Surveying: Types, Classification, Measurement of Distances - Angles – Determination of areas

– Leveling – Simple problems – Total station – Remote Sensing.

Definition:
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or
beneath the earth’s surface and locating the points in the field.
Uses of Surveying
 To prepare topographical map this shows the hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages towns.
 To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and other
properties.
 To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering works, such as
buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals, etc.
 To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find one of the best possible
sites for roads, railways, bridges, reservoirs, canals, etc.
 Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map, and archaeological map.
 For setting out of works and transferring details from the map on the ground.
DIVISIONS: Surveying is primarily divided into two types considering the curvature of the earth’s
surface.
Plane Surveying
• The plane surveying is that type of surveying in which earth surface is considered as a plane and
the curvature of the earth is ignored
Geodetic Surveying
• The geodetic surveying is that type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken
into account. It generally extends over larger area.
Plane surveying Vs Geodetic surveying

Fundamental Principles of Surveying: Two basic principles of surveying are:

Work from whole to a part
• According to the first principle, the whole are is first
divided into a number of divisions by forming well
conditioned triangles.
 • The main survey lines are measured very accurately with precise survey instruments. Then the
remaining sides of triangle are measured. The purpose of this method of working is to control
accumulation of errors. During measurement, if there is any error, then it will not effect the
whole work. But if the reverse process is followed then the minor error in measurement will be
magnified.
To locate a new station by at least two measurements ( linear or angular) from fixed reference points:
According to the second principle the points or stations are located by linear or angular
measurement or by both in surveying. If two control points are established first, then a new station
can be located by two linear or two angular measurements or by one linear and one angular
measurement. Let A and B are control points. A new point C can be established. Following are the
methods of locating point C from such reference points A and B.
• The distance AB can be measured accurately and the relative positions of the points can be then
plotted on the sheet to some scale.
 a) Taking linear measurements from A and B for C.
 b) Taking linear measurement of perpendicular from D to C.
 c) Taking one linear measurement from B and one angular measurement as angle ABC.
 d) Taking two angular measurements at A and B as angle CAB and angle ABC
 e) Taking one angle at B as angle ABC and one linear measurement from A as AC.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
Surveying may be classified on the following basis:
(i) Nature of the survey field
(ii) Object of survey
(iii) Instruments used and
(iv) The methods employed.
I. Classification Based on Nature of Survey Field
1. Land Survey. It involves measurement of various objects on land. This type of survey may be further
classified as given below:
(a) Topographic Survey: It is meant for plotting natural features like rivers, lakes, forests and
hills as well as manmade features like roads, railways, towns, villages and canals.
(b) Cadastral Survey: It is for marking the boundaries of municipalities, villages, talukas,
districts, states etc. The survey made to mark properties of individuals also comes under this
category.
 (c) City Survey: The survey made in connection with the construction of streets, water
supply and sewage lines fall under this category.
2. Marine or Hydrographic Survey. Survey conducted to find depth of water at various points in bodies
of water like sea, river and lakes fall under this category. Finding depth of water at specified points is
known as sounding.
3. Astronomical Survey. Observations made to heavenly bodies like sun, stars etc., to locate absolute
positions of points on the earth and for the purpose of calculating local time is known as
astronomical survey.
II. Classification Based on Object of Survey
(a) Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of survey is to collect data for designing civil
engineering projects like roads, railways, irrigation, water supply and sewage disposals. These surveys
are further sub-divided into:
 Reconnaissance Survey for determining feasibility and estimation of the scheme.
 Preliminary Survey for collecting more information to estimate the cost of the project, and
 Location Survey to set the work on the ground.
(b) Military Survey: It is conducted to locate strategic positions for the purpose of army operations.
(c) Mines Survey: Mine surveys include both surface and underground surveys. It is conducted for the
exploration of mineral deposits and to guide tunneling and other operations associated with mining.
(d) Geological Survey: In this both surface and subsurface surveying are conducted to locate different
minerals and rocks. In addition, geological features of the terrain such as folds and faults are located.
(e) Archeological Survey: It is conducted to locate relics of antiquity, civilization, kingdoms, forts,
temples, etc.
III. Classification Based on Instruments Used
(i) Chain survey: This is the simplest type of survey in which only linear measurement are made with a
chain or a tape.
(ii) Compass survey: In compass survey angles are measured with the help of a magnetic compass.
(iii) Chain and Compass survey: In this survey linear measurements are made with a chain or a tape and
angular measurements with a compass.
(iv) Plane table survey: It is graphical method of surveying in which field works and plotting both are
done simultaneously.
(v) Theodolite survey: In theodolite survey, the horizontal angles are measured with a theodolite more
precisely than compass and the linear measurements are made with a chain or tape.
(vi) Tacheometric survey: A special type of theodolite known as tachometer is used to determine
horizontal and vertical distances indirectly.
(vii) Leveling Survey: This type of survey is carried out to determine the vertical distances and relative
heights of points with the help of an instrument known as level
(viii) Photogrammetric Survey: Photogrammetric is a science of taking measurements with the help of
photographs taken by aerial camera from air craft.
(ix) EDM Survey: In this type of survey, all measurements are made with the help of EDM.
IV. Classification Based on Methods Employed
(i) Triangulation: In this method control points are established through a network of triangles.
(ii) Traversing: In this scheme of establishing control points consists of a series of connected points
established through linear and angular measurements. If the last line meets the starting point it is called
as closed traverse. If it does not meet, it is known as open traverse.

Plans and Maps

 Plan: A plan is graphical representation to some scale, of the features on, near, or below the
surface of the earth as projected on a horizontal plane
 Map: If the scale of the graphical projection on a horizontal plane is small, the plan is called a
map.
 Thus graphical representation is called a plan if the scale is large while it is called a map if
the scale is small.
 On a plan, generally, only horizontal distance and directions or angles are shown. On a
topographical map, however the vertical distances are also represented by contour lines.
LINEAR MEASUREMENTS AND CHAIN SURVEYING
Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying and even though angles may be read precisely, the
length of at least one line is essential.
Methods used for linear measurements:
(i) Approximate Methods: (i) pacing; (ii) passometer; (iii) pedometer; (iv) odometer and (v)
speedometer.
 Pacing: Walk along a known length – calculate average length of a step (normal man - 0.75 m to
0.8 m). Walk along the line to be measured and counts the number of steps - number of steps ×
average length of a step gives the distance.
 Passometer: Watch-like instrument - carried vertically in the pocket of shirt or tied to a leg -
records number of steps taken. Thus the problem of counting number of steps is eliminated.
 Pedometer: This instrument is similar to passometer but it can record the distance instead of
number of steps. In this, zero setting and setting of step length is made before walking.
 Odometer: This instrument is attached to the wheel of a cycle or other vehicle. It records the
number of revolutions made by the wheel. Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the
distance travelled may be found.
 Speedometer: Odometer calibrated to give distance directly is called speedometer. This is to be
used for particular vehicle only. All automobiles are provided with speedometers.
(ii) Measurement with Chains or Tapes: Its also called as Chaining.
Metric chain: IS 1492-1956 covers requirement of chains in
metric units - length of 20 and 30 meters - Composed of 100
pieces of 4 mm diameter galvanised mild steel wires bent
into rings at the end - joined to each other by three rings -
give flexibility to the chain. Connecting links between two
large links are oval in shape, the central one being a circular
ring. The ends of chains are provided with swivel joints - to
turn without twisting. For easy reading - brass tallies are
provided. End of 10th link - talley of one tooth, 20th - talley
of two teeth, 30th - talley of three teeth, 40th link - a talley
of 4 teeth and the middle of chain - a talley of circular shape
- small brass rings are provided at every metre length,
except where tallies are attached. The length of the chain is
marked over the handle to indicate the length - The length of each link is 0.2 m (20cm) in 20m chain is
provided with 100 links and 30 m chain divided into 150 links.
Advantages: (i) suitable for rough usage; (ii) easily repaired in the field and (iii) easily read.
Types of chains
(1) Gunter’s Chain: It is also called surveyor‟s chain. The Gunter‟s chain is 66 ft. long and is divided
into 100 links. Therefore, each end link is equal to 0.66 ft. long. It is very convenient for
measuring distances in miles and furlongs and for measuring land when the unit of area is an
acre, on account of its simple relation to the mile and the acre. 10 Guntur‟s chains – 1 furlong
80 Guntur‟s chains- 1 mile 10 square Guntur‟s chains – 1 acre.
(2) Revenue Chain: The revenue chain is commonly used for measuring fields in cadastral survey. It
is 33 ft. long and divided into 16 links.
(3) Engineers’ Chain: The engineer‟s chain is 100 ft. long and is divided into 100 links each link is
equal to 1 ft. The construction details are same as that of a Gunter‟s chain. It is used on all
engineering surveys. The distances measured with the engineer‟s chain are recorded in feet and
decimals.
Steel Band: It is also known as band chain. It consists of steel of 12 to 16
mm width and 0.3 to 0.6 mm thickness. The steel ribbon is wound
around an open steel cross or in a metal reel. Metric steel bands are
available in lengths of 20 m and 30 m.

Tapes: When greater accuracy is required in measurement and the ground to be surveyed is not very
rough, the tapes can be used. Tapes are available both in ft. and metres Depending upon the materials
used, they are classified as: (i) cloth or linen tape; (ii) metallic tape; (iii) steel tape and (iv) invar tape.
(i) Cloth or Linen Tape: It is made of varnished strip of linen 12 to 16 mm wide with a brass handle at
ends. They are available in length of 10 m, 20 m, 25 m and 30 m. These tapes are light and flexible.
Disadvantages: (i) Due to moisture they shrink; (ii) Due to stretching they extend; (iii) They are not
strong and (iv) They are likely to twist.
(ii) Metallic Tape: It is made from good quality cotton or linen and is reinforced with fine brass or
copper wires. It is made in lengths of
2, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 50 metres. These
tapes are light, flexible and not easily
broken.
(iii) Steel Tape: It is made of steel ribbon or stainless steel, or may be provided with vinyl coating and is
very accurate, used for very precise measurements and for checking the accuracy of chain lengths. Tape
measures are 1, 2, 10, 30, and 50 m.
(iv) Invar Tape: For work of the highest precision, the invar tape is generally used as in measurement of
base lines in triangulation and in city work. It is made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%) and
possesses a very low coefficient of thermal expansion (0.6 ×10-4 for 1°C). It is 6 mm wide and may be
obtained in lengths of 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.
(v) Synthetic Tape: The tapes are manufactured of glass fibre having a PVC coating. They are graduated
every 10 mm and figured every 100 mm whose metric figures are shown in red at every metre. The
tapes maintain their lengths well and are convenient for measuring short lengths.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHAINING
The following instruments are required for measurements with chain and tape:
1. Instruments used in Chain survey Instruments used for measuring distances: 1.
Chain; 2. Tape
2. Instruments used for marking survey stations: 1. Ranging rod; 2. Offset rod; 3.
Laths and whites; 4. Pegs
3. Instruments used for setting right angles: 1. Cross staff; 2. Optical
square;
4. Other instruments: 1. Arrow; 2. Plumb bob
(i) Arrows: Accompanying each chain are 10 arrows - also called marking or
chaining pins, used to mark the end of each chain - made of metallic wires of 4
mm (8 s. w. g.) in diameter and minimum tensile strength of 700N/ mm2 - black
enameled - 400 mm in length, with one end sharpened and other end bent into
a loop.
(ii) Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of stations - to mark the end points of the line.
They are made of hard timber and are tapered at one end - usually, 2.5 cm square and 15 cm long - but
in soft ground, pegs 40 to 60 cm long and 4 to 5 cm square suitable.
(iii) Ranging Rods and Ranging Poles: For ranging intermediate
points along the line to be measured.
Ranging rods are 2 to 3 m long - made of hard wood - provided with
iron shoe at one end - circular or octagonal in section with 30 mm
diameter - divided into equal parts each 0.2 m long – for visibility
painted alternately black and white, or red and white or red, white,
and black.
Ranging poles are similar to ranging rods except that they are longer
- 4 m to 8 m long and 60 mm to 100 mm in diameter - made of hard wood or steel – fixed in the ground
by making 0.5 m holes.
(iv) Offset Rods: The off-set rod is similar to the ranging rod but is usually 3 m long - At height of eye,
provided with two narrow slits at right angles to each - for setting right angles- chiefly used for aligning
the off-set line and measuring short off-sets.
(v) Laths: Laths are 0.5 to 1.0 m long sticks of soft wood. They are sharpened at one end and are painted
with white or light colours. They are used as intermediate points while ranging or while crossing
depressions.
(vi) Whites: Whites are the pieces of sharpened thick sticks cut from the nearest place in the field. One
end of the stick is sharpened and the other end is split. White papers are inserted in the split to improve
the visibility. Whites are also used for the same purpose as laths.
(vii) Plumb Bob: A plumb bob consists of a metal weight made of brass with a pointed end. It is
suspended by a string - In measuring horizontal distances along sloping ground - used to
transfer the position to ground - used to locate points directly below or above another point -
accurately centering of compass or level or theodolite over a station mark - for testing the
verticality of ranging poles.
CHAIN SURVEYING
Chain survey is suitable in the following cases:
(i) Area to be surveyed is comparatively small; (ii) Ground is fairly
level (iii) Area is open and (iv) Details to be filled up are simple
and less.
TECHNICAL TERMS
Station: Station is a point of importance at the beginning or at the end
of a survey line.
Main station: These are the stations at the beginning or at the end of
lines forming main skeleton - denoted as A, B, C etc.
Subsidiary or tie stations: These are the stations selected on main lines to run auxiliary/secondary lines
for the purpose of locating interior details - denoted as a, b, c, ...., etc., or as 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
Base line: It is the most important line and is the longest. Usually it is the line plotted first and then
frame works of triangles are built on it. It should be passing through the centre of the area (AC).
Subsidiary or tie lines: When numbers of features are to be located and they are far away from the main
chain lines, then subsidiary or tie lines are used to locate such details (FG). Tie line is obtained by joining
two fixed points on the main survey line. Tie lines can also be used as check lines to check the accuracy
of measurements and plotting.
Check lines: Check lines are also called as proof lines. The mistakes of the measurement and plotting can
be easily checked with the help of check lines. The check line is a line joining the apex of a triangle to
some fixed points on the opposite side, a line joining some fixed points on any two sides of a triangle.
Every triangle should be provided with a check line
OFFSETS
Lateral measurements to chain lines for locating ground features are known as offsets – types :
perpendicular or oblique offsets
(i) Swinging: Hold end of tape on the object swings the tape on chain
line - selects the point on chain where offset distance is the least.

(ii) Cross Staffs: All cross staffs are having two perpendicular lines of
sights - cross staffs are mounted on stand - line of sight is set along
the chain line - right angle line of sight is checked to locate the
object. Open cross staff - to set perpendicular only - french cross
staff - 45º angle can be set and adjustable cross staff can be used to
set any angle - since there are graduations and upper drum can be
rotated over lower drum.

(iii) optical square: more accurate - works on the principle of

reflection - a round brass box about 5 cm in diameter and 1.25
cm deep with a metal cover to protect it from dust, moisture -
consists of horizontal mirror (H) and index mirror (1) placed at
an angle of 450 to each other. The mirror H is half silvered and
the upper half is plain while the mirror I is fully silvered. There
are three openings a, b and c on the sides. Let AB is the chain
line and it is required to locate an object O - optical square is
held in such a manner that a ray of light from object O passes
through slot c, strikes the mirror, gets reflected and strikes the silvered portion of the mirror H.
After being reflected from H, the ray passes through the pin hole and becomes visible to the eye.
The observer looking through the hole a can directly see the ranging rod at B through the un-
silvered portion of the mirror H and the image of the ranging rod placed at O. Thus when both the
ranging rods coincide, the line OD becomes perpendicular to the chain line. If they do not coincide,
the optical square has to move back and forth to get the correct position of D.
RANGING:
When a survey line is longer than a chain length, it is necessary to align intermediate points on chain
using ranging rods - the process of locating intermediate points on survey line is known as ranging. Two
methods - direct and reciprocal ranging.
 CALCULATION OF AREA
METHODS OF CALCULATING AREA
If simple figures – Triangle, Rectangle and
Trapezium: A = d ( (h1+ h2)/2)
If it is a narrow strip of land with irregular boundary then Offsets are measured from boundary to base
line at regular intervals.
I.Mid-Ordinate Rule: If the boundaries between two extremities (offsets) are straight lines
Offsets are taken at regular intervals

II. Area by Trapezoidal Rule:

Area of each segment is treated as a trapezium.

Definition: Add the average of end offsets to the sum of the intermediate offsets. Multiply the total
sum thus obtained by the common distance between the ordinates to get the required area.
(b) Area by Simpson’s Rule
In this method, the boundary line between two segment is assumed parabolic.
Area A = = Area of trapezium ACFD + Area of parabola DEFH

It is to be noted that the equation is applicable if the number of segments (n) are even, in other words, if
total number of ordinates’s are odd.
If n is odd, then for n – 1 segments area is calculated by Simpson’s rule and for the last segment
trapezoidal rule is applied.
Definition of Simpson’s rule: The area is equal to the sum of the two end ordinates plus four times the
sum of the even intermediate ordinates + twice the sum of odd intermediate ordinates, the whole
multiplied by one third the common interval between them.
Comparison of rules:
 if the boundary is not irregular to great extent - Trapezoidal rule
 if the boundary is highly irregular - Simpson’s rule.
 In general Simpson’s rule is more accurate.
 This rule gives slightly more value compared to trapezoidal rule, if the curve is concave towards
the survey line and gives lesser value, if the boundary is convex towards survey line.
Compass is an instrument which can be used to measure the direction of
a survey line with respect to magnetic north-south. The magnetic north-
south direction which is the reference direction is called meridian and
the angle between the line and the meridian is called bearing.

There are several types of meridians: Astronomical or True, Magnetic,

Grid, and Assumed.

Astronomical or True meridian: Line or plane passing through geographical north pole and geographical
south pole

Magnetic meridian: When the magnetic needle is suspended freely and balanced properly, unaffected
by magnetic substances, it indicates a direction. This direction is known as magnetic meridian. The angle
between the magnetic meridian and a line is known as magnetic bearing or simple bearing of the line.

The types of compass that are used commonly are: (i) prismatic compass; and (ii) surveyor compass.
The essential parts of both type are:
(i) a magnetic needle,
(ii) a graduated circle,
(iii) a line of sight, and
(iv) a box to house them.

Prismatic Compass
A magnetic needle of broad form (1) is balanced on a hard and pointed steel pivot (2). The top of the
pointed pivot is protected with agate cap (3). An aluminium graduated disk (4) is fixed to the top of the
needle. The graduations are from zero to 360° in clockwise direction when read from top. The direction
of north is treated as zero degrees, east as 90°, south as 180° and west as 270°. The graduations are
marked inverted because they are read through a prism. The line of sight consists of object unit and the
reading unit. Object unit consists of a slit metal frame (5) hinged to the box. In the centre the slit is
provided with a horse hair or a fine wire or thread (6). The metal frame is provided with a hinged mirror
(7), which can be placed upward or downward on the frame. It can be slided along the frame. The mirror
can be adjusted to view objects too high or too low from the position of compass. Reading unit is
provided at diametrically opposite edge. It consists of a prism (8) with a sighting eye vane (9). The prism
magnifies the readings on the graduation disk just below it. For focussing, the prism is lowered or raised
on the frame carrying it and then fixed with the stud (10). Dark sunglasses (11) provided near the line of
sight can be interposed if the object to be sighted is bright (e.g., sun). The bottom of the box (12) which
is about 85 mm to 110 mm supports the pivot of needle firmly at its centre. The object vane and the
prism are supported on the sides of the box. The box is provided with a glass (13) lid which protects the
graduation disc at the same time permit the direct reading from the top. When the object vane is folded
on the glass top it presses a lifting pin (14) which activates lifting lever (15) lifts the needle off the pivot.
Thus, it prevents undue wear of pivot point. While taking reading, if graduation disc vibrates, it can be
dampened with a spring (16). For pressing spring a knob or brake pin (17) is provided on the box. When
not in use prism can be folded over the edge of the box. The box is provided with a lid to close it when
the compass is not in use. The box is provided with a socket to fit it on the top of a tripod.
Surveyors Compass
In this type of compass graduation disc is fixed to the box and magnetic needle is free to rotate above it.
There is no prism provided at viewing end, but has a narrow slit. After fixing the line of sight, the reading
is directly taken from the top of the glass cover. Hence, graduations are written directly (not inverted).
In this compass graduations are from zero to 90°, zero being to north or south and 90° being to east and
west. An angle of 20° to north direction to the east is written as N 20° E, and an angle of 40° to east from
south is written as S 40° E. Always first direction indicated is north or south and the last letter indicates
east or west direction. In this system graduated circle rotates with line of sight and magnetic needle is
always towards north. The reading is taken at the tip of needle. Hence, on the compass east and west
are marked interchanged and marked.

.
Designation of magnetic bearing
1. Whole circle bearing (WCB) or Azimuthal system
2. Quadrantal bearing (QB) or Reduced Bearing

WCB: The magnetic bearing of a line measured clockwise from the North
Pole towards the line is known as WCB. Varies 0-360°

Quadrantal Bearing: The magnetic bearing of a line measured clockwise

or anticlockwise from NP or SP (whichever is nearer to the line) towards
the east or west is known as QB. This system consists of 4-quadrants NE,
SE, NW, SW. The values lie between 0-90°

Reduced Bearing: When the whole circle bearing of a line is converted to quadrantal bearing it is termed
as reduced bearing

Conversion of Bearing from one system to other

 N.E. Quadrant: Bearing equals Azimuth
 S.E. Quadrant: 180° -Azimuth = Bearing and 180° - Bearing = Azimuth
 S.W. Quadrant: Azimuth - 180° = Bearing and Bearing + 180° = Azimuth
 N.W. Quadrant: 360° -Azimuth = Bearing and 360° - Bearing = Azimuth
Convert the following reduced bearings into whole circle bearings:

(i) N 65° E (ii) S 43° 15′ E (iii) S 52° 30′ W (iv) N 32° 42′ W

Solution: Let ‘θ’ be whole circle bearing.

(i) Since it is in NE quadrant, : θ = α = 65° Ans.

(ii) Since it is in south east quadrant : 43° 15′ = 180° – θ or θ = 180° – 43° 15′ = 136° 45′ Ans.

(iii) Since it is in SW quadrant : 52° 30′ = θ – 180° or θ = 180° + 52° 30′ = 232° 30′ Ans.
(iv) Since it is in NW quadrant: 32° 42′ = 360° – θ or θ = 360° – 32° 42′ = 327° 18′ Ans.

FORE BEARING AND BACK BEARING

The bearing of line measured in the direction of progress of survey is called as Fore Bearing (FB)
The bearing of line measured in the direction opposite to the survey is called the Back Bearing (BB) of the line

(A) In WCB the difference between FB and BB should be exactly 180°

 BB=FB+/-180°
 Use the +ve sign when FB<180°
 Use the –ve sign when FB> 180°
 LEVELING

DEFINITION: the art of determining the elevations of given points above or below a datum line or
establishing given points of required heights above or below the datum line.

TERMS USED IN LEVELLING

1. Level Surface: A surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called a level surface and the
line drawn on the level surface is known as a level line.
2. Horizontal Surface: A surface tangential to level surface at a given point is called horizontal surface at
that point. Hence a horizontal line is at right angles to the plumb line at that point
3. Datum: The level of a point or the surface with respect to which levels of other points or planes are
calculated, is called a datum or datum surface.

4. Mean Sea Level (MSL): MSL is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. MSL is
established averaging tide heights of 18 years. In India MSL used is that established at Karachi.
6. Reduced Levels (RL): The level of a point taken as height above the datum surface is known as RL of
that point.
7. Benchmarks: A benchmark is a relatively permanent reference point, the elevation of which is known
The following are the different types of benchmarks used in surveying:
(a) GTS Benchmark: (GTS)Great Trigonometrical Survey benchmark - established by Survey of India.
(b) Permanent Benchmark: These are the benchmarks established by state government
(c) Arbitrary Benchmark: In engineering projects difference in elevation is more important hence
arbitrary BM such as 100.0 m is assumed.

Principle of leveling: to determine the relative difference between

two points, A is known point of elevation ha and want to find the
elevation of point B that is hb.
Since area of survey is very small – horrizontal surface is taken as
datum.
(1) Establish a line parellel to datum
(2) Determine the values of AA’ and BB’ by menas of taking
readings Ra and RB
(3) It can be said that ha + Ra = hb + Rb; hb can be determined

LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS
A level is an instrument giving horizontal line of sight and magnifying the reading at a far away distance.
It consists of the following parts:
(i) A telescope to provide a line of sight; (ii) A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal and
(iii) A levelling head to level the instrument
Dumpy Level
A telescope tube rigidly connected to the vertical spindle - cannot move in vertical plane - cannot be
removed from its support - hence it is named as dumpy level - rotates in horizontal plane - a bubble
tube is attached to the top of the telescope. It is a glass tube partially filled with ether or alcohol - air
bubble is always at the highest point. When bubble is centred, the telescope is horizontal.

Levelling head consists of two parallel plates with three foot

screws. By adjusting the screws the instrument can be levelled to
get perfect horizontal line of sight.
LEVELLING STAFF
The levelling staff is a rectangular rod having graduations. The staff is directly read through telescope. In
a metric system staff, one metre length is divided into 200 subdivisions, each of uniform thickness of 5
mm. All divisions are marked with black in a white background. Metres and decimetres are written in
red colour. The following three types of self reading staffs are available:
(a) Solid staff: It is a single piece of 3 m.
(b) Folding staff: A staff of two pieces each of 2 m which can be folded one over the other.
(c) Telescopic staff: A staff of 3 pieces with upper one solid and lower two hollow. The upper part can
slide into the central one and the central part can go into the lower part. Each length can be pulled up
and held in position by means of brass spring. The total length may be 4 m or 5 m.
TERMS USED IN DIRECT METHOD OF LEVELLING
(i) Plane of Collimation: It is the reduced level of plane of sight with respect to the datum selected. It is
also known as ‘height of instrument’ (H.I).
(ii) Back Sight (BS): It is the sight taken on a level staff held on the point of known elevation (Benchmark)
to determining the plane of collimation.
(iii) Intermediate Sight (IS): Sights taken on staff after back sight (first sight) and before the last sight
(fore sight) are known as intermediate sights.
(iv) Fore Sight (FS): This is the last reading taken from the instrument station before shifting it or just
before ending the work.
(v) Change Point (CP): This is also known as turning point (TP). This is a point on which both fore sights
and back sights are taken. After taking fore sight on this point instrument is set at some other
convenient point and back sight is taken on the staff held at the same point.
METHODS OF LEVELING:
1. Simple Levelling
 It is the method used for finding difference between the levels of two nearby points.
2. Differential Levelling
If the distance between two points A and B is large, it may not be possible to take the readings on A and
B from a single setting. In such situation differential levelling is used. In differential levelling the
instrument is set at more than one position, each shifting facilitated by a change point.

BOOKING AND REDUCING THE LEVELS

The booking of readings and reducing the levels can be carried out systematically in the tabular form.
There are two such methods: (i) Plane of collimation method (ii) Rise and fall method.
 1. Booking and reducing levels by plane of collimation method

In this method note the following:

1. Plane of collimation for first setting = RL of BM + BS
2. Subtract IS from plane of collimation to get RL of intermediate station and subtract FS from plane of
collimation to get RL of change point.
3. Add back sight to RL of change point to get new plane of collimation.
4. Check: Σ BS – Σ FS = RL of Last point – RL of first point. If it is –ve, it is fall and if +ve it is rise.
2. Booking and reducing level by rise and fall method

Note the following:

1. From A to E1, difference = 1.35 – 0.80 = 0.55, rise
2. From E1 to CP1, difference = 0.80 – 1.65 = – 0.85, fall
3. From CP1 to E2, difference = 1.40 – 0.70 = 0.70, rise
4. From E2 to CP2, difference = 0.70 – 1.70 = –1.00, fall
5. From CP2 to B, difference = 1.30 – 1.85 = – 0.55, fall.
Example: The following staff readings were observed successively with a level. The instrument has been
shifted after the second and fifth reading: 0.675, 1.230, 0.750, 2.565, 2.225, 1.935, 1.835, 3.220. The
first reading was with staff held on benchmark of RL 100.000 m. Enter the readings in a page of level
book and calculate the RL of all points. Apply arithmetic checks. Use plane of collimation method.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE SENSING

Definition: Remote sensing may be defined as art and science of collecting informations about objects,
area or phenomenon without having physical contact with it.

Components involved in Remote Sensing

Three components are involved in remote sensing
ie. the source, the object and the sensor which senses the
reflected energy. The source namely sun due to nuclear
fusion continuously radiates light consists of inseparable
electrical and magnetic fields called as Electro Magnetic
Radiation (EMR) which serves as the communication link
amongst these three.
EMR Spectrum
The EMR spectrum consists of light energy having different wave length such as Cosmic rays,
gamma rays, X-rays, ultra violet rays, visible rays, micro waves, television and radio waves with differing
wavelength.
 The presence of gases, suspended materials and water molecules in atmosphere absorb and
scatter energy in certain wavelengths called as "Atmospheric absorption". The unabsorbed wavelength
region of EMR spectrum reaching the earth is called as "Atmospheric windows", these regions were
effectively used for Remote Sensing.

SENSORS

Sensors are devices which will ‘sense’ and measure the amount of radiated energy reflected from an
object and record it sense the reflected energy from an object. In satellite remote sensing, the types of
sensors used, are capable of capturing radiation from many different parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum, which are not visible to the human eye. These sensors are classified as Active sensors - the
sensors which send its own energy and senses back the reflected energy (microwave energy). The
passive sensors will sense only the reflected EMR from Earth surface features (film in aerial cameras,
and photosynthetic cells in satellites).
PLATFORMS

Platforms are the vehicles that carry the sensors in the sky. These may be even the Human
hands, Balloons, Helicopters, Aircrafts and Rockets but these are only for one time observation whereas
the satellite which carries the sensors / cameras continuously and repeatedly takes photographs of the
earth. Based on orbiting classified as Polar orbiting satellites: An orbit that passes above or nearly above
both poles of the planet on each revolution (300 km to 1000 km orbital range) and Geosynchronous
Satellite with orbital period (23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds) equal to the average rotational period
of earth (upto 36,000 km orbital range).
REMOTE SENSOR RESOLUTION

In general resolution is defined as the ability of an

entire remote-sensing system, including lens
antennae, display, exposure, processing, and other
factors, to render a sharply defined image.

• Spatial - in terms of the geometric properties of

the imaging system, is usually described as the
instantaneous field of view (IFOV). The IFOV is
defined as the maximum angle of view in which a
sensor can effectively detect electro-magnetic
energy e.g. 10 x 10 m.

• Spectral - The term spectral resolution refers to

the width of spectral bands that a satellite imaging system can detect. Often satellite imaging systems
are multi-spectral meaning that they can detect in several discrete bands, it is the width of these bands
that spectral resolution refers too. The narrower the bands, the greater the spectral resolution e.g. blue,
green, red, near-infrared thermal infrared, microwave (radar).

• Temporal - is a description of how often a sensor can obtain

imagery of a particular area of interest. For example, the Landsat
satellite revisits an area every 16 days as it orbits the Earth, while the
SPOT satellite can image an area every 1 to 4 days.

• Radiometric - refers to the number of possible brightness values in

each band of data and is determined by the number of bits into
which the recorded energy is divided. In 8-bit data, the brightness
values can range from 0 to 255 for each pixel (256 total possible
values). In 7-bit data, the values range from 0 to 127, or half as many possible values.

Application of Remote Sensing

Various applications of remote sensing may be grouped into the following:

1. Resource Exploration: Geologists use remote sensing to study the formation of sedimentary rocks and
identify deposits of various minerals, detect oil fields and identify underground storage of water.
Remote sensing is used for identifying potential fishing zone, coral reef mapping and to find other
wealth from ocean.
2. Environmental Study: Remote sensing is used to study cloud motion and predict rains. With satellite
data it is possible to study water discharge from various industries to find out dispersion and harmful
effects, if any, on living animals. Oil spillage and oil slicks can be studied using remote sensing.
3. Land Use: By remote sensing, mapping of larger areas is possible in short time. Forest area,
agricultural area, residential and industrial area can be measured regularly and monitored. It is possible
to find out areas of different crops.
4. Site Investigation: Remote sensing is used extensively in site investigations for dams, bridges,
pipelines. It can be used to locate construction materials like sand and gravel for the new projects.
5. Archaeological Investigation: Many structures of old era are now buried under the ground and are not
known. But by studying changes in moisture content and other characteristics of the buried objects and
upper new layer, remote sensors are able to recognise the buried structutures of archaeological
importance.
6. Natural Hazard Study: Using remote sensing the following natural hazards can be predicted to some
extent and hazards minimised: 1. Earthquake 2. Volcanoes 3. Landslides 4. Floods and 5. Hurricane and
cyclones.
� Dam and reservoir construction – An environmental impact assessment: Satellite and other
information can be used within a land information system, to assess the impact of the construction of a
dam and the resulting reservoir on the local population, especially in respect to the loss of agricultural
land.
�Revising maps. : High resolution satellite imagery can be used to update maps.
�Siting studies for small hydro-electric power stations: The potential for generating hydro-electric
power can be assessed using Digital Elevation Models and land cover classification information derived
from satellites. The resulting maps can indicate the most favourable site for the station.
�Landslide hazard mapping: Satellite data can be used to assist in the prediction of landslides.
Information can be used for contingency planning to mitigate against the effects of landslides on the
local population and the infrastructure in areas of risk.
�Coast- monitoring coastal sediment transport: Techniques are being developed to support a coastal
monitoring service, which will provide maps on suspended sediment transport and water quality on a
frequent and regular basis.
�Pipeline mapping : New high resolution satellite images can help to map and monitor gas carrying
pipelines.
�SAR interferometry for monitoring earthquakes: Interferometry measurements from ERS SAR data are
used to assess the potential of damage caused by an earthquake.
�Keeping an eye on the weather: Being able to predict the weather can help to minimise risks and
optimise construction planning.
�Monitoring oil spills in the seas: The location and movement of both illegal and accidental pollution
events can be identified and monitored within two hours of a satellite overpass of the area.
�Wild life habitat monitoring and evaluation: Remote sensing techniques can be used to protect bio-
diversity and maintain natural habitats at favourable conservation status.
�Bathymetric surveying: An innovative method has been developed using radar satellite images, hydro-
dynamic models and insitu depth measurements to survey a bottom depth chart.
�Monitoring large river flooding.
Using EO data, planners can identify high flood risk areas in an attempt to reduce flood damage.
� Climate research.: Key inputs to Global Climatic modelling are contributing to the scientific
understanding of Global Climate Change.
�Modelling air quality: The potential spread of pollutant emissions can be modelled, to assess the
impact of new plant, to predict events or to assess their causes.
HISTORY OF INDIAN SPACE PROGRAM
For more than a thousand years Indian astrologers have taught that the Sun’s white light is composed of
all colours, which was, after a long time, proved by Sir Isaac Newton in 1672.

In the Mahabharata and Ramayana, there are several imaginative concepts of rockets, space shuttles,
space war etc.

The first use of Indian rocket found in the 18th century by Tipu Sultan during the two battles of
Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799against the British

“INCOSPAR (Indian Committee for Space Research) lead by Prof Sarabhai was setup by Indian
government

Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam was amongst the initial team

In 1963 the initial team went to America for 6 months training program on sounding rocket launching
techniques

In 1972 the Indian Government set up the Space Commission and entrusted Department of Space (DOS)
with responsibility for conducting the country's space activities

While ISRO is main developer of launcher and satellite systems, it is complemented by two separate
agencies INSAT (Telecommunications) and IRS (Remote Sensing).

TOTAL STATION
It is combination of EDM instrument and electronic theodolite. It is also integrated with microprocessor,
electronic data collector and storage system. The instrument can be used to measure horizontal and
vertical angles as well as sloping distance of object to the instrument
Distance Measurement: Electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument is a major part of total station.
Its range varies from 2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accuracy of measurement varies from 5 mm to 10 mm per
km measurement. They are used with automatic target recognisers. The distance measured is always
sloping distance from instrument to the object.
Angle Measurements: The electronic theodolite part of total station is used for measuring vertical and
horizontal angle. For measurement of horizontal angles any convenient direction may be taken as
reference direction. For vertical angle measurement vertical upward (zenith) direction is taken as
reference direction. The accuracy of angle measurement varies from 2 to 6 seconds.
Data Processing : This instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. The microprocessor
averages multiple observations. With the help of slope distance and vertical and horizontal angles
measured, when height of axis of instrument and targets are supplied, the microprocessor computes the
horizontal distance and X, Y, Z coordinates. The processor is capable of applying temperature and
pressure corrections to the measurements, if atmospheric temperature and pressures are supplied.
Display: Electronic display unit is capable of displaying various values when respective keys are pressed.
The system is capable of displaying horizontal distance, vertical distance, horizontal and vertical angles,
difference in elevations of two observed points and all the three coordinates of the observed points.
Electronic Book: Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book (like compact disc). The
capacity of electronic note book varies from 2000 points to 4000 points data. Surveyor can unload the
data stored in note book to computer and reuse the note book.

Use of Total Station

The instrument is mounted on a tripod and is levelled by operating levelling screws. Within a small range
instrument is capable of adjusting itself to the level position. Then vertical and horizontal reference
directions are indexed using onboard keys. It is possible to set required units for distance, temperature
and pressure (FPS or SI). Surveyor can select measurement mode like fine, coarse, single or repeated.
When target is sighted, horizontal and vertical angles as well as sloping distances are measured and by
pressing appropriate keys they are recorded along with point number. Heights of instrument and targets
can be keyed in after measuring them with tapes. Then processor computes various information about
the point and displays on screen. This information is also stored in the electronic note book. At the end
of the day or whenever electronic note book is full, the information stored is downloaded to computers.
The point data downloaded to the computer can be used for further processing. There are software like
auto civil and auto plotter clubbed with autocad which can be used for plotting contours at any specified
interval and for plotting cross-section along any specified line.
Advantages of Using Total Stations
The following are some of the major advantages of using total station over the conventional surveying
instruments:
1. Field work is carried out very fast.
2. Accuracy of measurement is high.
3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.
4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for temperature and pressure
are automatically made.
5. Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-sections. Contour
intervals and scales can be changed in no time.

However, surveyor should check the working condition of the instruments before using. For this
standard points may be located near survey office and before taking out instrument for field work, its
working is checked by observing those standard points from the specified instrument station.