Electrical measurements and Instrumentation IV(ECE)

CHAPTER1: Electrical Instruments

1.1. Introduction to Measuring Instruments

Definition of instruments
An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the quantity
to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.

(i)Absolute Instrument (ii)Secondary Instrument

Absolute instrument
An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in terms of
the instrument parameter. This instrument is really used, because each time the value of the
measuring quantities varies. So we have to calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity,
analytically which is time consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory
use.
Example: Tangent galvanometer.

Secondary instrument
This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly. Generally these
instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard secondary instrument.
Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically
secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.

Secondary instruments are classified into

(i)Indicating instruments (ii)Recording (iii) Integrating (iv) Electromechanically Indicating
instruments
(i) Indicating instrument
This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value of measuring quantity. The
pointer indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity.
(ii) Recording instrument
This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously
over a specified period of time.
(iii) Integrating instrument
This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity to be measured over a specified
period of time.
(iv) Electromechanical indicating instrument
For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are
necessary.
They are
(a) Deflecting force
(b) Controlling force
(c)Damping force
(a) Deflecting force
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero position. To
deflect the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known as deflecting
force. A system which produces the deflecting force is known as a deflecting system.
Generally a deflecting system converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force.

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Fig. 1.1 Pointer scale

(a).1 Magnitude effect
When a current passes through the coil (Fig.1.2), it produces a imaginary bar magnet. When a
soft-iron piece is brought near this coil it is magnetized. Depending upon the current direction
the poles are produced in such a way that there will be a force of attraction between the coil
andthe soft iron piece. This principle is used in moving iron attraction type instrument.

Fig 1.2
If two soft iron pieces are place near a current carrying coil there will be a force of repulsion
between the two soft iron pieces. This principle is utilized in the moving iron repulsion type
instrument.

(a).2 Force between a permanent magnet and a current carrying coil

When a current carrying coil is placed under the influence of magnetic field produced by a
permanent magnet and a force is produced between them. This principle is utilized in the
moving coil type instrument.

Fig 1.3

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(a).3 Force between two current carrying coil

When two current carrying coils are placed closer to each other there will be a force of
repulsion between them. If one coil is movable and other is fixed, the movable coil will move
away from the fixed one. This principle is utilized in electrodynamometer type instrument.

Fig1.4
b. Controlling force
To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force is necessary
which will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force. This force is known as
controllingforce. A system which produces this force is known as a controlled system. When
the external signal to be measured by the instrument is removed, the pointer should return
back to the zero position. This is possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be
indicating a steady value when the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.
Td = Tc _____ (1.1)

(b).1 Spring control

Two springs are attached on either end of spindle (Fig. 1.5).The spindle is placed in jewelled
bearing, so that the frictional force between the pivot and spindle will be minimum. Two
springs are provided in opposite direction to compensate the temperature error. The spring is
made of phosphorous bronze.

When a current is supply, the pointer deflects due to rotation of the spindle. While spindle is
rotate, the spring attached with the spindle will oppose the movements of the pointer. The
torque produced by the spring is directly proportional to the pointer deflectionq .
TC α θ________________(1.2)

The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to ‘I’. WhenTC = Td , the pointer will come
to a steady position. Therefore
θ α I_________________ (1.3)

Since, θ and I are directly proportional to the scale of such instrument which uses spring
controlled is uniform.

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Fig 1.5

C.Damping force
The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro mechanical.
Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates about it final steady position
before coming to rest. The time required to take the measurement is more. To damp out the
oscillation is quickly, a damping force is necessary. This force is produced by different
systems.
(a) Air friction damping
(b) Fluid friction damping
(c) Eddy current damping

C.1 Air friction damping

The piston is mechanically connected to a spindle through the connecting rod (Fig. 1.6). The
pointer is fixed to the spindle moves over a calibrated dial. When the pointer oscillates in
clockwise direction, the piston goes inside and the cylinder gets compressed. The air pushes
the piston upwards and the pointer tends to move in anticlockwise direction.

If the pointer oscillates in anticlockwise direction the piston moves away and the pressure of
the air inside cylinder gets reduced. The external pressure is more than that of the internal
pressure.
Therefore the piston moves down wards. The pointer tends to move in clock wise direction.

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Fig 1.6

C.2 Eddy current damping

Fig1.6(Disc Type)

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An aluminum circular disc is fixed to the spindle (Fig. 1.6). This disc is made to move in the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet.

When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by damping magnet. An emf is
induced in the circular disc by faradays law. Eddy currents are established in the disc since it
has several closed paths. By Lenz’s law, the current carrying disc produced a force in a
direction opposite to oscillating force. The damping force can be varied by varying the
projection of the magnet over the circular disc.

1.2. Ammeters and Voltmeters

Analog ammeters and voltmeters are classed together ass there are no fundamental
differences in their operating principles. The action of all ammeters and voltmeters with the
exception of electrostatic type of instruments, depends upon a deflecting torque produced by
an electric circuit
In an ammeter this torque is produced by a current to be measured or by definite fraction of
it. In a voltmeter this torque is produced by a current which is proportional to voltage to be
measured.
The main types of instruments used as ammeters and voltmeters are
(i)Permanent magnet Moving coil(PMMC)
(ii)Moving Iron

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(i)Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C. measurements is PMMC
instrument.
Construction: A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument. Aluminum former is
provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent magnet (Fig. 1.7). Coils are
wound on the aluminum former which is connected with the spindle. This spindle is
supported with jeweled bearing. Two springs are attached on either end of the spindle. The
terminals of the moving coils are connected to the spring. Therefore the current flows through
spring 1, moving coil and spring 2.
Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.
Control: Spring control is used.

fig 1.7

Principle of operation
When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows through it. When the
current carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force produces
a torque and the former rotates. The pointer is attached with the spindle. When the former
rotates, the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. When the polarity is reversed a torque is
produced in the opposite direction. The mechanical stopper does not allow the deflection in
the opposite direction. Therefore the polarity should be maintained with PMMC instrument.
If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a continuous
deflection.
Therefore this instrument cannot be used in A.C.
Torque developed by PMMC
Let Td =deflecting torque, TC = controlling torque,θ = angle of deflection,K=spring constant
b=width of the coil, l=height of the coil or length of coil, N=No. of turns, I=current
B=Flux density, A=area of the coil
The force produced in the coil is given by
F = BIL sinθ ______ (1.4)
When

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θ = 90°

For N turns, F NBIL____________ (1.5)

Torque produced Td Fr distance________ (1.6)
Td = NBIL b =BINA ______(1.7)
Td =BANI _______(1.8)
Td (1.9)
Advantages
 Torque/weight is high
 Power consumption is less
 Scale is uniform
 Damping is very effective
 Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field is negligible
 Range of instrument can be extended
Disadvantages
 Use only for D.C.
 Cost is high
 Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
 Friction and temperature error are present

Extension of range of PMMC instrument

Case-I: Shunt
A low shunt resistance connected in parrel with the ammeter to extent the range of current.
Large current can be measured using low current rated ammeter by using a shunt.

Fig. 1.8
Let Rm =Resistance of meter, Rsh=Resistance of shunt, Im = Current through meter
Ish =current through shunt, I= current to be measure
 Vm =Vsh ___________(1.10)

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ImRm = I shRsh

Apply KCL at ‘P’ I = Im + Ish ________(1.12)

Shunt resistance is made of manganin. This has least thermoelectric emf. The change is
resistance, due to change in temperature is negligible.

Case (II): Multiplier

A large resistance is connected in series with voltmeter is called multiplier (Fig. 1.9). A large
voltage can be measured using a voltmeter of small rating with a multiplier.

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Let Rm =resistance of meter, Rse =resistance of multiplier,Vm =Voltage across meter

Vse= Voltage across series resistance,V= voltage to be measured
Im = Ise

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(ii)Moving Iron (MI) instruments

One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC measurement is moving iron
instrument. There are two types of moving iron instrument.
• Attraction type
• Repulsion type
Attraction type M.I. instrument
Construction: The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed coil (Fig.
1.10).
The pointer and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported with jeweled
bearing. Here air friction damping is used.
Principle of operation
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow through
the fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic induction the moving iron gets
magnetized. The north pole of moving iron is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus
the deflecting force is produced due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is attached
with the spindle, the spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But the
force of attraction depends on the current flowing through the coil.
Torque developed by M.I
Let ‘θ’ be the deflection corresponding to a current of ‘i’ amp
Let the current increases by di, the corresponding deflection is ‘θ + d θ ’

Fig1.10
There is change in inductance since the position of moving iron change w.r.t the fixed
electromagnets.
Let the new inductance value be ‘L+dL’. The current change by ‘di’ is dt seconds.
Let the emf induced in the coil be ‘e’ volt.

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Eqn (1.24) gives the energy is used in to two forms. Part of energy is stored in the inductance.
Remaining energy is converted in to mechanical energy which produces deflection.

Fig 1.11

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When the instruments measure AC, θ α i2 rms

Scale of the instrument is non uniform.
Advantages
 MI can be used in AC and DC
 It is cheap
 Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
 Simple construction
 Less friction error.
Disadvantages
 It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
 Scale is not uniform
 It consumed more power
 Calibration is different for AC and DC operation

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Repulsion type moving iron instrument

Construction: The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron attached to it (Fig.
1.12).
The moving iron is connected to the spindle. The pointer is also attached to the spindle in
supported with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation: When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is
produced by it. So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity,
since they are kept in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and moving iron get
repelled. Thus the deflecting torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since moving
iron is attached to spindle, the spindle will move. So that pointer moves over the calibrated
scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the oscillation.
Control: Spring control is used.

fig1.12
Difference between attraction and repulsion type instrument
An attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance, compare to repulsion type
instrument. But in other hand, repulsion type instruments are more suitable for economical
production in manufacture and nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained. They are therefore much
more common than attraction type.
Errors in PMMC
 The permanent magnet produced error due to ageing effect. By heat treatment, this error
can be eliminated.
 The spring produces error due to ageing effect. By heat treating the spring the error can
be eliminated.
 When the temperature changes, the resistance of the coil vary and the spring also
produces error in deflection. This error can be minimized by using a spring whose
temperature co-efficient is very low.

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Error in M.I instrument

1 Temperature error
Due to temperature variation, the resistance of the coil varies. This affects the deflection of
the instrument. The coil should be made of manganin, so that the resistance is almost
constant.
2 Hysteresis error
Due to hysteresis affect the reading of the instrument will not be correct. When the current is
decreasing, the flux produced will not decrease suddenly. Due to this the meter reads a higher
value of current. Similarly when the current increases the meter reads a lower value of
current.
This produces error in deflection. This error can be eliminated using small iron parts with
narrow hysteresis loop so that the demagnetization takes place very quickly.
3 Eddy current error
The eddy currents induced in the moving iron affect the deflection. This error can be reduced
by increasing the resistance of the iron.
4.Stray field error
Since the operating field is weak, the effect of stray field is more. Due to this, error is
produced in deflection. This can be eliminated by shielding the parts of the instrument.

Characteristics of meter

1 Full scale deflection current( IFSD )

The current required to bring the pointer to full-scale or extreme right side of the
instrument is called full scale deflection current. It must be as small as possible. Typical
value is between 2μ A to 30mA.

2 Resistance of the coil( Rm )

This is ohmic resistance of the moving coil. It is due to r , L and A. For an ammeter this
should be as small as possible.
3 Sensitivity of the meter(S)

It is also called ohms/volt rating of the instrument. Larger the sensitivity of an instrument,
more accurate is the instrument. It is measured in Ω/volt. When the sensitivity is high, the
impedance of meter is high. Hence it draws less current and loading affect is negligible. It is
also defend as one over full scale deflection current.

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Multi range Ammeter

When the switch is connected to position (1), the supplied current I1

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Ayrton Shunt

Fig1.22
Ayrton shunt is also called universal shunt. Ayrton shunt has more sections of resistance.
Taps are brought out from various points of the resistor. The variable points in the o/p can be
connected to any position. Various meters require different types of shunts. The Aryton shunt
is used in the lab, so that any value of resistance between minimum and maximum specified
can be used. It eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the circuit without a shunt.
Multi range D.C. voltmeter

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We can obtain different Voltage ranges by connecting different value of multiplier resistor in
series with the meter. The number of these resistors is equal to the number of ranges required.

Potential divider arrangement

The resistance R1,R2,R3 and R4 is connected in series to obtained the ranges V1,V2,V3 and
V4

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1.3. Watt meters

POWER MEASUREMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Electric power is the rate of doing work. It is expressed in Watts. The higher units of
power used in practice include kilowatts, megawatts, etc. PWatts = VI COS φ , i.e., a power
of one watt is said to be expended when a source of one volt passes a current of one ampere
through a load resistance/ impedance of one ohm at unity power factor.
The power measurements are made with the help of a wattmeter. Wattmeter is an indicating
deflecting type of instrument used in laboratories for measurement of power in various
ranges. A wattmeter consists of two coils as shown in the schematic representative
figure1.3.1

Fig.1. 3.1 Wattmeter Connections

Current coil (CC): connected in series with circuit and carries the load current. It is designed such
that it is wound with 2 to 3 turns of thick wire and hence it has a very low resistance.
Voltage or Pressure or Potential coil (PC):
connected across the load circuit and hence carries a current proportional to the load current. The
total load voltage appears across the PC. It is designed such that it is wound with several turns of
thin wire and hence it has a very high resistance.

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The wattmeter can be a UPF meter or LPF meter depending on the type of the load connected in
the measuring circuit. For power measurements in AC circuits, the wattmeter is widely adopted.
In principle and construction, it is a combination of those applicable for an ammeter and a
voltmeter.
The electrical power can be of three forms:
Real power or simply, the power is the power consumed by the resistive loads on the system.
It is expressed in watts (W). This is also referred as true power, absolute power, average
power, or wattage.
Reactive power is the power consumed by the reactive loads on the system. It is expressed in
reactive volt-amperes (VAr).
Apparent power is the vector sum of the above two power components. It is expressed in
volt-amperes (VA).

Fig1.3.2 The Power Triangle

Thus, it is observed from the power triangle shown in figure 1.3.2, that more is the deviation
of power factor from its unity value, more is the deviation of real power from the apparent
power. Also, we have
VA2 = W2 + VAr2
And power factor, cos ϕ = ( Watts / VA )

1.3.2 SINGLE PHASE REAL POWER MEASUREMENTS

1.3.2.1 Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
An electrodynamometer wattmeter consists of two fixed coils, FA and FB and a moving coil
M as shown in figure1. 3.3. The fixed coils are connected in series with the load and hence
carry the load current. These fixed coils form the current coil of the wattmeter. The moving
coil is connected across the load and hence carries a current proportional to the voltage across
the load. A highly non-inductive resistance R is put in series with the moving coil to limit the
current to a small value. The moving coil forms the potential coil of the wattmeter

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Fig. 1.3.3 Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

The fixed coils are wound with heavy wire of minimum number of turns. The fixed coils
embrace the moving coil. Spring control is used for movement and damping is by air. The
deflecting torque is proportional to the product of the currents in the two coils. Theses watt
meters can be used for both DC and AC measurements. Since the deflection is proportional to
the average power and the spring control torque is proportional to the deflection, the scale is
uniform. The meter is free from waveform errors. However, they are more expensive.
3.2.2. Expression for the deflection torque:
Let iC, iP : Current in the fixed and moving coils respectively, M : Mutual inductance
between the two coils, θ : Steady final deflection of the instrument, K: Spring constant,
V, I : RMS values of voltage and current in the measuring circuit and RP : Pressure coil
resistance.
Instantaneous voltage across pressure coil, v = √2 V sin wt
Instantaneous current in the pressure coil, i P = √2 V/RP sin wt = √2 IP sin wt
Instantaneous current in the current coil, i C = √2 I sin (wt-ϕ)
Instantaneous torque is given by: T i = iC iP ( d M / d θ )
= [ √2 I sin (wt-ϕ) ] [ √2 IP sin wt ] ( d M / d θ )

Since the controlling torque, Tc=Kθ, we have at balance of the moving pointer, Td=Tc, so
that, θ = [ V I cos ϕ / ( K RP ) ] ( d M / d θ )
= ( K’ d M / d θ ) P________ (1.3.5)

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Where K’ = K RP and P is the power consumption. Thus the deflection of the wattmeter is
found to be the direct indication of the power being consumed in the load circuit.

3.2.3 Low Power Factor Wattmeter

If an ordinary electrodynamometer wattmeter is used for measurement of power in low power
factor circuits, (PF<0.5), then the measurements would be difficult and inaccurate since:
• The deflecting torque exerted on the moving system will be very small and

• Errors are introduced due to pressure coil inductance (which is large at LPF) Thus, in a LPF
wattmeter, special features are incorporated in a general electro-dynamometer wattmeter circuit
to make it suitable for use in LPF circuits as under:
(a) Pressure coil current:

The pressure coil circuit is designed to have a low value of resistance so that the current through
the pressure coil is increased to provide an increased operating torque.
(b) Compensation for pressure coil current:
On account of low power factor, the power is small and the current is high. In this context, there
are two possible connections of the potential coil of a wattmeter as shown in figure1.3.4. The
connection (a) can not be used, since owing to the high load current, there would be a high power
loss in the current coil and hence the wattmeter reading would be with a large error. If the
connection (b) is used, then the power loss in the pressure coil circuit is also included in the meter
readings.

Fig 1.3.4

Thus it is necessary to compensate for the pressure coil current in a low power factor wattmeter.
For this, a compensating coil is used in the instrument to compensate for the power loss in the
pressure coil circuit as shown in figure 3.5.
(c) Compensation for pressure coil inductance:
At low power factor, the error caused by the pressure coil inductance is very large. Hence, this
has to be compensated, by connecting a capacitor C across a portion of the
series resistance in the pressure coil circuit as shown in figure 3.5.
(d) Realizing a small control torque:
Low power factor wattmeters are designed to have a very small control torque so that they can
provide full scale deflection (f.s.d.) for power factor values as low as 10%. Thus, the complete
circuit of a low power factor wattmeter is as shown in figure 3.5.

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Fic 1.3.5

1.3.3 REACTIVE POWER MEASUREMENTS

A single wattmeter can also be used for three phase reactive power measurements. For example,
the connection of a single wattmeter for 3-phase reactive power measurement in a balanced three
phase circuit is as shown in figure1. 3.6.

Fig. 1.3.6 Reactive power measurement circuit

The current coil of the wattmeter is inserted in one line and the potential coil is connected across
the other two lines. Thus, the voltage applied to the voltage coil is V RB= VR-VB, where, VR and
VB are the phase voltage values of lines R and B respectively, as illustrated by the phasor diagram
of figure 1.3.7.

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figure 1.3.7

Phasor diagram for reactive power measurements

Fig 1.3.8

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1.3.4 THREE PHASE REAL POWER MEASUREMENTS

The three phase real power is given by,
P3ph= 3 Vph Iph cos Ø or
P3ph= √3 VL IL cos Ø (3.8)
The three phase power can be measured by using either one wattmeter, two wattmeters or three
wattmeters in the measuring circuit. Of these, the two wattmeter method is widely used for the
obvious advantages of measurements involved in it as discussed below.
1.3.4.1 Single Wattmeter Method
Here only one wattmeter is used for measurement of three phase power. For circuits with the
balanced loads, we have: W3ph=3(wattmeter reading). For circuits with the unbalanced loads, we
have: W3ph=sum of the three readings obtained separately by connecting wattmeter in each of the
three phases. If the neutral point is not available (3 phase 3 wire circuits) then an artificial neutral
is created for wattmeter connection purposes. Instead three wattmeters can be connected
simultaneously to measure the three phase power. However, this involves more number of meters
to be used for measurements and hence is not preferred in practice. Instead, the three phase power
can be easily measured by using only two wattmeters, as discussed next.
1.3.4.2 Two Wattmeter Method
The circuit diagram for two wattmeter method of measurement of three phase real power is as
shown in the figure 3.7. The current coil of the wattmeters W 1 and W2 are inserted respectively in
R and Y phases. The potential coils of the two wattmeters are joined together to phase B, the third
phase. Thus, the voltage applied to the voltage coil of the meter, W 1 is VRB= VR-VB, while the
voltage applied to the voltage coil of the meter, W 2 is VYB=VY-VB, where, VR, VB and VC are the
phase voltage values of lines R, Y and B respectively, as illustrated by the phasor diagram of
figure 3.8. Thus, the reading of the two wattmeters can be obtained based on the phasor diagram
of figure 3.8, as follows:

Where Ø is the lagging PF angle of the load. It is to be noted that the equations (3.11) and (3.12)
get exchanged if the load is considered to be of leading PF.

Two wattmeter method of 3-phase power measurement

Fig:Phasor diagram for real power measurements

The readings of the two wattmeters used for real power measurements in three phase circuits as
above vary with the load power factor as described in the table 3.1.

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Variation of wattmeter readings with load PF (lag)

1.4 Energy meters

SINGLE AND THREE PHASE ENERGY METERS
An electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical energy
consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically powered device.
Electric meters are typically calibrated in billing units, the most common one being the kilowatt
hour. Periodic readings of electric meters establishes billing cycles and energy used during a
cycle.
In settings when energy savings during certain periods are desired, meters may measure demand,
the maximum use of power in some interval. In some areas, the electric rates are higher during
certain times of day, to encourage reduction in use. Also, in some areas meters have relays to turn
off nonessential equipment.

UNIT OF MEASUREMENT
The most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour, which is
equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowattover a period of one hour, or
3,600,000 joules. Some electricity companies use the SI megajoule instead.
Demand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a quarter or half
hour.
Reactive power is measured in "Volt-amperes reactive", (varh) in kilovar-hours. By convention, a
"lagging" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have positive reactive power. A "leading", or
capacitive load, will have negative reactive powerVolt-amperes measures all power passed
through a distribution network, including reactive and actual. This is equal to the product of root-
mean-square volts and amperes.
Distortion of the electric current by loads is measured in several ways. Power factor is the ratio of
resistive (or real power) to volt-amperes. A capacitive load has a leading power factor, and an
inductive load has a lagging power factor. A purely resistive load (such as a filament lamp, heater
or kettle) exhibits a power factor of 1. Current harmonics are a measure of distortion of the wave
form. For example, electronic loads such as computer power supplies draw their current at the
voltage peak to fill their internal storage elements. This can lead to a significant voltage drop near
the supply voltage peak which shows as a flattening of the voltage waveform. This flattening
causes odd harmonics which are not permissible if they exceed specific limits, as they are not
only wasteful, but may interfere with the operation of other equipment. Harmonic emissions are
mandated by law in EU and other countries to fall within specified limits.

OTHER UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

In addition to metering based on the amount of energy used, other types of metering are available.
Meters which measured the amount of charge (coulombs) used, known as ampere-hour meters,
were used in the early days of electrification. These were dependent upon the supply voltage

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remaining constant for accurate measurement of energy usage, which was not a likely
circumstance with most supplies.
Some meters measured only the length of time for which charge flowed, with no measurement of
the magnitude of voltage or current being made. These were only suited for constant-load
applications.

1.5 Magnetic Measurements

B-H Cureve
MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
Hysteresis is well known in ferromagnetic materials. When an external magnetic field is applied
to a ferromagnet, the atomic dipoles align themselves with the external field. Even when the
external field is removed, part of the alignment will be retained: the material has become
magnetized.

The relationship between magnetic field strength (H) and magnetic flux density (B) is not linear
in such materials. If the relationship between the two is plotted for increasing levels of field
strength, it will follow a curve up to a point where further increases in magnetic field strength
will result in no further change in flux density. This condition is called magnetic saturation.
If the magnetic field is now reduced linearly, the plotted relationship will follow a different curve
back towards zero field strength at which point it will be offset from the original curve by an
amount called the remanent flux density or remanence.
If this relationship is plotted for all strengths of applied magnetic field the result is a sort of S-
shaped loop. The 'thickness' of the middle bit of the S describes the amount of hysteresis, related
to the coercivity of the material.
Its practical effects might be, for example, to cause a relay to be slow to release due to the
remaining magnetic field continuing to attract the armature when the applied electric current to
the operating coil is removed.

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This curve for a particular material influences the design of a magnetic circuit

This is also a very important effect in magnetic tape and other magnetic storage media like hard
disks. In these materials it would seem obvious to have one polarity represent a bit, say north for
1 and south for 0. However, to change the storage from one to the other, the hysteresis effect
requires the knowledge of what was already there, because the needed field will be different in
each case. In order to avoid this problem, recording systems first overdrive the entire system into
a known state using a process known asbias. Analog magnetic recording also uses this technique.
Different materials require different biasing, which is why there is a selector switch for this on the
front of most cassette recorders.
In order to minimize this effect and the energy losses associated with it, ferromagnetic substances
with low coercivity and low hysteresis loss are used, likepermalloy.
In many applications small hysteresis loops are driven around points in the B-H plane. Loops
near the origin have a higher μ. The smaller loops the more they have a soft magnetic (lengthy)
shape. As a special case, a damped AC field demagnetizes any material.
Magnetic field hysteresis loss causes heating. This effect is used in induction cooking, where an
alternating magnetic field causes a ferrite container to heat directly rather than being heated by an
external heat-source.

1.6. FREQUENCY AND PHASE MEASUREMENT

An important electrical quantity with no equivalent in DC circuits is frequency. Frequency

measurement is very important in many applications of alternating current, especially in AC
power systems designed to run efficiently at one frequency and one frequency only. If the AC
is being generated by an electromechanical alternator, the frequency will be directly
proportional to the shaft speed of the machine, and frequency could be measured simply by
measuring the speed of the shaft. If frequency needs to be measured at some distance from
the alternator, though, other means of measurement will be necessary.
One simple but crude method of frequency measurement in power systems utilizes the
principle of mechanical resonance. Every physical object possessing the property of elasticity
(springiness) has an inherent frequency at which it will prefer to vibrate. The tuning fork is a
great example of this: strike it once and it will continue to vibrate at a tone specific to its
length. Longer tuning forks have lower resonant frequencies: their tones will be lower on the
musical scale than shorter forks.

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Imagine a row of progressively-sized tuning forks arranged side-by-side. They are all
mounted on a common base, and that base is vibrated at the frequency of the measured AC
voltage (or current) by means of an electromagnet. Whichever tuning fork is closest in
resonant frequency to the frequency of that vibration will tend to shake the most (or the
loudest). If the forks' tines were flimsy enough, we could see the relative motion of each by
the length of the blur we would see as we inspected each one from an end-view perspective. Well,
make a collection of “tuning forks” out of a strip of sheet metal cut in a pattern akin to a rake, and
you have the vibrating reed frequency meter: (Figure below)

Fig:Vibrating reed frequency meter diagram.

The user of this meter views the ends of all those unequal length reeds as they are collectively
shaken at the frequency of the applied AC voltage to the coil. The one closest in resonant
frequency to the applied AC will vibrate the most, looking something like Figure below.

Vibrating reed frequency meter front panel.

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Vibrating reed meters, obviously, are not precision instruments, but they are very simple and
therefore easy to manufacture to be rugged. They are often found on small engine-driven
generator sets for the purpose of setting engine speed so that the frequency is somewhat close to
60 (50 in Europe) Hertz.
While reed-type meters are imprecise, their operational principle is not. In lieu of mechanical
resonance, we may substitute electrical resonance and design a frequency meter using an inductor
and capacitor in the form of a tank circuit (parallel inductor and capacitor). See Figure below.
One or both components are made adjustable, and a meter is placed in the circuit to indicate
maximum amplitude of voltage across the two components. The adjustment knob(s) are
calibrated to show resonant frequency for any given setting, and the frequency is read from them
after the device has been adjusted for maximum indication on the meter. Essentially, this is a
tunable filter circuit which is adjusted and then read in a manner similar to a bridge circuit (which
must be balanced for a “null” condition and then read).

Resonant frequency meter “peaks” as L-C resonant frequency is tuned to test frequency.
This technique is a popular one for amateur radio operators (or at least it was before the advent of
inexpensive digital frequency instruments calledcounters), especially because it doesn't require
direct connection to the circuit. So long as the inductor and/or capacitor can intercept enough
stray field (magnetic or electric, respectively) from the circuit under test to cause the meter to
indicate, it will work.
In frequency as in other types of electrical measurement, the most accurate means of
measurement are usually those where an unknown quantity is compared against a known
standard, the basic instrument doing nothing more than indicating when the two quantities are
equal to each other. This is the basic principle behind the DC (Wheatstone) bridge circuit and it is
a sound metrological principle applied throughout the sciences. If we have access to an accurate
frequency standard (a source of AC voltage holding very precisely to a single frequency), then
measurement of any unknown frequency by comparison should be relatively easy.
For that frequency standard, we turn our attention back to the tuning fork, or at least a more
modern variation of it called the quartz crystal. Quartz is a naturally occurring mineral possessing
a very interesting property called piezoelectricity. Piezoelectric materials produce a voltage
across their length when physically stressed, and will physically deform when an external voltage
is applied across their lengths. This deformation is very, very slight in most cases, but it does
exist.

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Quartz rock is elastic (springy) within that small range of bending which an external voltage would
produce, which means that it will have a mechanical resonant frequency of its own capable of being
manifested as an electrical voltage signal. In other words, if a chip of quartz is struck, it will “ring”
with its own unique frequency determined by the length of the chip, and that resonant oscillation will
produce an equivalent voltage across multiple points of the quartz chip which can be tapped into by
wires fixed to the surface of the chip. In reciprocal manner, the quartz chip will tend to vibrate most
when it is “excited” by an applied AC voltage at precisely the right frequency, just like the reeds on a
vibrating-reed frequency meter.
Chips of quartz rock can be precisely cut for desired resonant frequencies, and that chip mounted
securely inside a protective shell with wires extending for connection to an external electric
circuit. When packaged as such, the resulting device is simply called a crystal (or sometimes
“xtal”). The schematic symbol is shown in Figure below.

Crystal or Xtal

Crystal (frequency determing element) schematic symbol.

Electrically, that quartz chip is equivalent to a series LC resonant circuit. (Figure below) The
dielectric properties of quartz contribute an additional capacitive element to the equivalent circuit.

Quartz crystal equivalent circuit.

The “capacitance” and “inductance” shown in series are merely electrical equivalents of the quartz's
mechanical resonance properties: they do not exist as discrete components within the crystal. The

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capacitance shown in parallel due to the wire connections across the dielectric (insulating) quartz
body is real, and it has an effect on the resonant response of the whole system. A full discussion on
crystal dynamics is not necessary here, but what needs to be understood about crystals is this resonant
circuit equivalence and how it can be exploited within an oscillator circuit to achieve an output
voltage with a stable, known frequency.
Crystals, as resonant elements, typically have much higher “Q” (quality) values than tank circuits
built from inductors and capacitors, principally due to the relative absence of stray resistance, making
their resonant frequencies very definite and precise. Because the resonant frequency is solely
dependent on the physical properties of quartz (a very stable substance, mechanically), the resonant
frequency variation over time with a quartz crystal is very, very low. This is how quartz movement
watches obtain their high accuracy: by means of an electronic oscillator stabilized by the resonant
action of a quartz crystal.
For laboratory applications, though, even greater frequency stability may be desired. To achieve
this, the crystal in question may be placed in a temperature stabilized environment

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CHAPTER2: Instrument Transformers and Non Electrical Measurements

2.1 Instrument Transformers

Instrument Transformers Basics
In power systems, currents and voltages handled are very large.
Direct measurements are not possible with the existing equipments.
Hence it is required to step down currents and voltages with the help of instrument transformers
so that they can be measured with instruments of moderate sizes
Instrument Transformers
Transformers used in conjunction with measuring instruments for measurement purposes are
called “Instrument Transformers”.
The instrument used for the measurement of current is called a “Current Transformer” or simply
“CT”.
The transformers used for the measurement of voltage are called “Voltage transformer” or
“Potential transformer” or simply “PT”.

Fig1:Current Transformer Fig2:Potential Transformer

Fig 1. indicates the current measurement by a C.T. The current being measured passes through
the primary winding and the secondary winding is connected to an ammeter. The C.T. steps down
the current to the level of ammeter.
Fig 2. shows the connection of P.T. for voltage measurement. The primary winding is connected
to the voltage being measured and the secondary winding to a voltmeter. The P.T. steps down the
voltage to the level of voltmeter.
Merits of Instrument Transformers:
1. Instruments of moderate size are used for metering i.e. 5A for current and 100 to 120 volts for
voltage measurements.
2. Instrument and meters can be standardized so that there is saving in costs. Replacement of
damaged instruments is easy.
3. Single range instruments can be used to cover large current or voltage ranges, when used with
suitable multi range instrument transformers.
4. The metering circuit is isolated from the high voltage power circuits. Hence isolation is not a
problem and the safety is assured for the operators
5. There is low power consumption in metering circuit.
6. Several instruments can be operated from a single instrument

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Nominal Ratio: It is the ratio of rated primary winding current (voltage) to the rated
secondary winding current (voltage).

Turns Ratio: This is defined as below

Burden of an Instrument Transformer:

The rated burden is the volt ampere loading which is permissible without errors exceeding the
particular class of accuracy

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Current Transformer equivalent circuit:

X1 = Primary leakage reactance

R1 = Primary winding resistance
X2 = Secondary leakage reactance
Z0 = Magnetizing impedance
R2 = Secondary winding resistance
Zb = Secondary load
Note: Normally the leakage fluxes X1 and X2 can be neglected
2.3. Current transformer, simplified equivalent circuit:

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Current transformer: Phase displacement and current ratio error :

Construction of CT
Construction of Current Transformer:
Current transformers are constructed in various ways. In one method there are two separate
windings on a magnetic steel core. The primary winding consists of a few turns of heavy wire
capable of carrying the full load current while the secondary winding consist of many turns of
smaller wire with a current carrying capacity of between 5/20 amperes, dependent on the design.
This is called the wound type due to its wound primary coil.

Wound Type

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Phasor Diagram

Angle by which the reversed I2 differs in phase from the I1vector

Ideally the I2should lag the I1by 1800and hence the phase angle is ZERO
In practice this angle is < 1800due to magnetizing and loss component of the I1

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Potential Transformer Basics

Potential transformers are normally connected across two lines of the circuit in which the voltage
is to be measured. Normally they will be connected L-L (line-to-line) or L-G (line-to-ground). A
typical connection is as follows:
Phasor Diagram of Potential Transformer:
The theory of a potential transformer is the same as that of a power transformer. The main
difference is that the power loading of a P.T. is very small and consequently the exciting current
is of the same order as the secondary winding current while in a power transformer the exciting
current is a very small fraction of secondary winding load current.

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2.2. Torque . Speed measurement

Torque Measurement
Measurement of applied torques is of fundamental importance in all rotating bodies
to ensure that the design of the rotating element is adequate to prevent failure under
shear stresses. Torque measurement is also a necessary part of measuring the power
transmitted by rotating shafts. The two traditional methods of measuring torque consist
of (i) the ‘Prony brake’method and (ii) measuring the strain produced in a rotating body due
to an appliedtorque. However, recent developments in electronics and optic-fibre technology
now offer an alternative method as described below.
Prony brake
The principle of the Prony brake is illustrated in Figure 2.2.1. It is used to measure
the torque in a rotating shaft and consists of a rope wound round the shaft. One end of
the rope is attached to a spring balance and the other end carries a load in the form of
a standard mass, m. If the measured force in the spring balance is Fs, then the effective
force, Fe, exerted by the rope on the shaft is given by:
Fe = mg _ Fs
If the radius of the shaft is Rs and that of the rope is Rr, then the effective radius, Re,
of the rope and drum with respect to the axis of rotation of the shaft is given by:
Re = Rs C Rr
The torque in the shaft, T, can then be calculated as:
T = FeRe
Whilst this is a well-known method of measuring shaft torque, a lot of heat is generated
because of friction between the rope and shaft, and water cooling is usually necessary.

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Figure 2.2.1.Prony Brake

Measurement of induced strain
Measuring the strain induced in a shaft due to an applied torque has been the most
common method used for torque measurement in recent years. It is a very attractive
method because it does not disturb the measured system by introducing friction torques
in the same way as the last two methods described do. The method involves bonding
four strain gauges onto the shaft as shown in Figure 2.2.2, where the strain gauges
are arranged in a d.c. bridge circuit. The output from the bridge circuit is a function
of the strain in the shaft and hence of the torque applied. It is very important that the
positioning of the strain gauges on the shaft is precise, and the difficulty in achieving
this makes the instrument relatively expensive.
The technique is ideal for measuring the stalled torque in a shaft before rotation
commences. However, a problem is encountered in the case of rotating shafts because
a suitable method then has to be found for making the electrical connections to the
strain gauges. One solution to this problem found in many commercial instruments is
to use a system of slip rings and brushes for this, although this increases the cost of
the instrument still further.

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Figure 2.2.2:Position of the Torque Measuring strain gauges on shaft

.
Optical torque measurement
Optical techniques for torque measurement have become available recently with the
development of laser diodes and fibre-optic light transmission systems. One such
system is shown in Figure 2.2.3. Two black-and-white striped wheels are mounted
at either end of the rotating shaft and are in alignment when no torque is applied to the
shaft. Light from a laser diode light source is directed by a pair of optic-fibre cables
onto the wheels. The rotation of the wheels causes pulses of reflected light and these
are transmitted back to a receiver by a second pair of fibre-optic cables. Under zero
torque conditions, the two pulse trains of reflected light are in phase with each other.
If torque is now applied to the shaft, the reflected light is modulated. Measurement
by the receiver of the phase difference between the reflected pulse trains therefore
allows the magnitude of torque in the shaft to be calculated. The cost of such instruments
is relatively low, and an additional advantage in many applications is their small
physical size.

Figure 2.2.3Optical Torque Measurement

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Rotational velocity
The main application of rotational velocity transducers is in speed control systems.
They also provide the usual means of measuring translational velocities, which are
transformed into rotational motions for measurement purposes by suitable gearing.
Many different instruments and techniques are available for measuring rotational
velocity as presented below.

Digital tachometers
Digital tachometers, or to give them their proper title, digital tachometric generators,
are usually non-contact instruments that sense the passage of equally spaced marks
on the surface of a rotating disc or shaft. Measurement resolution is governed by the
number of marks around the circumference. Various types of sensor are used, such as
optical, inductive and magnetic ones. As each mark is sensed, a pulse is generated
and input to an electronic pulse counter. Usually, velocity is calculated in terms of
the pulse count in unit time, which of course only yields information about the mean
velocity. If the velocity is changing, instantaneous velocity can be calculated at each
instant of time that an output pulse occurs, using the scheme shown in Figure 2.2.4.
In this circuit, the pulses from the transducer gate the train of pulses from a 1MHz
clock into a counter. Control logic resets the counter and updates the digital output
value after receipt of each pulse from the transducer. The measurement resolution of
this system is highest when the speed of rotation is low.

Optical sensing
Digital tachometers with optical sensors are often known as optical tachometers.
Optical pulses can be generated by one of the two alternative photoelectric techniques
illustrated in Figure 2.2.5. In Figure 2.2.5 (a), the pulses are produced as the windows
in a slotted disc pass in sequence between a light source and a detector. The alternative
form, Figure 2.2.5 (b), has both light source and detector mounted on the same side
of a reflective disc which has black sectors painted onto it at regular angular intervals.
Light sources are normally either lasers or LEDs, with photodiodes and phototransistors
being used as detectors. Optical tachometers yield better accuracy than other forms
of digital tachometer but are not as reliable because dust and dirt can block light paths.

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Figure 2.2.5 Photo electric pulse generating techniques

2.3. Viscosity, Moisture Measurement

Viscosity measurement
Viscosity measurement is important in many process industries. In the food industry,
the viscosity of raw materials such as dough, batter and ice cream has a direct effect
on the quality of the product. Similarly, in other industries such as the ceramic one,
the quality of raw materials affects the final product quality. Viscosity control is also
very important in assembly operations that involve the application of mastics and glue
flowing through tubes. Clearly, successful assembly requires such materials to flow
through tubes at the correct rate and therefore it is essential that their viscosity is
correct.
Viscosity describes the way in which a fluid flows when it is subject to an applied
force. Consider an elemental cubic volume of fluid and a shear force F applied to one
of its faces of area A. If this face moves a distance L and at a velocity V relative to
the opposite face of the cube under the action of F, the shear stress (s) and shear rate
(r) are given by:
s = F/A; r = V/L
The coefficient of viscosity (CV) is the ratio of shear stress to shear rate, i.e.
CV =s/r.
CV is often described simply as the ‘viscosity’. A further term, kinematic viscosity, is
also sometimes used, given by KV = CV/ρ, where KV is the kinematic viscosity and

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is the fluid density. To avoid confusion, CV is often known as the dynamic viscosity, to
distinguish it from KV. CV is measured in units of poise or Ns/m2 and KV is measured
in units of stokes or m2/s.
Viscosity was originally defined by Newton, who assumed that it was constant with
respect to shear rate. However, it has since been shown that the viscosity of many fluids
varies significantly at high shear rates and the viscosity of some varies even at low shear
rates. The worst non-Newtonian characteristics tend to occur with emulsions,pastes and
slurries. For non-Newtonian fluids, subdivision into further classes can also be made
according to the manner in which the viscosity varies with shear rate, as shown in Figure 2.3.

The relationship between the input variables and output measurement for instruments
that measure viscosity normally assumes that the measured fluid has Newtonian
characteristics.

For non-Newtonian fluids, a correction must be made for shear rate variations
(see Miller, 1975a). If such a correction is not made, the measurement obtained is
known as the apparent viscosity, and this can differ from the true viscosity by a large
factor. The true viscosity is often called the absolute viscosity to avoid ambiguity.
Viscosity also varies with fluid temperature and density.
Instruments for measuring viscosity work on one of three physical principles:
 Rate of flow of the liquid through a tube
 Rate of fall of a body through the liquid
 Viscous friction force exerted on a rotating body.

Fig 2.3 Different Viscosity/shear rate relations

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Capillary and tube viscometers

These are the most accurate types of viscometer, with typical measurement inaccuracy
levels down to ±0.3%. Liquid is allowed to flow, under gravity from a reservoir,
through a tube of known cross-section. In different instruments, the tube can vary
from capillary-sized to a large diameter. The pressure difference across the ends of the
tube and the time for a given quantity of liquid to flow are measured, and then the
liquid viscosity for Newtonian fluids can be calculated as (in units of poise):

-------2.3
where R is the radius (m) of the tube, L is its length (m), P is the pressure difference
(N/m2) across the ends and V is the volume of liquid flowing in time T (m3/s).
For non-Newtonian fluids, corrections must be made for shear rate variations (Miller,
1975a). For any given viscometer, R, L and V are constant and equation (2.3) can be
written as:
CV = KPT
where K is known as the viscometer constant.
Falling body viscometer
The falling body viscometer is particularly recommended for the measurement of high
viscosity fluids. It can give measurement uncertainty levels down to ±1%. It involves
measuring the time taken for a spherical body to fall a given distance through the
liquid. The viscosity for Newtonian fluids is then given by Stoke’s formula as (in units
of poise):

where R is the radius (m) of the sphere, g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2), ρs
and ρl are the specific gravities (g/m3) of the sphere and liquid respectively and V is
the velocity (m/s) of the sphere.
For non-Newtonian fluids, correction for the variation in shear rate is very difficult.

Rotational viscometers
Rotational viscometers are relatively easy to use but their measurement inaccuracy
is at least ±10%. All types have some form of element rotating inside the liquid
at a constant rate. One common version has two coaxial cylinders with the fluid to
be measured contained between them. One cylinder is driven at a constant angular
velocity by a motor and the other is suspended by torsion wire. After the driven
cylinder starts from rest, the suspended cylinder rotates until an equilibrium position
is reached where the force due to the torsion wire is just balanced by the viscous force
transmitted through the liquid. The viscosity (in poise) for Newtonian fluids is then
given by:

where G is the couple (Nm) formed by the force exerted by the torsion wire and its
deflection, R1 and R2 are the radii (m) of the inner and outer cylinders, h is the length
of the cylinder (m) and ω is the angular velocity (rad/s) of the rotating cylinder. Again,
corrections have to be made for non-Newtonian fluids.

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Moisture measurement
There are many industrial requirements for the measurement of the moisture content.
This can be required in solids, liquids or gases. The physical properties and storage
stability of most solid materials is affected by their water content. There is also a
statutory requirement to limit the moisture content in the case of many materials sold
by weight. In consequence, the requirement for moisture measurement pervades a
large number of industries involved in the manufacture of foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals,
cement, plastics, textiles and paper.

Measurement of the water content in liquids is commonly needed for fiscal purposes,
but is also often necessary to satisfy statutory requirements. The petrochemical industry
has wide-ranging needs for moisture measurement in oil etc. The food industry also
needs to measure the water content of products such as beer and milk.
In the case of moisture in gases, the most common measurement is the amount of
moisture in air. This is usually known as the humidity level. Humidity measurement
and control is an essential requirement in many buildings, greenhouses and vehicles.
As there are several ways in which humidity can be defined, three separate terms
have evolved so that ambiguity can be avoided. Absolute humidity is the mass of water
in a unit volume of moist air; specific humidity is the mass of water in a unit mass of
moist air; relative humidity is the ratio of the actual water vapour pressure in air to the
saturation vapour pressure, usually expressed as a percentage.
Industrial moisture measurement techniques
Industrial methods for measuring moisture are based on the variation of some physical
property of the material with moisture content. Many different properties can be used
and therefore the range of available techniques, as listed below, is large.
Electrical methods
Measuring the amount of absorption of microwave energy beamed through the material
is the most common technique for measuring moisture content and is described in
detail in Anderson (1989), and Thompson (1989). Microwaves at wavelengths between
1mm and 1m are absorbed to a much greater extent by water than most other materials.
Wavelengths of 30mm or 100mm are commonly used because ‘off-the-shelf’ equipment
to produce these is readily available from instrument suppliers. The technique
is suitable for moisture measurement in solids, liquids and gases at moisture-content
levels up to 45% and measurement uncertainties down to š0.3% are possible.

The capacitance moisture meter uses the principle that the dielectric constant of
materials varies according to their water content. Capacitance measurement is therefore
related to moisture content. The instrument is useful for measuring moisturecontent
levels up to 30% in both solids and liquids, and measurement uncertainty
down to š0.3% has been claimed for the technique (Slight, 1989). Drawbacks of
the technique include (a) limited measurement resolution owing to the difficulty in
measuring small changes in a relatively large standing capacitance value and (b) difficulty
when the sample has a high electrical conductivity. An alternative capacitance
charge transfer technique has been reported (Gimson, 1989) that overcomes these problems
by measuring the charge carrying capacity of the material. In this technique, wet
and dry samples of the material are charged to a fixed voltage and then simultaneously
discharged into charge-measuring circuits.

The electrical conductivity of most materials varies with moisture content and this
therefore provides another means of measurement. Techniques using electrical conductivity

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variation are cheap and can measure moisture levels up to 25%. However, the
presence of other conductive substances in the material such as salts or acids affects
the measurement.

A further technique is to measure the frequency change in a quartz crystal that

occurs as it takes in moisture.

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CHAPTER 3: Signal Conditioning Circuits

3.1. DC andAC Bridges

DC Bridge
Wheatstone’s bridge
This bridge circuit has four resistive arms: arm-AB and arm-BC the ration arms with resistances
R1 and R2, arm-AD with the unknown resistance R 3 and arm CD with a standard known variable
resistance R4, as shown in figure-1 below. The supply is fed across the arm-AC and the arm-BD
contains a galvanometer used as a detector connected across it.

The bridge is said to be balanced when the galvanometer current is zero. This is called
as the position of null reading in the galvanometer, which is used here as a null detector
of the bridge under the balanced conditions. Thus under the balance conditions of the
bridge, we have,

Errors in WS bridge measurements

(i) Limiting errors: In a WS bridge PQRS,the percentage limiting error in the

measurand resistance, R is equal to the sum of the percentage limiting errors in the
bridge arm resistances P, Q and S.

(ii) Errors due to heating of elements in the bridge arms:

Rt = R0 [1+ αt]; P = I R Watts; Heat= I Rt Joules
2 2

The I2R loss occurring in the resistors of each arm might tend to increase the
temperature, which in turn can result in a change in the resistance value, different
from the normal value.
(iii) Errors due to the effect of the connecting wires and lead resistors: the connecting
lead wire resistance will affect the value of the unknown resistance, especially when it
is a
low resistance value. Thus, the connecting lead wire resistances have to be accounted
for while measuring a low resistance.
(iv) Contact resistance errors: The contact resistance of the leads also affects the value

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of the measurand resistance, just as in point (iii) above. This resistance value depends
on the cleanliness of the contact surfaces and the pressure applied to the circuit.

Limitations of WS bridge
The WS bridge method is used for measurement of resistances that are numerically in
the range of a few ohms to several kilo-ohms. The upper limit is set by the reduction in
sensitivity to unbalance caused by the high resistances, as per the equation (7).
Sensitivity of WS bridge

In a WS bridge PQRS as in figure 2, with the resistance S in an arm changed to S+ S, the bridge
becomes unbalanced to the extent of the resistance change thus brought about. This is also
referred as the unbalanced operation of the WS bridge. Under such circumstances, with Sv as the
voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer, we have,

Thus, the WS bridge sensitivity is high when (R/S)=1. It decreases as the ratio (R/S) becomes
either larger or smaller than unity value. This also causes a reduction in accuracy with which the
bridge is balanced

AC BRIDGES
General form of A.C. bridge
AC bridge are similar to D.C. bridge in topology(way of connecting).It consists of four arm
AB,BC,CD and DA .Generally the impedance to be measured is connected between ‘A’ and
‘B’.A detector is connected between ‘B’ and ’D’. The detector is used as null deflection
instrument.Some of the arms are variable element. By varying these elements, the potential
values at ‘B’ and ‘D’ can be made equal. This is called balancing of the bridge.

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Fig. 2.1 General form of A.C. bridge

At the balance condition, the current through detector is zero.

At balance condition,
Voltage drop across ‘AB’=voltage drop across ‘AD’.

Similarly, Voltage drop across ‘BC’=voltage drop across ‘DC’

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From equation -2.1, it can be seen that, equation -2.4 and equation-2.5 are equal.

Products of impedances of opposite arms are equal .

 For balance condition, magnitude on either side must be equal.

 Angle on either side must be equal.
Summary
For balance condition,

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Types of detector
The following types of instruments are used as detector in A.C. bridge.
• Vibration galvanometer
• Head phones (speaker)
• Tuned amplifier

Vibration galvanometer
Between the point ‘B’ and ‘D’ a vibration galvanometer is connected to indicate the bridge
balance condition. This A.C. galvanometer which works on the principle of resonance. The
A.C. galvanometer shows a dot, if the bridge is unbalanced.

Head phones
Two speakers are connected in parallel in this system. If the bridge is unbalanced, the
speaker produced more sound energy. If the bridge is balanced, the speaker do not produced
any sound energy.

Tuned amplifier
If the bridge is unbalanced the output of tuned amplifier is high. If the bridge is balanced,
output of amplifier is zero.

Measurements of inductance

Maxwell’s inductance bridge

The choke for which R1 and L1 have to measure connected between the points ‘A’ and
‘B’. In this method the unknown inductance is measured by comparing it with the standard
inductance.

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Fig. 2.2 Maxwell’s inductance bridge

L2 is adjusted, until the detector indicates zero current.
Let R1= unknown resistance
L1= unknown inductance of the choke.
L2= known standard inductance
R1,R2,R4= known resistances

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Comparing imaginary parts

Advantages
 Expression for R1 and L1 are simple.
 Equations area simple
 They do not depend on the frequency (as w is cancelled)
 R1 and L1 are independent of each other.
Disadvantages
 Variable inductor is costly.
 Variable inductor is bulky..

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Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge

Unknown inductance is measured by comparing it with standard capacitance. In this bridge,

balance condition is achieved by varying ‘C4’.

Fig 2.4 Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge

At balance condition, Z1Z4=Z3Z2 (2.9)

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Comparing real parts,

R1R4 = R2R3

Comparing imaginary part,

wL1R4 = wC4R4R2R3
L1 = C4R2R3 (2.12)
Q-factor of choke

Advantages
 Equation of L1 and R1 are simple.
 They are independent of frequency.
 They are independent of each other.
 Standard capacitor is much smaller in size than standard inductor.

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Disadvantages
 Standard variable capacitance is costly.
 It can be used for measurements of Q-factor in the ranges of 1 to 10.
 It cannot be used for measurements of choke with Q-factors more than 10.
We know that Q =wC4R4
For measuring chokes with higher value of Q-factor, the value of C4 and R4 should be
higher. Higher values of standard resistance are very expensive. Therefore this bridge cannot
be used for higher value of Q-factor measurements.

Hay’s bridge

Fig 3.6 Hay’s bridge

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At balance condition, Z1Z4=Z3Z2

Comparing the real term,

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Comparing the imaginary terms,

Substituting the value of R1 fro eqn. 2.14 into eqn. 2.15, we have,

Substituting the value of L1 in eqn. 2.14 , we have

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Advantages
 Fixed capacitor is cheaper than variable capacitor.
 This bridge is best suitable for measuring high value of Q-factor.
Disadvantages
 Equations of L1and R1 are complicated.
 Measurements of R1 and L1 require the value of frequency.
 This bridge cannot be used for measuring low Q- factor.

Anderson Bridge:
 In the Anderson Bridge the unknown inductance is measured in terms of a known
capacitance and resistance.
 this method is capable of precise measurements of inductance over a wide range of
values from a few micro-henrys to several henrys and is the best bridge method

Wien’s Bridge
Applications :
– Frequency measureent
– Notch filter
– Frequency-determining element

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Frequency measurement with the Wien bridge

Schering Bridge

 The Schering bridge, one of the most important bridges, is used extensively for the
measurement of capacitors.
 Schering bridge for measurement of capacitance

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Wagner earthing device:

Fig 2.26 Wagner Earthing device

Wagner earthing consists of ‘R’ and ‘C’ in series. The stray capacitance at node ‘B’ and ‘D’ are
CB, CD respectively. These Stray capacitances produced error in the measurements of ‘L’ and
‘C’. These error will predominant at high frequency. The error due to this capacitance can be
eliminated using wagner earthing arm.

Close the change over switch to the position (1) and obtained balanced. Now change the
switch to position (2) and obtained balance. This process has to repeat until balance is achieved
in both the position. In this condition the potential difference across each capacitor is zero.
Current drawn by this is zero. Therefore they do not have any effect on the measurements.

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3.2. Instrumentation Amplifier

A circuit providing an output based on the difference between two inputs (times a
scale factor) is shown in Fig. 15.28. A potentiometer is provided to permit adjusting
the scale factor of the circuit. While three op-amps are used, a single-quad op-amp IC
is all that is necessary (other than the resistor components). The output voltage can be
shown to be

so that the output can be obtained from

Fig: Instrumentation Amplifier

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V to I and I to V converters

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3.4. A/D and D/A converters

Fig.1. Block diagram representations of the basic digital measurement

set-up: (a) with digital display; (b) with analog display

Connecting digital circuitry to sensor devices is simple if the sensor devices are
inherently digital themselves. Switches, relays, and encoders are easily interfaced with
gate circuits due to the on/off nature of their signals. However, when analog devices are
involved, interfacing becomes much more complex. What is needed is a way to
electronically translate analog signals into digital (binary) quantities, and visa- versa. An
analog-to-digital converter, or ADC, performs the former task while a digital-to-analog
converter, or DAC, performs the latter.
An ADC inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage or current and outputs a binary
number. In block diagram form, it can be represented as such:

A DAC, on the other hand, inputs a binary number and outputs an analog voltage or
current signal. In block diagram form, it looks like this:

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Together, they are often used in digital systems to provide complete interface with analog
sensors and output devices for control systems such as those used in automotive engine
controls:

It is much easier to convert a digital signal into an analog signal than it is to do the
reverse. Therefore, we will begin with DAC circuitry and then move to ADC circuitry.

The R/2nR DAC

This DAC circuit, otherwise known as the binary-weighted-input DAC, is a variation on
the inverting summer op-amp circuit. If you recall, the classic inverting summer circuit is
an operational amplifier using negative feedback for controlled gain, with several voltage
inputs and one voltage output. The output voltage is the inverted (opposite polarity) sum
of all input voltages:

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For a simple inverting summer circuit, all resistors must be of equal value. If any of the
input resistors were different, the input voltages would have different degrees of effect on
the output, and the output voltage would not be a true sum. Let's consider, however,
intentionally setting the input resistors at different values. Suppose we were to set the
input resistor values at multiple powers of two: R, 2R, and 4R, instead of all the same
value R:

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Starting from V1 and going through V3, this would give each input voltage exactly half
the effect on the output as the voltage before it. In other words, input voltage V1 has a 1:1
effect on the output voltage (gain of 1), while input voltage V2 has half that much effect
on the output (a gain of 1/2), and V3 half of that (a gain of 1/4). These ratios are were not
arbitrarily chosen: they are the same ratios corresponding to place weights in the binary
numeration system. If we drive the inputs of this circuit with digital gates so that each
input is either 0 volts or full supply voltage, the output voltage will be an analog
representation of the binary value of these three bits.

If we chart the output volt ages for all eight combinations of binary bits (000 through 111)
input to this circuit, we will get the following progression of voltages:

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Note that with each step in the binary count sequence, there results a 1.25 volt change in
the output. This circuit is very easy to simulate using SPICE. In the following simulation,
I set up the DAC circuit with a binary input of 110 (note the first node numbers for
resistors R1, R2, and R3: a node number of "1" connects it to the positive side of a 5 volt
battery, and a node number of "0" connects it to ground). The output voltage appears on
node 6 in the simulation:

We can adjust resistors values in this circuit to obtain output voltages directly
corresponding to the binary input. For example, by making the feedback resistor 800 O
instead of 1 kO, the DAC will output -1 volt for the binary input 001, -4 volts for the

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binary input 100, -7 volts for the binary input 111, and so on.

If we wish to expand the resolution of this DAC (add more bits to the input), all we need
to do is add more input resistors, holding to the same power-of-two sequence of values:

It should be noted that all logic gates must output exactly the same voltages when in the
"high" state. If one gate is outputting +5.02 volts for a "high" while another is outputting
only +4.86 volts, the analog output of the DAC will be adversely affected. Likewise, all

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"low" voltage levels should be identical between gates, ideally 0.00 volts exactly. It is
recommended that CMOS output gates are used, and that input/feedback resistor values
are chosen so as to minimize the amount of current each gate has to source or sink.
Digital ramp ADC
Also known as the stairstep-ramp, or simply counter A/D converter, this is also fairly
easy to understand but unfortunately suffers from several limitations.
The basic idea is to connect the output of a free-running binary counter to the input of a
DAC, then compare the analog output of the DAC with the analog input signal to be
digitized and use the comparator's output to tell the counter when to stop counting and
reset. The following schematic shows the basic idea:

As the counter counts up with each clock pulse, the DAC outputs a slightly higher (more
positive) voltage. This voltage is compared against the input voltage by the comparator.
If the input voltage is greater than the DAC output, the comparator's output will be high
and the counter will continue counting normally. Eventually, though, the DAC output
will exceed the input voltage, causing the comparator's output to go low. This will cause
two things to happen: first, the high-to- low transition of the comparator's output will
cause the shift register to "load" whatever binary count is being output by the counter,
thus updating the ADC circuit's output; secondly, the counter will receive a low signal on
the active- low LOAD input, causing it to reset to 00000000 on the next clock pulse.

The effect of this circuit is to produce a DAC output that ramps up to whatever level the
analog input signal is at, output the binary number corresponding to that level, and start
over again. Plotted over time, it looks like this:

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3.5. Data Aquisation System

Figure 3.5 shows a typical microcontroller-based data acquisition system.[1,2] The
signal conditioning elements are necessary to convert sensor outputs to a common
signal range, typically 0 to 5 V; Table 3.5.1 gives sensing and signal conditioning
elements for different measured variables. The voltage signals are input to a 16-
channel time division multiplexer, and the multiplexed signal is passed to a single
sample/hold device and analogue-to-digital converter In cases whereall the sensors are of an
identical type, for example 16 thermocouples, it is moreeconomical to multiplex the sensor
output signals. Here the multiplexed sensor signalis input to a single signal conditioning
element, such as the reference junction circuit and instrumentation amplifier, before passing
to the sample/hold and ADC.
The ADC gives a parallel digital output signal which passes to one of the parallel
input interfaces of the microcontroller. Another parallel input/output (I/O) interface
provides the address and control signals necessary for the control of multiplexer,
sample/hold and ADC. These are a four-bit multiplexer address signal, a sample/
hold control signal, an initiate conversion signal to the ADC, and a data valid signal
from the ADC. The microcontroller performs whatever calculations (on the input data)
are necessary to establish the measured value of the variable. A common example is
the solution of the non-linear equation relating thermocouple e.m.f. and temperature
The computer converts the measured value from hexadecimal into binary coded decimal
form. This b.c.d. data is written into a computer parallel output interface. Each decade is then
separately converted into seven-segment code and presented to the observer using a seven-
segment LCD display .The computer also converts each decade of the b.c.d. to ASCII form .
The resulting ASCII code is then written into a serial and/or parallel output interface.
These can transmit ASCII data in serial and/or parallel form to remote data
representation devices such as a monitor, printer or host computer.

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CHAPTER 4 Potentiometers

4.1. Construction of Potentiometer

4.2Slide wire Potetiometer

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4.3. Gall-Tinsley coordinate type potentiometer

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4.4. Applications

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CHAPTER 5 :Storage and Display Devices

5.1. Magnetic tape recorder.

Fig 5.1

The magnetic coating is a thin layer of iron oxide(Fe2°3) particles, and the core is made of
laminated steel alloys. The core assembly carrying the winding is called a tape recording
head.With current (1) flowing in the coil, a magnetic flux will bridge cross the non-magnetic
gap, thus magnetizing the iron oxide particles as they pass the gap. Because the magnetic
coating is purposely selected for its high remanence, the iron particles will remain
magnetized in the direction of tape travel with the magnitude of flux impressed upon the tape
as it moves in front of the non-magnetic gap. Hence, a recording of the applied signal will
have been realized. When the same tape is passed through the front gap of a similar playback
head, it will cause variations in the reluctance of the winding, and thereby inducing a voltage
which ideally is required to be a faithful reproduction of the recorded signal. A functional
diagram of a complete magnetic tape-recorder is shown .in Fig. 5.1. While two different
heads are needed for accurate instrumentation recording and reproduction, only one
combined head is used for coarse instrumentation works as well as for audio recordings. With
one head, one needs only to switch from a record to reproduce (playback) mode. At the same
time the direction of tape travel has accordingly to is set by the sense of rotation of the motor
moving the tape transport.

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Fig 5.2

Four factors contribute to the accuracy of magnetic tape recording, particularly for
instrumentation and data processing purposes. These are: (1) the magnetization
characteristics of the magnetic recording medium, (2) the tape speed, (3) the bandwidth of the
recorded signal, and (4) the gap width. All these factors are considered together to minimize
errors and distortions.

5.2. Chart recorder.

These provide a continuous record, on paper, of the time variation of measured
variables.
Figures 5.3(a) and 5.3(b) show schematic and block diagrams of an analogue chart
recorder. This is a closed-loop system using position feedback. The input voltage
VIN is opposed by the feedback voltage VF to give an error voltage:
e = VIN – VF

This error voltage is amplified by an amplifier of gain KA, and the amplifier output
voltage VA is input to a d.c. motor which drives the pen. The angular rotation θ of the
motor is converted into the vertical displacement y of the pen by a pulley system.
The pen writes on a chart which is driven at a constant speed along the x-direction,
i.e. the x position of the pen is proportional to time. The motor angular position θ
is sensed by a displacement sensor, often a potentiometer, to provide the feedback
voltage VF, thus closing the loop. An increase in input voltage VIN will cause error
e to increase in the short term, causing VA, θ and y to increase. This causes a
corresponding increase in VF which reduces e; the system settles out with the pen at
a new position y such that VF is as close as possible to VIN.

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the overall sensitivity of the closed-loop system is given by:

If the amplifier gain is large, so that KAKMKD _ 1, then y/VIN ≈ KP/KD. This means
that the overall sensitivity is largely independent of KA and KM so that, for example,
any changes in KM due to non-linearity have negligible effect.
A typical analogue chart recorder has a displacement span y of 100 mm and an
input range of 0 to 10 V or 4 to 20 mA d.c. The pen positioning accuracy is ±0.2%,
the input impedance 250 kΩ and the response time less than 2.0 s for 100% step change.
Figure 5.3(c) shows a block diagram of an open-loop digital chart recorder. Here
the input voltage VIN is amplified if necessary and the resulting voltage VA input
to an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). The parallel digital output signal from
the ADC is input to a digital stepper motor which moves the pen in the vertical
y-direction. A typical recorder has a recording width (span of y) of 100 mm and an
input range of 0 to 10 V d.c. The ADC has a resolution of 14 1–2 bits; the final motor
output displacement has 105 steps, giving a pen positioning resolution of 0.1 mV. Input
resistance is 100 kΩ, electrical measurement error within 0.4% and pen positioning
error within 0.35%.
Several measured variables can be recorded using multi-channel recorders.
There are two main types. In continuous or line recorders there is a separate motor
and pen for each variable and the measured values are recorded as a continuous trace.
Normally up to four pens are possible and in order for each pen to travel the full chart
width and cross each other they must be offset from each other horizontally. Since
horizontal displacement x is proportional to time, this can be done by creating a small
time shift between the traces. In the multi-point type there is a single motor and
pen which is switched sequentially between the input signals. The first variable is
switched in and a dot printed on the chart, then the second and a dot printed, and
so on for all the variables, returning to the first to repeat the process. The trace for
each variable is therefore a series of dots in a given colour. Figure 5.3(d) is a
continuous chart record of several variables.

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Figure 5.3
Chart recorders:
(a) Schematic of analogue recorder (b) Block diagram of analogue recorder
(c) Block diagram of digital recorder (d) Chart record of measured variables.

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5.3. CRT Display

Cathode ray tubes are used to create large-scale displays. These devices are often
referred to as monitors. A visual display unit (VDU) is a combination of a CRT
display and a keyboard.
Figure 5.3 shows a basic CRT: electrons are emitted at the cathode and accelerated
towards the anode. A third electrode, called a grid or modulator, is placed
between cathode and anode: by altering the potential of the modulator the number of
electrons in the beam, i.e. the beam current, can be adjusted. The beam then passes
through a focusing system followed by X and Y deflection systems: the focusing and
deflection systems can be electromagnetic (EM), or electrostatic (ES) as shown in
the diagram. The electron beam is brought to a focus on the inside surface of the screen,
which is coated with a large number of phosphor dots. These dots form the pixels.
Phosphors are semiconductor materials which emit visible radiation in response to
the impact of electrons: a spot of light therefore appears on the screen. In response
to a pulse change in beam current, i.e. a sudden increase followed by a sudden
decrease, the light emission does not fall instantaneously but there is a gradual
reduction called phosphorescence decay (Figure 5.3). The corresponding decay time
is called the persistence of the phosphor; phosphors with a wide range of persistences
are available, ranging from less than 1 μs (very short) to greater than 1 s (very long).
In refresh displays the phosphors must be ‘refreshed’ or re-energised every time
the phosphorescence decays to a certain level: this is necessary to obtain a stationary
pattern on the screen with minimum flicker. In the more expensive storage displays,
the display is retained on the screen and refreshment is not necessary.
A monochrome display is obtained with a non-storage CRT and a standard 312-
line raster. In a raster-type display constant amplitude sawtooth deflection voltages
are applied to both X and Y plates (Figure 5.3). The period of the Y voltage, i.e. the
time taken for the display to move from the top to the bottom of the screen, is relatively
long. A typical period is 20 ms, corresponding to a refreshment rate of 50 frames
or pictures per second. This is suitable for a phosphor with a medium persistence of
say 50 ms. The period of the X voltage, i.e. the time for each traverse across the screen,
is 312 times shorter, i.e. 64 μs. The resulting motion of the spot on the screen is shown
in Figure 5.4. 312 horizontal ‘lines’ are traced out during the movement of the spot
from top to bottom of the screen

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Fig5.3:Cathode ray constructions and wave forms

Fig5.4 Raster display and character generation using 7×5 dot matrix

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LED Dispaly
When a semiconductor diode is forward biased, as shown in Figure 5.4(a), a current
iF flows, which depends exponentially on the forward voltage VF:

Fig:LED characteristics and circuits(a) Forward Biased (b)V/I Characteristics of LED (C)
Luminous intensity /Current

Light-emitting diodes have the special property that when forward biased they emit
electromagnetic radiation over a certain band of wavelengths. Two commonly used
LED materials are gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), which emits red light,
and gallium phosphide (GaP), which emits green or yellow light. In both cases the
luminous intensity IV of the diode light source increases with current iF; for GaAsP
diodes the relationship is approximately linear (Figure 11.6(c)). The light emitted by
a GaAsP (red) diode is distributed over a narrow band of wavelengths centred on
0.655 μm. Figure 11.6(d) shows the relationship between relative luminous intensity
and wavelength λ. Similarly the light emitted by a GaP (green) diode is distributed
over a narrow band of wavelengths centred on 0.560 μm. The human eye is far more
sensitive to green light than red, so a green LED of low radiant power may appear
as bright as a red LED of much higher radiant power. The response of LEDs to step
changes in iF is extremely fast; turn-on and turn-off times of 10 ns are typical.
When switched ‘on’, a typical GaAsP diode requires a forward current iF of
around 20 mA corresponding to a luminous intensity Iν of 4.0 mcd (millicandela),
and a forward voltage VF of 2.2 V. When used as a display pixel the diode should be
switched ‘on’ by a logic signal in the ‘l’ state, and switched ‘off’ when the signal
is in the ‘0’ state. Figure 11.6(e) shows a simple circuit for achieving this, using a
series resistor R of 140 Ω. For a ‘1’ input, VS ≈ 5 V, iF = (5 − 2.2)/140 = 20 mA and
the diode is ‘on’. For a ‘0’ input, VS ≈ 0 V, iF is negligible and the diode is ‘off ’.
Alternatively a 20 mA constant current source may be switched in and out by the logic
signal.
A seven-segment LED display device consists of eight individuals LEDs, one
for each segment and one for the decimal point. There are two possible methods of
interconnection, common anode or common cathode (Figure 11.6(f)).
Using the above data, the power consumption of an individual pixel is 2.2 . 20 .
10−3 W, i.e. 44 mW; the total power consumption of the seven-segment display is
therefore around 320 mW. This high power consumption means that LEDs are only
suitable for character displays and are unsuitable for graphics displays.

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Figure :LED characteristics and circuits: (d) Relative intensity wavelength (GaAsP)
(e) Series resistor (f ) Interconnection methods.

LCD Display
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) do not emit light but use light incident on them from
external sources. Consequently LCDs use significantly less power (microwatts) than
LEDs (milliwatts). Liquid crystals flow under shear forces as in normal liquids but
have some of the properties of solids. In nematic liquid crystals individual molecules
have a rod-like shape. As the orientation of the molecules changes so there is a corresponding

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rotation of the plane of polarisation of the incident light. An applied electric

field can alter both the orientation of the molecules and the plane of polarisation of
the light, thus creating light and dark areas.
Figures (a) and (b) show the construction of a reflective monochrome
display using field effect or twisted nematic (TN) liquid crystal material. The
LC material is in contact with a pair of conducting electrodes which are transparent
to light; a voltage is applied across these to create an electric field. There are glass
plates above and below the electrodes. An x polarising filter is situated above the upper
glass plate; this transmits only x polarised light. Similarly a y polarising filter below
the lower glass plate transmits only y polarised light.
Figure (a) shows the situation when the applied voltage V = 0. The
molecules near the top of the LC are lined up along the x-direction. Moving downwards
through the liquid, their orientation gradually changes so that the molecules
at the bottom are lined up along the y-direction. The light entering the liquid is x
polarised; as it moves downwards the direction of polarisation rotates so that the light
is y polarised on leaving the liquid. The light is therefore able to pass through the y
polarising filter and is reflected back to the observer, the surface appearing pale grey
or green.
Figure (b) shows the situation when the applied voltage V is non-zero. In this
case the molecules remain aligned along the x direction throughout the liquid crystal:
this means that the light remains x polarised as it moves downwards. The light cannot
therefore pass through the lower y polarising filter and is absorbed; the surface
appears black to an observer.
Figure (c) shows a seven-segment LCD which can display the numerals
0 to 9 and nine upper case letters. Typically the display has an operating voltage of
10 V and a total current of 10 μA. The response time of the device, to turn on or turn
off signals, is typically 50 ms. The display is therefore driven by a pulse signal
of r.m.s. voltage 10 V and frequency 60 Hz, i.e. a period of 17 ms. This enables the
display to be continuously refreshed, giving a contrast ratio of 20:1 with no flicker.
Pulsed operation reduces power consumption and avoids electrode deterioration due
to electrolytic effects.
In order to display numerals, upper and lower case letters and other symbols,
LCD monochrome character displays are used; here each character is displayed
using the 7 ×5 dot matrix format . Figure (d) shows a display
for 16 characters on a single line, i.e. 16 × 1 format; formats range typically from
8 × 2 to 40 × 4.
In order to display graphical information monochrome graphics displays are
used. These consist of a matrix of pixels (Figure(e); the pixel matrix multiplexing
technique described in Section 11.3.2 is used. Display formats vary typically
from 122 . 32 to 320 . 240. A 128 . 64 graphics display has a view area of
62.5 mm . 43.5 mm with viewing angles θ between −15° and +45° and φ between
−35° and +35° respectively. The contrast ratio is typically 10, and response times
for rise and fall are typically 250 ms and 300 ms respectively; the LCD supply
voltage V is typically 13.0 V.[1]
Figure 11.10(f ) shows a typical system for an LCD character display.[2] It consists
of a microcontroller, segment/pixel driver and LCD panel. The input parallel digital
signal will be in ASCII form; the microcontroller will, for each character, convert
the input ASCII code into 7 . 5 dot matrix code and send this to the segment driver.
The basic liquid crystal element shown in Figure (a) can be used to produce
colour displays by the addition of a matrix of red, green and blue filter elements between

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the upper electrode and the x polarising filter. However, in order to produce large area
displays with sufficient brightness and contrast ratio to be read clearly at low ambient
lighting levels

Figure :Liquid crystal displays: (a) Principle: V = 0 (b) Principle: V ≠ 0

(c) Seven-segment display (after Open University T292 Instrumentation)
(d) Character display (e) Graphics display (f ) Character display system.

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5.5. Character Display

These are used to display the numerals 0 to 9, the letters of the alphabet A to Z in
either upper or lower case format, and a few other symbols such as punctuation marks.
Displays showing alphabetical and numerical information are often referred to as
alphanumeric.
Figure5.5 shows two character formats in widespread use: seven-segment and
7 . 5 dot-matrix. Figure 5.5(a) shows seven segments a to g arranged in a figureof-
eight configuration and the corresponding character set. This is limited to the ten
numerals and nine upper case letters. The 7 × 5 dot-matrix format enables a far larger
set of typically 192 characters to be obtained; this includes all the numerals, upper
and lower case letters (Figure 5.5(b)), together with Greek letters and other symbols.
A 9 × 7 dot-matrix format gives a better representation of lower case letters.
Each character format is an array of segments or dots; these elements are referred
to as pixels. To display a character each pixel must be separately switched ‘on’ and
‘off’ independently of the other pixels. When a pixel is switched on, either it is a source
emitting light or it is modulating light from other sources. When a pixel is switched
off it is either not emitting light or not modulating light. As an example, suppose we
wish to display the numerals 0 to 9 using the seven-segment format (Figure 5.6).
Each of the pixels abcdefg can be switched individually on or off using a seven-digit
parallel binary code where a ‘1’ corresponds to ‘on’ and a ‘0’ to ‘off’. Figure 5.6
shows the seven-segment codes corresponding to the numerals 0 to 9. A sevensegment
decoder is used to convert the input parallel digital signal, usually in binary
coded decimal (b.c.d.) or ASCII format, into seven-segment code. Figure 5.6 show
the table to convert the DCBA code, representing one decade of 8421 b.c.d., to the
seven-segment abcdefg code. Decoders are also used to convert input data in
parallel b.c.d. or ASCII format into 7 . 5 or 9 . 7 format for dot-matrix displays; the
logic is normally implemented using a read only memory (ROM).

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Figure 5.5 Character formats for displays: (a) Seven-segment character format
(b) 7 ×5 dot-matrix character format

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Figure 5.6 Display of numerals using seven-segment format

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Reference Books:

1. A.K.Sawhney,” Electrical, Electronic measurement & Instrumentation”, Dhanpat Rai &

sons,18th Edition, Reprint 2010.

2. Golding E.W., and Widdis F.C., “Electrical Measurements and measuring Instruments”,V
Edition, Wheeler Publications.

3. Stout M.B., “Basic Electrical Measurements”, PHI, 1981.

4. Harris F.K., Electrical Measurements”, Wiley Eastern Pvt.Ltd., 1974.

ALL THE BEST

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