Lesson 2

Metal Base preparation and Welding beads

Introduction
When you apply for a job at a welding shop, in most cases you'll be asked to take a hands-on test
to demonstrate your skill. For larger employers, you'll need to show or furnish a copy of up-to-
date certifications acquired at a school or job site.
The certification process (aka qualification test) is applicable to several different types of
welding processes and tests the welder's ability to create sound welds while working "out of
position".

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

Discuss how to weld multiple pass.

Demonstrate how to prepare bend test specimen for plate.

ACTIVITY

Identify the following pointed by the arrows.

 ANALYSIS

1. What are those ideas pre-conceive into your mind as you seen the image above? Why?
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2. Based on your answer how would define welding bead in a 10 words sentence?
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3. For you, how would you relate Metal base preparation to your personal and professional
success?
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ABSTRACTION

Welding Beads and Parameters

Like sewing up a seam, there are many ways to run a weld bead along a joint. More often than not,
welders have to perform their welds out-of-position. Along with the personal discomfort, gravity can
affect how molten metal gets deposited. If you're welding overhead, for instance, you've got to move
fast or the weld will end up on your face shield, not in the weld joint. In addition to adjusting the
machine settings, you'll learn choose from a variety of hand strokes in order to get the job done

Stringer beads
This is a straightforward, easy to perform bead in which you either
"drag" (pull) or push the torch across the joint with minimal (if
any) side-to-side movement. Dragging means the electrode is
pointed back towards the puddle. This enables maximum
penetration and a robust-looking weld
For heat-sensitive or thin metals, or when welding in the vertical-up
position, welders "push" the torch, which means pointing the electrode
forward. (See photo above.) When welding vertical-up, the molten metal
wants to fall downward, so directing the heat away from the puddle allows
the weld to solidify quickly. The drawback of pushing is that penetration into
the base metal is much less than when dragging (pulling) the torch

Stringer beads are generally not very wide and can be used in any welding
position. Even though you're moving in a straight line, it's still important to
make sure you get "tie in" with the toe of the weld on either side.
Remember, the object of welding is not just to fill a joint with new metal. It's
critical to get fusion between the weld and the base metal. Sometimes,
moving the torch along slowly enough so the weld puddle flows over both
sides of the joint is all it takes. Other times a slight side to side manipulation
is necessary, as illustrated

Again, the side-to-side manipulation is slight. Otherwise you'd have a weave bead. Stringer beads are
also used in hardfacing, a surfacing operation that helps extend the life of scoops, fenders, plows and
other exterior metal parts on industrial equipment. Here the beads are not meant to fuse the base
metal, but to create a protective surface over it.

Weave Beads

For wider welds, you can weave from side to side along a joint.
For a fat joint, weaving is the fastest way to knock off a weld. This
is especially true in the case of groove welds on thick stock.
Weaves are also common on fillet welds.

There are different types of weaves, and every welder has his or
her favorite. It can be a zig-zag, crescent, triangle or curlycue.
Naturally, your current setting , travel speed, arc length and other
variables figure into the equation when performing a weave.
More on welding parameters below.

Besides allowing a wider bead, weaving is used to control heat in

the weld puddle. It's also important to keep the puddle at a
consistent size as you pause on each side of the weld to achieve
good tie in. To keep the puddle from overheating or expanding,
you can try a semi-circle weave, with the center point or your
stroke crossing the front of the puddle (or just ahead of it). If you
want more heat in the puddle, weave the semi-circle (or crescent)
back through the puddle, as shown in the drawing above.
Pausing on each side will also prevent any undercut of the base metal along the toes of the weld.
Weaving in the overhead position, however, can be a challenge, since gravity can pull the molten metal
out of the weld. Even with practice, laying down an overhead weave bead a half inch or wider can be a
tall order.

A triangle weave is useful when you need to fill a steep pocket. In vertical-up welding, it allows you to
build a sort of shelf, which keeps the molten metal from sliding downward.

Whip Motion

On open groove welds, a stick welder typically performs a

whipping motion with his or her wrist on the root pass,
the first weld operation performed. The objective is to
fuse the work plates together at the bottom with a flat
bead of weld metal. The most common stick electrodes
for this task are E6010 and 6011 "fast-freeze" rods, used
on low-carbon steel.

The welder drives the electrode up through and along

the gap. This is essential to achieving complete
penetration. You'll see a keyhole appear in the opening
at the head of the puddle. This demonstrates that the
torch heat is reaching both sides of the base metal.
Before the keyhole expands beyond control, you'll whip the rod a little upward and ahead of the weld.
This action cools everything down. The keyhole size stays the same, and the bead at the back of puddle
solidifies. At that moment, you whip back to the molten puddle and another drop of weld metal should
fall off your rod (if you're stick welding).

All of this happens pretty quickly. The rate of whipping is determined by the level of heat you observe in
the weld. When you first start welding, for instance, you may not be whipping at all. By the time you
reach the end of the weld, you may be flicking your wrist at a steady clip because of the high heat now
flowing through the base metal.

This is one of the most difficult strokes that welders learn. In addition to watching the puddle, you also
have to maintain the size of the keyhole. If it gets too big (i.e. more than twice the diameter of the rod),
then you won't be able to fuse the sides together. That's why control of heat is crucial during a root
pass. In addition to proper joint design and welding machine settings, you can control the size of the
hole with the frequency of your whip strokes.

A variation of the whip motion is called a J-weave. It's a combination of the crescent and whip strokes,
and is used on the second (aka "hot") pass of a V-groove joint. Here, you move your E6010 or other fast-
freeze electrode from one toe to the other, pausing briefly on each side, and then whip the rod ahead
and upward along one side of the joint for a moment. For this task, more arc length is helpful. And just
as you would on a root pass, after whipping ahead, you'll whip back to the next open area on the left (or
right) toe of the weld, and repeat the stroke.

Welding Parameters
As mentioned above, producing a weld bead that's the right size, shape and depth involves many
variables. Arc welding students are taught to remember most of them using the acronym CLAMS :

Current - Amperage generally dictates the size of the weld bead if you're moving at the correct speed.

Length of Arc - How close to the work plates the welder holds the arc of a wire or welding electrode can
affect the amount of current and heat going into the joint. Held close to the work plates, the current and
heat in the weld remains high. Held farther away, the electrode produces less heat and more spatter.

As a general rule, arc length should closely approximate the diameter of the electrode metal. You may
increase the length to reduce heat to the puddle, or to limit the deposition of weld metal (as in the whip
motion).

Angle - There are two angles in welding. The first is the

work angle, which is the relationship between the joint
and the torch. Ideally, it's perpendicular, or 90 degrees,
except in the case t-joints, where the work angle varies
between 30 to 50 degrees. The second angle used in
welding is the travel angle. This is the relationship
between the torch and line of travel. In order to see the
joint and puddle, the welder may tip the rod up to 10
degrees in the direction of travel.

As you can see in the first diagram, the angle of the torch
to the work piece (left) is 90 degrees, allowing maximum
heat and current focused down into the open groove
joint. Think of this as the front view of the joint. In the
diagram on the right, the travel angle involves about a 10 degree tilt along the joint, allowing for a
better view of what's going on in the puddle. This is a side view of the joint. When you drag the torch or
electrode, the tilt is directed towards the puddle. When you push, the tilt is pointed away from it.

Manipulation - This refers to the micro-movements of the welder's hand guiding the electrode along the
joint. Achieving tie-in at the toes is paramount, but it's also important to control penetration in the joint
and the heat in the puddle and base metal. A weave, whip, drag or push are all types of manipulation.

Speed - If you move too fast, the size of the weld will be small and get insufficient penetration. Move
too slow and you'll end up with an fat weld bead with a high crown, overheated base metal and spatter
everywhere.

In the last two examples, "WFS" stands for wirefeed speed, which is how MIG and flux cored welding
machines regulate current. Notice that when the voltage is too high, the bead is wide and flat. Also,
when the rate of voltage is inadequate, the weld bead sits on top of the base metal rather than
penetrates into it. So voltage determines the overall profile or geometry of the weld.

By adjusting travel speed, you'll increase or decrease the volume of weld metal that gets deposited
along the joint.

Although the photos don't show it, too long of an arc can cause porosity (air bubbles) inside the weld,
spatter and undercutting at the toes of the joint. See Weld Defects for more on this subject.
In addition to CLAMS, here are a few other variables to think about when planning a weld operation:

Joint Design and Fit-Up: How you prepare your work plates (or stationary structure) for welding may
contribute more to the outcome of the operation than anything else. Your joints, beveled edges, grinded
root faces and surfaces should fit together in a smooth and uniform manner before you start the weld.
There shouldn't be any burrs, gaps or evenness.

As a student, it's easy to assume that once the metal heats up, everything falls together naturally and all
the little rough spots will disappear like magic. In fact, you can make things worse if you don't take the
time to do your fit-up correctly. Needless to say, the angle of your beveled sides should be appropriate
for the thickness of the metal and the welding process being used. (In MIG welding, steeper angles are
possible than in stick welding.) You should also tack your plates and use clamps as needed to prevent
the joint from closing up in advance of the weld, or other distortion caused by heat.

Cleaning your weld edges in advance is also important. While some stick electrodes are designed to
penetrate through rust and millscale, those impurities can still cause problems. And while low-carbon
steel is much easier to work with than other metals, you should still adopt the habit of cleaning or
grinding the areas you plan to weld.

Size: The thickness of the base metal should factor into the decision about which diameter electrode,
rod, wire or torch tip you use to make the weld, as well as your voltage and/or current settings. There
are other things to consider, but metal thickness usually comes first.

Heat Dispersal: Different metals disperse heat differently. The mass of your work pieces also has an
effect, with tinier plates heating up much faster than larger ones. Low-carbon steel can be very forgiving
when overheated, but other metals may lose their tensile strength or other qualities if you don't
monitor the heat going in and out of them.
As you learn more about chemical and mechanical properties, you may decide to include a pre and post
heat treatment to the base metal as part of the welding operation. Quenching plates after welding (to
cool them down) is a practice that's generally frowned upon after the first semester of welding school.
That's because the quench has a sort of traumatizing
effect to the metal and can make it brittle. A metallurgy
class teaches welders the many forms of heat treatment
and their advantages - like hardening, tempering and
annealing.

This is a standard practice when welding a beveled groove

and other large joint. Because one bead of weld can't do
the job, the welder lays down a series of passes, using the
order indicated in the drawing. Notice how the circles
overlap. To prevent any missed gaps in the weld, the
beads must be "wedded" together. In addition, a multipass
weld has a tempering affect on the heat-affected zone.
When you study metallurgy you'll learn that bringing metal
to high heat in this manner causes grain refinement in the
steel microstructure.

There are a few terms associated with multipass welding

you should remember. In a groove weld, for example, the first bead deposited is called the "root pass".
The second bead (in pipe welding) is known as a "hot pass", which means it should be performed within
five minutes of the root pass. Subsequent beads are known as "fill" passes. The last pass or passes (at
the top) are known as "cap" or "cover" beads.

General Welding Requirements

General requires welding to be conducted at an ambient temperature of 40 F and above. The size and
length of welds must be no less than those specified. The location of welds and weld type must not be
changed without approval of the engineer.

Base Metal Preparation

Base metal preparation ensures proper weld quality (no cracking or distortion) and minimizes
objectionable fumes.

Surfaces and edges to be welded must be:

 Smooth.

 Uniform.

 Free from fins, tears, cracks, mill scale, pitting, irregularities, and other discontinuities.
Weld surfaces and adjacent surfaces must be free from loose or thick mill scale, slag, rust, moisture,
grease, and other foreign materials. All edges must be conditioned by very shallow grinding to remove
hardened layer (martensite) left by re-solidification.

Edges of base metal must be inspected and repaired as early as feasible.

All weld repairs to be submitted in writing to the engineer and be approved prior to repairs taking place.

Re-entrant corners of base-metal cut edges must provide a smooth transition with a radius of not less
than 1 inch unless the contract plans specify a larger radius due to fatigue.

Radii of beam copes and weld access holes also must provide a smooth transition between adjacent
surfaces

Joint and edge preparation can be done by:

 Machining.  Plasma arc gouging.

 Thermal cutting.  Chipping and grinding.

 Air carbon arc cutting and gouging.  Blast cleaning.

Assembly

Fillet Welds

The assembly process is as follows:

 Bring parts to be welded into as close contact as possible.

 The maximum root opening is 3/16 inches (except for members 3 inches thick or greater).

 If 3 inches thick or greater and cannot close root opening:

▪ The maximum root opening is 5/16 inches.

▪ Employ suitable backing.

 Root openings greater than 1/16 inches require an increase in the leg of the fillet weld by the
amount of the root opening (or demonstrate appropriate weld size).

Plug, Slot and Butt Joints

 Faying surface separation must not exceed 1/16 inches.

Groove Welds

The assembly process is as follows:

 Maintain zero (or as small as practical) root opening for PJP welds parallel to the member length
(except for bearing joints):

▪ Otherwise PJP welds have same requirements as fillet welds.

  Carefully align parts joined by groove welds:

▪ Offset from theoretical alignment must not exceed 10 percent the thickness of the thinner part joined.

▪ Maximum of 1/8 inches.

 Correction of misalignment must not cause a slope greater than 1/2 inches over 12 inches
measured at the part centreline.

The allowable groove weld root openings are shown in Table 5.

Peening

Peening is a mechanical means of reducing residual stresses created by

welding. It prevents cracking and minimizes laminar tearing.

Peening improves the material properties of the metal’s surface by inducing

compressive stresses or relieving tensile stresses.

It must be approved by the engineer.

It is applied by mechanically striking the convex surface of intermediate

weld beads using a specialized instrument, known as a ball-peen hammer
(shown in Figure 32).

The root and final passes should not be peened. However, the final passes
can be peened with excess weld metal with approval by the engineer and
peening marks must be removed by grinding.

Peening must be conducted when the weld is at 150 F to 500 F.

Requirements for Shop Welding

Qualification requirements:

 AWS welder, welding operator and tack  Welding equipment.

welder qualification.
 Welding procedure specification (WPS).
 Welder Qualification Program (WQP).
 WPS qualification.

Welder must qualify for the welding process, welding position, material grade, and material thickness.
Note that some positions, grades and thicknesses qualify others.

Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)

A WPS is a document that describes weld procedures and is supported by a procedure qualification
record (PQR). It provides direction to the welder or weld operator to ensure soundness and quality of
the weld. It ensures repeatable and trusted welding techniques. It must be qualified unless using a
prequalified weld detail (AWS D1.5, Clause 2).

A WPS shows that a weld prepared under the specified variables will have adequate properties and
quality. It proves that standards in regard to mechanical properties (strength, ductility and toughness)
can be met and ensures soundness.

The WPS uses a standard groove weld test (Figure 34) to determine mechanical properties and
determines soundness of fillet and groove test welds through visual inspection, other non-destructive
testing and etching.
Welding variables considered during WPS qualification are:

 Welding process.  Welding consumables.

 Base material.  Welding parameters and techniques:

▪ Position. ▪ Interpass temperature.

▪ Polarity. ▪ Back gouging.

▪ Preheat. ▪ Post weld heat treatment

Tests conducted during WPS qualification include:

 Mechanical:

▪ Reduced section tension tests.

▪ All weld metal tension tests.

▪ Side bend tests.

 Soundness:

▪ Radiographic testing (RT) for welds to fracture critical members (FCM).

▪ Macroetch tests.

 Toughness:

▪ Charpy V-notch tests.

Procedure Qualification Test Record (PQR)

A production WPS’s qualification is based on a procedure qualification test record (PQR) that is
produced by the contractor in conformance with AWS D1.1 or AWS D1.5, based on the project
specifications.

Shop Welded Plate Girders and Rolled Beams

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) for:

 Flange-to-web groove welds using one of the following weld positions:

▪ Flat (1F).

▪ Flat (1G).

 Cover plate-to-beam flange welds using one of the following weld positions:

▪ Flat (1F).

▪ Horizontal (2F).
  Stiffeners and connection plates to web.

 Flange-to-web connection in box girders.

Use Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) for stiffener and connection plates to rolled beams and girders
when automatic or hand-held SAW cannot be used. Employ E7018 electrodes.

For fillet welds:

 Size by thicker of two joining parts (unless larger required based on calculated stress).

 Not required to exceed thickness of thinner part.

 Preheat if smaller than minimum required.

 Minimum for beam flange is 5/16 inches.

Shop Splices

As shown in Figure 35, separate girder flange plate and

web plate butt welds by at least 1 foot. Separate stiffener
and connection plate attachment welds by at least 1 foot.

Weld Conditions

Remove paint, mill scale, grease, and other materials from

welded edges and surfaces. For flange welds, grind flush on
aligned side and merge smoothly on transition sides.
Maintain areas (base metal) requiring automatic or semi-automatic welding at a temperature of at least
40 F for at least one hour prior to beginning work unless WPS requires a higher preheat temperature.

Shop Weld Non-destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is required for all shop welds and is performed by the contractor.
Identification marks should be made with paint on butt welds. Testing must be performed by an NDT
technician qualified as American Society for Non-destructive Testing (ASNT) Level II or Level III on
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.

Non-destructive Testing – Groove Welds

Visual test 100 percent of groove welds.

PT in accordance with ASTM E 165:

 Inspect both ends of groove welds for surface defects.

 Required because UT and RT are difficult at edges of a plate.

Use RT in accordance with AWS D1.5, Clause 6 Part B:

 Single-source X-ray or gamma ray.

 Use hole type or wire image quality indicators to judge sensitivity.

 Double shoot film for quality control and quality assurance records.

 For thickness transitions, place radiographic film on both sides of the joint, position the pack and
use tapered edge blocks:

▪ Move film to planar side if substandard results when on transition side.

For CJP groove welds at corner and T-joints where RT is not possible:

 Perform UT and agree on acceptance criteria.

 Use glycerine as the coupling agent.

UT all plug and slot welds.

Test CJP groove welds of primary members according to the following:

 100 percent of flange splice.

 100 percent of splices subject to stress reversal.

 Web splices: 1/3 the length of all web splices beginning at the point of maximum tension, but at
least 12 inches. Plus 12 inches of the web splice beginning at the compression end. This includes
splices connecting pin plates to webs.

 25 percent of compression and shear splices in built up members.

 25 percent of flange to web connection in box girders.

 Similar welds in a member subject to partial examination (test all if defect is found).

 100 percent of repaired butt welds.

Non-destructive Testing – Fillet Welds

MT is required for fillet welds. Use the aluminium prod method or yoke method and use a half-wave
rectified alternating current (direct current).

Test the entire length of the stiffener to tension flange fillet weld and 10 percent of the length of each
weld or 10 inches, whichever is greater, for other fillet welds for primary members.

If a defect is detected then increase frequency to the least of either the full weld length or 5 feet on
each side of the defect.

Defective Welds
Replace all welds that are rejected by any test method. Provide repair procedure for engineer’s approval
and repair weld in accordance with AWS D1.5, Clause 3.7.

Retest at least 3 inches to either side of the repair. If second repair attempt fails then remove and
replace entire weld.

Field Welding

Avoid field welding unless specified on plans or approved by the engineer. Perform it in accordance with
AWS D1.1 or AWS D1.5 based on project specifications and use SMAW (E7018 Electrode). The engineer
may approve SAW or FCAW. Do not use GMAW or other gas shielded processes.

Requirements for Field Welding

Qualification requirements (similar to shop welding requirements):

 AWS welder, welding operator and tack welder qualification.

 Welder Certification Program (WCP) or WQP based on what is being welded.

 Welding equipment.

 WPS.

Welder must qualify for welding process, welding position, material grade and material thickness. Note
that some positions, grades and thicknesses qualify others.

WQP testing will be made under supervision of an representative.

Field Welding Surface Requirements

Blast clean or grind contact surfaces prior to welding:

 Remove loose mill scale, paint, galvanizing, grease, oil, rust, moisture, or other materials.

 Grind joints to remove pitting and irregularities.

Bring parts into close contact:

 Separation greater than 1/16 inches requires an increase in the fillet weld leg equal to the
separation distance.

 Do not exceed a separation distance of 3/16 inches.

 For heavy sections 3 inches or greater:

▪ Separation distance increases to 5/16 inches.

▪ Unless “tight fit” or “mill to bear” are called out.

Consider environmental conditions:

 Temperature must be above 40 F.

  No precipitation (rain, snow, or heavy fog).

Electrodes:

 Dry in oven for two hours before use at 500 F or greater.

 Store at 250 F after drying.

 Use within two hours of exposure to atmosphere or re-dry.

 Do not re-dry more than once.

 Discard if wet.

Preheat (see Table 6):

 3 inches in every direction from weld.

 Temperature based on base metal

thickness.

Weld Transitions:

 Grind stop-start areas.

 Grind irregularities.

Field Weld Non-destructive Testing

Field weld non-destructive testing is required in addition to visual testing (VT). General requires 100
percent NDT for fielding welding, whereas shop welding requires a reduced frequency. This is due to the
shop being certified by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), having a robust quality
control program, favourable environmental conditions, and only favourable welding positions approved.

The required personnel are (certification must be provided):

 NDT Level II or III qualified per ASNT SNT-TC-1A for penetrant testing (PT), magnetic particle
testing (MT), ultrasonic testing (UT), and radiographic testing (RT).

 AWS Certified Weld Inspector (CWI) for VT.

Blast clean or grind all weld prior to NDT. The test must meet requirements of the project specifications.
Below are typical NDT requirements for field welding:

 MT: fillet and PJP groove welds.

 UT: CJP groove welds and PJP groove welds used to make a CJP weld “whole again,” plug welds
and slot welds.

 PT: ends of CJP and PJP groove welds.

Defective Field Welds

Replace all welds that are rejected by any test method and repair in accordance with AWS D1.1 or AWS
D1.5, based on the project specifications. Inspect and retest welds prior to engineer’s acceptance.

Special Field Welding Cases

Welding for supports and accessories:

 May be approved by engineer if no other alternative.

 Plans must be submitted to engineer.

 Only weld to compression areas of beams.

Welding shear studs:

 Do not weld if temperature is below 32 F.

 Remove rust, mill scale, paint and galvanizing from base

metal.

 Clean stud end.

 Do not preheat top flange.

 Use automatically timed stud welding equipment.

 Test stud welding in accordance with AWS D1.5, Clause 7.

 Add a 5/16 inches fillet weld if stud does not have a

full 360-degree fillet weld.

Weld Positions

Welders must be qualified for different welding positions

and must follow the approved WPS. Weld positions are:

 1G or 1F – Flat Groove or Fillet Weld.

 2G or 2F – Horizontal Groove or Fillet Weld.

 3G or 3F – Vertical Groove or Fillet Weld.

 4G or 4F – Overhead Groove or Fillet Weld.

Figures 36 and 37 show the positions of the test plates for

groove and fillet welding, respectively. Tabulation of weld
positions can be found in AWS D1.5.
Welder Endorsement

AWS Welder Endorsements

AWS Welder Certification (AWS QC7-93)

An accredited test facility must be used to test the welder in accordance with AWS for certification
purposes. The applicant selects the performance tests needed for qualification. Note that:

 AWS QC7-93 Supplement G provides a list of performance requirements for each test.

 The applicant must provide an employer supplied WPS or use AWS standard procedure.

 The applicant’s test assemblies must pass the exam.

period of effectiveness is considered indefinite, unless: 1) the welder was not involved in welding
activities for six months or with that set procedure, or 2) there is a reason to question welder’s ability.

AWS Performance Test

The test follows the WPS or the AWS standard procedure and is associated with a particular weld type
and position. The test assemblies must be in accordance with the WPS. Acceptance standards include:

 VT inspection.

▪ Fillet weld macro tech test (as applicable)

 Mechanical testing.

▪ Bend test (as applicable, can be replaced with RT)

▪ Fillet weld break test (as applicable)

 RT inspection.

Considerations Based on Weld Types

CJP Groove Welds

This is the most expensive type of weld, so reserve it for when it’s the only viable option. It is generally
advantageous with electroslag or electrogas welding; however, generally does not permit these welding
processes.

PJP Versus Fillet Welds

Can be used in T-joints and inside corner joints. You can generally assume that PJP welds require half the
volume of material for a given strength. You can also estimate the time to bevel a PJP joint as equal to a
single fillet weld pass. In general: 1) a fillet weld is more economical if it only requires a single pass, 2)
PJP welds are ideal in a flat position, and 3) fillet welds are ideal in flat or horizontal positions. The
general rule of thumb is:
  If leg size less than 1 inch, then use fillet welds.

 If leg size more than 1 inch, then use PJP groove weld.

Mixed PJP-Fillet Welds

Figure 38 shows an example of a mixed PJP-fillet weld, also known as a fillet

reinforced PJP weld. It might be more economical than an individual PJP or
fillet weld. For T-joints, fillet welds on top of a PJP weld provide a better
contour at the intersection. This type of weld is preferable for welds in positions other than flat.

Other Welding Considerations

CJP Groove Welds

Single-sided welds are easier to fabricate unless distortion control is needed. The typical 2-to-1 savings
assumed for double-sided welds are not true for many prequalified joints.

The choice of root opening and included angle depends on throat dimension:

 If throat dimension is less than 1 inch, then use the smallest permitted root opening with larger
included angle.

 If throat dimension is greater than or equal to 1 inch, then use the larger root opening and
smaller included angle.

PJP Groove Welds

Single-sided PJP groove welds typically require less than three weld passes and are more economical
than double-sided. Double-sided welds do prevent tearing of the unfused root region.

Flare Groove Welds

You do not always have to fill flush. You must specify the required throat to obtain required capacity.

Fillet Welds

Strength increases linearly with weld length and leg size. Note:

 1-to-1 increase in weld volume with weld length.

 4-to-1 increase in weld volume with weld leg size.

 Continuous welds are often chosen over intermittent.

Welding Inspection

Welds must be inspected to ensure that they meet specifications. There are two categories of inspection
methods:

 Destructive:
▪ Used for weld procedure qualification.

▪ Suitable for tensile tests, Charpy impact tests and bend tests.

 Non-destructive (NDT):

▪ Inspect in-situ weldment without damage.

▪ NDT requirements.

▪ Methods include:

- Visual Testing (VT).

- Penetrant Testing (PT).

- Magnetic Particle Testing (MT).

- Radiographic Testing (RT).

- Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Visual Testing (VT)

This method is a powerful tool before, during and

after welding. It requires good eyesight and lighting.
The main tool is a flashlight and weld measuring
gauges. Figures 39 and 40 show the tools and
process, respectively.

Penetrant Testing (PT)

This method uses capillary action to draw

liquid into surface-breaking discontinuities.
The tester applies developer to make
discontinuities visible and must provide
adequate time for capillary action to draw in
liquid (approximately 15 minutes). Figure 41
shows the process.

PT can only detect surface-breaking

discontinuities. It is effective at accentuating
surface discontinuities that are hard to
visually see. It is messy, slow and not often
used for magnetic materials such as steel.
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

MT detects discontinuities through a change

in magnetic flux (visible through particles).
It creates a different pattern and can detect
surface and slightly subsurface
discontinuities (Figure 42).

There are two methods to create an

electromagnetic field:

 Pass current directly through the

material:

▪ Two prods placed in contact with the material.

▪ Electrical current passed through them.

 Use a coil on a yoke to induce a magnetic field:

▪ Current is passed through the coil.

▪ End of yoke is placed in contact with material to test.

Cracks perpendicular to field are most easily detected by MT.

MT is used to ensure quality of repaired welds, especially PJP groove welds and fillet welds. It is also
used for inspection of weld access holes. MT is preferred over PT because it is quicker, simpler and
less messy.

Radiographic Testing (RT)

In RT, you pass gamma rays or X rays through the material.

A radiographic film is placed on the opposite side of the
joint to provide a picture of the inside of the weld. Thin
parts (discontinuities) show up darker (most exposed) and
weld reinforcement shows up as a lighter region (Figure 43).
RT requires a skilled technician to read.

RT requires access to both sides of the joint. Cracks oriented perpendicular to direction of radiation
source (i.e., parallel to the film) may go undetected. This method provides a permanent record and
is ideally suited for CJP groove welds in butt joints. However, it is
not suitable for PJP groove welds or fillet welds, and is difficult
to interpret results from T-joints and corner joints.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

In UT (Figure 44), high-frequency sound waves are transmitted

through the material. A receiver picks up sound waves reflected
off the back surface of the material. Discontinuities cause an
interruption of the sound waves and results in an intermediate
signal. It is read on a display screen.
The magnitude of a signal from a discontinuity is proportional to the amount of reflected sound. It
provides information on the size, type and orientation of the discontinuity. It is sometimes too
sensitive.

UT is most sensitive to planar discontinuities perpendicular to the sound path, such as cracks,
laminations and incomplete fusion. It is ideally suited for CJP groove welds (butt, corner, T-joints). It
can be used for inspection of PJP welds but cannot be used for fillet welds.

Weld Repair

A welder has the option to repair or replace unacceptable welds. Unacceptable welds represent cost
to the contractor. When a weld is unacceptable, the fabricator generates a non-conformance report
(NCR) and their quality control inspector (QCI) notes the non-conformance to the project
specification. Non-conformances defined to be material or workmanship in nature are further
classified by MDOT to be minor or major. Minor non-conformances can be repaired without
approval of an NCR. Major non-conformance repairs must be approved by the engineer.

Material removal (weld metal or base metal) can be accomplished by machining, air carbon arc
cutting and gouging, thermal cutting, chipping, or grinding. The remaining weld metal or base metal
must not be nicked or undercut. Excess material beyond the unacceptable portion must not be
removed and the surface must be cleaned prior to welding.

The repair procedures are as follows:

 Remove excess weld metal for overlap or excessive convexity.

 Add additional weld metal for excessive concavity, craters, undersized welds, and under-
cutting.

 Remove unacceptable portions and re-weld for excessive porosity, slag inclusions and
incomplete fusion.

 For crack repair, remove full length of the crack plus 2 inches beyond each end, then re-
weld.

Application
Task 1: Let my write something
Make your own welding work steps/ processes or sequence using your previous
lessons to connect to this lesson.
Things to consider facts , practice in the trade,. (point system; content 30 points, organization
20 points.)

CLOSURE

Well done! Congratulate yourself. You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module. So,
enjoy and go higher!