General Physics I

Lecture 14: Sinusoidal Waves

Prof. WAN, Xin （万歆）

[email protected]
http://zimp.zju.edu.cn/~xinwan/
 Motivation
●
When analyzing a linear medium—that is, one in which
the restoring force acting on the particles of the medium is
proportional to the displacement of the particles—we can
apply the principle of superposition to determine the
resultant disturbance.
●
In the last lecture we discussed this principle as it applies
to wave pulses.
●
Here we study the superposition principle as it applies to
sinusoidal waves. Examples include
−
Beats
−
Standing wave
 Outline
●
A revisit of the linear wave equation
●
Sinusoidal waves on strings
●
Rate of energy transfer by sinusoidal waves on
strings
●
Superposition and interference of sinusoidal waves
●
Beats: Interference in time
●
Standing waves and harmonics
●
Non-sinusoidal wave patterns
 The Linear Wave Equation
The linear wave equation

√
2 2
∂ y 2∂ y K
= v where v=a
∂t
2
∂x
2 M

The linear wave equation applies in general to various types of

waves. For waves on strings, y represents the vertical
displacement of the string. For sound waves, y corresponds to
displacement of air molecules from equilibrium or variations in
either the pressure or the density of the gas through which the
sound waves are propagating. In the case of electromagnetic
waves, y corresponds to electric or magnetic field components.
 The Speed of Waves on Strings

Newton's second law

2
∂ y
(μ Δ x) 2 = T x ( x+Δ x)
∂t
∂y
∂x ∣
x+Δ x
− T x ( x)
∂y
∂x ∣
x

T x (x+Δ x) = T x ( x) ≈ T
Δm = μ Δ x
2 2
∂ y T ∂ y
2
= μ 2
∂t ∂x

v = √ T
μ
x x+ Δ x
 General Solutions
●
Wave functions of the form y = f(x + vt) and y = f(x
– vt) are obviously solutions to the linear wave
equation.
●
The most important family
of the solutions are
sinusoidal waves.

angular angular phase

wave frequency constant
number
Various Forms
t=0

t=0
 Sinusoidal Wave on Strings
●
Each particle of the string, such as that at P,
oscillates vertically with simple harmonic motion.
 Sinusoidal Wave on Strings
●
Note that although each segment oscillates in the y
direction, the wave travels in the x direction with a
speed v. Of course, this is the definition of a
transverse wave.
 Rate of Energy Transfer

We have learned that for simple harmonic oscillation, the

total energy E = K + U is a constant, i.e.,
1
dE = μ ω 2 A2 dx
2
dE 1 2 2
The rate of energy transfer: P = = μω A v
dt 2
 The Principle of Superposition

●
The superposition principle states that when two
or more waves move in the same linear medium,
the net displacement of the medium (that is, the
resultant wave) at any point equals the algebraic
sum of all the displacements caused by the
individual waves.
−
Interference: Same frequency, wavelength, amplitude,
direction. Different phase.
−
Standing waves: Same frequency, wavelength,
amplitude. Different direction.
−
Beats: Different frequency.
 Interference
Same frequency, wavelength, amplitude, direction.
Different phase.
 Interference

●
When , the waves are said to be
everywhere in phase and thus interfere
constructively.
●
When , the resultant wave has zero
amplitude everywhere, as a consequence of
destructive interference.
 Interference of Sound Waves

Δ r =∣r 1−r 2∣

n λ : in phase

(n+1/2)λ : out of phase

Speakers Driven by the Same Source
 Beating: Temporal Interference

●
Beating is the periodic variation in intensity at a
given point due to the superposition of two waves
having slightly different frequencies.
Beating: Temporal Interference
 Beat Frequency
●
The amplitude and therefore the intensity of the
resultant sound vary in time.

●
The two neighboring maxima in the envelop
function are separated by
f 1− f 2
2π ( 2 ) t = π

Beat frequency:
 Standing Waves
Same frequency, wavelength, amplitude. Different
direction.
 Standing Waves
●
A standing wave is an oscillation pattern with a
stationary outline that results from the
superposition of two identical waves traveling in
opposite directions.
−
No sense of motion in the direction of propagation of
either of the original waves.
−
Every particle of the medium oscillates in simple
harmonic motion with the same frequency.
−
Need to distinguish between the amplitude of the
individual waves and the amplitude of the simple
harmonic motion of the particles of the medium.
 Nodes and Antinodes

3λ
Nodes: kx = n π x = λ ,λ , ,⋯
2 2
1 3λ 5λ
( )
Antinodes: kx = n+ π
2
x = λ ,
4 4 4
, ,⋯
 Nodes and Antinodes

The distance between adjacent antinodes is equal to/2.

The distance between adjacent nodes is equal to /2.
The distance between a node and an adjacent antinode is /4.
 Energy in a Standing Wave
●
Except for the nodes, which are always
stationary, all points on the string
oscillate vertically with the same
frequency but with different amplitudes
of simple harmonic motion.
●
No energy is transmitted along the string
across a node, and energy does not
propagate in a standing wave.
In a String Fixed at Both Ends
Standing Waves in Air Columns
 Harmonic Series
●
In general, the wavelength of the various normal modes for
a string of length L fixed at both ends are

●
The frequencies of the normal modes are

●
Frequencies of normal modes that exhibit an integer
multiple relationship such as this form a harmonic series,
and the normal modes are called harmonics.
 Harmonics in Musical Instruments

●
If we wish to excite just a single harmonic, we need to
distort the string in such a way that its distorted shape
corresponded to that of the desired harmonic.
●
If the string is distorted such that its distorted shape is not
that of just one harmonic, the resulting vibration includes
various harmonics. Such a distortion occurs in musical
instruments when the string is plucked (as in a guitar),
bowed (as in a cello), or struck (as in a piano). When the
string is distorted into a non-sinusoidal shape, only waves
that satisfy the boundary conditions can persist on the
string. These are the harmonics.
 Sound Quality or Timbre

Sounds may be generally characterized by pitch (frequency),

loudness (amplitude), and quality.
An “Almost” Square Wave

Fourier analysis of a
periodic function
 Fourier Analysis
● Periodic function f(t) with period T = 2/1, i.e.,
functions such that f(t + T) = f(t) for all t, can be
expanded in a Fourier series of the form

[ 2π 2π
)]
∞
f (t ) = ∑
n=0
An sin n(T )
t + Bn cos n
T
t (
∞
2π ∞
2π
= B0 + ∑
n=1
(
An sin n
T
t + ) ∑ Bn cos n T t
n=1
( )
∞ ∞
= B0 + ∑ An sin ( n ω1 t ) + ∑ Bn cos ( n ω1 t )
n=1 n=1
 Finding Fourier Coefficients

●
Fundamental integrals: for n > 0,
T T
∫0 sin(n ω1 t ) dt = 0 ∫0 cos(n ω1 t) dt = 0

2 T
B0 =
T
∫0
f (t ) dt

2 T
Am =
T
∫0
f (t )sin(m ω1 t ) dt

2 T
Bm = ∫0 f (t ) cos(m ω1 t )dt
T
Exercise: Square Wave

Find out the leading

Fourier coefficients of
a square wave.