THE INDIAN PUBLIC SCHOOL ERODE.

XII-Physics Practicals ( Code - 042)

Physics
Lab manual

Compiled by:

M.Baby (HoD),
M.Tamilnesan,
S.Baranitharan,
A.Thirunavukkarasu
Department of Physics (CBSE)
 1. Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire

Aim: To find the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge

Requirements: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, resistance box, Battery
Eliminator, jockey, unknown resistance wire, connecting wires.

Theory:

Wheatstone’s bridge: A meter bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone’s bridge

P R
experiment as shown in figure. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer, then 
Q S
which is the condition of balance of bridge. We use this relation to find the unknown
resistance S of the given material of wire.

The wire whose resistance is to be found is connected in the arm CD. A resistance box
from which a known resistance can be taken out is connected across the gap AB. A sensitive
galvanometer followed by a jockey is connected between the points B and D so as to slide
over the wire AD. A cell with suitable rheostat is connected across AC.

1
Observation:

(i)To find the unknown resistance of the given wire:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.NO resistance, R S=R (100𝑙 −𝑙)
(Ω) (cm) (cm) Ω

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean, S= Ω

Procedure:

a) Make the connections as shown in figure. Take out suitable resistance R from the
resistance box.
b) Touch the jockey at point A; see that there is deflection on galvanometer on one side.
Touch the jockey now on the point C of the wire. The deflection in galvanometer
should be on the other side. If it is so, connections are correct. If the deflection is one-
sided, adjust R till the deflection is reversed.
c) If the deflections are on both sides, start sliding the jockey on the wire from end A
towards C.
d) Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is called balance
point.
e) Note the length AD and call it as balancing length l, DC will be (100 – l). From
R l
formula,  knowing R and l, S can be found. Repeat the above procedure for
S 100  l
five different values of R.

Result :

The resistance of the given wire is _________ Ω

Precaution:

1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter Bridge properly.
2) All connections should be neat and tight.
3) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.
4) Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact
for a long time.
5) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of Meter Bridge.

2
 Sources of error:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous
current flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper
strips and connecting screws

2. Meter bridge-Combination of resistances( Series)

Aim: To verify the law of combination (series) of resistances using a meter bridge.
Requirements: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box, Lechlanche
cell(or) battery eliminator of 2V, jockey, two unknown resistance wires and connecting
wires.
Theory: In series arrangement, the resistors are connected end to end. The source of
current is connected between the free ends of the first and the last resistor. In this
arrangement, the current through each resistor is the same but potential difference across
different resistors is different. The potential difference of the source is distributed across
different resistors. Let I be the current through each resistor of resistance R 1, R2, R3 and
V1, V2, V3 the potential difference across each, then V = V1+V2+V3, where V1 = IR1,
V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3.
So, V = I RS, where RS is the effective resistance of the combination..
IRS = IR1+IR2+IR3
RS = R1+R2+R3.
For R1 and R2 resistors, RS = R1+R2

3
 Observations:
(i) resistance for the material of the wire 1, R1:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.No resistance ,S cm cm R1=S (100𝑙 −𝑙)
Ω Ω
1. 1
2. 2
Mean (R1) = Ω
(ii) resistance for the material of the wire 2, R 2:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.No resistance ,S cm cm R2=S (100𝑙 −𝑙)
Ω Ω
1. 1
2. 2
Mean(R2)= Ω

(iii) resistance in series, Rs:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.No resistance ,S cm cm Rs=S (100𝑙 −𝑙)
Ω Ω
1. 1
2. 2
Mean(Rs)= Ω
Procedure:
a)Measure the unknown resistances R1 and R2 using meter bridge experiment.
b) Connect two resistances R1 and R2 in series.
c)Check for deflection on both sides by touching the jockey at both ends of meter bridge
wire.
d)Proceed in the same way as in meter bridge experiment. Take atleast four sets of
observations.
e)Compare the measured values of effective resistances using meter bridge with calculated
values.
Verification:
By theory, RS = R1 + R2 = ________ Ω
By experiment, RS = ________ Ω

4
Precautions:

1)Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of meter bridge properly.

2)All connections should be neat and tight.

3)Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.

4)Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact
for a long time.

5)Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of meter bridge.

Sources of error:

1. There may be error due to contact resistances.

2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous
current flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper
strips and connecting screws.

3 .Potentiometer-Comparison of EMF of two cells

Aim: To compare the emf’s of two given primary cells using potentiometer.
Requirements: Potentiometer with a jockey, two way key, source of DC supply,
rheostat, galvanometer, resistance box, Lechlanche cell, a High resistance box(if
required) and Daniel cell.
Principle: A potentiometer works on the principle that when a constant current flows
through a wire of uniform area of cross-section, the potential difference between any
two points on the wire is directly proportional to the length of that section of the wire.
i.e., V α l
Let R be the resistance of potentiometer wire and I the current passing through it.
Potential difference V = I R.
RL
But,  
A
IL
V
A
Ρ is a constant whose value depends upon the nature of material of potentiometer wire. If
current is constant and the wire is of uniform area of cross-section, then I and A are also
constant.
V I
  constant = k , where k is potential gradient ( V cm-1)
L A
The potential across a length l of wire is V’ = k l

5
 Observation:

Balancing Balancing
Length when Length when E l
Lechlanche cell Danial cell
1
 1

S.No is connected(E1), is connected(E2),

E 2 l 2

l1 (cm) l2 (cm) (no unit)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean, E1/E2 =
Procedure:
a) Make the connections according to the scheme shown.
b) Take the maximum current from battery using rheostat.
c) Connect points a and c of the two way key. The cell E 1 is included in the circuit. Cell E2
is excluded.
d) Introduce a 1000Ω resistance from the resistance box, press the jockey at point A and
note the direction of deflection.
e) Press the jockey at end B. The direction of deflection should be opposite.
f) Insert the key in the gap ac so as to bring lechlanche cell in the circuit. Slide the jockey
on the potentiometer wire till the galvanometer shows a zero deflection. Adjust the
current so that the balance point is on the third or fourth wire.
g) Note the length l1 for the cell of emf E1. Keep an eye on current. It should not change. If
it changes, adjust it to be the same with the help of rheostat. Then E 1 α l1.
6
h) Remove the key form ac and insert key in gap bc. Repeat the steps (f) and (g). Then E 2 α
l2.
i) Adjust the current using rheostat. Repeat the above steps to get a set of readings.

Result:
E1
The ratio of emf of lechlanche cell to that of emf of Daniel cell  ____
E2

Actual value of emf of Lechlanche cell, E1 = _______V

Actual value of emf of Daniel cell, E2 = __________V
E1
Theoretical value of  ______
E2

Precaution:
a) Do not keep the circuit closed for a long time.Insert the keys only while doing the
experiment otherwise the wire will get heated.
b) The positive terminals of batteries E1, E2 and E should be connected to point A.
c) Find the rough null deflection by introducing a high resistance form resistance box.
Sources of error:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current
flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

4.Potentiometer- Internal resistance of a cell

Aim: To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.
Requirements: Potentiometer with jockey, a Lechlanche cell/ a Daniel cell, two plug keys,
source of DC supply, a resistance box and a High resistance box(if required).
Theory: The emf of a cell is the difference of potential across the terminals of a cell when
it is in open circuit. However when a current is drawn from the cell, the reading of
voltmeter falls. This is because a fall of potential takes place across the cell due to its
internal resistance.
Internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the
flow of ions through it. It is denoted by ‘r’ and is measured in Ω.
E
If I is the current through the circuit, then I  , where r is the internal resistance, R
Rr
is the external resistance and E is the emf of the cell.
IR + Ir = E
V + Ir = E
7
 Ir = E – V
E  V E  V (E  V )R
r  
I V V
R
If l1 and l2 are balancing lengths of potentiometer wire which balance E and V respectively,
then E α l and V α l2.
l ( E  V ) R (l1  l 2 ) R
Then, E  1 . Therefore, r  
V l2 V l2

Observation:

To determine the internal resistance of the given primary cell, E:

Resistance,R Balancing Balancing Internal

S.No Ω Length when Length when Resistance,
R is not R is Included
Included( i.e, ( i.e, K2 is r = R(l1-l2)/l2
K2 open) Closed)
l1 (cm) l2 (cm) Ω
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
5. 5

Mean(r) = Ω

Procedure:
a) Make connections as shown in figure.
b) Check emf of the battery and cell. See that emf of the battery is more that of dry cell.
c) Put key K1 and move the jockey to obtain the null point on the wire.
d) Note the length l1. Then E α l1
e) Introduce a resistance in the resistance box and put the key K2.
f) Slide the jockey and obtain the null deflection. Note the null point. Then V α l2.
g) Repeat the above steps for different values of current and resistance R.
8
 Precautions:

a) Do not keep the circuit closed for a long time. Insert the keys only while doing
experiment.
b) Positive terminals of battery and cell should be connected to point A(taken as zero)
c) Keep watching that ammeter reading is constant for one set of observation. Adjust it to
be constant with rheostat if necessary.

Result:

The internal resistance of given wire is ______Ω

Sources of error:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current
flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

5. Resistance and Figure of merit of galvanometer

Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.

Requirements: Galvanometer, battery, two resistance boxes, one way key(two numbers)
and connecting wires.

Theory: A galvanometer is a device used to detect small current in a circuit. It has a coil
pivoted in a radial magnetic field. When electric current is passed through the coil, it gets
deflected. Its deflection is noted by attaching a pointer to the coil. The deflection is
proportional to current passed. A galvanometer has a moderate resistance and has a small
current carrying capacity.

The resistance of a galvanometer can be found by half deflection method. The circuit
is shown for this method. Key K is inserted and deflection θ is determined with a suitable
value of R. If E is the emf of cell and I be the current in circuit, the galvanometer resistance,
RS
G
RS
Figure of merit of galvanometer:
It is defined as current required for producing deflection of 1 division. It is measured in
ampere/div. When a high resistance R is taken out from resistance box, a current I flows in
the circuit and it produces a deflection θ.
E E
I =k θ. Therefore , k 
RG ( R  G )

9
By varying R and noting corresponding value of θ, we can find a set of values of figure of
merit. The mean of these values gives the figure of merit.

Observation:

Resistance Deflection in Galvanometer Figure of

R(Ω) Galvanometer θ/2 Shunt Resistance Merit,
θ (divisions) (divisions) S G(Ω)
S.No 𝐸
k=
𝑅+𝐺 𝜃
(Ω)
(A/divisions)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean (G) = Ω

Mean (K) = A/division

Procedure:

a) Make the connections as shown.

b) See that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
c) Introduce a resistance of 5000 from the resistance box R and then insert the K1 only.
d) Adjust the value of R so that the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum(say 30
div)
e) Note the deflection. Let it be θ i.e., θ = 30 div.
f) Now, insert the key K2. Without changing the value of R, adjust the value of k, such
that deflection in galvanometer reduces exactly to half the value obtained. i.e., θ / 2.
g) Note the value of R.
h) Repeat the above steps for various values of R.

10
 Result:

1). The resistance of galvanometer is found to be ______ Ω.

2). Figure of merit of galvanometer is ___________ A/division.

Precautions:

a)All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

b)Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight.

c)Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be introduced or else a small
resistance can damage the galvanometer.

Sources of error:

1. The emf of the battery may change during the experiment.

2. Calibration of resistance in resistance boxes may not be correct.
3. Plugs in resistance boxes may not be tight and nay have contact resistance.

06. Frequency of AC mains with a sonometer

Aim : To find the frequency of the ac mains using a sonometer and an electromagnet.

Apparatus required: Sonometer having a soft iron core, an electromagnet, a step down
1
transformer, hanger with kg slotted weights, meter scale, stand for electromagnet,
2
weighing machine.

1 T
Formula: Frequency of ac mains using a sonometer, fAC = Hz.
4l m

Where, l = resonating length, in metre,

T = Tension in the string, in newton and

m = linear mass density of the wire( i.e., mass per unit length of wire )
M
m= kg m-1 where M = mass of the wire in kg, L = length of the wire in m.
L

Theory: Frequency of ac is defined as the number of ac cycles per second, f AC.

An electromagnet is made by passing electric current in a coil wound around a piece of soft
iron. This is nothing but a current carrying solenoid with soft iron as its core. The core
acquires magnetic properties on passing electric current through the solenoid and loses
magnetism on switching off.
11
If AC of frequency fAC is passed through this electromagnet, the polarity of the ends of
electromagnet changes (N pole to S pole or vice versa) once in every cycle of AC. If the
electromagnet is held close to the string of a sonometer wire, near its centre, the string will
be attracted towards it when the electromagnet is magnetized and thrown away when it is
demagnetized. Thus the sonometer wire will vibrate under the electromagnet. As the string
will be attracted by electromagnet whether there is a north pole or south pole on its near end,
the frequency of vibration of string ( ν )will be twice the frequency of the ac fed to
electromagnet( ν = 2 fAC )

1 T 1 T
So, 2 fAC = ν = Hz. Therefore, fAC = Hz.
2l m 4l m

Procedure:

1. Check if pulley is frictionless.

2. Place sonometer parallel to one edge of the working table, such that, the pulley
remains projected out of the perpendicular edge. See that there are no kinks in the
string of sonometer and its one end is rigidly fixed. Pass string over pulley such that it
1
stretches horizontally over the box of sonometer and attach a hanger of kg weight
2
on its free end.
3. Connect the electromagnet to the secondary of step down transformer and plug
primary of the transformer in ac mains. Hold the electromagnet in a stand and bring it
close to the sonometer wire just above the centre of its length.
4. Switch on the mains and adjust the wedges on the sonometer, starting from minimum
separation till you get maximum amplitude of oscillation of the sonometer wire. At
this resonance condition, rider flies off. Note the length of the sonometer wire
between the wedges and also note the load suspended on the string.
1
5. Increase the load on the hanger in steps of kg weight and measure the resonating
2
length. Take atleast 3 observations with three loads 1.5kg, 2kg and 2.5kg.
6. Switch off ac supply and take out sonometer wire. Measure its mass M and length L.
M
Then find its linear mass density m = kg m-1
L

12
 Diagram:

Observation:

S.No Mass of Tension Resonating Frequency of ac

hanger and T=Mg length ,l mains
weights (N) (x 10-2 m) 1 T
M(Kg) fac=
4l m
(Hz)
1. 1.5 15
2. 2.0 20
3. 2.5 25

Mean, fac=__________Hz.

Calculation:

Length of the sonometer wire, L = ______m

Mass of sonometer wire, M = _______Kg

Mass per unit length of sonometer wire (i.e., linear mass density)
13
 M
m= = _______Kg/m
L

Result:

The frequency of ac mains by using the sonometer is =_______Hz.

Precautions:

1) Sonometer wire should be horizontal and free of kinks.

2) Magnet should remain in the middle of vibrating segment and close to wire.
3) Resonance position should be noted when wire has maximum amplitude of
oscillation
Sources of Error:

1) Slotted weights may not have fixed value.

2) Pulley may not be frictionless.
3) Sonometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section

07. Focal length of concave mirror

Aim: To find the value of ‘v’ for different values of ‘u’ in case of the concave mirror.

Requirements: Concave mirror, mirror holder, metre scale, lamp with object

Theory: When a beam of light parallel to the principal axis falls on concave mirror, it
reflects the beam which passes through the focus. The nature and size of the image depends
on where the object is placed in front of the concave mirror.
1 1 1
The focal length formula is   where f is focal length of mirror in cm,
f v u
u is object distance in cm and v is image distance in cm.

14
Observation:

Rough focal length of the given concave mirror = cm

S.No Mirror Object Image Focal length,f

position distance, u distance, v
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1. 2f-4
2. 2f-2
3. 2f
4. 2f+2
5. 2f+4
Procedure: mean, f= cm

Obtain the rough focal length value by focusing the image of a distant object on the
wall.
a) Mount the mirror in the mirror holder.
b) Ensure that the object and the mirror is on the straight line.
c) Keep the mirror from the object at a distance of twice the focal length of the mirror.
d) Adjust the position of the white screen till the image is obtained.
e) Measure the distance between the pole of the mirror and the object. This is the object
distance, u.
f) Measure the distance between mirror and screen.
This is the image distance, v.

h). Repeat the steps with mirror at (2f-2), (2f -4), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from object.

Result:The focal length of the concave mirror is

1) By calculation, f=______ cm
2) By u-v graph, f=______ cm

Precautions:

a) The object and mirror must be in a straight line. Do not keep the object closer to the
rough focal length of the mirror. This will produce a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and image should be at same height and should be in level with
centre of mirror.
c) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from the image to view the image clearly.

Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.

15
 08. Focal length of convex lens

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v

Requirements: Convex lens, lens holder, metre scale, white screen, lamp with object.

Theory:When a ray of light, parallel to principal axis is incident on a convex lens, after
refraction, it passes through focus. Another ray which passes through optical centre goes
straight and these refracted rays meet and produce real inverted images. The nature and size
of image depends on position of object.

Focal length formula is 1  1  1 where u is object distance in cm, v is image distance

f v u
in cm and focal length of lens in cm.

Observation:

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm

Object Image Focal length, f

𝑢𝑣
S.No Lens position distance, u distance, v f=
(𝑢−𝑣)
(cm) (cm)
(cm)
1. 2f-4
2. 2f-2
3. 2f
4. 2f+2
5. 2f+4
Mean (f) = cm.

Procedure:

a) Obtain rough focal length of given convex lens by focusing the image of a distant
object on the wall.
b) Mount the given lens on the lens holder and place at 2f distance from the object.
c) Place white screen behind the lens.
d) Move the screen forward and backward so that the image of the object is obtained.
e) Note the position of the object, image and the lens.

16
 f) The distance between the object and the lens is u and the distance between the image
and the lens is v.
g) Repeat the above steps with lens at (2f-4),(2f-2), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from the
object.

Result:

The focal length (f) of given convex lens is,

1) By calculation, f=_____
2) By u-v graph, f=_____

Precautions:

a) Do not place the object closer than the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce
a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and the image should be at same height and should correspond with
centre of curvature.
c) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from image to view the image clearly.

Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.

09. Refractive index of a glass prism

Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between the angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Requirements: Prism, drawing board, pins, white paper.

Theory: A prism is a refracting medium bounded by intersecting plane surfaces that both
disperse and deviate light. The two plane surfaces meet along an edge at a certain angle.
These planes are called the refracting edge and the angle is called the angle of prism or
refracting angle. A prism may be bound by any number of surfaces but the surface on which
light is incident and the surface from which light emerges must be plane and non-parallel.

r1  r2  QOS  2rtS ……….(1)

A  QOS  2rtS ……………(2)

17
 From (1) and (2),

A  r1  r2 . i.e., A = r1+r2 and D = i + e – A

sin i
Refractive index , n  ……….(3)
sin r1

When incident light ray suffers minimum deviation,

i = e , r1 = r2 =r………..(4)

A = 2r , r = A/2………..(5)

i = (A+Dm) / 2………..(6)
A  Dm
sin( )
Substitute (6) and (5) in (3), we get n  2
A
sin( )
2

Angle of minimum deviation: It is the minimum value of angle of deviation at which the
light ray after refraction from the first refracting face goes parallel to the base of the prism,
before it emerges from the second refracting face.

S.No Angle of incidence, i Angle of deviation, D

1. 30º
2. 35º
3. 40º
4. 45º
5. 50º
6. 55º
7. 60º

Procedure:

18
 a) Fix white paper on a drawing board with the help of thumb pins.
b) Draw a line through the centre of paper longitudinally.
c) Keep the triangular face of the prism with one of the edge on the line and draw the
boundary of the prism with the help of a sharp pencil.
d) Draw normal N on the sides AB at Q1.
e) Draw straight lines R1Q1 making an angle of 30 ̊ with the normal.
f) Fix two paper pins P1 and P2 on line R1Q1. Keep the pins at maximum distance away
from each other (atleast 5cm).
g) Place the prism back on the mark ABC. Look for the image of the pins P 1 and P2
through the face AC.
h) Take the third pin P3, close your left eye and fix the pin P3 at such a position that the
image of pins P1, P2 and P3 be on the same line.
i) Now take the fourth pin P4, again close your left eye and fix them at such a position
such that pins P1, P2 , P3and P4 are on the same line. Remove the pins from their
positions and encircle the points. Draw lines through P1, P2 , P3and P4.
j) Produce the emergent ray backward and incident ray forward to meet at E. Measure
the angle of deviation at D.
k) Repeat all the above steps for angles 35 ,̊ 40 ,̊ 45 ,̊ 50̊, 55̊ and 60̊. Do not take i < 30 ̊ to
avoid TIR.
l) Plot the graph i versus D with D on Y-axis and i on the X-axis.
Calculation:

Draw the graph between i and D with D on Y-axis and i on the X-axis. Find the
minimum angle of deviation by drawing a straight perpendicular line from the point of
the graph to the Y-axis called the angle Dm. Then, refractive index of prism is found
A  Dm
sin( )
from n  2 .
A
sin( )
2
Result:

1). The i-d graph is U-shaped indicating that as the angle of incidence increases,
angle of deviation first decreases and then increases.

2). Angle of minimum deviation Dm = _____

3). Refractive index of prism, n = ______

Precaution:

1) Angle of deviation should not be less than 30 ̊ or more than 60̊.

2) The pins fixed should be well apart (atleast 8cm away) and should be vertical.
3) The prism should not be changed while doing the experiment.
Sources of error:
19
 1. The pins may not be exactly vertical.
2. Angles may not be measured properly
3. The tips of the pins may not be on the same line.

10. Refractive index of glass slab

Aim: To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Requirements: A glass slab, White sheet of paper with an ink dot, travelling mircroscope.

Theory:When a ray of light goes from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer
medium, it bends away from the normal. Consider an object ‘O’ lying at point O. The image
of object is formed at ‘I’ by refraction. A ray of light starting from O along OA is incident
normally and goes undeviated. Another ray of light incident along OB is refracted along BL.
These two rays appear to meet at I, which is the virtual image of ‘O’. Thus as a consequence
of refraction, the depth of an object appears less than the real depth. AO = real depth, AI =
apparent depth.
sin i 1
 for light travelling from denser to rarer medium.
sin r n

AB AB
sin i  , sin r 
OB IB

AB
OB  1  IB  1 (or ) OB  n
AB n OB n IB
IB

If i and r are small, OB = AO and IB = AI

AO realdepth
n= =
AI apparentdepth

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Observation:

To determine the refractive index of the glass slab:

Least count of the travelling microscope = 0.001 cm

Reading of microscope Real Apparent Refractive

Without With With Ink dot on Glass Depth depth Index,

slab(c) (𝒄−𝒂)
Glass slab(a) Glass slab(b) (c-a) (c-b) n=
(𝒄−𝒃)

S.No MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR (cm) (cm)

(no unit)
(cm) (div) (cm) (cm) (div) (cm) (cm) (div) (cm)

Procedure:

Using travelling microscope,

a) Place a small piece of paper with the mark of ink on it the horizontal platform of the
microscope.
b) Focus the microscope on the ink mark by moving the microscope tube up and down.
c) Note the reading of the microscope and make sure the tube is vertical.
d) Put the slab on the ink mark. It will appear to be raised. Moving the microscope tube
up or down should not be done. Move the microscope slowly upward so that the ink
mark is again in a sharp focus. Note the reading upon microscope.
e) Now make an ink dot on the glass slab and focus the microscope on the dot marked.
Note the microscope reading again.

Result:

The refractive index of the given glass slab is _______

Precautions:

a) Find the least count of the travelling microscope accurately.

b) The ink dot on slab should be very fine.
c) Microscope tube should be vertical.

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 Sources of error:

1. The ink dot may not be sharply focused.

2. There may be calibration error.
3. Microscope tube may not be exactly vertical
4. Levelling of microscope should not be done properly.
5. Personal error..
11. PN Junction diode

Aim: To study the I-V characteristics curve of a pn junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.
Requirements: A pn junction diode, a battery, a high resistance rheostat, voltmeter,
milliammeter, one way key and connecting wires.
Theory: A pn junction is a semiconductort device obtained by putting in contact a p-type
semiconductor with an n-type semiconductor. The one piece device so obtained is also
called a junction diode. A junction diode is based on two different ways.
Forward biasing: In forward biasing, the p-type of ccrystal is connectged to the +ve of the
bias battery and n-type to the –ve of the battery. In forward biasing, current increases as
the forward bias is increased. The current increases slowly in the beginning and then
sharply. The forward current flows only if the initial forward voltage is greater than a
certain minimum voltage. This is represented by the knee voltage or cut-in voltage.
Reverse biasing: A p-n junction is said to reverse biasing if the p-type crystal is connected
to –ve terminal and n-type is connected to +ve terminal of the bias battery.
Now a very small current (µA) flows due to minority carriers. This current is called
saturation current because it is found to be independent off reverse bias. At a certain
reverse voltage the current suddenly increases the breaking of the covalent bonds. This
reverse voltage is called the reverse breakdown voltage.

Procedure:

Forward characteristics:

1). Make the connections as shown.

2). Keep the moving contact of the rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter
and milliammeter will show a zero reading.

3). Move the contact towards the positive of the battery to apply the forward bias voltage.
VF = 0.1V. The current remains zero.

4). Increase the forward bias voltage in steps. The current will still be zero. This is due to
junction potential barrier.

5). Increase VF in steps and note the corresponding milliammeter and voltmeter readings.

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6) At VF = 0.4V, the current increases suddenly. This represents the forward bias cut-in
voltage.

7) Draw a graph between I and V, by taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis.

Reverse biasing:

For plotting reverse I-V characteristics the circuit is modified as shown. The voltmeter as
before is connected across the p-n junction. The milliammeter is replaced by microammeter
as shown.

Observations:

Least count of Voltmeter = V

Least count of milliammeter = mA

Least count of microammeter = µA

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 (i)Forward bias:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Milli ammeter

Reading (mA)

(i) Reverse bias:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Micro ammeter

Reading (µA)

Procedure: Same as in forward bias. The microammeter readings are noted corresponding
to different voltmeter readings. A graph between V and I is plotted by taking V along –X
axis and I along –Y axis.

Precautions:

1). Measuring instruments must be of proper range.

2) Make all connections neat , clean and tight.
3) Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not in use.
4) Avoid applying forward bias voltage beyond breakdown.
Sources of error:

1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.

2. Each time the pointer of ammeter ( milli or micro)may not be on a scale mark.
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 3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.

12. Zener Diode

Aim: To draw the characteristic curves of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse
breakdown voltage.

Requirements: Zener diode, battery, rheostat, two voltmeters, one microammeter, one
resistance, one way key, connecting wires.

Theory:

Zener diode is a semiconductor diode in which the n-type and p-type sections are heavily
doped. This heave doping results ina low value of reverse breakdown voltage. Zener diode is
always operated in the reverse bias. In the forward bias it works as a normal diode.

The reverse breakdown voltage of zener diode is called zener voltage(VZ) . The
reverse current that results after the breakdown is called zener current (IZ). The circuit
diagram is shown. Initially as V1 increases, I1 increases and Vo increases. At breakdown,
increase of V1 increases I1 by large amount so that Vo = Vi – IIRI becomes constant. It is for
this reason that it is used as a voltage regulator. This constant value of breakdown voltage is
called zener voltage.

Observation:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Micro ammeter

Reading (µA)

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Procedure:
1) Make sure the connections are as shown.
2) Bring rheostat to minimum and insert key K. Voltmeter and ammeter will read zero.
3) Move the contact a little towards +ve end and apply some reverse bias voltage V I.
Microammeter reading remains zero.
4) As VI is further increased, II starts increasing and Vo becomes less than V I. Note the
values of VI, Vo, and II.
5) Keep increasing the V I in small steps. Note the corresponding values of I I and VO.
6) At one stage as VI is increased, II increases by large amount and Vo doesn’t increase.
This is reverse breakdown situation.
7) As VI is increased further, II will increase keeping VO constant. Record your reading.
8) The V-I characteristic curve is then drawn.

Result: The reverse breakdown voltage of zener diode is _________

Precautions:

1) Use voltmeter and microammeter of suitable range.

2) Connect the zener diode pn junction in reverse bias.
3) The key should be kept on when the circuit is not in use.

Sources of error:

1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.

2. Each time the pointer of ammeter ( milli or micro)may not be on a scale mark.
3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.

************************

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