Objectives_template

Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 32: Fluidization

Fluidization

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 32: Fluidization

Fluidization
When a liquid or gas is passed at a relatively small velocity though a bed of solid particles,
the particles do not move. Fluid moves through the voids between the particles; pressure–
drop is calculated by Ergun's equation. If the flow rate is steadily increased, pressure–drop (or
drag) increases. Eventually, particles tend to move and bed expands a little. A stage is
reached when the pressure–drop balances the weight of solid particles and buoyancy. Now,
the bed apparently seems to be boiling. Particles–movement increases; yet they do not leave
the bed. Such bed is termed as ‘fluidized bed'.
Mechanistically, the frictional force (drag) between particles and fluid just counterbalances the
weight of the particles; the vertical component of compressive forces between particles
disappear and equates the effective weight.
A simple experiment can be carried out to observe the movement of particles packed within a
glass or Perspex made column. The height of the bed and the pressure–drop across the bed
can be measured with accuracy:

(fig. 32a)

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 32: Fluidization

Fixed bed Bed expands a little Incipiently or minimum fluidized bed

(No movement of particles) Particles are unlocked and
the bed expands from an Bed continues to expand
height of (for liquid only) till there is a carry-
over of solid particles
For gas–solid system, bubbly or segregated fluidization is observed, with large-size bubbles–
formation .A qualitative graph showing the variation of packed–bed height and pressur–drop with the
superficial velocity of the liquid is produced below:

(Fig. 32b)
1. Fixed bed of height and porosity
2. The bed expands at (minimum fluidization velocity) from
3. The bed continues to expand with increase in the bed porosity from to higher porosity

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 32: Fluidization

(Fig. 32c)
Very-often a hysteresis is observed, if the velocity is gradually decreased:

(Fig. 32d)

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 32: Fluidization

Fluidized–bed has fluid–like behavior. It will appear boiling at the surface, with the particles
moving up and down in the bed, especially on top of the surface.
The minimum fluidization porosity, or the porosity at the minimum fluidization condition is
particle–size and type–specific. Some examples are:

Size

Sharp sand,
Adsorption carbon 0.72 0.69
Fischer-Tropsch catalyst 0.58

For liquid, the state of fluidization past the minimum fluidization stage is called homogeneous/
smooth/particulate/non–bubbling fluidized bed, as the bed expands smoothly. At higher
velocity, there is a carry-over of particles. Slurry flow ensues.
For gases, the particulate or homogeneous fluidization occurs only for small (fine) particles.
For large particles, bubbles are formed. At even higher velocity, vigorous fluidization occurs,
with turbulent motion of solid clusters and bubbles. Such state is called “Fast Fluidized Bed”.
There may be carryover/entrainment of particles with the outgoing gas.

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 33: Minimum fluidization velocity

Minimum fluidization velocity

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 33: Minimum fluidization velocity

Minimum fluidization velocity

The minimum fluidization velocity can be calculated by equating the pressure–drop across the fixed
packed–bed, calculated from Ergun's equation to that from the expression for fluidized bed under
particulate (smooth) conditions.
Let us calculate the pressure-drop from the 2 nd expression:
Under fluidization conditions, pressure–drop equals effective weight of solid, as intraparticle forces
disappear and solids float in the bed exhibiting ‘liquid–like ‘behavior. For a fluidized bed of length of
L and bed-porosity of ,

Weight of solid-particles–buoyancy

Or

, etc.

where
R-call:

(Fig. 33a)

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 33: Minimum fluidization velocity

At the minimum fluidization condition:

Apply Ergun's equation for ‘fixed–bed' at minimum fluidization condition or at the incipience of
fluidization:

, where superficial average velocity

at minimum fluidization state

Equate:

The above-equation is quadratic on (minimum fluidization velocity) and may be written in the
following form:

, where

For small particles

For large particles

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 33: Minimum fluidization velocity

To avoid or reduce carryover of particles form the fluidized bed, keep the gas velocity between
. Recall

Terminal velocity, for low Reynolds number and,

for high Reynolds number

With the expressions for and known for small (viscous–flow) and large (inertial flow)
particles or Reynolds number, one can take the ratio of and :

For small

For spherical particles, and assuming

Therefore, a bed that fluidizes at 1cm/s could preferably be operated with velocities < 50 cm/s, with
few particles carried out or entrained with the exit gas.

For large

Or,
Therefore, operating safety margin in a bed of coarse particles is smaller and there is a
disadvantage for the use of coarse particles in a fluidized bed.
However, make a note that the operating particle size is also decided by the other factors such as
grinding cost, pressure-drop, heat and mass-transfer aspects.

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 34: Examples on fixed and fluidized beds

Fluidized bed condition:

Ergun's equation:

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 34: Examples on fixed and fluidized beds

Example Catalyst pellets 0.2” in diameter are to be fluidized with of air at 1

1: atm and in a vertical cylindrical vessel. The density of the catalyst particles is

. If the given quantity of air is just sufficient to fluidize the

solids, what is the vessel diameter?

Answer: Assume (inertial effects are dominant)

Check,

(So the assumption of inertial effects being dominant is correct)

As an exercise, the students can calculate

:

Check.,
(So the flow is not viscous)

Vessel-Area (cross-section)

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 34: Examples on fixed and fluidized beds

Example 2: We plan to pass air upward through a bed of solids resting on a screen. Will the
solids fluidize?
Solids:

Air:

Bed: 2m (Height);
Answer:

(Fig. 34a)

Therefore, bed will not fluidize

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 34: Examples on fixed and fluidized beds

Example 3: A packed bed of spherical particles is fluidized

using air at and pressure . The packed–bed density is
and superficial air velocity is from Ergun's
equation and fluidize bed condition-equation.
Solution:
Fluidized bed condition:

(Fig. 34b)

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 34: Examples on fixed and fluidized beds

Ergun's equation:

Therefore, there is a difference of one-order of magnitude

To sum–up, Ergun's equation is valid only for fixed–bed, when

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 35: Plate and frame press filter, Rotary filter

Filtration

The plate and frame press filter

Principles of filtration (cake)

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 35: Plate and frame press filter, Rotary filter

Filtration
Removal of solids from fluid (gas or liquid) by a filtering medium on which solid particles are
deposited.
For filtration, external force is applied to a (gas or liquid + solid) mixture to make it flow
through the medium.
Filtration, when applied to gas cleaning, usually refers to the removal of fine particles
like dust from air or flue gas. In such case, a polymeric fiber or cloth is wrapped
over a pretreated metallic cylinder, capable of capturing micron size particles, including soot
and fly-ash.
Very large size ceramic based filters for high temperature applications are also commercially
available.

In this and the next lectures we will confine our discussion to liquid – solid
filtration .
The liquid–solid filtration is often called “cake–filtration”, because the separation of solids from
the slurry by the filtering medium is effective during the initial stages of filtration. Later, the
‘cakes' or deposits collected over the medium act as the filter. Therefore, cake thickness
increases during filtration and the resistance (hydraulic) offered by the cake–material is larger
than that by the filtering medium.
There are two types of operation:
a. Constant-pressure
b. Constant filtering rate

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 35: Plate and frame press filter, Rotary filter

In the 1 st case, filtering rate varies with time, whereas in the 2 nd case, pressure–drop increases with
time.
For ideal cake filtration, cake should be stable and large porosity. There are two common
types of filters:
a. The plate and frame press
b. Rotary-drum filter

The plate and frame press filter

Consists of series of plates and frames sandwitched alternatively; cakes are built-up inside the
frame–clamber. Cloth, filtering medium, is supported on a corrugated material. There are slurry
and filtrate ports.

(Fig. 35a)

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 35: Plate and frame press filter, Rotary filter

While designing the plate and frame press filter, dismantling and re–assembling times, removal of
cake from each frame, and other operations such as washing and drying of cakes should also be
taken into consideration.
Rotary Filter

(Fig. 35b)

See the schematic above. The portion of the cylinder (rotary drum) submerged in the trough is
subjected to vacuum. A layer of solids builds upon the drum as the liquid is drained through cloth,
slots, compartments, pipe to the tank, which collects the filtered water.

In the washing/drying zone; vacuum is removed; cakes are removed by scrapping it off with a knife,
doctor blade. The process is continuous whereas the plate and frame press filter is a batch process.

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 35: Plate and frame press filter, Rotary filter

Principles of Filtration (cake)

(Fig. 35c)
Pressure–drop is applied across the filter:

Assuming that the flow of filtrate is under laminar conditions (low Re and viscous flow), one can
apply the Ergun's equation, neglecting the inertial forms:

Consider a differential thickness of cake = at a distance of from the filter-medium.

where, viscosity of the filtrate

bed-porosity or porosity of the cake

surface area and volume of the cake-particles (solids of the slurry), respectively

(Important to note is the time–change of pressure and cake–thickness)

superficial velocity of filtrate

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 36: Pinciples of filtration, constant pressure and volume filtration

Principles of filtration (continued )

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 36: Pinciples of filtration, constant pressure and volume filtration

Principles of filtration (continued )

Case 1: Constant Pressure-drop Filtration

differential mass of the cake

Substituting,

Assuming, incompressible cake (Const )

(pressure–drop) through cake

, where, total mass of cake.

upstream-pressure of filter–media

Define,

= property of cake

Pressure–drop through filter medium

hydraulic resistance of filter medium

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 36: Pinciples of filtration, constant pressure and volume filtration

Now ‘C' as the mass of the particles deposited in the filter per unit volume of the filtrate,

It can be shown that

where,

If turns out that

Replacing in the expression for

This is the working equation for cake filtration.

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 36: Pinciples of filtration, constant pressure and volume filtration

Case 1: constant–pressure filtration

(Fig. 36a)

Therefore, (one can calculate form the initial filtration-data when resistance

due
to cake = 0)
One can also write,

= constant (known)

(Fig. 36b)

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 36: Pinciples of filtration, constant pressure and volume filtration

Or

on integration

The above expression can be integrated to develop an expression for the amount of cake formed
over time ‘t' or the production rate of cake for the rotary- drum filter:

(Fig. 36c)

A = Total area of filtration

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 36: Pinciples of filtration, constant pressure and volume filtration

Case 2: Constant Rate Filtration

(Fig. 36d)

Or

(neglecting )

here, v is constant.

varies linearly with time.

(Such operation is difficult to run, i.e, keeping volumetric flow rate constant)

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 37: Examples

Examples on filtration

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 37: Examples

Examples on filtration
Example 1: A rotary drum filter with submergence is used to filter a concentrated aqueous
slurry of containing of solids per cubic foot of water. The pressure–drop
is If the filter cake contains 50% mixture (wet basis), calculate the filter area required to
filter 10 gal/min of slurry. The filter cycle time is 5 min. The specific cake resistance depends on the
pressure–drop as:

Viscosity of the filtrate . Density of

.Neglect filter medium resistance.
Answer:
Re–call the expression for the production rate of cake.

Here, production rate of cake

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 37: Examples

where concentration of slurry

Submergence–fraction

Speed of the drum

Cycle-time

(density of filtrate)

Slurry–density

On substitution,

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 37: Examples

Example A calcium–carbonate slurry is to be filtered in a press having a total area of and

2: operated at a constant pressure drop of 2 atm. The frames are thick. Assume
that the filter medium resistance is per ft. Calculate filtration time and the
volume of filtrate obtained in one cycle. Cake density . The specific cake
resistance,

Concentration of slurry

Answer:

Thickness of the cake

total mass of the cake formed in one cycle

(cake density)

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 37: Examples

Note:

Volume of the filter in one cycle

Re-call the expression for constant pressure–drop filtration

where

Therefore,

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 37: Examples

Example 3:
The following relation between specific resistance and pressure drop has been determined:

This relation is valid over a pressure range of . A slurry of this material

yielding of cake solid per cubic filtrate is to be filtered at a constant pressure drop of 70
. The resistance of filter per ft. Determine
square feet of the filter surface area required to give gal of filtrate in a 1-hr-filtration?

Answer:

Re-call the expression:

Substitute,

Or

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Module 11: Dimensional analysis and similitude

Lecture 38: Buckingham Pi-theorem

Dimensional analysis and similitude

Buckingham Pi-theorem

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Module 11: Dimensional analysis and similitude

Lecture 38: Buckingham Pi-theorem

Dimensional analysis and similitude

In many engineering applications, scale-up or scale-down of a chemical process or equipment is
frequently required. It is not practical to conduct experiments for all conditions of a process to predict
the data. The dimensional analysis is a commonly employed technique to scale-up or down a
process, and also, predict the results for different conditions.

As an example, consider drag on a sphere falling in stagnant water. If Reynolds number based on
the particle size is less than 1, drag can be theoretically calculated as

Alternatively, we can write a general symbolic equation based on our experience:

. A few experiments may also be conducted to gain insight into numerical values

for F. It is easy to show that is a dimensionless quantity, which can be interpreted as the
force per unit kinetic energy per unit cross-sectional area. Realizing that Reynolds number has a
mechanistic role to play on the drag, one can write

This is the basis of the dimensional analysis. We now introduce Buckingham Pi-theorem, a very
popular technique to obtain a mathematical expression for a complex problem:

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Module 11: Dimensional analysis and similitude

Lecture 38: Buckingham Pi-theorem

Buckingham Pi-theorem
Consider ‘n' number of independent variables for a physical option:

Or

The theorem may be interpreted to state that one can form independent dimensionless
groups of variables so that are the dimensionless
groups, and M (mass), L (length) and T (time) are the primary dimensions used to describe the
system. For some systems, angle may also be taken as a primary group, for which one can
have (n-4) independent dimensionless groups. We explain the utility of this method in the following
examples:

1. Reconsider the previous example of drag on a sphere immersed in a flowing fluid. From the
physics of the problem, the independent variables that govern the drag are identified as
. Therefore,

As per the Buckingham Pi-theorem, the number of dimensionless groups that can be formed is
.
Therefore,

Or

Choose,

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Module 11: Dimensional analysis and similitude

Lecture 38: Buckingham Pi-theorem

Note that there are there repeat variables and two non–repeat variables

Choice of selecting repeat variables is often arbitrary. Therefore,

Substitute and equate dimensions of :

For

Solve to obtain

Therefore,

Similarly, for

Solve to obtain

Therefore,

Or where

The exact form of h is found by experiment

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Module 11: Dimensional analysis and similitude

Lecture 39: Geomteric and dynamic similarities, examples

Dimensional analysis and similitude–continued

Similitude:

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Module 11: Dimensional analysis and similitude

Lecture 39: Geomteric and dynamic similarities, examples

Dimensional analysis and similitude–continued

Example 2: pressure–drop in pipe–flow depends on length, inside diameter, velocity, density and
viscosity of the fluid. If the roughness-effects are ignored, determine a symbolic expression for the
pressure–drop using dimensional analysis.
Answer: We will apply Buckingham Pi-theorem
Variables:
Primary dimensions:
No of dimensionless (independent) group:

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Module 11: Dimensional analysis and similitude

Lecture 39: Geomteric and dynamic similarities, examples

Similitude: To scale–up or down a model to the prototype, two types of similarities are required
from the perspective of fluid dynamics: (1) geometrical similarity (2) dynamic similarity

1. Geometric similarity: The model and the prototype must be similar in shape.

(Fig. 39a)
This is essential because one can use a constant scale factor to relate the dimensions of model and
prototype.

2. Dynamic similarity: The flow conditions in two cases are such that all forces (pressure
viscous, surface tension, etc) must be parallel and may also be scaled by a constant scaled
factor at all corresponding points. Such requirement is restrictive and may be difficult to
implement under certain experiential conditions. Dimensional analysis can be used to identify
the dimensional groups to achieve dynamic similarity between geometrically similar flows.

For example, in the flow past a sphere, drag on a model can be related to the prototype by a scale–
factor if Reynolds numbers are matched. In other words,

Therefore, the types of fluid in two cases may be different:

. Yet the drags on the two objects may be

scaled as long as .

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Module 11: Dimensional analysis and similitude

Lecture 39: Geomteric and dynamic similarities, examples

Example: A sphere of diameter 1 ft is to be dragged at a speed of 8.45 ft/s in seawater at . To

predict the drag, we want to conduct an experiment on a 6” diameter sphere in air flowing past the
model sphere. The drag on the model is to be kept at 6 lb-f. Determine the drag on the prototype.
Answer:
Ignoring any cavitation or compressibility effects, we have expression for drag:

Therefore, to predict the drag on the prototype one has to first match Reynolds number of

two cases:

and

if

Therefore,

Therefore,

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Module 12: Agitation

Lecture 40: Equipment, flow patterns, power requirement

Agitation of liquids

Why agitation?

Power requirement

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Module 12: Agitation

Lecture 40: Equipment, flow patterns, power requirement

Agitation of liquids
The unit operation is used to prepare liquid–mixture by bringing in contact two liquids in a
mechanically agitated vessel or container.
Agitation refers to the induced motion of liquid in some defined may, usually in circulatory
pattern and is achieved by some mechanical device.

Why agitation?
Dispenses a liquid which is immiscible with the other liquid by forming an emulsion or
suspension of few drops.
Suspends relatively lighter solid particles
Promotes heat transfer between the liquid in the think or container and a coil or jacket
surrounding the container
Blends miscible liquids

(Fig. 40a)

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Module 12: Agitation

Lecture 40: Equipment, flow patterns, power requirement

The equipment consists of a tank with an insulated jacket, baffles, shaft with motor, impeller,
and other accessories such as thermometer and dip- leg.

The role of baffles is to remove stratification in the radial direction and improve mixing,

(Fig. 40b)
Typical configuration-dimensions are:

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Module 12: Agitation

Lecture 40: Equipment, flow patterns, power requirement

Two types of impellers:

Radial flow impellers (flow is induced in radial or tangential directions)
Axial flow impellers (currents are parallel to the axis of impeller shaft)

Two types of geometrical configurations:

(Fig. 40c)

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Module 12: Agitation

Lecture 40: Equipment, flow patterns, power requirement

Flow patterns in agitated vessels

There are three principal currents in the vessel during agitation: (a) radial (perpendicular to the shaft)
(b) tangential (tangential to the circular path) (c) longitudinal (parallel to the shaft)

1. Radia!
2. Longitudinal
3. Swirling

(Fig. 40d)
Notes:
Tangential component induces vortex and swirling, which in turn create stratification
responsible for non–uniform mixing. In such case fluid particles are followed by another fluid
particle.
At relatively higher rpm, the center of vortex may reach impeller and air may be sucked in.
This may not be desirable.
Swirling can be minimized by placing the shaft slightly away from the center of the vessel, or
by putting baffles. In the latter–configuration, tangential streamlines will also be reduced.

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Module 12: Agitation

Lecture 40: Equipment, flow patterns, power requirement

Power requirement
Dimensional analysis is used to determine the power requirement. Variables are

Relatively larger viscous fluid requires high power for mixing. Similarly, high density fluid–mixture
also require large power for mixing:

From Buckingham theorem, no of independent dimensionless groups can be formed. For (6+m)
variables, there will be (3 + m) groups:

a. Power number, ,

b. Reynolds number, , where is the tangential velocity of the tip of the impeller or

c. Froude number

The other groups are

(Power number is analogous to friction factor and equals drag force on an unit area of impeller per
KE of unit-fluid-volume )
Or,

(Here, Reynolds number is based on peripheral speed and diameter of impeller)

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Module 12: Agitation

Lecture 40: Equipment, flow patterns, power requirement

Graphical results are available for different types of impellers to calculate power number:

(Fig. 40e)
(Slop is -1 on log–log plot for )
As in the case of tubular flow flow, viscous effects are predominant and density of fluid is not
important at low Reynolds number.

(Tables are available to calculate )

Or

At high Reynolds number , power number is independent of the Reynolds number

and viscosity is not important. Flow is fully turbulent.

Or
(Tables are available to calculate P)

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Module 13: Cyclone

Lecture 41: Equipment, theoretical cut diameter, efficieny

Cyclone (Centrifugal settler)

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Module 13: Cyclone

Lecture 41: Equipment, theoretical cut diameter, efficieny

Cyclone (Centrifugal settler)

The equipment separates solid particles from a gas (eg. dust laden flue gas), based on the
principle of centrifugal force, which is much stronger than gravitational force. Cyclone works
relatively more efficiently at high gas flow rates.
The equipment requires large flow rates/velocity to create a swirling movement inside the
column. Cyclone, as such, does not have moving parts but may require a blower upstream to
impart KE to the gas laden with particles.

(Fig. 41a) (Fig. 41b)

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Module 13: Cyclone

Lecture 41: Equipment, theoretical cut diameter, efficieny

a. The real trajectory of gas and particles is difficult to analyze. The particles laden gas enters
the cyclone from the sideway (see top view) at a high flow rate and moves downward in a
swirling/ spiral path.
b. Solid particles are thrown outward radially due to centrifugal force. They strike the walls of
cyclone and settle down. Gas, on the other hand, will move radially inward, then upward
through the least hydrodynamically resistance – path to the exit.
c. Gas moving in spiral reaches the apex of the cone, then moves upward in a smaller spiral
( ) path to the exit at the top, as the opening at the bottom is filled with solid
particles. For the gas, the least resistance – path is the exit at the top. For the particles, the
least resistance- path is the exit at the bottom.
d. Mechanistically, if the centrifugal force acting on the particles is larger than the drag (inward)
by the gas, the particles will strike the walls and settle down, else they will move inward
alongwith the gas. At a radius r, where these two forces are equal, particle will rotate in
equilibrium and move downward till they hit the slant walls and are collected. Gas on the other
hand has a very high upward flow rate at the center, typically in the core-diameter of .
Any particle in the zone will be carried upward.

(Fig. 41c)

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Module 13: Cyclone

Lecture 41: Equipment, theoretical cut diameter, efficieny

Theoretical ‘cut-size' of a cyclone is the particle size above which all particles will be
collected. A theoretical expression considering drag and centrifugal forces on a particle, has
been obtained to estimate the ‘cut size' of cyclone. The calculation takes into account the
experimental observation that the equilibrium rotation-radius of all captured particles in
cyclone is do, where do is the diameter of the nozzle at the top of the

cyclone though which the gas exits.

The settling velocity of captured particles,

where,

Form , the theoretical cut–diameter, d p is determined from the settling velocity equation:

(Note that it is assumed that particles settle in Stoke's regime)

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Module 13: Cyclone

Lecture 41: Equipment, theoretical cut diameter, efficieny

All particles having diameter will have equilibrium radius within 0.5 do so that they will
be carried away with the gas.
All particles having diameter will be captured in cyclone.
Cyclones are very effective in removing particles from gas. Disadvantages are large flow rate
required and large pressure–drop because of the tortuous path of the gas.

gas velocity at the inlet

Separation factor of a cyclone, s is defined as

Cyclones are effective typically for particle size

Efficiency (capturing) of cyclone,

Design graphs are available to calculate the efficiency.

(Fig. 41d)

End

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