GEOL30005 Applied Geophysics: Lecture 21: Geophysical Well Logging
GEOL30005 Applied Geophysics: Lecture 21: Geophysical Well Logging
GEOL30005 Applied Geophysics
Lecture 21: Geophysical well logging
What is geophysical well
logging? (or wireline logging)
• Dropping a gadget down a hole to learn
more about the rocks.
• Different to core logging (or geological
logging) where a geologist looks at rocks
logging) where a geologist looks at rocks
(drill core) extracted from a hole.
• Geophysical well logging is extensively
carried out during oil and gas exploration,
but also for groundwater, mineral and
geothermal exploration.
• Objective is to measure properties such as
porosity, resistivity, sonic velocity,
it i ti it i l it
radioactivity etc.
• Results are characterised by a long chart
which displays a trace quantifying the
tool’s measurement vs depth
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History of wireline logging
• 1912 – Conrad Schlumberger invented the idea of electrical well‐logs and
the first resistivity well log was taken in France ‐ 1927.
• 1931 – first SP (spontaneous potential) log was recorded
• G
Gamma ray and d
neutron log began in
1941.
• Used for correlation
and identification of
hydrocarbon bearing
strata
Types of Logs
• There are lots, but these are the most
common ones:
Caliper
Gamma ray
Spontaneous potential
Resistivity
Sonic
Neutron log
Density
This photo show SOME of
the tools that can be used
to take measurements
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Applications
• Depth to lithological boundaries
• Lithology identification
• Minerals grade/quality
• Inter‐borehole correlation
• Structure mapping
• Dip determination
• Porosity
• Salinity
• Velocity
• Tie geology with seismic
Common Logs and What They Measure
Major application
neous Potential
Secondary application
Nuclearr Mag. Reson.
Photoelectric Effect
Log
Wirelinee Testing
Boreholle Image
Gammaa Ray
Resistivity
Dipmeteer
Well Tesst
n
Neutron
Spontan
Density
Property
Sonic
Core
Lithology/Mineralogy
Porosity
Fluid Type
Fluid Saturation
Permeability
Stratigraphy
Downhole Pressure
Geophysics
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Wireline logging
• Wireline logging can be on or off shore
• Can be a simple rig or part of a complex
operation
Instrumentation
• Wireline logging requires some standard equipment:
Logging cable
Winch to raise and lower the cable in the well
AC generator
Digital recording system
Di i l di
Tools required to lower down the well
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Drill rig Kelly bushing
Rotary table
• Worth knowing a bit about a drill rig
to understand wireline logging.
• Many parts to a drill rig – parts we’re
interested in are the kelly, the kelly
bushing and the rotary table.
• On drill rigs, the kelly is a section of
pp q g
pipe with a square, hexagonal or
splined outer surface, which passes
through the kelly bushing and the
rotary table.
Kelly Bushing
• The kelly bushing connects the rotary table to the kelly.
• It has an inside diameter profile that matches the kelly
(square or hexagonal).
• Kelly bushing is connected to the rotary table by 4
large steel pins
• The kelly is free to slide vertically in the bushing as the
well progresses deeper.
• The rotary motion from Kelly bushing Kelly
the rotary table is
transmitted to the bushing
through the pins, and then
h h h i d h
to the kelly itself through
the square or hexagonal
flat surfaces between the
kelly and the kelly bushing.
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Rotary table
• The revolving or spinning section of the
drillfloor that provides power to turn the
drillstring in a clockwise direction (as viewed Kelly, kelly
from above). bushing and
rotary table
• Almost all rigs today have a rotary table
Almost all rigs today have a rotary table,
either as primary or backup system for
rotating the drillstring.
• Topdrive technology, which allows continuous
rotation of the drillstring, has replaced the
rotary table in certain operations. A few rigs
g y p
are being built today with topdrive y
systems
only, and lack the traditional kelly system.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sBnaN9aSqa8
Measurements In Time and In Depth
• Depth measurements are commonly referenced to either the Kelly bushing (KB), (such
as 2356m KB, meaning 2356m below the kelly bushing), or the Rotary table (RT).
Weathering
Two‐way ttime
This distance could
be 20 m or more for
marine drill‐rigs
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Caliper
• Caliper logs record the diameter, size and shape of
the hole by using mechanical arms that press up
against the walls of the hole.
• Very useful in relaying information about the quality of the hole
y y g q y
and hence reliability of the other logs.
• An example includes a large hole where dissolution or caving of the
rock wall occurred, leading to errors in other log responses.
• Most caliper logs are run with
gamma‐ray logs and typically
will remain constant
throughout.
Caliper
• Borehole size is set by the drill bit, but it is influenced by:
• Changes in stress state
borehole breakout
induced fracturing
induced fracturing
• Chemical reactions
swelling clays in shales
dissolution of salt
• Drilling process
spiral borehole
bit marks
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GammaRay – lithology log
• The gamma ray measures the natural radioactivity of
the rocks Gamma Ray
• Shales: radioactive potassium is a common component
and because of their cat‐ion exchange capacity,
Shale
uranium and thorium are often absorbed as well
• Therefore, very often shales will display
high gamma ray responses (hence curve
is far to the right for shale), while
sandstones and limestone will typically
show lower responses.
Sd
S
Sand
Spontaneous potential (SP) – lithology log
• The SP log records the electric potential between an electrode pulled up a
hole and a reference electrode at the surface
• This potential exists because of the electrochemical differences between
the waters within the formation and the drilling mud
• The potential is measured in millivolts
on a relative scale only since the
absolute value depends on the
properties of the drilling mud
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Spontaneous potential (SP)
• Interpretation is similar to the gamma ray log
Deflections to the right = Shale
Deflections to the left = Sand
• In shaly sections, the max SP response to the right can be used
to define a “shale line”.
• SP logs are good indicators of lithology where sandstones are
permeable and water saturated.
• However, SP is poor or misleading when:
the lithologies are filled with fresh water
the permeabilities are very low (sandstones are tightly
cemented or the interval is completely bitumen saturated
(ie – oil sands))
MSFL
• Resistivity logs record the resistance of SFL
interstitial fluids
• Either transmitted directly to the rock
through an electrode, or magnetically
induced deeper into the formation from the
Formation Fluid
hole. different from
Drilling Fluid
• Therefore, the ability of rocks to conduct
electrical currents is measured in ohm‐
metres.
g,
• On most modern logs, there will be three Formation
F ti Fluid
Fl id
curves, each measuring the resistance of similar to
section to the flow of electricity. Drilling Fluid
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• Porous formations filled with salt water (which is MSFL
ranging from 1‐10 ohm‐metres.
• Formations that contain oil/gas generally have much
higher resistivities (often ranging from 10‐500 ohm‐
t )
metres)
• High deep resistivity means: Formation Fluid
different from
Can indicate hydrocarbons Drilling Fluid
• Low deep resistivity means:
Shale
Wet sand
• Separation between resistivities means:
The formation fluid is different from the drilling
Th f ti fl id i diff tf th d illi Formation
F ti Fluid
Fl id
fluid similar to
Drilling Fluid
The formation is permeable to the drilling fluid
• Deep, Medium, and Shallow refers to how far into the
formation the resistivity is reading (1m, 0.5m, few cm)
Sonic
• Sonic logs (or acoustic logs) measure the porosity of the rock.
• They do this by measuring the travel time of an elastic wave through a
formation (measured in microseconds per metre).
• Acoustic energy emitted by a transmitter
Acoustic energy emitted by a transmitter,
travels through the formation/fluids,
detected by multiple receivers
• The time difference in receiving an
T
acoustic pulse at each receiver is R1
measured
R2
R1
R2
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Sonic Delta-T
• Sonic logs are measuring velocity within formations.
Therefore they can help with depth converting seismic
data measured in two‐way‐time.
• Must be used in combination with other logs,
particularly gamma rays and resistivity, thereby
allowing a better understanding of the reservoir
p p y
petrophysics.
Neutron log
• Neutron logs measure the amount of hydrogen
present in rocks and can be used to estimate
porosity.
• This is done by bombarding the formation with
neutrons, and determining how many become
“captured” by the hydrogen nuclei.
• So, a neutron log is not really a measure of porosity, but a measure of the
hydrogen contained within the pores of rocks.
The more porous the rock, the higher the hydrogen content. Rocks that
contain lots of hydrogen are interpreted to have high porosity as well.
• Because shales have high amounts of water, the neutron log will read quite
high porosities, thus it must be used in conjunction with Gamma‐ray logs.
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Density log
• Density logs measure the bulk electron density of the formation,
and is measured in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3).
• The density tool emits gamma radiation which is scattered back to
a detector in amounts proportional to the electron density of the
a detector in amounts proportional to the electron density of the
formation.
• The higher the gamma ray reflected, the greater the porosity of
the rock.
• Electron density is directly related to the
density of the formation and amount of
density of interstitial fluids.
d it f i t titi l fl id
• Helpful in distinguishing lithologies,
especially between dolomite (~2.85 kg/m3)
and limestone (~2.71kg/m3)
Neutron / Density) Density Log
• It is very common to see both neutron and density logs Neutron Log
recorded on the same section
• Overlaying these logs together allows for better
opportunity of distinguishing lithologies and making
better estimates of the true porosity.
Shalee
• Density log (solid black line)
measure the bulk (average) density of the formation
(rock & fluids)
• Neutron log (dashed red line)
measures the hydrogen content Gas
Deflections to the left = more porous
Deflections to the right = less porous Gas
Oil
Red left of solid black black = shale or
Red right of solid black = Gas sand H2O
Red over solid black = Wet sand or oil sand
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Caliper
Gamma rayy
Deep resistivity (IDL)
Density (RHOB)
Neutron porosity (NPHI)
Acronyms for logging tools
http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/BRG/ODP/LOG
GING/MANUAL/Pages/acronyms.html
define a shale base line Shale
Siltstone
Deflections far to the left
• Deflections far to the left
are sands
• Intermediate deflections
to the left are silts Sandstone
Siltstone
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
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porosity to the right of Shale
the density porosity? Siltstone
• This indicates where gas
is in the sand pores
Sandstone
Gas
Siltstone
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
logs give different Shale
values? Siltstone
• This indicates where the
fluids in the rocks differ Formation
from the drilling fluid Fluid
Sandstone different
from
Gas
• In this case, it confirms
Drilling Fluid
the gas zone
Siltstone
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
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Other down hole tools
• Dip meter – measures wellbore inclination and orientation
• Magnetic resonance (Determine permeability)
• Temperature surveys essential for geothermal exploration
• Pressure logs ‐
g important reservoir parameter
p p
• Spinner log – propeller measures flow in wellbore (identifies production or
injection)
• Video – identify well problems (requires very clear water)
• Various imaging tools
• Various mineral identification tools
• Lots of production logs
• Fibre optics for heat conductivity
Other down hole tools
• Scintrex (‘Gravilog’ sonde) and Micro‐g LaCoste (BHGM™) offer bore‐hole gravity
surveys.
• Borehole gravity survey can provide valuable information such as:
Mapping of salt flanks, flares and overhangs
Detection of faults, especially overthrusts
Mapping reef structures
Evaluation of fracture systems and porosity away from well
Verification of surface and airborne gravity anomalies
Association of mass with conductors
Detection of cavities and voids
Improved gravity inversion capabilities
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Objectives of Well‐Seismic Ties
• Well‐seismic ties allow well data, measured
in units of depth, to be compared to
seismic data, measured in units of time Synthetic Trace
• This allows us to relate horizon tops
identified in a well with specific reflections
on the seismic section
• We use sonic and density well logs to
generate a synthetic seismic trace
• The synthetic trace is compared to the real
seismic data collected near the well
location
Comparison of Seismic and Well Data
Seismic Data Well Data
Samples area and volume Samples point along well bore
Low frequency 5 ‐ 60 Hz High frequency, 10,000 ‐ 20,000 Hz
Vertical resolution 15 ‐ 100 m
Vertical resolution 15 100 m Vertical resolution 2 cm ‐ 2 m
Vertical resolution 2 cm 2m
Horizontal resolution 150 ‐ 1000 m Horizontal resolution 0.5 cm ‐ 6 m
Measures seismic amplitude, phase, Measures vertical velocity, density, resistivity,
continuity, horizontal & vertical velocities radioactivity, SP, rock and fluid properties from
cores
Time measurement Depth measurement
100 m
100 m
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Well Log Correlation
• Well logs give us detailed information at the location of the borehole
• If there are several wells in an area, we can correlate stratigraphic units
between them
The correlation is based on ‘characteristics’
• The correlation is based on of the well log
characteristics of the well log
• Often we select a datum – a correlation horizon that is registered to a
common depth
• There are two main ‘philosophies’ used in well log correlation:
Correlate based on lithologic units ‐ Lithostratigraphy
Correlate based on assume time lines – Chronostratigraphy
Well Log Correlation
Well A Well B Well C Well D
Coastal Plain Sandstones and Mudstones
Shallow Marine Sandstones
Shelf Mudstones
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Lithostratigraphy
Well A Well B Well C Well D
Coastal Plain
Coastal Plain
Datum
Nearshore Sands
Shelf Mudstones
Correlating well logs is highly interpretative
Here the correlation is based on common lithologic units
Chronostratigraphy
Well A Well B Well C Well D
Coastal Plain
Index
Shelf Mudstones Fossil
Here the correlation is based on an interpretation of
time‐equivalent stratal packages
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Well Correlation
Well Correlation
Well Section 2 Well Section 4
Well Section 3
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Currently operating contractors
• Schlumberger
• Halliburton
• Baker Hughes
• Scintrex
• Groundsearch Australia
• Surtron
• Weatherford
A lot of well data is available online
• Hyperlinks http://er‐info.dpi.vic.gov.au/energy/
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Cost
• Costs of geophysical logging vary depending on the depth of the borehole
to be logged and the types of logs to be run,
• In an extreme case, log runs of exploration and production holes in the
petroleum industry often cost up to A$1 million (particularly offshore
• Mineral industry and groundwater applications are often much shallower
and therefore costs are much less.
Method Property measured Cost Time Difficulty
Caliper Borehole diameter 1 1 1
Single‐point resistance Resistance of formation, fluids 1 1 1
Normal resistivity Resistivity of the formation 1 1 1
Electromagnetic Induction Bulk apparent conductivity of the formation 1 2 2
Fluid resistivity Electrical resistivity of borehole fluid 1 1 1
Fluid temperature Temperature of borehole fluid 1 1 1
Heat‐pulse, EM, & spinner
Direction and magnitude of vertical flow 3 3 3
flowmeter
Camera Visual fish‐eye view of borehole 2 2 2
Acoustic televiewer Amplitude and travel time of acoustic signal 3 3 3
Deviation Azimuthal direction and the inclination of borehole 2 2 2
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