GEOL30005 Applied Geophysics: The Seismic Method
GEOL30005 Applied Geophysics: The Seismic Method
GEOL30005 Applied Geophysics
Lecture 19: Seismic theory and acquisition
The Seismic Method
• Works in a similar way to an ultrasound (used
for medical applications)
• Requires a seismic source (air gun, explosive,
vibration truck), and an array of receivers
(geophones)
• Basic principle is that we generate a seismic
wave and measure the time taken for the wave
to travel from the source, and reflect from a
geological interface back to the receiver.
• Can be on‐ or off‐shore
• Has traditionally been restricted to profile data, but now we can acquire 3D seismic
• Is typically quite expensive because it requires mobilisation of a ship or highly
specialised seismic trucks, plus there is a lot of processing involved.
• Works great for sub‐horizontal geology – ie. sedimentary basins
• Is much more common in the oil/gas industry
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The Seismic Method
• Seismic method produces a ‘cross‐
section’ image which characterises
geometry of rocks in the sub‐surface.
• If we have acquired 3D seismic, we can
generate a cross section in any
generate a cross‐section in any
orientation (including a horizontal slice)
• From this, we can interpret geological
horizons, faults, basement geometries
and heaps more.
• If we have 3D seismic, or lots of 2D
seismic lines, we can interpret a
seismic lines, we can interpret a
geological horizon and display it as a
grid in map view.
Depth to top Latrobe Group
The Seismic Method
• To image the subsurface, we use many shots (eg. explosions), and many
receivers (listening devices)
• Receivers are typically arranged in an array of lines
• Seismic data in the vertical direction is not measured
in depth (metres), instead, its measured in two‐way‐
time (TWT)
• That is – the time for a seismic wave to travel from the
source, bounce off a geological reflector, and back to
the receiver.
Important to
• Important to
remember since
shapes in TWT can
be very different to
depth
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Seismic is used at a variety of scales
• 10’s m: Ground water, engineering and environmental studies
• km’s: Oil and gas exploration
• 10’s km: Crustal structure
Nankai Trough Japan
Perspective block
g g
diagram showing both
cross‐sectional and map
views of the
accretionary wedge.
What Causes Reflections?
• Any interface between bodies with
Shot Receiver
different acoustic properties
• A
Acoustic properties define
ti ti d fi
Impedance (I) , where:
Layer 1
• I = velocity * density Layer 2
Boundary
L 6 – Seismic Reflections
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Acoustic energy radiates down
The Seismic Method through the Earth (represented by
the half‐circles and arcs)
• We need to understand how seismic waves behave For simplicity, we use rays (lines with
when they encounter an impedance contrast. arrows) to represent the acoustic
energy traveling through the Earth
Energy
Source .4 s Listening Devices .1
.2
0
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
0 sss
.8 s
Seismic waves obey Snell’s Law
• Similar to optics
• The angle of incidence equals the
angle of reflection
• The angle of transmission is related
to the angle of incidence through
the velocity ratio.
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Raw Seismic Data For the explosion
we considered
Device Device earlier...
#1 #2
Time
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Listening device #1 records a reflection off the
0.5
orange unit starting at 0.4 seconds
0.6
0.7
0.8
Listening device #2 records a reflection off the
brown unit starting at 0.8 seconds
Displaying seismic data
• We can display seismic data as a wiggle display, only filling positive peaks –
‘variable area wiggle’ display.
• The variable area with wiggle display is most commonly used for seismic
processing purposes, the colour display is mostly used for interpretation
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Raw Data ‐ Marine
• These images show some raw marine seismic data
• Horizontal scale is the receiver number (which can be translated into meters)
• Vertical scale is two‐way‐time
• The receiver nearest the boat is on the left; receiver furthest away on the right
• There is a hyperbolic
shape of the reflections
because near the boat
the energy travels almost
straight down and up
• The receivers further
away from the boat
record arrival times from
both the vertical and
horizontal component
• Thus the distance
travelled by the blue rays
is longer than the red
rays and takes more time
Seismic Processing
• Seismic processing is a relatively complex process.
• It transforms the raw seismic data, and produces a image which enables us to
interpret crustal architecture such as faults, folds, geological horizons etc.
• We’ll discuss the main steps undertaken during seismic processing in the next
lecture.
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Factors which influence seismic velocity
1 - Density and elastic properties of the rocks
2 - Porosity (φ)
Travel time through porous rock= Travel time through rock material + Travel time through fluid
6 - Type of waves
Typical rock velocity ranges
• Similarly to magnetic susceptibility and
density, there is a large range of velocities
for a specific rock type
• Seismic velocity is not a diagnostic property
f kt
of rock type
• Not surprising Nafe‐Drake curve
given density and
velocity are
closely related
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Types of seismic velocities
1 ‐ Root mean square velocity:
If subsurface made of horizontal layers with interval velocities v1,v2,v3,…
and one way time t1, t2, t3,…, VRMS gives by the following formula:
Surface
v1 t1 v2 t2 v3 t3 ...
2 2 2 t1 v1
vRMS
2
t2 v2
t1 t2 t3 ... t3
v3
2 ‐ Average Velocity:
Depth divided by the travel time of a wave to that depth.
Surface
t1 Z1
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 ...
v Average t2 Z2
t1 t2 t3 ...
t3 Z3
Types of seismic velocities
4 ‐ Interval Velocity:
It is average velocity within a certain bed or layer, usually obtained from
acoustic logs, or from the change in stacking velocity between seismic
events.
Z Z1 ….For Surface
vint erval 2 For layer 2
t1 Z1 Z
t2 t1 2
t2
t3 Layer 2 Z3
Z3 Z2
vint erval ….For layer 3
Layer 3
t3 t2
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Seismic velocity
• Velocity of seismic waves travelling through rocks is an important part of
the seismic method
• Having a good understanding of the velocity of rocks in a basin enables us
to more accurately process seismic data.
• Velocity down a well is often represented as a
depth curve or vertical seismic profile (VPS)
• Typically, velocities increase with depth
however the depth curve can cut back
depending on the lithology.
• Velocities can be obtained from
Stacking velocity: Calculated during seismic
processing
Checkshot velocities: Down hole survey
Check shot velocities
Well
h1
h2
Velocity = h / t
Section view
Shoot point
Geophone
Well
Top view
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Check‐shot velocities
• Below is a plot of velocity vs twt for all wells in the Gippsland Basin
• They all have a similar curve, however there are differences
• Velocities in the deeper water stay slower (at water velocity of 1470m/s) for longer
(eg. Whale shark 1, Great white 1, Billfish 1)
Onshore wells encounter
• Onshore wells encounter
fast rocks (Strzelecki
Group) at shallow depths,
and so plot much quicker
than the average (eg.
Boundary Creek 2, South
West Bairnsdale 1)
Instrumentation
• 3 main components required:
Something to generate the seismic source ‐
A receiver to ‘listen’ for returning seismic waves
A recording system
A recording system to control it all
to control it all
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Need to consider:
Seismic source • Energy input
• Repeatability
• Apparatus for delivering seismic energy into the ground • Cost
Must be repeatable ‐ source must be delivered in • Convenience
many locations
Time of delivery must be controllable ‐ this is imperative because we
k h i i h h ff k h
must know the precise time the shot went off so we know the travel l
time between source and receiver
Impact sources – sources that generate seismic
energy by impacting the surface of the Earth (eg.
Sledgehammer with a metal plate).
Advantages
‐ Low cost and simple to operate
Disadvantages
‐ Difficult to maintain consistency of source
‐ Energy typically does not penetrate deeply
Need to consider:
Seismic source • Energy input
• Repeatability
• Gun sources – energy is transferred to the ground by • Cost
transferring kinetic energy of a moving object into • Convenience
seismic energy (eg. Bullet from a shot‐gun, or air gun).
• Typically used offshore
Advantages
‐ Highly repeatable
‐ Moderate to high energy, so deeper
penetration
Disadvantages
‐ Safety
‐ The equipment is expensive/bulky
‐ Permitting problems.
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Need to consider:
Seismic source • Energy input
• Repeatability
• Explosive sources – explosives are often used to transfer • Cost
energy into the ground. Can vary in size from blasting • Convenience
caps to larger quantities of TNT or dynamite
(nitroglycerin).
Advantages:
‐ Transfers the largest amount of energy
into the ground
‐ the source is very repeatable.
Disadvantages:
‐ Safety being the obvious concern
‐ permitting (particularly with land owners)
‐ slower (since boreholes are drilled to lower
the explosive)
‐ Expensive to acquire/maintain
Weight drops
Seismic source • Cheap
Propelled Energy Generator • Repeatable – automated
Accelerated Weight Drop
• Targets > 50m
Surveyors in part of Royal Park where east‐west link exit will be
The Age: September 17, 2013
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Seismic source
• Vibroseis – Specially designed 30T trucks with a hydraulic operated baseplate
underneath the vehicle can be used as a source.
• Truck lifts up on baseplate and vibrates through a range of frequencies.
Advantages
g
‐ Because the source is known,
much better data is obtained
‐ Very deep (crustal scale)
penetration
‐ Much better on the environment
(compared with explosives)
‐ Much safer
Cannot be used offshore.
C tb d ff h
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Vibroseis truck
2006 west Victorian transect
Birdwagen HEMI60 with baseplate
down
Broad band output and a high
• Broad band output and a high
signal to noise ratio for the deepest
surveys
• Wagen wheel articulated steering
• ~30000kg
• Max Theoretical Peak Force
274,099 N.
• 4 wheel drive off road mobility
Earth echoes movie
Receiver
• Geophones – Devices capable of measuring ground
motion generated by the seismic source
• Convert ground motion to electrical signals
Potentially many geophones used for surveying
• Potentially many geophones used for surveying
• Need good contact with the ground – spike
• Hydrophones are on a long array are used for marine
applications
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Receiver
• Geophones
• Weighted mass suspended by springs, with a coil wrapped around
it and a magnet housed within the mass
• When the ground moves, the mass
wants to remain motionless
• As the magnet moves up and down
with the earth a magnetic field is
generated. This produces an electrical
voltage in the coil.
• Voltage recorded is proportional to the
velocity that the ground is moving
Recording system
• Stores the ground motion detected by the
geophones
Could be quite large >1000 geophones at a time
• Is also responsible for synchronising receiver with the
source.
• Recording system is connected to geophones and
source by numerous electrical cables (however it is
possible for geophones to be wireless these days).
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Seismic Acquisition
• Designing a survey starts with the available information and developing
an understanding of what you want to image
• A survey is designed based on:
Imaging objectives: image area, target depth, dips, velocity,
g g j g , g p , p, y,
size/thickness of bodies to be imaged, etc. (eg. an anticline at
1900m covering 10 km2 and sands believed to be 80m thick)
Survey parameters: survey area,
fold, offsets, sampling, shooting
direction, etc.
Balance between data quality & cost.
What level of quality do you need to
answer the business question?
Survey design
• Surveys are always designed for a specific purpose.
• They can be just a 2D profile, a collection of profiles, or full 3D seismic
• 3D surveys are often used for targeting a specific field(s)
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Survey design
• There are only a few dozen 3D surveys in
Victoria, but they cover a large area, and
provide excellent data
• In contrast, there are thousands of 2D lines
which date back to the 60s and earlier.
• 2D data quality varies vastly
Survey design
• Most of the energy from the air‐gun is lost by the time it makes it back to the seismic array
from the sea floor.
• To detect the arrival times of seismic waves amongst all the background noise requires
enormous receiving arrays.
• These hydrophone arrays are
d l l
arranged in several, long
(typically 6‐8 km) streamers
towed behind the ship.
• Each hydrophone's location
must be accurately known in
three dimensions at all times.
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Survey design
• Since GPS does not work underwater, elaborate systems are implemented to determine
the exact hydrophone positions behind the ship.
GPS floats at the beginning and end of each streamer;
Positioning systems distributed throughout the streamer array (yellow lines);
Depth sensors distributed throughout each streamer;
Heading sensors distributed throughout each streamer;
Heading sensors distributed throughout each streamer;
• When making turns, the array cannot be used, and changing direction with such a long
array takes a long time.
• Turns are executed as infrequently as possible and as quickly as possible.
Marine surveys
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Recent example from the southern flank of the Gippsland basin
• 8000 km of 2D seismic (87 lines)
• Covers an area 16,500 km2
• 50% of offshore Gippsland Basin
C i 3G h G
• Covering 3 Greenhouse Gas
storage permits
• Objective to minimise the risk of
commercial CO2 storage offshore
Insert Map
Approvals Survey Facts
• Research Consent from DRET • No of sources: 1
(Martin Ferguson, pursuant to Part 3.7 of the
Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas • No of streamers: 1
Storage Act 2006)
• Record length: 5.5 sec
EPBC Referral to DEWHA
• EPBC Referral to DEWHA
• Sample rate: 2mS
• Environmental Plan (including
stakeholder consultations, Vessel audit,
• Source volume: 2360cu inch
HSSEQ audit) • Source pressure: 2000 psi
• Emergency Response Plan • Shot Point interval: 18.75m
• Liaise with Operators • Streamer length: 5100m
• Contracts, Tenders,
Contracts Tenders • Source depth: 6m
S d th 6
Exemptions • Streamer depth: 8m
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5100m Solid Streamer
Project Outline
• Project value: $5.5M
• Project started: 6 November 2009
• EP and EPBC approvals: 15 Feb
2010
• Contracts signed: 17 Feb 2010
• Acquisition: 21 Feb ‐ 8 April 2010
• 7831 line‐km of 2D seismic
acquired
• Largest seismic survey in Victoria
• First of its kind in Australia
2D Seismic Vessel Aquila Explorer
at Port Melbourne, March 2010
Cost
Typical Costs of 2D Seismic
Play Offset Fold Source CDP Cost
Type (depth) % Interval Size (per km)
Typical Costs of 3D Seismic
Play Offset Fold Line Bin Cost
Type (depth) % Spacing Size (per sq km)
(per sq km)
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