DATA AND IP

Transmission Media
COAXIAL CABLE
 COAXIAL CABLE
 It consists of a core made of solid copper or stranded copper
surrounded by an insulator.
 A braided metal shield or wire mesh of aluminium or copper covers
the insulator on top. Sometimes a layer of foil is added to the
braided metal shield to form a dual shield.
 The shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray
electromagnetic signals or noise, so that the noise does not get to
the core and distort the data.
 The conducting core is responsible for carrying the data. It is
separated or isolated from the wire mesh by an insulator or
dielectric.
 The core and the wire mesh must always be separated from each
other. If they come into contact, the cable will experience a short
and noise or stray signals may flow to the core and distort the data.
 Coaxial cable
• The shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing
stray electromagnetic signals or noise, so that the noise
does not get to the core and distort the data.
• The conducting core is responsible for carrying the
data. It is separated or isolated from the wire mesh by
an insulator or dielectric.
• The core and the wire mesh must always be separated
from each other. If they come into contact, the cable
will experience a short and noise or stray signals may
flow to the core and distort the data.
 COAXIAL CABLE
• Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference
and attenuation than twisted pair cables.
• Attenuation is the loss of signal strength, which
takes place as the signal propagates along the
cable due to the resistance of the wire to signal
flow.
• After traveling a certain distance (which is
different for each type of cable), the signal gets
so weak that it can be wrongly interpreted at the
receiver end.
 Types of Coaxial Cables
Thinnet (Thin Ethernet)
• It is a flexible and easy to bend cable, being 0.25 inches in
diameter.
• The IEEE specification refers to this type of cable as
10Base2, referring to its main specification of 10 Mbps data
rate, using baseband transmission and 185m (nearly 200m)
maximum segment length.
• It is also known as cheapernet because it is cheaper than
the other types of Ethernet cables. The cable between
computers must be at least 0.5 metres (20 inches) long.
• Networks that use this type of cable can support a
maximum of 30 nodes per 185m-cable segment.
 Thinnet
• Networks that use this type of cable can support
a maximum of 30 nodes per 185m-cable
segment.
• The 5-4-3 rule of thinnet allows for 5 cable
segments of 185metres each, connected using 4
repeaters, but only 3 of the segments can have
some nodes attached.
• The 5 cable segments allow the network to cover
a total distance of 925m with a total of 90 nodes
on the three segments that can take some nodes.
 Thinnet
• Networks that use thinnet have the cable
connected to network adapter cards, hubs and
other networking devices using BNC connectors
(British Naval connector or Bayonet –Concelman
connector).
• Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal to a
distance of 185m before the signal suffers from
attenuation. Thinnet cable is classified in a group
referred to as the RG-58 family and has 50-ohm
impedance.
 Thinnet
Fig 5-2 The 5-4-3 rule of Thinnet
 Thicknet (Thick Ethernet)

• Thicknet cable is also known as Standard Ethernet.

• It is a relatively rigid type of coaxial cable, being 0.5 inches in
diameter. IEEE specification refers to this type of cable as 10Base5,
referring to its main specification of 10 Mbps data rate, using
baseband transmission, and 500m maximum segment length.
• Thicknet is generally used to provide the network backbone. It has a
thicker core than that of thinnet.
• The thicker the copper core, the further the cable can carry the
signal. This means that thicknet can carry signals further than
thinnet.
• Thicknet can carry a signal to a distance of 500m before the signal
suffers from attenuation. Therefore each thicknet cable segment
should be up to 500m.To transmit the signal further than 500m, a
device known as a repeater is required.
 Thicknet
• When using thicknet, connection to the
network adapter card is made using a device
known as an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI).
• The AUI connects to the thicknet cable using
a vampire tap, so called because it clamps
onto the cable.
• The minimum cable length between
connections is 2.5 meters.
• It can support up to 100 nodes per segment .
 Thicknet
• The 5-4-3 rule applies to thicknet as well,
giving a total length of 2500m and a total of
300 nodes supported.
• The Attachement Unit Interface connector is
also referred to as a DB15 connector.
• Because thicknet is a thicker cable, it is more
difficult to work with.
• It does not bend easily and is more expensive
than thinnet cable.
 Thicknet
• The major advantage of thicknet over thinnet
is that it can carry the signal further than what
thinnet can do.

• The outer covering or jacket for both thicknet

and thinnet is made of pvc (polyvinyl chloride)
or Teflon.
 Combining Thicknet and thinnet

• Large networks often combine thicknet and

thinnet cables.
• Thicknet cable is used for the backbone to
connect smaller thinnet-based networks because
of its ability to support data transfer over longer
distances than thinnet.
• For instance on a star bus topology thicknet
forms the backbone while thinnet forms the
branching segments that plug into repeaters or
hubs and connect to the computers
 Twisted pair cables

• In its simplest form, a twisted pair cable

consists of a pair of insulated copper wires
that are twisted around each other and
enclosed in a protective sheath called the
outer jacket.
 Twisted Pair Cable
• A number of twisted pairs are often grouped
together and enclosed by the outer jacket.
The actual number of wire pairs in a twisted
pair cable varies. Each pair is colour-coded to
differentiate it from the other pairs.
• There are two types of twisted pair cables:
a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
b) Shielded Twisted Pair(STP
Unshielded Twisted Pair
 UTP
• The wires are twisted around each other to
cancel out electrical noise (crosstalk) between
one pair and the other and to reduce
electromagnetic interference (EMI) from
external sources.
• There are standards governing how many
twists are required per foot of cable
Shielded Twisted Pair
 STP
• Shielded Twisted Pair cable (STP) is similar to
UTP, except that a shielding of lead or
aluminium foil covers each pair of wires.
• The shielding increases the cable’s immunity
to EMI.
• It is often used in AppleTalk and IBM Token
Ring networks.
• It is more expensive than UTP.
 Twisted Pair Cables
• Twisted pair cables use an RJ-45 telephone
connector at each end of the cable to connect to
computers and Network devices.
• The RJ-45 connector takes 8 wires. It looks like
the RJ-11 telephone connector, but the RJ-45 is
slightly larger than the RJ-11 connector and it will
not fit into the RJ-11 telephone jack (slot).
• The RJ-11 connector only takes 4 wires whereas
the RJ-45 takes 8 wires.
 Wiring Standards for Twisted Pair
cables
• The EIA / TIA define two standards for wiring:
• The T-568A and the T-568B standards.
• Cat 5 UTP cable is the de facto standard for LAN
connections.
• It has 4 pairs of wires but only two pairs are used.
• The orange pair is used for transmitting data (balanced
transmitter) and the green pair is used for receiving data
(balanced receiver).
• The other pairs are unused.
• A balanced line driver or transmitter is at one end of one of
these lines and a line receiver is at the other end.
T-568A STANDARD
 T-568A STANDARD
PIN COLOUR SIGNAL
• 1 White/Green RX data +
• 2 Green RX data -
• 3 White/Orange TX data +
• 4 Blue Unused
• 5 White/Blue Unused
• 6 Orange TX data -
• 7 White/Brown Unused
• 8 Brown Unused
T-568B STANDARD
Pin Colour Signal
1 White/Orange TX data +
2 Orange TX data -
3 White/Green RX data +
4 Blue Unused
5 White/Blue Unused
6 Green RX data -
7 White/Brown Unused
8 Brown Unused
 Straight-Through Cables

• The T-568B standard is the most widely used for straight-

through cables.
• A straight through cable has identical ends.
• There is no functional difference which standard you use
for straight through cable, although the T-568B seems to be
popular.
• Straight-through cables are used for the following
connections:
a) Switch to router cabling
b) Switch to hub
c) Switch to PC or Server Cabling
d) Hub to PC
Straight-Through Cables
 Crossover Cables

• To make a crossover cable, wire one end using

the T-568A and the other end using the T-
568B. You should use a crossover cable to
connect units with identical interfaces.
• If you use a straight through cable, one of the
two units must, in effect perform the
crossover function.
 Crossover Cables
Crossover cables are used for the following
connections:
a) Switch to switch
b) Hub to Hub
c) Router to Router
d) PC to PC
Crossover Cables
 Making Your Own Patch Cables
1. Skin off the cable jacket approximately 1" or
slightly more.
2) Un-twist each pair, and straighten each wire
between the fingers.
3) Place the wires in the order of one of the two
standards shown above (568B or 568A). Bring all of
the wires together, until they touch.
4) At this point, recheck the wiring sequence with
the diagram.
 Making Your Own Patch Cables
5) Optional: Make a mark on the wires at 1/2" from the
end of the cable jacket.
6) Hold the grouped (and sorted) wires together tightly,
between the thumb, and the forefinger.
7) Cut all of the wires at a perfect 90-degree angle from
the cable at 1/2" from the end of the cable jacket. This is
a very critical step. If the wires are not cut straight, they
may not all make contact. We suggest using the cutter on
the RJ-45 or RJ-11 gripping tools for this purpose.
7B) Conductors should be at a straight 90-degree angle,
and be 1/2" long, prior to insertion into the connector.
 Making Your Own Patch Cables

8) Insert the wires into the connector (pins facing up).

9) Push moderately hard to assure that all of the wires
have reached the end of the connector. Be sure that the
cable jacket goes into the back of the connector by about
3/16".
9b) Place the connector into a crimp tool, and squeeze
hard so that the handle reaches its full swing.
 Making Your Own Patch Cables
• 10) Repeat the process on the other end. For a
straight through cable, use the same wiring.
For a "crossover" cable, wire one end 568A,
and the other end 568B.
• 11) Use a cable tester to test for proper
continuity.
Fiber Optic Cable (also called optical
fibre)
 FIBER OPTICS
• Fibre optic cable consists of a thin cylinder (the
core) of high-purity glass (pure silicon dioxide) or
plastic surrounded by a cladding or insulator.
• The core is responsible for carrying the light.
Plastic core is easy to install but cannot carry the
signal pulse as far as glass core can do.
• The purpose of the cladding or insulator is to trap
the light inside the core using a technique known
as Total Internal Reflection.
• The insulator is covered on top by a protective
outer jacket of PVC or Teflon.
 ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTICS

• Data travels in the form of light, which is immune to crosstalk and

electromagnetic interference (EMI) from sources such as electric
motors, lightning strikes, etc. Thus can span long distances -2000
metres.
• It is more secure than copper cables because data travels in the
form of light instead of electrical signals that can be tapped and
stolen.
• It has a large bandwidth than copper cables, giving it the ability to
handle higher data rates. Bandwidth refers to the data carrying
capacity of the cable. The fastest fibre can carry information up to 2
Gigbits per second, which is enough to carry 40 000 telephone
conversations or 250 television channels.
 ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTICS
• It has lower losses than copper cable, which
increases the allowable distance that the
signal can travel before it suffers from
attenuation.
• Fibre optic cable posses no threat in
hazardous or flammable environments such as
petrochemical plants where a spark could
trigger an explosion.
 ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTICS
• In fibre optic cables, digital data is converted to
light pulses, usually by light emitting diodes and
appropriate circuit. Data transmission rates vary
from 100 Mbps up to 2Gbps.The maximum
distance that a signal can be transmitted without
a repeater is 2000 metres.
• Modern fibre optic cables are at least one quarter
the weight of copper cables of similar capacity.
• Supports voice, video and data.
 DISADVANTAGES OF D]FIBER OPTICS

• It is more expensive than copper cables.

• Requires expertise to install (Difficult to install): The
Connectors for fibre optic cables are more complex to
attach to the cable and require precise physical alignment.
For example if several fibre cable segments need to be
joined end to end, the couplers must ensure that the fibres
are correctly aligned and butted to reduce any joining
losses to a minimum.
• Not very flexible, difficult to work with.
• If the cable is bend sharply (beyond the recommended
bend radius) signal losses occur in the fibre
FIBRE OPTICS
 FIBRE OPTICS
• When a light beam strikes the surface of a
material and passes through the material with
its path bend as shown in the figure above, it
is said to be refracted. The angle of incidence
(θ1) is the angle at which the light is projected
onto the surface of the material. It is
measured from a line drawn perpendicular to
the surface of the material. The angle (θ2) at
which the light leaves the material is known as
the angle of refraction.
 FIBRE OPTICS
• When light is launched in the fibre optic core
at a small angle of incidence (θ1) it is lost
(refracted) through the cladding at an angle
(θ2). The relationship between the angle of
incidence (θ1) and the angle of refraction (θ2)
is given by Snell’s Law:
 FIBRE OPTICS

Where n1 is the refractive

index of the fibre core and
n2 is the refractive index
of the cladding
 FIBRE OPTICS
• Two conditions are required for Total Internal
Reflection to take place in the fibre core:
• i) The refractive index of the core (n1) should
be greater than that of the cladding (n2).
Typical values are1.47 for the cladding and 1.5
for the core.
• ii) The angle of incidence (θ1) should be
greater the critical angle (θc)
FIBER OPTICS
 Wireless Media

• A wireless network is not completely free of

cabling.
• It consists of wired devices that communicate
with devices on a traditional cabled network.
• A device called a wireless access point (also called
a Transceiver) is used to transmit and receive
data between the wireless devices and devices on
the cabled network.
• Each computer in a wireless network has a
network card and an aerial.
 Wireless Media

• Wireless network adapter cards do not need to

be physically connected to a network cable, they
use the aerial (antenna), which is omni
directional to transmit or receive data.
• The Wireless Access Point connector has at least
one fixed Ethernet port that connects it to a
traditional (cabled Ethernet network) Ethernet
network at one end while receiving signals from
wireless devices at the other end as shown in fig
7-1.
Wireless Media
 Wireless Media

• Wireless networks are suitable for people or

employees who move around frequently
within their working environments, such as
sales people and doctors.
 Wireless Media
• Wireless LANS could also be used in buildings were cabling
would be difficult or inconvenient to implement.
• Wireless networks are also used for temporary installations
within networks.
• Wireless networks provide a certain degree of portability
allowing equipment to be moved easily without worrying
about disconnecting and reconnecting wires.
• Wireless networks allow users to extend their networks
beyond the physical limitations of cabling
• The drawback of wireless LANS is that they do not have the
data rate capabilities of wired
 Infrared (IR)

• Infrared beam is used to transmit data between

Devices. Infrared transmissions are limited to 30m (100
feet). Within this range however, infrared is relatively
fast. IR technology is familiar to many people because
of its use in TV and Radio remote control units. IR is
normally a line-of-sight technology, which means there
must be no object obstructing the path of the infrared
light between the transmitting and receiving devices.
The need for this unobstructed pathway is a drawback
for IR-based wireless communications. It supports
transmission speeds of up to 10Mbps.
 Laser

• Laser is an acronym for “Light amplification by

stimulated emission of radiation”. Like IR
technology, it also requires a line-of-sight
between communicating devices.
 Radio

• Data transmission over radio can be implemented using broadcast

in two ways:
a) Narrowband radio
b) Spread Spectrum radio

• Narrowband radio is also called single frequency radio.

• Narrowband radio transmits data in a similar way to radio stations.
• A transmitter sends a signal on a specified frequency and a receiver
tuned to that frequency picks up the signal.
• It can support data transmissions up to 4.8 Mbps, but can broadcast
a signal up to 5 kilometers. It does not require a line-of-sight.
•
 Radio

• The only important requirement is that both

the sender and receiver must be tuned to the
same frequency for them to communicate.
• When data is transmitted over narrowband
radio, it is easy for an unauthorized listener to
intercept the signals.
• A more secure and more reliable radio
technology originally developed by the
military is called spread spectrum.
Network Adapter cards
Network Adapter cards
 Network Adapter cards

• A network adapter card is an add-in card that

contains the circuitry required for
communication over a network.
• It acts as the physical interface between the
computer and the network cable.
• It is also called a Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Network Adapter cards

• It also Control the flow of data between the

computer and the cabling system to ensure
that the receiving computer is not
overwhelmed by too much incoming data.
• A component called a transceiver
(Transmitter/Receiver) on the network
adapter card handles incoming data for the
computer from the network cable, and output
data from the computer to the network cable.
 NETWORK ADAPTER CARDS
NIC Speed
• Some Network adapter cards can operate at either 10 or
100Mbps and includes an auto-negotiation capability that lets
the adapter sense the speed of the network and adjust to that
speed without human intervention.
Network Adapter Card Addresses (Hardware Addresses or
Physical Addresses)
• Each Network Adapter card has a unique physical address that
is hard wired or burned into its read-only memory (ROM) on
the adapter card during the manufacture process. This
address is also called the Media Access Control (MAC)
address. It is a 6-byte address. An example of a MAC address
is shown below:
40:8E:0A: 12:34:56
 NETWORK ADAPTER CARDS
• Each byte is separated from the other by a colon.
The first three bytes identify the manufacturer of
the adapter card, and the last three bytes
represent the unique address of the adapter card.
Authority and registration of media access
control addresses are overseen by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Currently, the IEEE registers and assigns unique
numbers for the first three bytes of the media
access control address to individual
manufacturers.
 Network Adapter Cards
• Each manufacturer can then assign the last three bytes
of the media access control address to individual
network adapters.
• MAC addresses are called physical addresses as
opposed to logical addresses (IP Addresses). Logical
addresses are found at the network layer (layer 3).
• They are used to send data between hosts on different
networks (remote network). Physical addresses are
found at the data link layer (layer2), and are used to
send data between hosts on the same physical
network.
• Boot ROMs
• In some environments, security is such an important
consideration such that workstations normally do not
have disk drives. Without disk drives, users are not able
to copy information to either floppy or hard disks, and
therefore cannot take any data from the company or
organization.
• Diskless computers boot from a network adapter card
that has a special chip called a boot Rom. This chip
contains the boot program that connects the computer
to the network when the computer is switched on.
 Network Connectivity Devices
• Connectivity device is a general term that refers
to the simple and complex devices that are used
to connect cable segments and network
segments together.
• Simple connectivity devices include the following
types of connectors:
• BNC T– Connector. It connects two cable
segments and also offers a connection to the NIC.
If only one cable is to be connected to the BNC T-
connector, a terminator must be connected to
the other side of the T-connector.
• BNC Barrel Connector. This is a straight cylindrical unit to
which a cable attaches at each end, thus enabling you to
join two pieces of cable to extend the total cable length.
• Warning. The use of barrel connectors should be kept to a
minimum because of signal loss that can occur at each
connection point.
• RJ Connectors
• RJ (Registered Jack) connectors are so called because they
are registered with the Federal Communication
Commission (FCC). The RJ connectors consist of a plug and
a receptacle (also called the Jack).
• RJ-11 connectors are used on telephone cables while RJ-45
connectors are used on computer
 Complex Connectivity Devices

Simple connectivity devices merely connect cables and

devices, but complex connectivity devices do a lot more
on top of that. Some of the complex connectivity devices
are as follows:
Repeaters
• A Repeater works at the physical layer of the OSI
reference model. It is the least expensive and most
common device used to extend the length of the
network cable by joining two segments of cables and
regenerating or boosting the signal from one segment
before passing it on to the next segment.
 REPEATERS
• The two segments to be joined must use the
same media access method, protocol, and
transmission technique. For example an 802.3
CSMA/CD (Ethernet) LAN segment cannot be
joined to an 802.5 (Token Ring) LAN segment
• A repeater does not give any more bandwidth or
allow data to be transmitted faster. In other
words, a repeater cannot be used to enlarge a
network beyond the capabilities of its underlying
architecture.
• Repeaters can connect different physical media,
e.g. thinnet and fibre optic. Repeaters offer no
filtering; they send every packet of data from one
cable segment to the other even if the data
consists of malformed packets.
 REPEATERS
• Broadcast storms also pass through the repeater from one
segment to the other. A broadcast storm is a condition or
phenomenon that occurs in networks when some of the
computers on the network send broadcast packets that
flood the whole network causing network overload by
saturating the capacity of the network or bandwidth.
• Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of
failures or fault conditions. Disconnecting one side of a
repeater effectively isolates the associated segments from
the network.
• Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your network
distance limitations and to regenerate signals.
 HOST UNIT BROADCASTS (HUBS)

• In computer networking, a hub is a small, simple, inexpensive

rectangular box, often made of plastic, that receives its power from
an ordinary wall outlet. A hub joins multiple computers (or other
network devices) together to form a single network segment.
• On this network segment, all computers can communicate directly
with each other. Ethernet hubs are by far the most common type,
but hubs for other types of networks such as USB also exist.
• A hub includes a series of ports that each accept a network cable.
Small hubs network four computers. They contain four or
sometimes five ports, the fifth port being reserved for "uplink"
connections to another hub or similar device. Larger hubs contain
eight, 12, 16, and even 24 ports.
• Key Features of Hubs
• Hubs classify as Layer 1 devices in the OSI model. At the physical
layer, hubs can support little in the way of sophisticated
networking. Hubs do not read any of the data passing through them
and are not aware of their source or destination.
• Essentially, a hub simply receives incoming data, possibly amplifies
the electrical signal, and broadcasts these packets out to all devices
on the network - including the one that originally sent the packet!
Technically speaking, three different types of hubs exist:
• passive
• active
• intelligent
 HUBS
• Passive hubs do not amplify the electrical
signal of incoming packets before
broadcasting them out to the network.
• Active hubs, on the other hand, do perform
this amplification, as does a different type of
dedicated network device called a repeater.
 HUBS
• Intelligent hubs add extra features to an
active hub that are of particular importance to
businesses. An intelligent hub typically is
stackable (built in such a way that multiple
units can be placed one on top of the other to
conserve space).
 HUBS
• Working With Ethernet Hubs
• To network a group of computers using an Ethernet hub, first
connect an Ethernet cable into the unit, then connect the other end
of the cable to each computer's network interface card (NIC).
• To expand a network to accommodate more devices, Ethernet hubs
can also be connected to each other, to switches, or to routers.
Characteristics of Ethernet Hubs
• Ethernet hubs vary in the speed (network data rate or bandwidth)
they support. Some years ago, Ethernet hubs offered only 10 Mbps
rated speeds. Newer types of hubs offer 100 Mbps Ethernet. Some
support both 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps (so-called dual-speed or
10/100 hubs).
• Older Ethernet hubs were relatively large in size and sometimes
noisy as they contained built in fans for cooling the unit. Newer
devices are much smaller, designed for mobility, and noiseless.
• When To Use an Ethernet Hub
A hub can be useful for temporarily replacing a
broken network switch or when performance is
not a critical factor on the network.
 Bridges

• Bridges are devices that operate at layer 2 of the OSI

reference model. Bridges connect different networks
or LAN segments using different access methods (for
example joining an Ethernet segment to a token ring
segment), and different types of cables.
• Bridges can perform the same functions as repeaters,
extending the length of a network, but they can also
reduce traffic by segmenting the network based on
media access control addresses.
 Bridges
• A bridge builds a routing table of computer MAC addresses.
• It listens to all traffic. Each time a bridge is presented with a packet,
it captures the source address together with the port and segment
on which the computer is connected. In other words, it “learns”
which computers are on which segment and which computer is
associated with a particular address.
• NB The address table built by a bridge is called a routing table
because it is used to determine to which side of the bridge the
packet should be routed. Don’t confuse this with the routing table
used by a router. A bridge’s routing table uses hardware addresses,
but a router’s routing table is based on higher-level IP addresses.
• A bridge is intelligent enough to do some routing as follows:
 Bridges
• A bridge filters network traffic based on the media access
control (MAC) address of a packet to determine whether a
specific packet belongs on a local segment or another
segment.
• The action taken by a bridge when it receives a packet
depends on which segments the source and destination
nodes are on.
• When a bridge receives a packet from a computer on one
of the connected segments, it examines the destination
address for that packet.
• It then determines whether the destination computer
resides on the same network segment by verifying the MAC
address from the MAC address table.
• If the source and destination addresses of a data packet are located
on the same segment, the packet will not be forwarded across the
bridge to another segment.
• If the destination address is in the routing table and on the other
segment, the bridge forwards the packet to the other segment. In
other words, the bridge passes the packet across the bridge to the
other segment.
• If the destination address is not in the routing table, the bridge
forwards the packet to all segments except the source segment
(segment on which the source computer resides).

• Bridges can also reduce network traffic by segmenting the network

(dividing one network into segments). This isolates traffic or
problems and reduces traffic on both segments, making more
bandwidth available.
• Although a bridge can reduce network traffic by
segmenting the network traffic based on media access
control addresses, it cannot filter broadcasts.
• Bridges simply pass on all broadcast packets (packets with
no entry in the MAC address table). If the destination
address of a packet is not in the bridge’s MAC address
table, the bridge forwards the packet to all of the
connected nodes, thereby contributing to broadcast
storms.
• Bridges are slow in operation. There can be some data loss
in bridges, and if a data loss occurs, the lost data cannot be
recovered. However, new technology has been developed
in the form of switches and routers that replaced bridges.
 1. Transparent Bridge

• The traditional bridge (also called transparent bridge) requires little or no

setup. The bridge will automatically initialize itself and configure its own
routing information after it has been enabled. A transparent bridge is
intelligent, because it makes all routing decisions:
• It stores the known MAC addresses of the end stations in a table.
• It examines the destination MAC address and automatically sends the
packet to the destination.

• Transparent bridges are also known as spanning tree, IEEE 802.1 D. The
bridge is said to be transparent because computers on the network are
not aware of its presence (it is invisible to the computers). Computers on
the network just see one large network without realizing that the network
is made up of segments connected by the bridge. Transparent bridging is
found primarily in Ethernet networks.
 2.Source Routing Bridge
•
• It is a special type of bridge used on Token Ring networks. It does
not maintain a routing table of its own, but depends on host
computer to make routing decisions.
• Each computer or device on the network must maintain its own
table of all the routes (using hardware addresses) required for
communication with other network computers.
• To send data, the source computer must incorporate the routing
information in the header of the packet to be sent. Packets are
forwarded using information specified in the packet’s MAC header
as opposed to a path determined by the bridge.
• The routing information in the packet’s MAC header lists the
hardware addresses needed for the packet to reach its destination.
The source-routing bridge examines this routing information and
forwards the packet according to this information.
• Bridges can also be classified as:
• Local bridges
• Remote bridges

• A Local bridge provides direct connection between

multiple LAN segments that are in the same area (close
together).
• A remote bridge is used to connect multiple LAN
segments that are far apart using communication links
such as leased telephone line/public dial-up lines.
 Router

• A router is a networking device that provides inter-network

connectivity, i.e. it interconnects different networks
allowing data to be moved from one network to the other.
• Without routers and routing protocols, communication
would be limited to those nodes or stations that are on the
same physical network.
• Conceptually, routers are similar to bridges, except that
they operate at the network layer (layer3) of the OSI
reference model, and gather information about the
networks to which they are connected.
• Like bridges, Routers provide filtering, but does so using
network addresses to route data packets across multiple
networks instead of MAC addresses.
 Router

• Routers also do not pass on broadcast traffic. This reduces

network traffic significantly and prevents propagation of
broadcast storms.
• Routers are more intelligent than bridges; they make
complex routing decisions to select the optimal path to a
given destination from among multiple paths. Routers can
be configured to support single or multiple protocols.
• A router creates and maintains a table, known as a routing
table, of the routes available to get to the different
networks to which it is connected.
• The router uses this information, together with information
about prevailing network conditions, to determine the best
route for a given packet.
 Router

• Home networks typically use a wireless or wired Internet

Protocol (IP) router such as a DSL or cable modem
broadband router to join the home's local area network
(LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet.
Routers are also referred to as (Residential) Gateways.
• By maintaining configuration information in a piece of
storage called the routing table, wired or wireless routers
also have the ability to filter traffic, either incoming or
outgoing, based on the IP addresses of senders and
receivers. Some routers allow a network administrator to
update the routing table from a Web browser interface.
Broadband routers combine the functions of a router with
those of a network switch and a firewall in a single unit.
 What Is The Difference Between a
Router and a Switch (or Hub)?
• A network router is a more sophisticated network device compared to
either a network switch or a network hub. Like hubs and switches, routers
are typically small, box-like pieces of equipment that multiple computers
can connect to.
• Each features a number of ports on the front or back of the unit that
provide the connection points for these computers, a connection for
electric power, and a number of LED lights to display device status. While
routers, hubs and switches all share similar physical appearance, routers
differ substantially in their inner workings.
• Traditional routers are designed to join together multiple local area
networks (LANs) with a wide area network (WAN).
• Routers serve as intermediate destinations for network traffic. They
receive incoming network packets, look inside each packet to identify the
source and target network addresses, then forward these packets where
needed to ensure the data reaches its final destination.
 NETWORK SWITCH

• A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple

computers together within one local area network (LAN).
Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer)
of the OSI model.
• Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a
switch generally contains more intelligence (and a slightly higher
price tag) than a hub. Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of
inspecting data frames they are received, determining the source
and destination device of each packet, and forwarding them
appropriately. By delivering messages only to the connected device
intended, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and
offers generally better performance than a hub.
• As with hubs , Ethernet implementations of network switches are
the most common. Mainstream Ethernet network switches support
either 10/100 Mbp Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet
(10/100/1000) standards.
CISCO LAN SWITCH
SWITCH
 Managed Switches

• A managed switch allows the ports on the switch to be

configured, monitored, enabled and disabled. Switch
management can also gather information on a variety
of network parameters, such as -
• The number of packets that pass through each of its
ports
• What types of packets they are
• Whether the packets contain errors
• The number of collisions that have occurred
•
 Switch Architecture

At present there are three basic architectures for Data Link Switches:
Cut-through.
• The frame is forwarded to its destination as soon as the switch has
copied the first 6-bytes following the preamble that make up the
destination address information into the buffer.
• It then looks up the destination address in its switching table and
forward the frame to the appropriate port.
• Cut-through provides reduced latency because it begins to forward
the frame after reading the destination address of the frame.
• This has the advantage of being very fast, but there is no error
checking - too many frame re-transmissions may slow the network
down.
• .
 Switch Architecture

• Store-and-forward. The entire frame is copied

into a buffer and Cyclic Redundancy Check (FCS)
is performed to check for errors before the frame
is transmitted to its destination. If the frame has
errors, it is discarded and retransmission is
carried out. This has the advantage of ensuring
that bad frames are not transmitted, but is much
slower than the cut-through architecture. If the
frame does not contain any errors, the switch
looks up the destination address in its switching
table and forwards the frame to the appropriate
port.
 Switch Architecture

• Fragment-free. It combines the best of both cut-

through and store-and-forward by acting as a cut-
through switch while monitoring the traffic for
errors. The switch uses cut-through until a certain
error threshold is reached. It will change over to
store and forward switching when the defined
error threshold is reached. The error threshold is
normally configurable. The main disadvantages
are that of cost - this type of switch is more
expensive - and the reliance on management
setting the correct error threshold
 Gateways

• Gateways are more complex than bridges and routers.

They are used to connect two heterogeneous networks
(connecting networks using different protocols, data
formats language and architecture). An example is
connecting an Apple network to an IBM SNA network.
• A gateway is called a protocol converter because it
changes the format of data from one network to the
format used on another network. It stripes old protocol
stacks that were used to format the data on one
network and repackages the data with the protocol
stack of the destination network. Gateways can
operate at any of the OSI layers.
 MODEMS

• Traditional or analogue modems used on

dialup networks convert data between the
analogue form used on telephone lines and
the digital form used on computers. Standard
dial-up network modems transmit data at a
maximum rate of 56,000 bits per second (56
Kbps). However, inherent limitations of the
public telephone network limit modem data
rates to 33.6 Kbps or lower in practice.
 MODEMS

• Broadband modems are sometimes called

"digital modems" and those used for traditional
dial-up networking, "analogue modems." A
broadband modem is a type of digital modem
used with high-speed DSL or cable Internet
service.
• Cable modems connect a home computer (or
network of home computers) to residential cable
TV service, while DSL modems connect to
residential public telephone service.
 MODEMS

• Most broadband modems supply a 10 MbpsEthernet

connection for the home LAN, although broadband
Internet services rarely, if ever, perform at those
speeds. The performance of a cable modem can vary
depending on the utilization of the shared cable line in
that neighbourhood, and DSL modem speeds also vary,
but typical data rates range anywhere from 500 Kbps
to 3500 Kbps.
• Cellular modems are a type of digital modem that
establishes Internet connectivity between a mobile
device and a cell phone network
 DATA MULTIPLEXER

• Multiplexing refers to the ability to transmit data

coming from several pairs of equipment (transmitters
and receivers) called low-speed channels on a single
physical medium (called the high-speed channel).
•
• A multiplexer is the multiplexing device that combines
the signals from the transmitters and sends them over
the high-speed channel. A demultiplexer is the
multiplexing device via which the receivers are
connected to the high-speed channel.
DATA MULTIPLEXER
 Network Operating systems

• A network operating system (NOS) is system software that

controls the network and allows multiple users to access
network resources. A network operating system has all the
features of a stand-alone operating system but offers many
more facilities in a complex environment.
• Some of the functions of a network operating system
include managing multiple users on the network, providing
access to file and print servers and implementing network
security.
• Examples of Network operating systems are Novell
Netware, Microsoft Windows NT /2000/xp Linux and UNIX.
 Network Operating systems
• A network operating system is made up of two components:
• Client software
• Server software

• The client software is the software that is installed on the client

computers. Examples of client operating systems are Windows 9x,
Windows NT workstation, Windows 2000 professional, etc. The client
software consists of a component called a redirector that does the
following:
• It intercepts requests at a client computer.
• After intercepting a request, it determines if the request can be satisfied
on the local computer or on another computer on the network or the
server.
• If the request cannot be satisfied locally, the redirector redirects the
request to the appropriate computer where the request can be met.
 Network Operating systems
• The sever software is the software that is installed on the
server.
• It enables the server to share its resources such as data,
printers, fax machines and disk drives with other computers
on the network.
• It also allows the level of sharing to be determined to allow
different users different levels of access to shared
resources.
• It also provides the means for the Network Manager or
system administrator to manage users.
• Some Network operating systems provide network
management tools that enable the administrator to track
network behaviour and performance.
 DISASTER RECOVERY IN NETWORKS

Un interruptible Power Supply (UPS)

Back Ups
 DISASTER RECOVERY IN NETWORKS
• Redundant Array Of Inexpensive Disks (RAID 0, RAID
1, RAID 5)
• RAID (redundant array of independent disks; originally
redundant array of inexpensive disks) provides a way of
storing the same data in different places (thus,
redundantly) on multiple hard disks (though not all
RAID levels provide redundancy).
• By placing data on multiple disks, input/output (I/O)
operations can overlap in a balanced way, improving
performance. Since multiple disks increase the mean
time between failures (MTBF), storing data
redundantly also increases fault tolerance.
 DISASTER RECOVERY IN NETWORKS
• RAID arrays appear to the operating system (OS)
as a single logical hard disk. RAID employs the
technique of disk mirroring or disk striping, which
involves partitioning each drive's storage space
into units ranging from a sector (512 bytes) up to
several megabytes. The stripes of all the disks are
interleaved and addressed in order.
• Disk striping is the process of dividing a body of
data into blocks and spreading the data blocks
across multiple storage devices, such as hard disk
 DISASTER RECOVERY IN NETWORKS
• RAID 0: This configuration has striping but no
redundancy of data. It offers the best
performance but no fault-tolerance.
• The following are key points to remember for
RAID level 0.
• Minimum two disks
• Excellent performance (as blocks are stripped)
• No redundancy (no mirror, no parity)
• Dont use this for any critical system.
DISASTER RECOVERY IN NETWORKS
 DISASTER RECOVERY IN NETWORKS
• Also known as disk mirroring, this configuration
consists of at least two drives that duplicate the
storage of data. There is no striping. Read
performance is improved since either disk can be
read at the same time. Write performance is the
same as for single disk.
• Key characteristics to remember on RAID 1:
• Minimum two disks
• Good Performance (no stripping, no parity)
• Excellent redundancy (as blocks are mirrored)
 DISASTER RECOVERY IN NETWORKS
RAID 5
• This level is based on block-level striping with parity. The parity
information is striped across each drive, allowing the array to
function even if one drive were to fail. The array’s architecture
allows read and write operations to span multiple drives. This
results in performance that is usually better than that of a single
drive, but not as high as that of a RAID 0 array. RAID 5 requires at
least three disks, but it is often recommended to use at least five
disks for performance reasons.
• RAID 5 arrays are generally considered to be a poor choice for use
on write-intensive systems because of the performance impact
associated with writing parity information. When a disk does fail, it
can take a long time to rebuild a RAID 5 array. Performance is
usually degraded during the rebuild time and the array is vulnerable
to an additional disk failure until the rebuild is complete.
DISASTER RECOVERY IN NETWORKS
 DISASTER RECOVERY IN NETWORKS
• KEY POINTS TO NOTE ON RAID 5:
• Minimum 3 disks
• Good Performance
• Good redundancy (distributed parity)
• Best cost effective option providing both
performance and redundancy. Use this for DB
that is heavily read oriented. Write options will
be very slow.
•
 DATA MANAGEMENT PLAN

• Businesses use information technology to quickly and

effectively process information. Employees use
electronic mail and Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP)
telephone systems to communicate. Electronic data
interchange (EDI) is used to transmit data including
orders and payments from one company to another.
Servers process information and store large amounts of
data. Desktop computers, laptops and wireless devices
are used by employees to create, process, manage and
communicate information. What do you when your
information technology stops working?
 IT RECOVERY STRATEGIES PLAN

• Information technology systems require hardware, software, data

and connectivity. Without one component of the “system,” the
system may not run. Therefore, recovery strategies should be
developed to anticipate the loss of one or more of the following
system components:
• Computer room environment (secure computer room with climate
control, conditioned and backup power supply, etc.)
• Hardware (networks, servers, desktop and laptop computers,
wireless devices and peripherals)
• Connectivity to a service provider (fiber, cable, wireless, etc.)
• Software applications (electronic data interchange, electronic mail,
enterprise resource management, office productivity, etc.)
• Data and restoration
 Developing an IT Disaster Recovery
Plan
• Businesses should develop an IT disaster recovery plan.
It begins by compiling an inventory of hardware (e.g.
servers, desktops, laptops and wireless devices),
software applications and data. The plan should
include a strategy to ensure that all critical information
is backed up.
• Identify critical software applications and data and the
hardware required to run them. Using standardized
hardware will help to replicate and reimage new
hardware. Ensure that copies of program software are
available to enable re-installation on replacement
equipment. Prioritize hardware and software
restoration.
 Options for Data Backup

• Tapes, cartridges and large capacity USB drives with integrated data
backup software are effective means for businesses to backup data.
The frequency of backups, security of the backups and secure off-
site storage should be addressed in the plan. Backups should be
stored with the same level of security as the original data.
• Many vendors offer online data backup services including storage in
the “cloud”. This is a cost-effective solution for businesses with an
internet connection. Software installed on the client server or
computer is automatically backed up.
• Data should be backed up as frequently as necessary to ensure that,
if data is lost, it is not unacceptable to the business.
• The business impact analysis should evaluate the potential for lost
data and define the
 UPS (uninterruptible power supply
(UPS)
• An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a
device that allows a computer to keep running
for at least a short time when the primary
power source is lost. It also provides
protection from power surges.
 Data Communications Equipment
(DCE)
• Data Communications Equipment (DCE) can be
classified as equipment that transmits or receives
analogue or digital signals through a network.
DCE works at the physical layer of the OSI model
taking data generated by Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE) and converting it into a signal
that can then be transmitted over a
communications link. A common DCE example is
a modem which works as a translator of digital
and analogue signals.
 DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT

• Data terminal equipment (DTE) is an end instrument that

converts user information into signals or reconverts
received signals. These can also be called tail circuits.
• A DTE device communicates with the data circuit-
terminating equipment (DCE).
• Short for Data Terminal Equipment, a device that controls
data flowing to or from a computer. The term is most often
used in reference to serial communications defined by the
RS-232C standard. This standard defines the two ends of
the communications channel as being a DTE and Data
Communications Equipment (DCE) device
 D- subminiature CONNECTORS

• The D- subminiature or D-sub is a common

type of electrical connector. They are named
for their characteristic D-shaped metal shield
 DB 25 connector

• DB25 (originally DE-25) connector is an

analogue 25-pin plug of the D- Subminiature
connector family (D-Sub or Sub-D).
• Where DB 25 ports are used:
• As with the DB9 connector, the DB25 is mainly
used for serial connections, allowing for the
asynchronous transmission of data as
provided by standard RS-232 (RS-232C).
 DB 25 connector

• It is also used for parallel port connections,

and was originally used to connect printers,
and as a result is sometimes known as a
"printer port" (LPT for short).
• So to avoid confusion, DB25 serial ports on
computer generally have male connectors,
while parallel port connectors are DB25
female plugs.
DB 25 connector
 DB9

• The term "DB9" refers to a common connector

type, one of the D-Subminiature or D-Sub
types of connectors. DB9 has the smallest
"footprint" of the D-Subminiature connectors,
and houses 9 pins (for the male connector) or
9 holes (for the female connector).
 Where are DB9 Connectors used?

• A DB9 connector has 9 pins arranged in two rows, with one

row on top of the other.
• The top row has 5 pins and the lower row has 4 pins. This
interface is commonly used for RS-232 serial applications.
• For several years, DB9 ports were standard equipment on
PCs; nowadays, many newer computers are being built
without them. On a PC, the serial port is commonly a DB9
male.
• Today, the DB9 has mostly been replaced by more modern
interfaces such as USB, PS/2, and others. However, there
are still many legacy devices that use the DB9 interface for
serial communication.
DB9
 DB 37

• A DB37 connector has 37 pins arranged in two

rows, with one row on top of the other. The
top row has 19 pins and the lower row has 18.
This connector is used sometimes with Cisco®
networking hardware, and other applications
that use RS-449 serial communication
 DB15

• A DB15 connector has 15 pins arranged in two

rows, with one row on top of the other. The top
row has 8 pins and the lower row has 7. Not to be
confused with HD15, which has three rows of
pins, this connector can be found on sound cards,
older AUI network cards and devices, as well as
legacy Macintosh® monitors. This is commonly
referenced as the Game port. This is due to the
fact that the most common peripheral for this
port was a joystick or video game controller.
MALE
FEMALE
 HD 15 CONNECTOR

• A HD15 connector has 15 pins arranged in three rows.

Each row has 5 pins with the middle row slightly offset
from the top and bottom. The HD15 is a High Density
DB-style connector, so it can also be called an HD DB15.
Another popular name is "VGA connector", although it
is used in video applications that support much higher
resolutions (SVGA, XGA, UXGA, etc.). On most HD15
male connectors, there is one pin (pin 9) missing from
the middle row. The HD15 connector is a very common
connector used mostly as a video interface for
computers and monitors. It can also be found on HD
displays, and on older HD source devices such as
satellite receivers and cable boxes.
HD 15 CONNECTOR
HD 15 CONNECTOR
3 Ways to Extend Your Ethernet LAN

• Copper CATx cable supports Ethernet

distances up to 100 meters. That’s not a
problem when you’re connecting workstations
in a building. But what happens when you
need to extend the reach of your LAN beyond
100 meters to connect a distant department, a
building across campus or across town, Wi-Fi
access points, IP security cameras, or even
remote monitoring stations in industrial
environments.
3 Ways to Extend Your Ethernet LAN
 ENCRYPTION
• Encryption
• It is a method of changing plaintext (readable) into a cipher text
during storage or transmission to provide data security. There are
two main Types of encryption, symmetric encryption and
Asymmetric encryption.
• Symmetric Encryption
• Symmetric encryption’s job is to take readable data (“plaintext” in
crypto parlance), scramble it to make it unreadable (protecting it
from prying eyes while it’s being stored on a disk or transmitted
over a network), then unscramble it again when it’s needed.
• It’s generally fast, and there are lots of good encryption methods to
choose from. The most important thing to remember about
symmetric encryption is that both sides—the encrypter, and the
decrypter—need access to the same key.
 ENCRPTION
• A key, for symmetric encryption purposes, is a string of data that is fed to
the encrypter in order to scramble the data and make it encrypted. It’s
best if this key is completely random, but there are ways to derive keys
from (hopefully really good) passwords as well. The tricky part about
using symmetric encryption is how to store the key and make it available
only to the software that needs it.
• Cesar cipher
• In cryptography, a Caesar cipher, also known as Caesar's cipher, the shift
cipher, Caesar's code or Caesar shift, is one of the simplest and most
widely known encryption techniques. It is a type of substitution cipher in
which each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a letter some fixed
number of positions down the alphabet. For example, with a left shift of 3,
D would be replaced by A, E would become B, and so on.
• Asymmetric Encryption
• Asymmetric encryption also takes readable data, scrambles
it, and unscrambles it again at the other end, but there’s a
twist: a different key is used for each end. Encrypters use a
public key to scramble the data, and decrypters use the
matching private (secret) key on the other end to
unscramble it again.
• The public key is just that, public; it can and should be
published. (This is why asymmetric encryption is also often
referred to as public-key cryptography.) But the private key
must be kept private, protected much like the key for
symmetric encryption. The good news is that this is easier,
since only one party ever needs access to it: the party that
needs to decrypt the messages.
 5-4-3 RULE
• The 5-4-3 rule is a guideline used in the design
of shared Ethernet networks which promotes
optimal traffic flow. This refers to the number
of repeaters and segments that must be
present on shared Ethernet backbones set up
in a tree topology. The rule states that there
should be a maximum of five segments which
are connected by four repeaters, and only
three of those segments can contain active
senders/terminals.