EG402A Over Pressure Protection T.

Baxter

Over Pressure
Protection

1
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 4
2. Pressure Relief System ........................................................................................................ 4
3. HP/LP Interface ................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 HP/LP Interface Compressors and Pumps .................................................................... 7
4. Emergency Shut Down........................................................................................................ 7
5. Control Valves................................................................................................................... 11
6. Relief Valves ..................................................................................................................... 11
6.1 Conventional Relief Valve .......................................................................................... 12
6.2 Balanced Relief Valve ................................................................................................. 13
6.3 Pilot Relief Valve ........................................................................................................ 14
6.4 Pressure Profiles .......................................................................................................... 15
6.5 Back Pressure .............................................................................................................. 16
6.5.1 Conventional RV .................................................................................................. 17
6.5.2 Balanced RV ........................................................................................................ 17
6.5.3 Pilot RV ................................................................................................................ 18
6.6 Bursting Discs ............................................................................................................. 18
6.7 Buckling Pin ................................................................................................................ 19
6.8 Atmospheric Tank Protection...................................................................................... 19
6.9 Relief Valve Piping Arrangement ............................................................................... 20
6.10 High Integrity Pressure Protection System ............................................................... 21
6.11 Causes of Overpressure ............................................................................................. 25
7. Relief Valve Sizing ........................................................................................................... 25
7.1 Gas/Vapour Release .................................................................................................... 25
7.2 Relief Valve Sizing for Critical Flow ......................................................................... 26
7.3 Relief Valve Sizing for Sub Critical Flow .................................................................. 27
7.4 Relief Valve Sizing for Liquid Relief ......................................................................... 28
7.5 Relief valve Sizing for Two-Phase Relief ................................................................... 29
7.6 Relief of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers ................................................................. 29
8. Fire Relief .......................................................................................................................... 30
8.1 Pool Fire ...................................................................................................................... 30
8.2 Jet Fire ......................................................................................................................... 30
8.3 Steel Properties ............................................................................................................ 31
8.4 Relief in a Fire Situation ............................................................................................. 31
8.5 Thermal Relief............................................................................................................. 33
9. API 14 C ............................................................................................................................ 33
10. The Process Flow Diagram PFD ..................................................................................... 34
11. The Process and Instrumentation Diagram P&ID ........................................................... 35
11.1 Trips and Alarms ....................................................................................................... 37

2
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

11.2 Line Numbering ........................................................................................................ 37

12. Key Learnings ................................................................................................................. 38

3
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

1. Introduction
Over pressure protection is critical to the safety of process plant and equipment. The
Chemical/Petroleum Engineer must be capable of identifying over pressure scenarios and
developing a design which will cope with pressure excursions.
The industry makes extensive use of API recommended practices for system design.
2. Pressure Relief System
Pressure relief systems are used to dispose of excess gas produced during normal operations
and during emergency depressurisation; combustion being the safest and most
environmentally acceptable method of disposal.
A pressure relief system consists of:
− Relief valves, bursting discs or other devices
− Relief fluid gathering pipework
− Flare vessels to separate liquids
− Liquid recovery system - usually returned to the separation train
− A flare stack or boom which is an elevated structure used to support pipework at a safe
height or length, such that radiant heat, wind deflection of the flame and liquid carry over do
not endanger personnel or equipment
− Flare tips and pilot burners to ignite the gas
− Flare pilot ignition system and monitoring equipment
− Flare purge system

3. HP/LP Interface
Recognising a high pressure/low pressure (HP/LP) interface is essential for safe process
design. An HP/LP interface is where a high pressure system feeds a lower rated pressure
system- the high pressure system is at a pressure higher than the design of the low pressure
system. This is a clear hazard and the inherently safe question would be – why not rate the
lower pressure system to the same as the high pressure system and thereby eliminate the
hazard? As with all designs the engineer is seeking the most cost effective option and it is
often more effective to design a low pressure system with an over pressure protection system
than rate the downstream system to the same pressure. The HP/LP interface occurs at the last
place where the high pressure can be isolated – most often a valve which can be closed.
A typical HP/LP interface on a separation plant is shown. All plant downstream of the
interface is designed to a pressure lower than the upstream system design pressure.

4
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

Recall the pipework and

Temperature (ºC) Pressure (Barg)
flange ratings. With a 150 300 600 900 1500 2500
-29 to 38 19.6 51.1 102.1 153.2 255.3 425.5
design temperature of 150 50 19.2 50.1 100.2 150.2 250.4 417.3
0
C, the upstream system 100 17.2 46.4 92.8 139.1 231.9 386.5
150 15.8 45.2 90.5 135.7 226.1 376.9
will be class 300 and the 200 43.8 87.6 131.5 219.1 365.2
downstream class 150. 250 41.7 83.4 125.2 208.6 347.7
300 38.7 77.5 116.2 193.7 322.8
350 37 73.9 110.9 184.8 308
375 36.5 72.9 109.4 182.3 303.9
400 34.5 69 103.5 172.5 287.5
425 28.8 57.5 86.3 143.8 239.6
450 20 40.1 60.1 100.2 166.9

The following detailed P&ID shows an HP/LP interface pipework specifications break at the
last valve downstream of a blowdown valve.

5
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

HP/LP Interface

Consider a three phase separator – the HP/LP interface is at the inlet Emergency Shutdown
Valve (ESD) and the LP over pressure protection is provided by the protection layers;
– Control
– Alarm
– Trip
– Relief

6
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

3.1 HP/LP Interface Compressors and Pumps

For pumps and compress the low pressure suction side of compressor requires protection from
high pressure discharge side. On a plant trip the high pressure discharge fluid can
overpressure the LP side by backflow. In this instance it is common to use non-return valves.

4. Emergency Shut Down

The emergency shutdown system is designed to shut down all or part of the installation
quickly and safely in the event of an unsafe operating condition or catastrophic situation
occurring. The Emergency Shutdown (ESD) System is designed to completely isolate and
inactivate the process and utilities plant.
The ESD system will:
− Shut down all running process equipment, utilities equipment and ignition sources
(except the flare system)
− Isolate the plant from all the feed and product pipelines

7
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

− Isolate the plant into sections ready for depressurising

and enable depressurising once shutdown actions are
complete
− Isolate any storage facility
− Transmit a shutdown signal to upstream and
downstream plants as required
An emergency shutdown valve (ESD) is an actuated valve
designed to stop the flow of a hazardous fluid upon the detection of a dangerous event. In
determining ESD locations, consideration should be given to equipment prone to failure or
containing inventories of materials that present significant risk.
Final ESDV locations should be reviewed by process hazard analyses and design hazard
reviews that address the impact of isolation on operations.
Some typical ESDV locations located at:
− Pressurised and refrigerated storage tanks.
− Import and export hydrocarbon pipelines
− Tanker loading arms
− Vessels containing hydrocarbon inventories
− Turbine fuel systems.
− Process pumps.
ESD location(s) and use is optimised based on the individual system configuration. To
minimize inventory and exposure ESDs on process vessels should be placed as close as
possible to the vessel inlet/outlet flange.
ESDs for process area isolation shall be located at the edge or boundary of the process area
being isolated. Upon activation, the ESD shall stop the flow of inlet and outlet process
streams, hazardous utility streams, and fuel supply to the affected area.
It is important that the location and number of not only ESDs and blow down valves consider:
− Check valves or other flow restrictions that can impede depressurisation.
− Packed vessels where packing can be entrained by depressuring.
− Other equipment such as compressors that can impede or affect depressurisation.
Generally, an ESDV shall be a tight shut-off, “fail close” (on loss of signal or power source),
air/pneumatic operated block valve.
An ESDV and its accessories shall be of firesafe design if located inside a fire zone.

A P&ID showing a typical compressor follows.

8
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

Two non return valves are included to prevent backflow together with an ESD valve. Two
valves provide additional integrity and valves from different suppliers are used to minimize
the potential for a common mode failure. The ESD valve is located a minimum distance from
the compressor to minimize the inventory of high pressure gas. A relief valve and blowdown
valve are also indicated.
A similar arrangement would be provided for large pumps.

9
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

Two non-
return
valves
protecting

10
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

5. Control Valves
Control valves for pressure, flow, level, temperature control are used extensively in process
plant. By its nature a control valve induces a pressure drop to facilitate control. Hence
predicting pressure drop through a control valve is very important. All control valves will
have an associated CV. The CV provides a basis for estimating pressure drop.
The generalised liquid sizing formula is as follows;
CV=Q. √(G/ΔP)
Where;
CV = liquid flow coefficient (valve characteristic)
Q = Flow,USGPM (USgallon per minute)
G = Liquid SG
ΔP = Pressure drop across valve, psi
For gases the Cv expression is much more complex.
If a valve CV is increased the flow which it can pass will increase, hence the overpressure
scenario would change. The valve CV is a safety related element.

6. Relief Valves
Pressure relief valves provide a layer of protection independent of the control and ESD
system. They are often referred to as Pressure Safety Valves or Pressure Relief Valves.
The common demands on a relief valve are listed below.

Fire Exposure - the least predictable event but can generate the highest relieving rates. Fire
conditions may over-pressure vapour filled, liquid filled or mixed phase systems
Blocked Discharge - The outlet of any equipment item can be blocked by mechanical failure
or human error. The relief load is the maximum flowrate at relief conditions
Tube Rupture - When a large pressure difference exists between the tube and shell sides of a
heat exchanger, provisions are required for relieving the low pressure side.
Control Valve Failure - It may be possible for a control valve to fail in the wrong position or
for the control loop to fail
Thermal Expansion - If any item of equipment or line can be isolated when full of liquid, a
relief valve should be provided for thermal expansion
Utility Failure - Loss of cooling water, electric power failure and instrument air failure can
result in high relief loads
API guides provide a process for a systematic review of potential relieving scenarios.
11
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

There are three common relief valves types – conventional, balanced and pilot. The relief area
provided is available in standard increments as shown.

ORIFICE
AREA
(IN2) RELIEF VALVE DESIGNATIONS
D 0.11 • • •
E 0.196 • • •
F 0.307 • • •
STANDARD ORIFICE DESIGNATION

G 0.503 • • •
H 0.785 • •
J 1.287 • • •
K 1.838 •
L 2.853 • •
M 3.6 •
N 4.34 •
P 6.38 •
Q 11.05 •
R 16 • •
T 26 •
1 ×2 1.5 × 2 1.5 × 2.5 1.5 × 3 2 × 3 2.5 × 4 3 × 4 4 ×6 6 × 8 6 × 10 8 × 10
VALVE BODY SIZE (INLET DIAMETER × OUTLET DIAMETER), IN.

6.1 Conventional Relief Valve

In a conventional relief valve, the inlet pressure to the valve is directly opposed by a spring.
Tension on the spring is set to keep the valve shut at normal
operating pressure but allows the valve to open when the
pressure reaches relieving conditions. Most conventional
safety-relief valves available to the petroleum industry have
discs which have a greater area, AD, than the nozzle seat area,
AN. The effect of back pressure on such valves is illustrated in
the figure below. If the bonnet is vented to atmospheric
pressure, the back pressure acts with the vessel pressure so as
to overcome the spring force, FS, thus making the relieving
pressure less than when set with atmospheric pressure on the
outlet. However, if the spring bonnet is vented to the valve
discharge rather than to the atmosphere, the back pressure acts
with the spring pressure so as to increase the opening pressure.

12
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

6.2 Balanced Relief Valve

A balanced RV is a spring-loaded RV which incorporates a bellows or other means of
balancing the valve disc to minimize the effects of backpressure on the performance
characteristics of the valve.
These valves are of two types, the piston type and the bellows type, as shown. In the piston
type the guide is vented so that the back pressure on opposing faces of the valve disc cancels
itself; the top face of the piston, which has the same area, AP, as the nozzle seat area, AN, is
subjected to atmospheric pressure by venting the bonnet. It is important to note that the
bonnet of a balanced RV shall be vented to atmosphere at all times.
The bonnet vented gases from balanced piston-type valves should be disposed of with a
minimum restriction and in a safe manner.

13
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

In the bellows type of balanced valve, the effective bellows area, AB, is the same as the
nozzle seat area, AN, and, by attachment to the valve body, excludes the back pressure from
acting on the top side of that area of the disc. The disc area extending beyond the bellows and
seat area cancel, so that there are no
unbalanced forces under any downstream
pressure. The bellows covers the disc guide so
as to exclude the working fluid from the
bonnet. To provide for a possible bellows
failure or leak, the bonnet must be vented
separately from the discharge. The balanced
safety-relief valve makes higher pressures in
the relief discharge manifolds possible. Both
balanced-type valves shown in the figure
should have bonnet vents large enough to
assure no appreciable back pressure during
design flow conditions.
Note the potential for freezing of atmospheric
moisture inside the bonnet in cold service due to auto-refrigeration or cold ambient
temperatures.

6.3 Pilot Relief Valve

A pilot-operated RV consists of the main valve, which normally encloses a floating
unbalanced piston assembly, and an external pilot. The piston is designed to have a larger area
on the top than on the bottom. Up to the set pressure, the top and bottom areas are exposed to
pressure. Because of the larger area on the top of the piston, the net force holds the piston
tightly against the main valve nozzle. As the operating pressure increases, the net seating
force increases and tends to make the valve tighter.
At the set pressure, the pilot vents the pressure from the top of the piston; the resulting net
force is now upward causing the piston to lift, and process flow is established through the
main valve. After the overpressure incident, the pilot will close the vent from the top of the
piston, thereby re-establishing pressure, and the net force will cause the piston to reseat.

14
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

6.4 Pressure Profiles

Terminology associated with relief valves and pressure vessels is shown – from API. Of
particular importance is the allowable overpressure and the maximum relieving pressure in a
fire case. The limits are used for relief valve sizing.

15
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

6.5 Back Pressure

The pressure existing at the outlet of a RV is defined as backpressure. Regardless of whether
the valve is vented directly to atmosphere or the discharge is piped to a collection system, the
backpressure may affect the operation of the RV. Effects due to backpressure may include
variations in opening pressure, reduction in flow capacity, instability, or a combination of all
three.
Backpressure which is present at the outlet of a RV when it is required to operate is defined as
superimposed backpressure. This backpressure can be constant if the valve outlet is connected
to a process vessel or system that is held at a constant pressure. In most cases, however, the

16
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

superimposed backpressure will be variable as a result of changing conditions existing in the

discharge system.
Backpressure which develops in the discharge system after the RV opens is defined as built-
up backpressure. Built-up backpressure occurs due to pressure drop in the discharge system as
a result of flow from the RV. Short tailpipes that vent directly to the atmosphere typically
result in lower built-up backpressures than long discharge systems. However, choked flow
can occur at the outlet of even short tailpipes vented directly to atmosphere, resulting in a
high built-up backpressure. For this reason, the magnitude of the built-up backpressure should
be evaluated for all systems, regardless of the outlet piping configuration.
The magnitude of the backpressure which exists at the outlet of a RV, after it has opened, is
the total of the superimposed and the built-up backpressure.

6.5.1 Conventional RV
Conventional RVs show unsatisfactory performance when excessive backpressure develops
during a relief incident, due to the flow through the valve and outlet piping. The built-up
backpressure opposes the lifting force which is holding the valve open.
Excessive built-up backpressure can cause the valve to operate in an unstable manner. This
instability may occur as flutter or chatter. Chatter refers to the abnormally rapid reciprocating
motion of the RV disc where the disc contacts the RV seat during cycling. This type of
operation may cause damage to the valve and interconnecting piping. Flutter is similar to
chatter except that the disc does not come into contact with the seat during cycling.
In a conventional RV application, built-up backpressure should not exceed 10 % of the set
pressure at 10 % allowable overpressure.

6.5.2 Balanced RV
A balanced RV should be used where the built-up backpressure is too high for conventional
RVs or where the superimposed backpressure varies widely compared to the set pressure.
Balanced valves can typically be applied where the total backpressure (superimposed plus
built-up) does not exceed approximately 50 % of the set pressure. The specific manufacturer
should be consulted concerning the backpressure limitation of a particular valve design. With
a balanced valve, high backpressure will tend to produce a closing force on the unbalanced
portion of the disc. This force may result in a reduction in lift and an associated reduction in
flow capacity. Capacity correction factors, called backpressure correction factors, are
provided by manufacturers to account for this reduction in flow.

17
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

6.5.3 Pilot RV
This type of valve is minimally affected by back pressure.

6.6 Bursting Discs

Bursting or rupture discs are commonly used as non-reclosing safety pressure relief devices
They are usually fabricated from metal or graphite and are designed to open/burst at a pre-set
pressure and instantly alleviate pressure build up.
Conditions that favour bursting discs are :
− Rapid pressure rise where a quick response is required
− Toxic fluids
− Corrosive fluids
− Where solids/wax deposition may be present
Disadvantages of a disc are :
− Can require large margin between operating
and design pressure
− Pressure pulsations can cause failure
− Sensitive to changes in back pressure
They are sometimes used in conjunction with
pressure relief valves, particularly in corrosive systems
Bursting discs are commonly used in heat exchangers to prevent the shell side from over
pressure in the event of tube rupture. A typical arrangement is shown.

18
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

6.7 Buckling Pin

Rupture Pin relief devices usually consist of a piston or plunger on seat; retrained from
movement to the open position by a slender round
pin. The pin buckles at set point from an axial
forced caused by system pressure acting on the
piston or plunger area. The pin is retained at its
extremities by close fitting recesses. The buckling
point of the pin is determined by the unrestrained
pin length, the pin diameter and the modulus of
elasticity of the pin material. They are favoured
over bursting discs by some designers.

6.8 Atmospheric Tank Protection

Direct acting pressure/vacuum relief valves (also known as breather valves, conservation
vents, or safety vents) are low pressure devices specifically designed to protect tanks, process
systems and equipment from excessive pressure and vacuum. As well as providing the
primary layer of protection for tanks and process systems, pressure/vacuum valves also
minimise emission losses of gases or vapours, thus protecting the environment and providing
significant financial savings. They include pressure only, vacuum only and combined
19
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

pressure/vacuum valves. Pressure / vacuum relief valves are used extensively on bulk storage
tanks, including fixed roof tanks with floating covers, to minimise evaporation loss. The
valves prevent the build up of excessive pressure or vacuum which can unbalance the system
or damage the storage vessel.
Pressure and vacuum protection levels are controlled with weighted pallets or springs and can
be combined to provide the required pressure/vacuum settings. It is common to combine
pallet and spring systems in one unit i.e. pressure settings require a spring section, whilst the
vacuum settings use the pallet method.

Atmospheric Storage tank protection

Combined pressure and vacuum

6.9 Relief Valve Piping Arrangement

The drawing presented here represents a typical arrangement. For protecting equipment that is
not spared and equipment that cannot be isolated without disrupting the plant / unit a spare
safety valve is usually provided. Where relief loads are high multiple valves are used.

20
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

Generally, the safety valve inlet / outlet nozzles are smaller than the corresponding line sizes.
This change in diameter should be clearly
indicated in the P&ID with a reducer and
expander.
Block valves should be provided upstream
and downstream for maintenance.
Provision is made to keep these valves
locked or sealed open. The spare safety
valve is kept locked or sealed closed, as
indicated - CSC and CSO.
A vent valve is provided between the
safety valve and upstream block valve.
A bypass is sometimes provided for process or start-up requirements.
The inlet lines to the safety valves are always sloped towards the protected equipment and the
outlet lines from the safety valves are always sloped towards the flare header and the knock
out drum.
When a RV is connected to the flare system, the inlet line piping is often equipped with a
spool piece to facilitate dismantling, as indicated in the sample drawing. For RVs discharging
to atmosphere, this is not required.

6.10 High Integrity Pressure Protection System

A High Integrity Pressure Protection System (HIPPS) is a type of safety instrumented system
(SIS) designed to prevent over-pressurisation of a system. The HIPPS will shut-off the source
of the high pressure before the design pressure of the system is exceeded, thus preventing loss
of containment through rupture of a line or vessel.
A relief system aims at removing any excess inflow of fluids for safe disposal, where a HIPPS
aims at stopping the inflow of excess fluids and containing them in the system.
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has introduced the IEC 61508 and the
IEC 61511 standards in 1998 and 2003. These are performance based, non-prescriptive,
standards which provide a detailed framework and a life-cycle approach for the design,
implementation and management of safety systems applicable to a variety of sectors with
different levels of risk definition. These standards also apply to HIPPS.
High Integrity Pressure Protection System is a complete functional loop consisting of sensors,
(or initiators) that detect the high pressure, a logic solver, which processes the input from the

21
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

sensors to an output to the final element final elements that perform the corrective action in
the field by bringing the process to a safe state. In case of a HIPPS this means shutting-off the
source of overpressure. The final element consists of a valve, actuator and solenoids.

In some instances the relieving system may not cope with the volume/mass rate required. The
flare cannot be designed large enough. In this instance a HIPPS is often deployed.
Two out of three voted on pressure is provided to prevent spurious trips. Two ESD valves are
provided to improve reliability; they are provided by different manufacturers to prevent
common mode failure. HIPPS systems are extremely important for safety integrity and as a
consequence they are frequently checked to ensure they are functioning as designed.
A HIPPS on separator level protection and a pipeline on pressure protection follow.

22
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

23
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

24
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

6.11 Causes of Overpressure

API 521 provides a systematic means of over pressure analysis. Key events leading to
overpressure are listed;
− Closed outlets on vessels
− Cooling water failure to condenser
− Top tower reflux failure
− Sidestream reflux failure
− Lean-oil failure to absorber
− Accumulation of non-condensables
− Entrance of highly volatile material
− Water into hot oil
− Light hydrocarbons into hot oil
− Overfilling storage or surge vessel
− Failure of automatic controls
− Abnormal heat or vapour input
− Split exchanger tube
− Internal explosions
− Chemical reactions
− Hydraulic expansion:
− External fire
− Power failure (steam, electric, other)
The skill of the Process Safety Engineer is to ensure that the event that produces the largest
overpressure is identified. In some instances this may occur during non-routine operations
such as start up.

7. Relief Valve Sizing

7.1 Gas/Vapour Release

As discussed in the Loss of Containment, if a compressible gas is expanded across a nozzle,
an orifice, or the end of a pipe, its velocity and specific volume increase with decreasing
downstream pressure. For a given set of upstream conditions (using the example of a nozzle),
the mass rate of flow through the nozzle will increase until a limiting velocity is reached in
the nozzle. It can be shown that the limiting velocity is the velocity of sound in the flowing

25
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

fluid at that location. The flow rate that corresponds to the limiting velocity is known as the
critical flow rate.
The absolute pressure ratio of the pressure at the nozzle exit at sonic velocity (Pcf ) to the inlet
pressure (P1) is called the critical pressure ratio. Pcf is known as the critical flow pressure.

Pcf is the critical flow nozzle pressure;

P1 is the upstream relieving pressure;
k is the ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) for an ideal gas at relieving temperature. The ideal gas
specific heat ratio is independent of pressure. Most process simulators will provide real gas
specific heats which should not be used in the above equation because the real gas specific
heat ratio does not provide a good representation of the isentropic expansion coefficient.
API 520 provides the following.

7.2 Relief Valve Sizing for Critical Flow

A is the required effective discharge area of the device (mm2)

W is the required flow through the device, (kg/h);
C is a function of the ratio of the ideal gas specific heats (k = Cp/Cv) of the gas or vapor at
inlet relieving temperature.
Kd is the effective coefficient of discharge; for preliminary sizing, use the following values:
— 0.975, when a PRV is installed with or without a rupture disc in combination,
— 0.62, when a PRV is not installed and sizing is for a rupture disc
P1 is the upstream relieving pressure, (kPa); this is the set pressure plus the allowable
overpressure
Kb is the capacity correction factor due to backpressure; this can be obtained from the
manufacturer’s literature or estimated for preliminary sizing from API Figure 30. The
backpressure correction factor applies to balanced bellows valves only. For conventional and
pilot-operated valves, use a value for Kb equal to 1.0
26
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

Kc is the combination correction factor for installations with a rupture disc upstream of the
PRV ; Kc
equals 1.0 when a rupture disc is not installed. Kc equals 0.9 when a rupture disc is installed
in combinationwith a PRV
T is the relieving temperature of the inlet gas or vapor, [K (°C + 273)]
Z is the compressibility factor at inlet relieving conditions;
M is the molecular weight of the gas or vapor at inlet relieving conditions
Note the flow is only a function of the upstream pressure.

7.3 Relief Valve Sizing for Sub Critical Flow

A is the required effective discharge area of the device (mm2)

W is the required flow through the device, (kg/h);
F2 is the coefficient of subcritical flow C
Kd is the effective coefficient of discharge; for preliminary sizing, use the following values:
— 0.975, when a PRV is installed with or without a rupture disc in combination,
— 0.62, when a PRV is not installed and sizing is for a rupture disc
r is the ratio of backpressure to upstream relieving pressure, P2/P1
P1 is the upstream relieving pressure, (kPa); this is the set pressure plus the allowable
overpressure
P2 is the backpressure, (kPa)
Kc is the combination correction factor for installations with a rupture disc upstream of the
PRV ; Kc equals 1.0 when a rupture disc is not installed. Kc equals 0.9 when a rupture disc is
installed in combination with a RV
T is the relieving temperature of the inlet gas or vapor, [oK]
Z is the compressibility factor at inlet relieving conditions;
M is the molecular weight of the gas or vapor at inlet relieving conditions
Note the flow is dependent upon up and downstream pressure.

27
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

7.4 Relief Valve Sizing for Liquid Relief

A is the required effective discharge area of the device (mm2)

Q is the flow rate, (L/min);
Kd is the rated coefficient of discharge that should be obtained from the valve manufacturer;
for preliminary sizing, an effective discharge coefficient can be used as follows:
— 0.65, when a PRV is installed with or without a rupture disc in combination,
— 0.62, when a PRV is not installed and sizing is for a rupture disc
Kw is the correction factor due to backpressure; if the backpressure is atmospheric, use a value
for Kw of 1.0.
Balanced bellows valves in backpressure service will require the correction factor determined
from API Figure31.
Conventional and pilot-operated valves require no special correction
P1 is the upstream relieving pressure, (kPa); this is the set pressure plus the allowable
overpressure
P2 is the backpressure, (kPa)
Kc is the combination correction factor for installations with a rupture disc upstream of the
PRV ; Kcequals 1.0 when a rupture disc is not installed. Kc equals 0.9 when a rupture disc is
installed in combinationwith a PRV
Kv is the correction factor due to viscosity
G is the specific gravity of the liquid
Re is the Reynolds Number
It is often a trial solution; first size for no viscosity correction. Calculate relief area then
calculate Reynolds Number. Re-do calculation with viscosity correction.

28
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

7.5 Relief valve Sizing for Two-Phase Relief

The accurate prediction of the two-phase mass flow rate discharged through a relief valve is
very difficult due to incomplete knowledge of the complex thermal-fluid dynamic
phenomena that occur between the two phases. In particular, the following issues should take
into account:
− the close interaction between vapour quality and changes in pressure drop;
− possible thermodynamic non-equilibrium;
− the potential different velocity of the two phases;
− the velocity of a pressure wave in two-phase flow.
The same homogeneous equilibrium model (HEM) is used as covered in the LOC lectures.

7.6 Relief of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

In many heat exchangers there is often a large pressure difference between the two fluids. For
example, a gas cooler in a compression train may have HP Gas entering
LP system through
gas within the tubes of a shell and tube heat exchanger at two openings.

pressures above 200 bara. The cooling medium system on

the shell would typically be around 10 bara. Hence a clear
HP/LP interface is present if a tube were to fail.
Design practice assumes that, although a remote
probability, a tube will fail allowing gas to pass into the
low pressure system. It is assumed that the tube has a radial rupture and gas flows through
two orifii of a diameter equal to the inside tube diameter.
The flow will generally be critical.

29
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

8. Fire Relief

8.1 Pool Fire

A pool fire is a turbulent diffusion fire burning
above a horizontal pool of vaporising hydrocarbon
fuel where the fuel has zero or low initial
momentum. Fires in the open will be well ventilated
(fuel-controlled), but fires within enclosures may
become under-ventilated (ventilation-controlled).
Pool fires may be static (e.g. where the pool is
contained) or 'running' fires. Pool fires represent a
significant element of the risk associated with major
accidents on offshore installations, particularly
installations that may have large liquid hydrocarbon inventories.

8.2 Jet Fire

A jet or spray fire is a turbulent diffusion flame resulting from the combustion of a fuel
continuously released with some significant momentum in a particular direction or directions.
Jet fires can arise from releases of gaseous, flashing liquid (two phase) and pure liquid
inventories.
Jet fires represent a significant element
of the risk associated with major
accidents on offshore installations. The
high heat fluxes to impinged or engulfed
objects can le ad to structural failure or
vessel/pipework failure and possible further escalation. The rapid development of a jet fire
has important consequences for control and isolation strategies.
The properties of jet fires depend on the fuel composition, release conditions, release rate,
release geometry, direction and ambient wind conditions. Low velocity two-phase releases of
condensate material can produce lazy, wind affected buoyant, sooty and highly radiative
flames similar to pool fires. Sonic releases of natural gas can produce relatively high velocity
fires that are much less buoyant, less sooty and hence less radiative.

30
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

8.3 Steel Properties

Steel strength reduces with increasing temperature as indicated;

The basic expression relating metal thickness to hoop stress is shown.

Wt = Wall thickness (m)

Pdesign = Pressure (Pascals)
R = Radius (m)
Ts = Hoop stress (Pascals)

This is expression clearly indicates why is it is important to depressurise during an emergency

situation – at lower internal pressures the vessel is stronger and more likely to survive.

8.4 Relief in a Fire Situation

The amount of heat absorbed by a vessel exposed to an open fire is markedly affected by the
type of fuel feeding the fire, the degree to which the vessel is enveloped by the flames (a
function of vessel size and shape) and fireproofing measures. The API method is often used to
evaluate these conditions. If there are prompt firefighting efforts and drainage of flammable
materials away from the vessels the following applies.
Q = C1·F·Aws0.82
31
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

Where;
Q is the total heat absorption (input) to the wetted surface, expressed in W (Btu/h);
C1 is a constant [= 43 200 in SI units (21 000 in USC units)];
F is an environment factor (see following Table);
Aws is the total wetted surface, expressed in square metres (square feet).
The expression, Aws0.82, is the area exposure factor or ratio. This ratio recognizes the fact that
large vessels are less likely than small ones to be completely exposed to the flame of an open
fire.
Where adequate drainage and firefighting equipment do not exist, API recommends:
Q = C2·F·Aws0.82
where C2 is a constant [= 70 900 in SI units (34 500 in USC units)].

Further information is given in API 520. Typically, fireproofing shall be specifically designed
and installed to resist the forces of fire hose streams and maintain its insulation properties for
2 hours at 900°C (1,652°F)
The philosophy of wetted area is that the heat transfer to the liquid will result in liquid boiling
hence producing much more vapour than vapour expansion due to rising temperature.
For a boiling liquid the relief rate is calculated as;
W = Q/L
Where;
Q is the total heat absorption (input) to the wetted surface
L is the latent heat of the fluid.

32
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

8.5 Thermal Relief

If any system is completely filled with a fluid and the heated, its internal pressure will rise.
When the fluid is a vapour the pressure rise can be predicted by the ideal gas law. Where the
fluid is a liquid, the pressure rise will be significantly higher due to the very low
compressibility of a liquid.
Sources of heat could be;
− Process Heating
− Heat tracing
− Thermal radiation
− Rise in ambient temperature
Considerations;
− Source of heat and rate of heating
− Physical properties of the fluid
− Volume of the system
− Tightness of the closure
− Likelihood of blocking-in

Note, a small temperature rise can cause a large pressure rise e.g. 3 bar/°C for water at 20°C.
The temperature rise may occur over several hours
9. API 14 C

API 14C - Recommended Practice for Analysis, Design, Installation and Testing of Basic
Surface Safety Systems for Offshore Production Platforms is commonly used for protective
system design. This document presents recommendations for designing, installing, and testing
safety systems on an offshore production platform. The basic concepts of a platform safety
system are discussed and protection methods and requirements of the system are outlined.
33
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

This practice illustrates how system analysis methods can be used to determine safety
requirements to protect any process component. Actual analyses of the principal components
are developed in such a manner that the requirements determined will be applicable whenever
the component is used in the process. The safety requirements of the individual process
components may then be integrated into a complete platform safety system. The analysis
procedures include a method to document and verify system integrity. A uniform method of
identifying and symbolizing safety devices is presented and the analysis method is
exemplified by a sample process system. In addition to the basic safety system, the practice
covers ancillary systems such as pneumatic supply and liquid containment. Procedures for
testing common safety devices are presented with recommendations for test data and
acceptable test tolerances. This recommended practice emphasises pneumatic systems since
they are the most commonly used; however, the same principles and procedures are
applicable to hydraulic and electrical systems and to systems incorporating two or more
control media. Instrumentation logic circuits are not discussed since these should be left to the
discretion of the designer as long as the recommended safety functions are accomplished.
Rotating machinery is considered as a unitised process component as it interfaces with the
platform safety system.

10. The Process Flow Diagram PFD

A process flow diagram (PFD) is commonly to indicate the general flow of plant processes
and equipment. The PFD displays the relationship between major equipment of a plant
facility but does not show minor details such as piping details and designations. Another
commonly used term for a PFD is a flowsheet.
Typically, process flow diagrams of a single unit process will include the following:
− Process piping
− Major equipment items
− Control valves and other major valves
− Connections with other systems
− Major bypass and recirculation streams
− Operational data (temperature, pressure, mass flow rate, density, etc.), often by stream
references to a mass balance.
− Process stream names
Process flow diagrams generally do not include:
34
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

− Pipe classes or piping line numbers

− Process control instrumentation (sensors and final elements)
− Minor bypass lines
− Isolation and shutoff valves
− Maintenance vents and drains
− Relief and safety valves
− Flanges

Process flow diagrams of multiple process units within a large industrial plant will usually
contain less detail and may be called block flow diagrams or schematic flow diagrams. A
typical PFD follows.

11. The Process and Instrumentation Diagram P&ID

A Piping and Instrumentation Diagram should convey the following information:
− All process equipment identified by an equipment number
− The elevation above grade level of all equipment items, especially important for
systems containing pumps where a minimum NPSH must be maintained
− All pipes identified by a line number the pipe size and material should be shown
− All valves should be shown with an identification number, the size and type of valve
should be shown
35
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

− Ancillary fittings (or Piping Special Items) that are part of the piping system such as
in-line sight glasses, strainers and steam traps complete with an identification number
− All control loops and instruments with an identification number
− Utility (service) lines or connections, e.g. inert gas purge connections, cooling water
(N.B. instrument air connections are not shown to each individual controller, the
symbols used should indicate pneumatic operation
− Trips and alarms
− Relief devices
Typical process equipment symbols are shown.

36
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

Valve and instrumentation is typically shown as;

11.1 Trips and Alarms

An alarm is usually displayed as an AH or an AL. For example PAH or PAL – at a predefined
high or low pressure reading an alarm of some sort will be initiated. This is usually to alert the
process operator. No automatic action occurs – it is left to the operator to intervene or not
The symbol AHH or ALL is usually used for a pressure, temperature or flow measurement
which will initiate an automatic response or sequence of responses. For example a PAHH will
normally initiate an automatic shut down of a component or system and some make safe
responses – open blowdown to reduce system pressure.

11.2 Line Numbering

Line numbers on P&IDs can contain a lot of useful information if one understands the legend.
Unfortunately there is no universal line numbering system - each design contractor has there
own methodology (often linked to pipe specifications)
By way of an example, line numbers can consist of:-

37
EG402A Over Pressure Protection T. Baxter

Piping Specification designations also vary widely in the industry, but typically one should be
able to identify the following form a pipe spec name:-
− Material
− Flange Rating
− Possibly Corrosion Allowance
Flange ratings are identified by numbers in some cases or letter in others e.g.:-

Class 150 01 A
Class 300 03 B
Class 600 06 C
Class 900 09 D
Class 1500 15 E
Class 2500 25 F

12. Key Learnings

HP/LP Interfaces
Main over pressure scenarios
Types of pressure relief valves – standard, balanced bellows and pilot operated.
Bursting discs for rapid response.
HIPPS systems.
Valve Cv and use for determining flow through a valve.
Application of relief valve formulae
Heat exchanger tube rupture
Fire and thermal relief
PFD, P&ID development

38