ELECTRICITY

STD 9
UNIT 1
SOURCES OF DIRECT CURRENT
❖ Direct current (d.c.) is a
current of constant
magnitude flowing in one
direction.
❖ In a cell, chemical energy
changes into electrical energy
when it sends current in a
circuit.
❖ A cell consists of a vessel
containing two conducting
rods, called the electrodes,
at some separation, placed in
a solution, called the
electrolyte.
KINDS OF AN ELECTRIC CELL
Primary cell :
★ They provide current as a result of irreversible
chemical reaction.
★ The cells are discarded after use after the entire
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
“Use and throw” type of cells. They cannot be
recharged.
★ It is light and cheap
★ Eg., simple voltaic cell,
Leclanche cell, etc.
Secondary cell or accumulators
★ They provide current as a result of
reversible chemical reaction.
★ The cells can be recharged.
★ They are also called as storage cells.
They initially store electrical energy in
the form of chemical energy, which on
demand is converted into electrical
energy.
★ During charging → electrical energy is
converted to chemical energy.
★ During discharging (while current is
drawn from the cell) → chemical energy
is converted to electrical energy
★ It is heavy and costly
Eg., Lead acid cell, Ni-Fe cell, Ni-Cd cell
❖ Conventional current
flows from positive
terminal of the cell to
the negative terminal.
❖ Electronic current is the
direction of flow of
electrons which is from
the negative terminal of
the cell to the positive
terminal.
On the conventional basis
1. positively charged body is at higher
potential
2. earth is at zero potential
3. negatively charged body is at lower
potential
On the basis of electron model
1. positively charged body is at lower
potential because of deficiency of
electrons
2. earth is at zero potential as number of
electrons is equal to number of protons
3. negatively charged body is at higher
potential because of excess of electrons
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - - ELECTRONIC CURRENT
- - -
- - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
- - - - CONVENTIONAL CURRENT - - - -
+ +

ELECTRONIC CURRENT
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT + +
➢ Quantity of electric charge : The number of charges
(electrons) which drift from higher to lower potential is called
quantity of charge.
➢ represents the total amount of electricity which flows through
a conductor.
➢ denoted by ‘Q’
➢ Unit : coulombs (C)
Definition of one coulomb : The quantity of electric charge which
will deposit 0.00118 g of silver on the cathode, when passed
through silver nitrate solution is called one coulomb.

When 6.25 x 1018 electrons flow through a conductor, the charge

is equivalent to one coulomb

● Magnitude of charge on an electron

charge on 6.25 x 1018 electrons = 1 C

charge on 1 electron = 1 = e- = 1.6 x 10-19 C

6.25 x 1018
ELECTRIC CURRENT
★ The rate of flow of charge in an electric circuit.
★ denoted by ‘I’
★ If Q is the charge (in coulombs), which flows through a
conductor in time ‘t’ (in seconds), such that I is the current,
then :
★ Rate of flow of charge = Q
t
★ I=Q
t
★ Unit : ampere (A)
★ Current is a scalar quantity.
One ampere : When one coulomb charge flows through an
electric circuit in one second, then the current flowing through
the circuit is said to be one ampere
1 ampere = 1 coulomb
1 second
★ Bigger units of current
1 kilo-ampere (kA) = 103 A = 1,000 A
1 Mega-ampere (MA) = 106 A = 1,000,000 A
★ Smaller units of current
1 milli-ampere (mA) = 10-3 A = 0.001 A
1 micro-ampere (µA) = 10-6 A = 0.000001 A
Relation between current, number of electrons
flowing through an electric circuit & time
I=Q
t
If ‘n’ electrons flow through a circuit such that charge on each electron
is e-, then :
Q = ne-
∴ I = ne-
t
Important points :
★ In metals (conductors) , current flows due to the movement of
electrons
★ In electrolytes, current flows due to the movement of both
positive and negative ions.
How is electric potential created ?
❏ When electric charges move through a conductor, an electric
field is set up in the conductor.
❏ This electric field interacts with electric charges, & hence,
some energy is spent in moving the electric charges in the
forward direction.
❏ The measure of energy spent is called electric potential.
❏ Electric potential : The amount of work done (energy spent)
in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to a given
point in an electric field
❏ Unit : volts
Definition of one volt : When one coulomb electric charge (6.25 x
1018electrons) is brought from infinity to a given point in an electric
field, such that work done is one joule, then electric potential at that
point is one volt.

Infinity Point A

Q=1C W=IJ VA = 1 V
Potential difference
If an electric charge is already in an electric field at some point, then
work has to be done to move it to some other point in the same
electric field

The measure of the work done in moving the charge from one point
to another point in an electric field is called potential difference

Definition : The amount of work done in moving a unit positive

charge from one point to another point in an electric field is called
potential difference
If Q units of charge are moved from one point to another point, such that W is the
work done & V is the potential difference, then

Work done in moving Q units of charge = W

Work done in moving one unit of charge = W
Q

But work done in moving one unit of charge = Potential difference = V

∴ V=W
Q

If one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of charge, then

V = 1 joule = 1 volt
1 coulomb
Unit of potential difference
Potential difference is measured in volts.

Definition of one volt : When one joule of work is done in moving 1

coulomb charge from one point to another point in an electric field,
then potential difference between these points is one volt
UNIT 2
SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS OF AN
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
1) CONNECTING WIRE
➢ Represented by a straight line
➢ Usually made of copper & is
provided with cotton insulation
➢ Resistance of connecting wire is
considered practically negligible.
Symbol
2) FIXED RESISTANCE WIRE OR RESISTOR
Represented by a zigzag line.

Two thick dots at the end represent the

brass terminal in which resistance wire is
stretched.

The resistance wire is generally made from

metallic alloys such as nichrome , Eureka,
constantan, manganin, tungsten, etc.

Symbol
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
The thin wire of tungsten gets white hot & emit light &
not the brass terminals or connecting copper wires
→ tungsten wire offers friction (or obstruction) to the
passage of electric current. Thus, an electric work is
done in overcoming this friction. Hence, electrical
energy changes into heat energy & light energy.
The friction (or obstruction) offered to the passage of
electric current by a material is called resistance of a
material
The resistance offered by a conductor is
measured in ohm (Ω)
Formula : R= V
I
Where,R → RESISTANCE IN OHM
V → POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN VOLTS AT THE
ENDS OF THE RESISTANCE WIRE OR ANY OTHER
CONDUCTOR
I → CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH IT
Definition of One ohm : One ohm is the resistance offered
by a conductor when a current of 1 ampere flows through it
such that the potential difference at its ends is 1 volt.
OR

One ohm resistance : A conductor is said to

have one ohm resistance if the ratio of
potential difference at its ends & the current
flowing through it is 1.
EXAMPLE : If a current of 2 A flows through a
conductor whose ends at a potential
difference of 4 V, then the resistance of
conductor is :
R= V
I
R= 4
2
R=2Ω
3) VARIABLE RESISTANCE

A resistance that can be changed when required

Variable resistance is of two kinds :
a) Rheostat or unknown variable resistance

b) Resistance box or known variable resistance

R.B.
a) Rheostat or unknown variable resistance

A resistance whose magnitude can be altered, but its

exact magnitude is not known is called rheostat.
a) Resistance box or known variable resistance An
arrangement
of a number of
known
resistances,
which can be
added or
removed from
an electric
circuit is called
resistance box
4) Inductor
Consists of an insulated copper coil of a large number of turns.
It behaves like a magnet on the passage of electric current
5) Cell
A thin long line represents the +ve terminal & a thick
short line represents the -ve terminal
ELECTRIC CELL
When two insulated charged conductors at different potentials
are connected by a metallic wire, the charge flows from a higher
potential to a lower potential, till equipotential is reached. Such a
flow of charge per unit time is called electric current.

Problem : The electric current which flows between the

conductors is transient in nature, because equalization of
potential takes place in less than a small fraction of second.

What if we want to have a continuous supply of current ?

Solution
❖ We must maintain one of the conductors at steady higher potential & the other
conductor at steady lower potential, such that there is constant potential difference
between them.
❖ The device used for maintaining constant potential difference is called cell.
❖ Definition : An electric cell is the simplest form of arrangement
to maintain a constant potential difference between conductors.
❖ In the cell, the chemical energy maintains one end at higher potential & other at lower
potential, thereby making the electrons to drift from higher to lower potential.
❖ The cell under no circumstances produces electrons.
❖ Chemical energy of the cell → kinetic energy of electrons. Thus K.E. of electrons is called
electrical energy.
 Electromotive force of cell (emf)
❖ When no current is drawn from a cell, the cell is said to be in an
open circuit.
❖ The potential difference at the terminals of a cell in an open
circuit is called emf. It is denoted by ‘E’.
❖ The emf of a cell depends upon the foll. factors :
1. material of plates used in the cell
2. nature of the electrolyte used
❖ The emf of a given kind of cell does not change, with the change
in shape or size of the plates of cell.
6) Battery
A combination of two or more cells is called battery.

a) Battery in series
b) Battery in parallel
7) Plug key or single key
It is an electric switch

a) Open plug key : current does not flow in the electric circuit
b) Closed plug key : current flows in the electric circuit
 Used for measuring
8) Voltmeter
potential difference
between two known
points in an electric
circuit.

+ -
9) Ammeter Used for measuring the magnitude
of current in an electric circuit.

+ -
10) Galvanometer

Used for detecting the flow of an electric

current in a circuit

+ -
11) D.C. GENERATOR
An electric device which converts mechanical energy into direct current
12) A.C. GENERATOR
An electric device which converts mechanical energy into alternating current
SYMBOL FOR ALTERNATING CURRENT
 ELECTRIC INSULATORS
Materials which do not allow the electric current to flow through
them are called insulators
ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS
Materials which allow the electric current to flow through them
Closed circuit
When the path of electric
current which starts from
one terminal of the cell,
ends at the other terminal
of the cell, without any
break, then such a circuit is
called closed circuit or
complete circuit
OPEN OR INCOMPLETE CIRCUIT
bulb stops glowing because
the path of current is broken
i.e. the current starting from
its positive terminal does not
reach to its negative terminal.
When the path of electric
current, starting from one
terminal of cell is broken at
some points, then such a
circuit is called open or
incomplete circuit
Conclusions
★ The path along which electric current flows is called electric
circuit
★ Every part of the electric circuit must allow the electric current
to flow through it
★ Electric current will flow only if circuit is closed or complete
★ Electric current will not flow if the circuit is open or
incomplete
SOCIAL INITIATIVES FOR
PRODUCING & USING ELECTRICITY
A) PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY
On small scale, electricity is produced by dry
cells.
They are a good source of electricity for small
devices
However, once a cell is exhausted it is just
thrown in the dustbin. It is wrong, because the
exhausted cell contains environment unfriendly
chemicals, which in the long run degrade
environment. So these cells should be
collected & then disposed off at special points
provided by the municipality or corporation
Lead acid batteries have a
life of about 3 years.
Once exhausted they should
be disposed of at special
points.
In thermoelectric plants,
large amount of coal is
burnt to generate
electricity. These
thermoelectric plants must
be provided with latest
technology so that they do
not pollute the air.
USE OF ELECTRICITY
Every unit of electricity saved is equal to a unit of electricity
produced. India is deficient in the production of electricity.
So, we have to be extra careful not to waste electricity.
Following steps can help save electricity:

1) Use LED bulbs as they use very

Small amount of electricity & last longer

Than the common bulbs or tube lights

2) Use electrical gadgets with five star rating as they save larger
amount of electricity.
3) Switch on only that light
which you need. Do not switch
on all lights in your home at
night. Similarly, switch off fans,
when not required.

4) Install roof top solar panels

to generate electricity of your
own. This will help the
Government to supply more
power to industries.
RESISTANCES IN SERIES If the circuit is broken, none of
the bulbs will glow.

Why do the bulbs glow dimly ?

→ resistance in the circuit due
to the bulbs ↑. With the
electric potential difference
remaining same, current ↓,
hence bulbs glow dimly
When a no. of resistances (bulbs) are connected in an electric
circuit in such a way that +ve of one resistor acts as -ve of the
other resistor, then the resistances are said to be connected
in series
★ Characteristics of resistances in series
1. The sum total of resistances in series increases with the
increase in number of resistors
2. The potential difference remaining constant, the current in
series circuit decreases with the increase in number of
resistors in series
3. All elements (bulbs) in series circuit work simultaneously.
If the circuit is broken anywhere between the
elements(bulbs) , none of the elements function
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
When circuit is broken for a particular
bulb, the other bulbs continue
functioning independently

When a no. of resistances (bulbs) are

connected in an electrical circuit in such
a way that all of them are connected to
common +ve & common -ve terminal of a
cell, then the resistances (bulbs) are said
to be connected in parallel
★ Characteristics of resistances in Parallel

1. The sum total of resistances in parallel decreases with the

increase in number of resistors
2. The current flowing in any resistor in parallel will be
inversely proportional to resistance i.e. more the
resistance, less the current
3. Each resistor in parallel functions independently with
respect to the other resistors in parallel.