-associated energy (kinetic energy)
pressure-associated energy (pressure potential energy in case of a constant density fluid).
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HYDRAULIC TURBINE
Hydraulic Turbines present a part of turbomachines in which the energy
transfer process occurs from the fluid to the rotor, in other words, in turbines,
the fluid energy is converted to a mechanical energy.

At the inlet of any hydraulic turbine the water speed is relatively small and its
energy is essentially a pressure energy.
This energy is totally transferred to kinetic energy (in case of impulse turbines)
or partially transferred to kinetic energy (in case of reaction turbines).
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ADVANTAGES OF HYDRO ENERGY

Hydro energy is a clean and reliable renewable energy resource.
Hydro energy is more reliable than wind, solar or wave energy.
Micro-hydro systems produce virtually no waste, greenhouse gases or CO2 emissions.
As long as the water is there in sufficient quantity, electricity can be generated constantly.
Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free.
Water can be stored in a dam ready to cope with peaks in electrical demand simply by controlling
the amount of water released.
Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full power very quickly, unlike other power
stations.
Large and mega-dams have multiple uses and can create recreational lakes and areas where before
there were none.

DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRO
ENERGY
Damming rivers and streams may change the natural waterways, diverting water from areas that depend on it.
Damming rivers alters the spawning migration of fish and other wildlife.
Damming rivers changes the quality, quantity and even the temperature of the water that flows downstream,
which can have an impact on plant life.
Finding a suitable site to build can be difficult as the impact on residents or the environment may be
unacceptable.
Dams are very expensive to build.
Large dams can only be used in a limited number of places such as those with large water supplies.
The reservoirs created by large dams and mega-dams destroy local habitats. When the area is flooded, trees and
other plant life is submerged, and any animal and human life living in the area must relocate or perish.
Over time, dams may become unstable allowing them to self-destruct which can lead to serious flooding,
including loss of life and property.
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HYDRAULIC TURBINE CAPACITY

CLASSIFICATION
Large hydro
Small hydro
 Mini hydro, usually defined as 100 to 1,000 kilowatts (kW),
 Micro hydro which is 5 to 100 kW. Micro hydro is usually the application of
hydroelectric power sized for smaller communities, single families or small enterprise.
Pico hydro , below 5 kW.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_hydro

IMPULSE TURBINES (PELTON

WHEEL)
By definition, the impulse turbine is a machine in which the total drop in pressure of
the fluid takes place in one or more stationary nozzles and there is no change in the
pressure of fluid as it flows through the rotating wheel.

Many designs has existed but only one has been currently used named by man who
designed it first in California at 1810 Mr. A. Pelton. Usually, Pelton Wheel, Figure
5.1, is used for high head about more than 300 m.
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Torque and Power Calculation:

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Find maximum efficiency

Some Practical Considerations:

a. Nozzle Losses:
The flow rate must vary in proportion to the required
power for impulse wheel. This is done by the size of the
jet, with a little change in jet velocity as possible.

b. Bucket Losses:
The losses in bucket due to friction could be given in a form of
friction coefficient applying to the relative velocity.

c. Wheel Diameter:
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REACTION TURBINES:
Reaction turbines are those kind of turbines which the degree of reaction does not
equal zero, and the major of pressure drop takes place in the rotating wheel (in impulse
turbine, the pressure drop takes place in the nozzle).

The reaction turbines are classified into three types according to the flow
direction, Figure 5.9: - Radial: (Francis), low specific speed, usually used for
medium and high head installations. - Mixed: (Francis), medium specific
speed, usually used for medium head installations. - Axial: high specific
speed, usually used for low head installations (Aswan Dam).
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CONT’
D

FRANCIS TURBINES (RADIAL AND

The Francis turbine original design was inward radial flow with high flow to make a more
MIXED):
compact runner. The diameter was reduced and the water was discharged with a velocity
having an axial component as well as a radial one. This type of runners is called a mixed
flow runner.

Francis center vent (radial-inward flow) turbine

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Typical radial inward flow turbine profile

Early Francis type turbine wheel

FRANCIS TURBINE TYPES

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PERFORMANCE OF FRANCIS TURBINE

1 M
RUNNING AT
HEAD

AXIAL FLOW REACTION TURBINES:

The axial flow turbine is the development and the completion of the process began
when once the radial flow was found to be inadequate for relating high flow and
medium and low heads. Mixed flow turbine was found to meet these requirements for
high flow and low head. The axial flow turbines are classified to:

A. Propeller Turbine:
The blades are fixed on the rotor and the number of the blades is from 3 to 8. In the simplest
form of axial flow propeller turbine, the blades are cast integrally with the hub. The propeller turbine
is used in the measurement of the flow, especially in petroleum industry to measure the flow rate. B.
Kaplan Turbine:
Although the propeller turbine is almost adequate for high flow and low head operation, it has one
quite serious disadvantage is its part load efficiency is unsatisfactory. In Kaplan turbine, this problem
is overcome by using movable blades, so that their angles of inclination may be adjusted while the
turbine is in motion in such a way that the turbine can operate continuously at its maximum efficiency.
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AXIAL HYDRAULIC
TURBINE In the flow sense, the machine
consists of three components: a
stator part, encompassing an
inlet and a guide ring, a rotor
(runner) and a stationary
diverging pipe. Both the guide
ring and the runner are
bladed.

Subscript 1 indicates the rotor inlet,

subscript 2 the rotor outlet. The absolute
frame is attached to the stationary casing
of the machine. The relative frame rotates
together with the rotor. The velocity u
stands for the relative frame velocity
(rotational speedΩ multiplied with radius
r), called blade speed. The absolute flow
velocity vector ( v) is the vector sum of the
Figure shows a cylindrical section through the guide blade speed ( u) and the relative flow
ring and the rotor, indicating the velocities in the velocity vector (w). The components have
absolute  (v) and the relative frame w( ). the following functions. • Inlet and guide
ring: − guiding fluid to the rotor and
− generating
distributing it over the rotor
kinetic energy:
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CONT’D
The kinetic energy originates from a pressure drop, where pressure upstream of the
machine is built up from gravitational potential energy.

Acceleration of the flow with hydraulic turbines is never strong. Guiding the fluid is
the main function. We here apply the terms guide ring and guide vanes.

Stationary objects guiding the flow are typically called vanes, while the term blade is
mostly used for a rotary object, but the term blade is also used for either.

In other machines, flow acceleration may be the most important, as with steam
turbines. The stator is then said to be composed from nozzles and the term nozzle
ring is used.

CONT’D
Rotor (or runner): energy extraction from the flow. Kinetic energy is generated,
corresponding to pressure drop. In the absolute frame, kinetic energy decreases. Both
the decrease of pressure and kinetic energy correspond to energy transfer from the flow
to the rotor.
The energy transfer principle can already be understood. By the profile shape of the
blades, resembling an aircraft wing profile, turning of the relative velocity at the rotor
inlet ( w1) towards a more tangential direction at the rotor outlet ( w 2), generates a lift
force ( L).

This lift is approximately perpendicular to the average relative velocity and has the
sense indicated in the figure. The tangential component of the lift is in the sense of
the blade speed u. This implies that the running blade is driven by the flow, which
corresponds to work done by the flow on the rotor. We also note that the drag force D
has a tangential component opposing the motion.
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CONT’D
The outlet stator component has various functions and may get various names
depending on the function to be emphasized: − collecting water beyond the rotor:
collector − converting a part of the kinetic energy at the rotor outlet to pressure
potential energy: pressure at rotor outlet decreases, increasing the pressure difference
over the rotor: diffuser − exploiting the downward height, in other words guiding the
water to the downward level. This generates a pressure decrease at the rotor outlet
from the gravitational potential energy: draught tube.
The latter function is often the most important one. For example: v 2 = 5 m/s (typical):
v2 2 / . 2 1 = 2 5 J/kg; 2.5 m height difference between rotor outlet and tail water:
gravitational potential energy gΔz ≈ 25 J/kg. Extraction of the energy associated to the
downward height is efficient. Kinetic energy recovery is a process involved with high
losses. So, mostly the term draught tube is used.

TURBINE CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING

SPECIFIC
TO SPEED AND
HEAD
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MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY VERSUS SPECIFIC SPEED FOR

TYPES OF
DIFFERENT
TURBINES

HYDRAULIC TURBINE
INSTALLATION
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EXAMPLE
1Calculate the force of water jet acting on semispherical blade of Pelton turbine. The
turbine is rotating, rotational speed is 320 rpm. Inner radius of blade curvature is 4
cm, diameter of blade wheel=D1,1 m. Discharge Q = 27 l/s outflows from the
1
nozzle with diameter 30 mm. Correction coefficient of blades should be considered to
be ψ = 0,94.

SOLUTIO
N
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EXAMPLE 2
At its maximum efficiency of 93% a turbine delivers 3000 hp to the shaft
under a head of 72 ft when operating at 300 rpm. Find the following: (a) the
flow rate through the turbine (b) the specific speed of the turbine

SOLUTIO
N
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WIND TURBINE
Wind is air circulation in the terrestrial atmosphere as a consequence of irregular
warming by the sun. Wind energy systems use the kinetic energy of the wind. We
generally speak of a Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS). Mostly, a system for
electricity generation encompasses a wind turbine rotor, a gearbox, a generator and a
tower. The term Wind Turbine (WT) is commonly used to name the whole.
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WIND (CONT’D)
Optimum energy yield is typically obtained by designing the system such that
maximum power on the generator (called rated power) is reached at a wind speed
(called rated wind speed) about 50% higher than the yearly average speed (see Sect.
10.4: wind regime). The energy flux of the undisturbed wind through a plane surface
(area A) perpendicular to the wind direction is (mass flow rate × kinetic energy):

WIND TURBINE HISTORY

People used wind energy to propel boats along the Nile River as early as 5,000 BC.
By 200 BC, simple wind-powered water pumps were used in China, and windmills
with woven-reed blades were grinding grain in Persia and the Middle East. ...
Merchants and the Crusaders brought wind technology to Europe. Sailboats and
sailing ships have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years,[citation needed]
and architects have used wind-driven natural ventilation in buildings since similarly
ancient times. The use of wind to provide mechanical power came somewhat later in
antiquity.
The Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his ambitious
irrigation project in the 17th century BC.
Hero of Alexandria (Heron) in first-century Roman Egypt described what appears to
be a wind-driven wheel to power a machine.[3][5]
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EXAMPLE:
To ρ=1.2 kg/m3 and v=12.5 m/s corresponds about 1200 W/m2 .

A wind energy system converts nearly 45%. This results in a net power density of
about 500 W/m2 . A rated power of 1 MW requires a through flow surface of about
2000 m2 , corresponding to a circle with a diameter of about 50 m.

TYPE OF WIND TURBINE

Drag Machines
High-Speed Horizontal-Axis Turbines
Low-Speed Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines
Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines
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HORIZONTAL WIND
TURBINE

High-Speed Horizontal-Axis Turbines

Low-speed horizontal-axis wind turbine for pump drive

From the velocity triangle follows the

origin of lift ( L) with a component in the
sense of rotation. With such machines,
blade speed ( u) may be much higher
than wind speed. Tip speed ratio is
commonly defined by

where uT is the blade speed at the rotor tip. A typical value with optimum
operation is about 6. The triangle drawn is thus representative for a section
in the inner part of the rotor. With an axial machine, the rotor blade drag
force causes energy dissipation. This drag is small compared to the lift
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Rotor Blade Length – Three factors determine how much kinetic energy can be
extracted from the wind by a wind turbine: “the density of the air”, “the speed of
the wind” and “the area of the rotor”. The density of the air depends upon how far
above sea level you are while the wind speed is controlled by the weather.
However, we can control the rotational area swept by the rotor blades by increasing
their length as the size of the rotor determines the amount of kinetic energy a wind
turbine is able to capture from the wind.

A wind turbine design which has an “ODD” number of rotor

blades (at least three blades) rotates smoother because the
gyroscopic and flexing forces are more evenly balanced across the blades
increasing the stability of the turbine. The most common odd bladed wind
turbine design is that of the three bladed turbine. The power efficiency of a
three bladed rotor is slightly above that of a similar sized two bladed rotor
and due to the additional blade they can rotate slower reducing wear and
tear and noise.

Blade Construction – the kinetic energy extracted from the wind is influenced by the geometry of the
rotor blades and determining the aerodynamically optimum blade shape and design is important. But
as well as the aerodynamic design of the rotor blade the structural design is equally important. The
structural design consists of blade material selection and strength as the blades flex and bend by the
winds energy while they rotate.

the ideal constructional material for a rotor blade would combine the necessary structural properties of
high strength to weight ratio, high fatigue life, stiffness, its natural vibration frequency and resistance
to fatigue along with low cost and the ability to be easily formed into the desired aerofoil shape.
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VERTICAL-AXIS WIND
TURBINES

Vertical-axis wind turbines with

control mechanism with straight
blade
Vertical-axis wind turbines with
troposkin shape

HAWT: Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

VAWT: Vorizontal Axis Wind Turbine

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EXAMPLE
If the wind speed is 11.5 m/s and the speed after the turbine is 8 m/s, what is
the power extraction coefficient of this wind turbine? (air density 1.225 kg/m3
)

SOLUTION
The kinetic energy per time available in wind 𝑃 = 0.5𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟𝐴𝑈3

Extracted power 𝑃 ′ = 0.5𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟𝐴𝑈 ′ (𝑈 2 − 𝑈" 2 )

The power extraction coefficient is 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑃′/𝑃 = 𝑈′(𝑈 2 − 𝑈" 2 ) 𝑈3 = 0.44

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EXAMPLE 2
The rated output power for a turbine model at 15 m/s is 3 MW. The rotor diameter is
90 m. The rotor rotates at a constant frequency of 0.198 Hz. Please calculate the tip to
speed ratio and power conversion coefficient of this model.

SOLUTION
The linear velocity of the tip:
𝑣𝑡 = 𝜔∗𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑓∗𝐷/2 = 2𝜋∗ 0.198 𝐻𝑧∗ 90 𝑚 2 = 56𝑚/𝑠

The tip to speed ratio:

𝑟 = 𝑣𝑡 / 𝑈 = 56 𝑚/𝑠/ 15 𝑚/𝑠 = 3.7

The wind power at 15 m/s:

𝑃 = 1/2 𝜌𝐴𝑈 3 = 1 2 ∗ 1.225 𝑘𝑔𝑚3 ∗𝜋∗ (45 𝑚) 2 ∗ ( 15 𝑚𝑠 ) 3 = 13 𝑀𝑊

The power conversion coefficient: 𝜀 = 3 𝑀𝑊/13 𝑀𝑊 = 23%

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GAS TURBINE
1791 First patent for a gas turbine (John Barber, United Kingdom)
1904 Unsuccessful gas turbine project by Franz Stolze in Berlin (first axial compressor)
1906 GT by Armengaud Lemale in France (centrifugal compressor, no useful power)
1910 First GT featuring intermittent combustion (Holzwarth, 150 kW, constant volume
combustion)
1923 First exhaust-gas turbocharger to increase the power of diesel engines
1939 World’s first gas turbine for power generation (Brown Boveri Company), Neuchâtel,
Switzerland
(velox burner, aerodynamics by Stodola)
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• Power gas turbines are further used to

drive vehicles, ships, propeller aircraft
GAS and helicopters.
• Gas turbine driven vehicles are large
TURBINE power vehicles, as off-highway trucks,
excavators, tanks and train locomotives.
• Ships requiring high propulsive power in
limited available space are gas turbine
driven.
• This applies mainly to fast container
ships, fast ferries, coast guard patrol
boats and military ships like frigates
and torpedo ships. Gas turbines are
also applied for aircraft propulsion.
These are commonly called aero gas
turbines.

WHAT IS GAS TURBINE

The gas turbine is a power plant, which a great amount of energy for its size and
weight.

Advantage: compactness low

weight multiple fuel application

Today, the gas turbines run on

natural gas biomass gas
diesel fuel vaporized fuel oil
methane crude
low energy gas naphtha
61
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CONT’D
Gas turbines show similarities, but differences as well, with reciprocating
internal combustion engines and steam turbines. Within a reciprocating engine, the gas
completes also a cycle of compression, heating by combustion and expansion, but the
difference is that the stages of the cycle occur within the same space, but at different
times. By alternating cold and hot stages, the thermal load on the walls is lower at a
given combustion temperature.

Reciprocating engines thus allow higher combustion temperatures. Further, the

combustion happens for a large part under a constant volume. A high combustion
temperature is then very advantageous for efficiency. The combustion in a gas turbine
is at constant pressure. The consequence is that the simple-cycle efficiency does not
depend much on the combustion temperature. Both machine types reach comparable
efficiencies at present.

CONT’D
With a simple cycle, the efficiency of a gas turbine amounts to about 40%. This is
lower than the efficiency of a diesel engine, about 45%, but some extensions, analyzed
later, allow efficiency improvement with gas turbines.

With both machine types a high combustion temperature is important for a high power
density, or power per volume occupied. For this aspect, gas turbines have a very
significant advantage over reciprocating engines, as flow through a gas turbine is
continuous and occurs at high speed, with a through-flow Mach number of the order of
0.5.

Large state-of-the-art land-based gas turbines feature about 1500°C as inlet temperature
of the turbine part and develop about 400 MW power. The dimensions are
approximately: diameter 5 m and length 13 m. A diesel engine with these dimensions
only attains about 10 MW
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CONT’D
A high temperature at the combustion chamber outlet creates great
technological problems for the combustor and the turbine. The melting
temperature of the materials for the combustor and the turbine blades and vanes
is about 1350°C.

With regard to sufficient strength and avoidance of creep, the highest

allowable metal temperature of turbine blades is about 900°C. Combustor and
turbine parts thus need intensive cooling and protection against the hot gas.
The technological gas turbine design is strongly determined by cooling and
heat protection aspects,

Power gas turbine. (Siemens SGT6-5000F)

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BRAYTON
CYCLE

IDEAL CYCLE OF SIMPLE GAS

TURBINE
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IDEAL CYCLE ANALYSIS

The cycle efficiency is

Making use of the isentropic p - T relation, we have

where r is the pressure ratioP / P = r = P / P · readily shown to be given by

2 I 3 4

CONT’D
The efficiency thus depends only on the pressure ratio and the nature of the
gas. Figure shows the relation between 𝜂 and r when the working fluid is air
(y = 1.4), or a monatomic gas such as argon (y = 1·66). For the remaining
curves in this section air will be assumed to be the working fluid.

The specific work output W, upon which the size of plant for a given
power depends, is found to be a function not only of pressure ratio but
also of maximum cycle temperature T3. Thus

which can be expressed as

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CONT’
D

PERFORMANCE OF GAS TURBINE

SYSTEM
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FUEL-AIR RATIO, COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY AND

CYCLE EFFICIENCY
Once the fuel-air ratio is !mown, the fuel consumption mf is simply f x m
where m is the air mass flow, and the specific fuel consumption can be

found directly from

Since the fuel consumption is normally measured in kg/h, while WN is in kW per
kg/s of air flow, the SFC in kg/kW h is given by the following numerical

equation:

CONT’D
If the thermal efficiency of the cycle is required, it must be defined in the form
'work output/heat supplied' even though the combustion process is adiabatic and in the
thermodynamic sense no heat is supplied.
We know that if the fuel is burnt under ideal conditions, such that the products and
reactants are virtually at the same temperature (the reference temperature 25°C), the rate
of energy release in the form of heat will be

where mf is the fuel flow and Qgr,p is the gross (or higher) calorific value at
constant pressure.
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CONT’
In the gas turbine it is not possible to utilize the latent heat
D and the convention of using the net calorific value0 vapor
products
of thein
2
H the
has been adopted in
most countries. Thus the cycle efficiency may be defined as

With the units used here, the equivalent numerical equation becomes

or, using the above numerical equation for SFC

Q is sensibly equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the enthalpy of reaction AH

net,p 25
referred to earlier, and the value of 43100 lcJ/kg will be used for numerical examples.

EXAMPLE 1
Determine the specific work output, specific fuel consumption and cycle
efficiency for a simple cycle gas turbine with a free power turbine given the
following specification:
Compressor pressure ratio: 12
Turbine inlet temperature: 1350 K
Isentropic efficiency of compressor: 0.86
Isentropic efficiency of each turbine: 0.89
Mechanical efficiency of each shaft: 0.99
Combustion efficiency: 0.99
Combustion chamber pressure loss: 6%
Exhaust pressure loss: 0.03 bar
Ambient conditions, Pa = 1 bar, Ta = 288 K
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SOLUTION
(1/5)
Since T = T and P = P
01 a
compressor work is o1 a
and  = 1.4, the temperature equivalent of the

Turbine work required to drive compressor per unit mass flow is

SOLUTION
(2/5)exiting from compressor:
Pressure

The intermediate pressure between the twop turbines,

, is unknown, but can be
04
determined from the fact that the compressor turbine produces just sufficient work
to drive the compressor. The temperature equivalent of the compressor turbine work
is therefore
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SOLUTION
(3/5)
Finding exit temperature from first stage of the turbineT
04

SOLUTION
The temperature drop in the power turbine:
(4/5)

Power turbine work per unit air mass flow:

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SOLUTION
(5/5)
The SFC and cycle efficiency, , are then given by

GAS TURBINE WITH

REGENERATORHeat-exchange cycle
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HEAT-EXCHANGE
CYCLE
The cycle efficiency now becomes

With ideal heat-exchange T = T , and on substituting the isentropicp-T

5 4
relations the expression reduces to

CONT’
D

Regenerative cycle of gas turbine

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EXAMPLE 2
Determine the specific work output, specific fuel consumption and cycle
efficiency for a heat-exchange -cycle, having the following specification:
Compressor pressure ratio: 4
Turbine inlet temperature: 1100 K
Isentropic efficiency of compressor: 0.85
Isentropic efficiency of turbine: 0.87
Mechanical transmission efficiency: 0.99
Combustion efficiency: 0.98
Heat-exchanger effectiveness: 0.80
Pressure losses
Combustion chamber: 2%
Heat-exchanger air-side: 3%
Heat-exchanger gas-side: 0.04 bar
Ambient conditions, : Pa =1 bar, Ta =288 K

SOLUTION
(1/6)
Since T = T and P = P
01 a
compressor work is o1 a
and  = 1.4, the temperature equivalent of the

Turbine work required to drive compressor per unit mass flow is

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SOLUTION
(2/6)
Pressure

Since y = 1·333 for the expanding gases, the temperature equivalent of the
total turbine work is

SOLUTION
(3/6)
Total turbine work per unit mass flow is

Remembering that the mass flow is to be assumed the same

throughout the unit, the specific work output is simply
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SOLUTION
(4/6)
Heat-exchanger effectivenes

Hence

SOLUTION
Find from
stoichiometric
(5/6)
Fuel air ratio: reaction or graph

The specific fuel consumption is therefore

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SOLUTION
(6/6)
Finally, the cycle efficiency is

GAS TURBINE WITH

REHEAT
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OTHER IMPROVEMENT OF GAS

TURBINE

steam injection in gas turbine Evaporative cooling and steam injection in gas turbine
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ECONOMIC COMPARISON OF VARIOUS GENERATION

TECHNOLOGY

9
4

TYPICAL HEAT RATE FOR VARIOUS TYPE OF PLANT

9
5
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ECONOMIC AND OPERATION CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT

9
6

9
7
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9
8

5 CATEGORIES OF GAS TURBINE

9
9
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10
0
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PROBLEM 1
A gas turbine uses the Brayton cycle. The pressure ratio is 6/1. The inlet temperature
to the compressor is 10oC. The flow rate of air is 0.2 kg/s. The temperature at inlet to
the turbine is 950oC. Calculate the following. i. The cycle efficiency. ii. The heat
transfer into the heater. iii. The net power output.  = 1.4, c p = 1.005 kJ/kg K

PROBLEM 2
A gas turbine draws in air from atmosphere at 1 bar and 10 oC and compresses it to 5
bar with an isentropic efficiency of 80%. The air is heated to 1200 K at constant
pressure and then expanded through two stages in series back to 1 bar. The high
pressure turbine is connected to the compressor and produces just enough power to
drive it. The low pressure stage is connected to an external load and produces 80 kW
of power. The isentropic efficiency is 85% for both stages. Calculate the mass flow
of air, the inter-stage pressure of the turbines and the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
For the compressor  = 1.4 and for the turbines  = 1.333. The gas constant R is
0.287 kJ/kg K for both. Neglect the increase in mass due to the addition of fuel for
burning
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PROBLEM 3
A gas turbine uses a pressure ratio of 7.5/1. The inlet temperature and pressure are
respectively 10oC and 105 kPa. The temperature after heating in the combustion
chamber is 1300oC. The specific heat capacity cp for the exhaust gas is 1.15 kJ/kg K.
The adiabatic index is 1.4 for air and 1.33 for the gas. Assume isentropic
compression and expansion. The mass flow rate is 1kg/s. cp for air is1.005 kJ/kg K.
Calculate the air standard efficiency if no heat exchanger is used and compare it to
the thermal efficiency when an exhaust heat exchanger with a thermal ratio of 0.88 is
used.
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STEAM TURBINE
The first steam turbine for power generation was designed and built by Sir Charles Algernon
Parsons in 1884 in England. Steam turbines have been key components of electrical power
generation since the 19th century and are one of the distinctive outcomes of the industrial
revolution.
Steam turbines have played a major role in power-generation industries, upgrading
technology innovations for more than 130 years, and they continue to do so today. Steam
turbines are turbomachinery prime movers in which stator blades accelerate and swirl
hightemperature and high-pressure steam provided from their boilers around their rotors, and
rotating blades receive impulse forces and reaction forces from the accelerated and swirled
steam, and the rotating blades transmit the torque generated by the steam forces to their
rotors.
A turbine stage consists of a pair of a stator blade row and a rotating blade row. There are
many kinds of steam turbines, from single-stage turbines to multi-stage turbines that have 30
or more stages. Therefore, the capacity range of a single unit is very wide, from the
hundredsof kW class to the 1900-MW class, and the range of applications of steam turbines is
also very wide.

CONT’D
Electric power generation is one of main applications of steam turbines. Since
hightemperature and high-pressure inlet steam conditions increase efficiency, inlet
steam pressures range from 24.1 to 31.0 MPa.g (mega Pascal plus atmospheric
pressure), and temperatures range from 593oC to 600oC in typical steam turbines for
modern large-scale thermal power plants.

Steam turbines under these steam conditions are usually called ultra-supercritical
(USC) pressure steam turbines. Unit power outputs of USC power plants typically
range from 600 to 1100 MW for one turbine unit, because a large capacity for one
unit is advantageous for turbine efficiency. As a representative case of USC steam
turbines, a steam turbine usually consists of one single-flow high-pressure (HP)
turbine, one single-flow or doubleflow intermediate-pressure (IP) turbine, and two
double-flow low-pressure (LP) turbines with last-stage blades of 1 m or more in
length because the steam volume flow, including extraction steam of the steam
turbine outlet in a condenser vacuum condition, increases up to 2000-times that of
the inlet
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PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION
Steam at high pressure and temperature expands through nozzles forming
high velocity jets

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Many such nozzles are mounted on inner wall of cylinder or stator casing
The rotor of the turbine have blades fitted around in circular array
Steam jet from static nozzles impinges and impart its momentum on to rotor blades
This make the rotor to rotate A set of one array of stator and rotor blade is called a ‘stage’
Number of stages are arranged one after another and thus thermodynamic energy is converted
into kinetic energy
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TURBINE BLADES
Number of rows of static and
rotating blades (stages) produce
the requisite torque.
Type of turbine are classified
according to the arrangement
and shape of these blades

STEAM TURBINE
CLASSIFICATION
Based on the nature
of blade profile,
steam perform work
on the blades
differently.
Accordingly there are
two types of turbine
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REACTION DEGREE
To indicate steam enthalpy drop of a blade row in a stage.
Reaction degree is defined as:

𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑤

𝑅=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
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STEAM TURBINE FOR POWER

GENERATION

STEAM TURBINE
TYPE
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CONDENSING TURBINE
The condensing turbine is able to use the total energy of the inlet steam flow to a
maximum extent. Therefore, this type of turbine is used for power utilities that want
to supply electricity to consumers as much as possible. Conversely, the condensing
turbine has a lot of heat discharge loss because all exhaust steam flow is condensed
in the condenser that is cooled by cooling water, which means that a lot of
discharged heat is thrown away outside.

Furthermore, the condensing turbine consists of many turbine stages and large steam
flow in the LP turbine, as a result, the LP turbine will become larger. In addition, the
condensing turbine requires a larger condenser, causing more construction and
maintenance costs. Therefore, this type of the turbine should be selected from an
economical viewpoint.

BACK PRESSURE TURBINE

The back pressure turbine is used for supplying process steam to the facilities in
private-use power producers. This type of steam turbine supplies not only electricity
but also the process steam to the facilities. In other words, exhaust steam pressure is
set to be the demanded pressure from the facility needs or outside needs. In the back
pressure turbine, an effective heat drop will be small as shown in Fig. 2.13,
therefore, the turbine output will be also small.

In the case where large amounts of steam are required by facilities for process steam,
high thermal efficiency will be expected, which means the back pressure turbine will
give advantage to private power utilities. And as the back pressure turbine consists
of fewer turbine stages with simple structure and small exhaust parts, this results in
lower equipment costs. The back pressure turbine (or the extraction back pressure
turbine) is adopted in many facilities such as oil refineries, petrochemical, paper-
pulp, fiber, and food industries, where large amounts of steam are required.
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EXTRACTION CONDENSING
TURBINE
The extraction condensing turbine is able to change the electric power and the
process steam flow independently by adjusting inlet steam flow and process steam
flow. Adjustment of process steam flow is implemented by the extraction control
valve.

The turbine output is adjusted by the main control valve for inlet steam flow in
conjunction with the LP turbine flow affected by the extraction control valve. That is
to say, the extraction condensing turbine has both features of the condensing turbine
and the back pressure turbine and has the capability to fulfilling both the
requirements of the electric power supply and the process steam flow.

MIXED PRESSURE TURBINE

The mixed pressure turbine is adopted to introduce surplus medium/LP steam
from facilities into the intermediate stage of the turbine. In this way, the surplus
steam in the facilities is effectively utilized.

For example, in the paper-mill factory, two kinds of the boiler whose pressure
is different, is provided to recover excessive heat which occurs in the
manufacturing process of a paper mill.
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The steam from two

boilers can be utilized
effectively by one mixed-
pressure steam turbine.
Figure shows an example
of the mixed pressure
turbine provided with
two-stage extractions.

Extraction mixed-pressure condensing turbine at pulp factory

Throttle governing
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Nozzle governing.

EXAMPLE
A steam power station uses the following cycle: Steam at boiler outlet is 150 bar and
550oC and the mass flow rate of the steam is 100 ton/h. Condenser works at 0.1 bar. If
the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 87%. Calculate power output of the turbine.

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EXAMPLE
A certain factory has an average electrical load of 1.5 MW and requires 3.5 MW for
heating purposes. It is proposed to install a single extraction pass out steam turbine to
operate under the following conditions:
Initial pressure: 15 bar, Initial temperature: 300 oC, Condenser pressure: 0.1 bar
Steam is extracted between the two turbine sections at 3 bar, quality 0.96 and is
isobarically cooled without sub-cooling in heaters to supply the heating load. The
internal efficiency of the turbine (LP section) is 0.80 and efficiency of the boiler is
0.85 when using oil (heating value 44 MJ/kg. Assume that the condensate from the
heaters (at 3 bar) and that from the condenser (at 0.1 bar) mix freely in a separate
vessel (hot well before being pumped to the boiler. Neglect extraneous losses. If
10% of boiler steam is used for auxiliaries, calculate the oil consumption per day.

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SOLUTIO
N

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SOLUTION
(CONT’D)

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DISCUSSION
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PROBLEM 1
A back pressure steam cycle works as follows. The boiler produces 8 kg/s of steam at
40 bar and 500oC. This is expanded to 2 bar with an isentropic efficiency of 0.88. The
pump is supplied with feed water at 0.5 bar and 30oC and delivers it to the boiler at
31oC and 40 bar. Calculate the net power output of the cycle.
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PROBLEM 2
The demand for energy from an industrial plant is a steady load of 60 MW of process
heat at 117oC and a variable demand of up to 30 MW of power to drive electrical
generators. The steam is raised in boilers at 70 bar pressure and superheated to 500 oC.
The steam is expanded in a turbine and then condensed at 0.05 bar. The process heat
is provided by the steam bled from the turbine at an appropriate pressure, and the
steam condensed in the process heat exchanger is returned to the feed water line.
Calculate the amount of steam that has to be raised in the boiler. Assume an overall
isentropic efficiency of 0.88 in the turbine. The expansion is represented by a straight
line on the h-s diagram. Neglect the feed pump work

PROBLEM 3
A 40 m diameter, three bladed wind turbine produces 700 kW at a wind speed
(hub height) of 14 m/s. The air density is 1.225 kg/m3. Find: a) The rotational
speed (rpm) of the rotor at a tip-speed ratio of 5.0. b) What is the tip-speed
(m/s)? c) If the generator turns at 1800 rpm, what gear ratio is needed to
match the rotor speed to the generator speed. d) What is the efficiency of the
wind turbine system (including blades, transmission, shafts, and generator)
under these conditions?
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PROBLEM 4
At a project site, the head available is 160 m of water at a flow rate of 0.005
m3/s. Find a) a power can be develop if the turbine efficiency is 92%, b) the
jet velocity is calculated, and c) calculate the jet diameter.

PROBLEM 5
A gas turbine uses a standard Brayton cycle but there is friction in the compressor
and turbine. The air is drawn into the compressor at 1 bar 15 oC and is compressed
with an isentropic efficiency of 94% to a pressure of 9 bar. After heating, the gas
temperature is 1000oC. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is also 94%. The
mass flow rate is 2.1 kg/s. Determine: a). The net power output; b) The thermal
efficiency of the plant.  = 1.4 and cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K.