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ASSIGNMENT REFERENCE MATERIAL

BPCE - 017

INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY

SECTION – A

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Q1. Define counseling. Discuss the characteristics of a counseling relationship highlighting the
therapeutic climate.

Ans. One of the important issues discussed in counseling and psychotherapy is whether counseling is

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an art or a science. If it is an art, then it becomes part of the counselor’s innate affective and relational
qualities. If it is a science, then it refers to the skills that the counselor has developed as a result of the
training that he or she has taken in counseling. Such a skill seeks to spell out the process in the
treatment so that others can utilise the same practices. In order to say that counseling is a science, it
needs research based evidence in regard to its effectiveness in treating a client’s problem. There are a
number of research studies that have shown that the counseling process as is being practiced is

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effective in treating the client’s problem. However there are also research evidences that show the
contrary. a
Rogers (1961) defines the helping relationship as one “in which at least one ofthe parties has the
b
intent of promoting the growth, the development, maturity,improved functioning, and improved

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coping with life of the other”.
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a
Characteristics of a Counseling Relationship

Various interpersonal relationships, including that between parent and child or teacher and student,
b
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but the helping relationship established between the client and counselor is unique. A number of
specific characteristics contribute to its uniqueness.
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1) Affectiveness: The relationship established between counselor and client is more affective than
cognitive. It involves the exploration of the client’s feelings and perceptions. Because of the highly
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personal content of the discussions, the relationship can be comforting and anxiety producing, intense
and humorous, frightening and exhilarating.
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2) Intensity: Since it is based on open, direct and honest communication, the relationship can be
intense. Counselor and client are expected to share openly their perceptions and reactions to each
other and to the process. This can result in intense communication.
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3) Growth and change: The relationship is dynamic, it is constantly changing as the counselor and
client interacts. As the client grows and changes, so do the relationship.

Q2. Explain the use of ego defense mechanisms with suitable examples for each.

Ans. The Ego, which is -governed by the Reality Principle, has the task of coping with the demands
of the Id, while constantly appraising external reality and making decisions about the kind of
behaviour which is appropriate at any given time, The threat of punishment from the Superego is
another factor to be considered, and the combined pressure from these forces (Id and Superego) has

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the effect of generating anxiety for the individual. The conflict which occurs between a person’s
wishes and external reality is dealt with by the use of defense mechanisms.

Defense mechanisms are psychological processes which people use in order to protect themselves
against extreme discomfort and tension. They are also effective in maintaining mental composure and
self-esteem in a variety of what might otherwise be very painful situations. Defense mechanisms
operate at an unconscious level, and all of us use them occasionally. However, prolonged and
persistent use of them is counter-productive, because such defenses serve to distort reality and falsify
experience.

1. Repression: Repression is a process whereby traumatic or painful experiences are forgotten or

pushed out of consciousness. This is the most fundamental of all the defense mechanisms and, like the

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others, is operated unconsciously. A child might, for example, repress a truly threatening experience
like abandonment or loss, since this may be the child’s only method of coping at the time. Repressed
material does not go away, however, but continues to exist in the unconscious.

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2. Denial: Denial is used as a defense mechanism when reality is unpleasant or disturbing in some
way. A person with a serious illness might, for example, deny the condition. This denial may serve a
useful purpose initially, since it helps to protect the person against anxiety and high levels of stress. In
the long term, though, its use will distort reality and prevent the adjustment and acceptance which are
important at such a time. Denial is also used frequently by people who have been bereaved. In this
context, it also works effectively in the short term but can lead to complicated grief reactions in the

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long term.
a
3. Rationalisation: Rationalisation is a face-saving defense which people often use to explain away
personal failures, vices or inadequacies. Instead of accepting that failure has taken place, ‘rational’
b
explanations are given, and these explanations are sometimes partly true. A parent might, for

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example, say that a particular child is ‘difficult’ and this label may then be used to excuse parental
aggression towards that child.
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a
4. Projection: The defense mechanism of projection ensures that internal anxiety or discomfort is
directed outwards towards other people. It is a way of attributing our own faults to others. A person
b
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with a tendency to be hypocritical might, for example, suspect or even accuse other people of
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hypocrisy. In a similar way, someone who is aggressive or domineering may see these characteristics
in others, but fail to recognise and own them personally.
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5. Displacement; Unacceptable impulses and desires are often aimed at the wrong person. This is
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most likely to happen when the real target is seen as too threatening to confront. Thus, a man who has
had problems with his boss at work might be tempted to take it out on someone else - his wife or
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children for example. Strong feelings are also sometimes displaced towards authority figures in public
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life. A person who has had a difficult relationship with a parent may develop hostile attitudes towards
the police or judges.

Q3. Discuss the techniques of family counseling.

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Ans. Techniques of family counseling are as follows:

1) The Genogram: The genogram, a technique often used early in family therapy, provides a graphic
picture of the family history. The genogram reveals the family’s basic structure and demographics.
(McGoldrick & Gerson, 1985). Through symbols, it offers a picture of three generations. Names,
dates of marriage, divorce, death, and other relevant facts are included in the genogram. It provides an
enormous amount of data and insight for the therapist and family members early in therapy. As an
informational and diagnostic tool, the genogram is developed by the therapist in conjunction with the
family.

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2) The Family Floor Plan: The family floor plan technique has several variations. Parents might be
asked to draw the family floor plan for the family of origin. Information across generations is
therefore gathered in a nonthreatening manner. Points of discussion bring out meaningful issues
related to one’s past.

3) Sequencing: Ask questions like who does what, when? When kids are fighting, what is mother
doing? or father doing ?

4) Hypothetical Questions: Who would be most likely to stay home if mother got sick? Which child
can you visualise living at home as an adult?

5) Scaling Reports: On a scale of most-least, compare one another in terms of anger, power,

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neediness, happiness.

6) Reframing: Most family therapists use reframing as a method to both join with the family and
offer a different perspective on presenting problems. Specifically, reframing involves taking

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something out of its logical class and placing it in another category (Sherman & Fredman, 1986). For
example, a mother’s repeated questioning of her daughter’s behaviour after a datecan be seen as
genuine caring and concern rather than that of a non-trusting parent. Through reframing, a negative
often can be reframed into a positive.

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7) Tracking: Most family therapists use tracking. Structural family therapists (Minuchin & Fishman,
1981) see tracking as an essential part of the therapist’s joining process with the family. During the
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tracking process the therapist listens intently to family stories and carefully records events and their
sequence. Through tracking, the family therapist is able to identify the sequence of events operating in
a system to keep it the way it is. What happens between point A and point B or C to create D can be
helpful when designing interventions.
b
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a
8) Communication skill-building techniques: Communication patterns andprocesses are often major
factors in preventing healthy family functioning. Faulty communication methods and systems are
readily observed within one or two family sessions. A variety of techniques can be implemented to
b

focus directly on communication skill building between a couple or between family members.
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Listening techniques including restatement of content, reflection of feelings, taking turns expressing
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feelings, and non-judgmental brainstorming are some of the methods utilised in communication skill
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building..

SECTION – B
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Q4. Explain communication skills as an important counseling skill.

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Ans. The skills required in counseling are very important for a good counseling process to happen and
these have to be reinforced both by practice and research. The counselor acquires these through
learning and practice.
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1. Communication Skills

Verbal communication skills: Effective Speaking as a mean of communication, effective speaking

plays a vital role in people’s lives. Though everybody speaks everyday and is able to express ideas,
thoughts, or requests, not everybody can do it well. Some people are difficult to follow, some explain
their thoughts in a complicated manner, and some are simply boring to listen to. Avoid these mistakes.

• Use plain and simple words unless the audience is specialised in the subject area.

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• Use complete simple sentences for the message to be easier to comprehend.

• Do not speak too fast. It is difficult to comprehend information if much of it is presented in a short
period of time.

• Make pauses. Pauses between sentences and ideas will give a listener somes pace to think the words
over, to understand the message.

2. Communication for Effective Counselling

Effective communication is also facilitated by knowing what not to do. George and Chritiani (1995)
list these barriers to communication:

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1) Giving advice

2) Offering solutions

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3) Moralising and preaching

4) Analysing and diagnosing

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The effectiveness of counseling is determined by the effectiveness of counsellor client

and motivate the client.

Q5. Explain the humanistic therapies.

ba
communication. From the counselor’s standpoint, communication is primarily designed to influence

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Ans. Humanistic Therapies focus on self development, growth and responsibilities. They seek to help
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a
individuals recognise their strengths, creativity and choice in the ‘here and now’.

a) Person-Centered Counseling (also known as “Client-Centered” or Rogerian” counseling):

b
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Person-Centered Counseling focuses on an individual’s self worth and values. Being valued as a
person, without being judged, can help an individual to accept who they are, and reconnect
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withthemselves.
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b) Gestalt Therapy: Gestalt Therapy can be roughly translated to ‘whole’ and focuses on the whole
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of an individual’s experience, including their thoughts, feelings and actions. Gaining self-awareness in
the ‘here and now’ is a key aspect of Gestalt Therapy.
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c) Transactional Analysis: Transactional Analysis is based on the theory that we each have three ego
states: Parent, Adult and Child. By recognising ego-states, Transactional Analysis attempts to identify
how individuals communicate, and how this can be changed.
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d) Transpersonal Psychology and Psycho-synthesis: Transpersonal Psychology means “beyond the

personal” and seeks to discover the person who transcends an individual’s body, age, appearance,
culture etc. Psycho synthesis aims to discover a higher, spiritual level of consciousness.

These focus on self-development, growth and responsibilities. They seek to help individuals recognise
their strengths, creativity and choice in the ‘here and now’. Person-centered, Gestalt and existential
therapies come under this category. For over fifty years a humanistic approach has been used in the
field of therapeutic counselling. Although behavioural and psychoanalytic forms of counselling are
also available, the humanistic approach is an extremely successful option.

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Q6. Differentiate between direct and indirect approach of counseling.

Ans. Direct Approach: When the counselor assumes the initiative and carries a major part of the
responsibility for problem identification and resolution he or she is using the direct approach. This
approach is called as “I talk, you listen”. This direct approach to counseling might also be called the
problem solving approach. It has both advantages and disadvantages that are given below.

Advantages of Direct Approach:

• Quickest method.

• Good for people who need clear, concise direction.

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• Allows counselors to actively use their experience.

Disadvantages of Direct Approach:

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• Doesn’t encourage clients to be part of the solution.

• Tends to treat symptoms, not problems.

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• Tends to discourage clients from talking freely.
a
ii) Indirect Approach: The indirect approach was developed primarily by the renowned psychologist
Dr. Carl B. Rogers. In this method, the counsellor’s participation is minimal, and the techniques of
b
reflection and acceptance are used to encourage the counselee to freely express himself. The

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counsellor pays particular attention to the emotion and attitudes associated with the problem. The
counselee is encouraged to choose the goals, make the decisions, and take responsibility for those
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a
decisions.

• Encourages maturity.
b
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• Encourages open communication.
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• Develops personal responsibility.

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Advantages of Indirect approach:

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• Moderately quick.
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• Encourages maturity.

• Encourages open communication.

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Q7. Discuss the main features of cognitive theory of counseling.

Ans. Cognitive counseling provides a model for understanding and intervening inhuman behaviour in
which the point of entry is through the thinking process. The fundamental assumption is that more
effective thinking will result in more satisfactory (to the client) behaviour and feelings. For certain
clients, identifying faulty thinking and learning more effective ways of viewing life experiences can
result in rapid improvement.

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Albert Ellis (1997), founder of rational-emotive behaviour therapy, is probably the best known
cognitive therapists. Like Rogers and Perls, he was trained as a psychoanalytic therapist, but he came
to believe that the traditional approach was inefficient and that the process sidetracked clients from
learning how to live more effectively. Influenced by learning theory, Ellis began to develop a new
approach to counseling in which clients are taught to think rationally about blocks to accomplishing
love and work goals. Psychiatrist Aaron Beck and psychologist Donald Meichenbaum have both
gained recognition for their development of related theories of cognitive counseling and
psychotherapy.

1. The Nature of People

For cognitive theorists, humans are thinking beings with the capacity to be rational or irrational,

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erroneous or realistic, in their thinking. According to Patterson and Watkins (1997), “Cognitive
therapy is based on the commonsense idea that what people think and say about themselves-their
attitudes, ideas, and ideals-are relevant and important”. Cognitive therapists subscribe to the view that
what people think about their experiences determines how they feel about those experiences and what

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they will do.

2. The Counseling Process

The counseling process has similar elements in each of the cognitive systems and cognitive
restructuring is the principal mechanism of change. The first step is to have the client describe the

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stressful situations in his or her life and to identify the faulty thinking that underlies the feelings. The
a
counsellor identifies the irrational thoughts, automatic negative thoughts, and silent assumptions that
the client uses to interpret (erroneously) his or her experience.

3. Stages of Counseling
b
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a
Although Ellis places little importance on first-stage counseling skills, the other cognitive therapists
see the conditions of the first stage as important to establishing a therapeutic alliance with the client,
creating a climate of trust so that the client will respond to the interventions the counselor suggests.
b

None of the cognitive therapists would see the first-stage conditions alone as sufficient for effective
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and efficient treatment.
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Q8. Describe the different types of questions used during counseling.

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Ans. Apart from basic counseling skills, some skills which are essential when counseling young
people with regard to relationships are:
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1. Transitional Questions

Transitional questions are useful in inviting them to return to a previous topic of discussion. Examples
of transitional questions are:
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‘You were telling me how angry you feel towards your stepfather and I would be interested to know
what that anger is about. Would it be helpful for you to tell me about that anger?

2. Choice Questions

These questions are particularly useful when counseling young people with regardto relationships.
These questions make it clear that the young person has a choice about the way they think and behave
and may also draw attention to the consequences of decisions.

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The counselor might ask the choice questions like:

‘What other choices could you make in responding to your step father?’

‘What would be the consequence for you if you were to talk to him about what troubles you?

3. Guru Questions

Young people are keen to give each other advice and to receive advice from their peers. When young
people come to counseling, they will often ask a counsellor what they should do. Sometimes it may be
useful for the counselor to make a suggestion but it should be stated in this way

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Many young people will enjoy this approach as it invites them into an advisory position. They often
find that in that position they are able to offer themselves useful advice.

SECTION – C

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Q9. Confidentiality

Ans. Trust is an essential cornerstone in the counseling relationship and central to the development
and maintenance of trust is the principle of confidentiality. The obligation of counselors to maintain

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confidentiality in their relationships with their clients is not absolute; however, counselors need to be
a
aware of both ethical and legal guidelines that apply.

Q10. Pleasure principle vs. reality principle

b
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Ans. The reality principle is the counterpart to the pleasure principle. According to Freud, the
reality principle refers to the awareness of the 'real environment' or 'reality' by a person and the need
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a
to accommodate choices and actions to it in order to live and operate within society. Freud contended
that during the course of normal human development, the primitive, pleasure-seeking operations of
the pleasure principle gradually transform into the reality principle.
b
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Q11. Transference vs. counter transference
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Ans. Transference refers to the client’s emotional response to the counsellor. The concept of
transference is significant in the psychodynamic model as it focuses on clients’ emotional responses.
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The word counter transference refers to the counselor’s emotional response to the client.
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Counsellors are also capable of displacing feelings from the past in to the present situation with the
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client.

Q12. Centripetal and centrifugal periods in family life

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Ans. Centripetal Periods (CP) - The close periods in family life are called centripetal to indicate the
many forces in the family system that holds the family tightly together. Centripetal periods are
marked by an inner orientation requiring intense bonding and cohesion such as early childhood, child
rearing and grand parenting.

Centrifugal Periods (CF) – By contrast, the distant or disengaged periods have been called
“centrifugal” to indicate the predominance of forces that pull the family apart.

Q13. Cognitive distortions

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Ans. Cognitive distortions are simply ways that our mind convinces us of something that isn't really
true. These inaccurate thoughts are usually used to reinforce negative thinking or emotions — telling
ourselves things that sound rational and accurate, but really only serve to keep us feeling bad about
ourselves.

Q14. Schemas

Ans. Schema describes a pattern of thought or behaviour that organizes categories of information and
the relationships among them. It can also be described as a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a
framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new
information.[2]Schemata influence attention and the absorption of new knowledge: people are more
likely to notice things that fit into their schema, while re-interpreting contradictions to the schema as

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exceptions or distorting them to fit.

Q15. Aversive conditioning

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Ans. Among the different techniques used by counselors, the aversive conditioning technique makes
use of dissuasion for lessening the appeal of a maladaptive behaviour. The client while being engaged
in a particular behaviour or thought for which he has to be treated, is exposed to an unpleasant
stimulus. Thus, the unpleasant stimulus gets associated with such thoughts/behaviours and then the
client exhibits an aversive behaviour towards them.

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Q16. Triangular relationships
ba
Ans. Family systems theory maintains that emotional relationships in families are usually triangular.
Whenever two members in the family system have problems with each other, they will “triangle in” a
third member as a way of stabilising their own relationship. The triangles in a family system usually

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interlock in away that maintains family homeostasis. Common family triangles include a child and his
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a
or her parents; two children and one parent; a parent, a child, and a grandparent; three siblings; or,
husband, wife, and an in-law.
b

Q17. Family life cycle

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Ans. Jay Haley (1993) offered the first detailed description of a family life cycle. He identified six
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developmental stages, stretching from courtship to old age. He was interested in understanding the
strengths families have and the challenges they face as they move through the life cycle. He
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hypothesised that symptoms and dysfunctions appeared when there was a dislocation or disruption in
the anticipated natural unfolding of the life cycle: “The symptom is a signal that a family has
difficulty in getting past a stage in the life cycle.”
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Q18. Enmeshment

Ans. Enmeshment refers to family environment where members are overly dependent on each other
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or have undifferentiated roles and ego boundaries. One should be able to differentiate one’s
intellectual processes from one’s feelings. When thoughts and feelings are not distinguished, fusion
occurs. In a family conflict, people who are able to differentiate their own emotions and intellects are
able to stand up for themselves and not be dominated by the feelings of others, whereas those whose
feelings and thoughts are fused may express a pseudo-self rather than their own values and opinions.

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