Infection Prevention

Guidelines for Healthcare Facilities

with Limited Resources

Linda Tietjen
Débora Bossemeyer
Noel McIntosh

JHPIEGO
An Affiliate of
Johns Hopkins
University
WORKING TO IMPROVE THE HEALTH OF WOMEN AND FAMILIES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD
Infection Prevention
Guidelines for Healthcare Facilities
with Limited Resources

Linda Tietjen
Débora Bossemeyer
Noel McIntosh

JHPIEGO
An Affiliate of
Johns Hopkins
U n i v e r s i t y

WORKING TO IMPROVE THE HEALTH OF WOMEN AND FAMILIES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD

United States Agency for International Development

The authors have made every effort to check the accuracy of all information, the dosages of any drugs, and
instructions for use of any devices or equipment. Because the science of infection prevention is rapidly advancing
and the knowledge base continues to expand, readers are advised to check current product information provided by
the manufacturer of:

x each drug to verify the recommended dose, method of administration and precautions for use; and
x each device, instrument or piece of equipment to verify recommendations for use and/or operating instructions.

In addition, all forms, instructions, checklists, guidelines and examples are intended as resources to be used and
adapted to meet national and local healthcare settings’ needs and requirements. Finally, neither the authors nor the
JHPIEGO Corporation assume liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from this
publication.

JHPIEGO is a nonprofit international health organization dedicated to improving the health of women and families.
Established in 1973, JHPIEGO—affiliated with Johns Hopkins University and headquartered in Baltimore,
Maryland—works in more than 30 countries through its collaborative partnerships with public and private
organizations, and local communities.
www.jhpiego.org

The Maternal and Neonatal Health (MNH) Program is committed to saving mothers’ and newborns’ lives by
increasing the timely use of key maternal and neonatal health and nutrition practices. The MNH Program is jointly
implemented by JHPIEGO, the Johns Hopkins Center for Communication Programs, the Centre for Development
and Population Activities, and the Program for Appropriate Technology in Health.
www.mnh.jhpiego.org

The Training in Reproductive Health (TRH) Project works globally to establish integrated (pre- and inservice)
education and training systems to improve the performance of reproductive health professionals.

JHPIEGO Corporation
Brown’s Wharf
1615 Thames Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21231-3492, USA

© 2003 by JHPIEGO Corporation. All rights reserved.

Authors: Linda Tietjen

Débora Bossemeyer
Noel McIntosh

Production Assistance: Youngae Kim

ISBN 0929817-80-X

TRADEMARKS: All brand names and product names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective
companies.

Norplant® is the registered trademark of the Population Council for subdermal levonorgestrel implants.

Printed in the United States of America

This publication was made possible in part through support provided by the Population, Health and Nutrition Office
of the U.S. Agency for International Development/Indonesia, and by the Maternal and Child Health Division, Office
of Health, Infectious Diseases and Nutrition, Bureau for Global Health, U.S. Agency for International Development,
under the terms of Award No. HRN-A-00-98-00043-00, and by the Service Delivery Improvement Division, Office
of Population and Reproductive Health, Bureau for Global Health, U.S. Agency for International Development,
under the terms of Award No. HRN-A-00-98-00041-00. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and
do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This manual is a reference guide to infection prevention thinking and

practices in hospitals and healthcare facilities where resources are limited,
and in some countries (e.g., Nepal, Nigeria, Mozambique, Rwanda and
Somalia) actually decreasing. It is based in large part on the experience
gained during the last 11 years since publication of the first manual,
Infection Prevention for Family Planning Service Programs1. It reflects
what we (the authors) have learned from countless healthcare workers
throughout the world who abstracted, translated, taught and used the
simple, practical procedures and practices contained in that manual.

During the past decade, the success of the first manual as an international
infection prevention reference for use in outpatient settings, such as family
planning programs, has been amply documented. The challenge in writing
this new manual has been to keep the content as simple and practical as
possible while at the same time incorporating essential information on a
much larger scale—infection prevention guidelines for hospitals providing
general medical, surgical and obstetric services. Therefore, to make it as
useful as possible, we sought input from a wide range of health
professionals and international organizations, and we are deeply indebted
to them for their interest, support and contributions. Specifically, the
authors and JHPIEGO wish to thank:

x The two key reviewers, Patricia Lynch, RN, MBA, co-author of

Infection Prevention with Limited Resources: A Handbook for
Infection Committees, and Mark S. Davis, MD, FACOG, author of
Advanced Precautions for Today’s O.R., who worked closely with the
authors and provided technical and organizational guidance as well as
collegial support throughout the writing. Over the years, both
individuals have contributed greatly to making hospitals safer for
patients as well as for the healthcare professionals and staff working in
them. In particular:

x Pat Lynch has worked in the field of infection control since 1968.
She was the first president of the US Association of Professionals
in Infection Control and Epidemiology (APIC) in 1972, and is one
of the original developers of the isolation system known as Body
Substance Isolation that was incorporated into the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention’s revised Guideline for Isolation
Precautions in Hospitals in 1996. She also has consulted with
practitioners in numerous hospitals with limited resources in the
US and developing countries.

1
Tietjen L, W Cronin and N McIntosh. 1992. Infection Prevention for Family Planning Service Programs: A Problem-
Solving Reference Manual. Essential Medical Information Systems, Inc.: Durant, OK.
 x Mark Davis is an experienced surgeon who now devotes much of
his time to promoting safety in hospitals, the healthcare industry
and manufacturers of medical and surgical safety products. His
contribution to Chapter 7 (Safe Practices in the Operating
Room) and Appendix D (Precautions for the Surgical Team)
was crucial and freely given. We also would like to acknowledge
his consultation on JHPIEGO’s new infection prevention video,
Safe Practices in the Operating Room, which is an integral part of
the learning materials used in training health workers.
x Both publishers, ETNA Communications LLC and Sweinbinder
Publications, LLC respectively, for permitting adaptation and use of
portions of the above publications in this manual.
x The more than 20 US and international technical experts whose helpful
comments were incorporated into the final version. Special thanks go to:

x In Africa: Srs. Dorothy Andere and Lunah N’Cube (Kenya), Rick

Hughes, MPH (Zambia), Dr. Robert J. Leke (Cameroon) and Dr.
Abdel Karim Kourmaré (Mali).
x In Asia: Dr. Kamlesh Giri (Nepal), Dr. Chandrakant Ruparelia
(India) and Dr. Abdul Bari Saiffudin, Anne Hyre, MPH, CNM and
Dr. Ricky Lu (Indonesia).
x In Latin America and the Caribbean: Drs. Julio Aguilar and
Miguel Espinoza (Peru) and Dr. Erwin Ochoa (Honduras).
x In the United States: Robyn Gerhshon, PhD, an environmental
health specialist at Columbia University who provided valuable
comments and suggestions regarding the content of the manual.

Throughout development of this manual, the support and advice of Molly

Gingerich and Monica Kerrigan USAID/Indonesia were of enormous
assistance. In addition, we are indebted to Teresa McInerney, BA, BSN,
RN, who provided new information and drew most of the illustrations in
Chapter 5 (Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes) and Chapter
13 (Processing Linen), and to JHPIEGO/Baltimore staff, especially Ann
Blouse, Paul Blumenthal, Sue Brechin, Julia Brothers, Patricia Gomez,
Barbara Kinzie, Harshad Sanghvi and Jeffrey Smith, who made many
helpful and important suggestions. Finally, this manual could not have
been produced without the exceptional patience, editing and desktop
publishing expertise of Youngae Kim.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE xvii

PART 1. FUNDAMENTALS OF INFECTION PREVENTION

ONE INTRODUCTION TO INFECTION PREVENTION

Background 1-1
Definitions 1-2
Important Concepts 1-3
Which Process to Use 1-4
The Disease Transmission Cycle 1-6
Preventing Infectious Diseases 1-10
New Isolation Guidelines and Recommendations 1-11
References 1-13

TWO STANDARD PRECAUTIONS

Background 2-1
Standard Precautions 2-2
Key Components and Their Use 2-3
References 2-5

THREE HAND HYGIENE

Background 3-1
Definitions 3-3
Hand Hygiene Practices 3-4
Improving Hand Hygiene Practice: What Works 3-9
Other Issues and Considerations Related to Hand Hygiene 3-12
References 3-14

FOUR GLOVES

Background 4-1
When to Wear Gloves 4-2
Types of Gloves 4-3
Glove Requirements for Clinical Procedures 4-5
Accidental Contamination of Sterile or
High-Level Disinfected Surgical Gloves 4-6
Some DOs and DON’Ts About Gloves 4-7
Allergic Reaction to Gloves 4-7
References 4-8

Infection Prevention Guidelines v

FIVE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND DRAPES

Background 5-1
Personal Protective Equipment 5-2
The Role of Drapes 5-7
Making the Workplace Safer 5-11
References 5-11

SIX SURGICAL ANTISEPSIS

Background 6-1
Definitions 6-2
Selection of Antiseptics 6-2
Use of Antiseptics 6-4
Instructions for Cervical or Vaginal Preparation 6-5
Storing and Dispensing of Antiseptics 6-6
References 6-7

SEVEN SAFE PRACTICES IN THE OPERATING ROOM

Background 7-1
Definitions 7-2
The Surgical Environment 7-3
Designing Safer Operations 7-5
Safe Handling of Hypodermic Needles and Syringes 7-9
Sharps Containers: DOs and DON’Ts 7-12
Managing Exposure to Blood and Body Fluids 7-14
Making the Surgical Environment Safer 7-16
References 7-16

EIGHT WASTE MANAGEMENT

Background 8-1
Definitions 8-2
Waste Management 8-3
How to Dispose of Sharps 8-5
How to Dispose of Liquid Contaminated Wastes 8-6
How to Dispose of Solid Contaminated Wastes 8-7
Incineration 8-7
Burying Waste 8-9
How to Dispose of Hazardous Waste 8-11
References 8-13

vi Infection Prevention Guidelines

 PART 2. PROCESSING INSTRUMENTS, GLOVES AND OTHER ITEMS
NINE OVERVIEW OF RECOMMENDED PROCESSES

Background 9-1
Definitions 9-2
Guidelines for Processing Items 9-3
References 9-8

TEN DECONTAMINATION AND CLEANING

Background 10-1
Decontamination 10-1
Cleaning 10-5
References 10-8

ELEVEN STERILIZATION

Background 11-1
Methods of Heat Sterilization 11-2
Sterilization by Steam 11-4
Sterilization by Dry Heat 11-6
Chemical Sterilization 11-8
Monitoring Sterilization Procedures 11-9
Storage 11-10
Other Sterilization Methods 11-11
References 11-13

TWELVE HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTION

Background 12-1
Effectiveness of Moist Heat 12-1
High-Level Disinfection by Boiling 12-2
High-Level Disinfection by Steaming 12-4
High-Level Disinfection Using Chemicals 12-6
References 12-10

THIRTEEN PROCESSING LINEN

Background 13-1
Definitions 13-2
Processing Linen 13-2
Use of Personal Protective Equipment 13-3
Collecting, Transporting and Sorting Soiled Linen 13-3
Laundering Linen 13-4
Storing, Transporting and Distributing Clean Linen 13-6
References 13-8

Infection Prevention Guidelines vii

FOURTEEN REPROCESSING DISPOSABLE (SINGLE-USE) ITEMS
Background 14-1
Definitions 14-2
Reprocessing Disposable (Single-Use) Items 14-2
Reprocessing Disposable Surgical Gloves 14-4
Recycling or Reprocessing Disposable (Plastic) Syringes and
Hypodermic Needles 14-4
References 14-7

PART 3. IMPLEMENTING INFECTION PREVENTION IN

HEALTHCARE FACILITIES

FIFTEEN TRAFFIC FLOW AND ACTIVITY PATTERNS

Background 15-1
Definitions 15-2
Space and Equipment Requirements 15-2
Minimizing Microbial Contamination 15-4
References 15-12

SIXTEEN HOUSEKEEPING

Background 16-1
Definitions 16-2
How to Select a Cleaning Product 16-4
How to Prepare a Disinfectant Cleaning Solution 16-4
Cleaning Methods 16-5
Use of Personal Protective Equipment 16-6
Schedule and Procedures for Specific Areas 16-6
Schedule and Procedures for the Operating Room 16-8
How to Clean Spills of Blood and Other Body Fluids 16-9
How to Clean Soiled and Contaminated Cleaning Equipment 16-9
References 16-10

SEVENTEEN CLINICAL LABORATORY SERVICES

Background 17-1
Definitions 17-2
Types of Exposure Resulting in Laboratory-Acquired Infections 17-3
Biosafety and Recommended Infection Prevention Practices
for Laboratory Workers 17-3
References 17-5

viii Infection Prevention Guidelines

EIGHTEEN BLOOD BANK AND TRANSFUSION SERVICES

Background 18-1
Definitions 18-2
Why Transfusion Services Are Unsafe in Many Settings 18-3
Provision of Services 18-3
Transfusion of Blood or Blood Components 18-9
Preventing Complications and Nosocomial Infections 18-11
Making Blood Bank and Transfusion Services Better and Safer 18-12
References 18-13

NINETEEN MANAGEMENT OF AN INFECTION PREVENTION PROGRAM

Background 19-1
Developing Successful Programs 19-2
Organizing Principles for Managing Infection Prevention Programs 19-2
Who Should Be Involved in Managing the Program 19-3
Making Management Decisions 19-4
Staff Training 19-6
Monitoring the Effectiveness of Training 19-7
Monitoring Infection Prevention Practices 19-8
References 19-9

PART 4. NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS

TWENTY PREVENTING NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS

Background 20-1
Definitions 20-3
Frequency and Type of Nosocomial Infection 20-3
Impact of Nosocomial Infections 20-4
Preventing Nosocomial Infections 20-4
References 20-5

TWENTY-ONE ISOLATION PRECAUTION GUIDELINES FOR HOSPITALS

Background 21-1
Definitions 21-2
Transmission-Based Precautions 21-3
References 21-9

TWENTY-TWO PREVENTING URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS

Background 22-1
Epidemiology and Microbiology 22-2
Risk Factors 22-2
Reducing the Risk of Nosocomial Urinary Tract Infections 22-3
Tips for Preventing Infections in Catheterized Patients 22-7
Reusing Disposable Catheter Materials 22-8
References 22-8

Infection Prevention Guidelines ix

TWENTY-THREE PREVENTING SURGICAL SITE INFECTIONS

Background 23-1
Definitions 23-2
Epidemiology and Microbiology 23-3
Pathogenesis 23-4
Risk Factors 23-5
Reducing the Risk of Surgical Site Infections 23-6
Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Surgery 23-9
Prevention of Bacterial Endocarditis 23-11
References 23-12

TWENTY-FOUR PREVENTING INFECTIONS RELATED TO USE OF INTRAVASCULAR

DEVICES

Background 24-1
Definitions 24-2
Epidemiology and Microbiology 24-2
Risk Factors 24-4
Reducing the Risk of Nosocomial Infections 24-5
Insertion, Maintenance and Removal of Peripheral Venous Lines 24-7
Administering Blood or Blood Products 24-13
References 24-15

TWENTY-FIVE PREVENTING MATERNAL AND NEWBORN INFECTIONS

Background 25-1
Definitions 25-2
Epidemiology 25-3
Microbiology 25-6
Preventing Fetal and Newborn Infectious Diseases 25-7
Reducing the Risk of Maternal and Newborn Infections 25-8
References 25-15

TWENTY-SIX PREVENTING INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA AND MANAGING FOOD AND

WATER SERVICES

Background 26-1
Definitions 26-2
Epidemiology 26-2
Microbiology 26-3
Risk Factors 26-5
Reducing the Risk of Nosocomial Diarrhea 26-5
Managing Food and Water Services 26-6
References 26-10

x Infection Prevention Guidelines

TWENTY-SEVEN PREVENTING PNEUMONIA

Background 27-1
Epidemiology and Microbiology 27-1
Risk Factors 27-2
Reducing the Risk of Nosocomial Pneumonia 27-3
References 27-5

TWENTY-EIGHT INFECTION-MONITORING (SURVEILLANCE) ACTIVITIES

Background 28-1
Definitions 28-2
Purpose of Surveillance 28-2
When to Consider Performing Surveillance 28-3
Detecting and Managing Outbreaks 28-4
References 28-6

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A GENERAL SURGICAL HANDSCRUB

Supplies A-1
Procedure A-1
References A-2

APPENDIX B ANTISEPTICS

Alcohol Solutions (Ethyl or Isopropyl) B-1

Chlorhexidine Gluconate (CHG) B-3
Iodine and Iodophor Solutions B-4
Chlorohexylenol B-5
Triclosan B-5
Products that Should Not Be Used as Antiseptics B-6
References B-6

APPENDIX C PROCESSING SURGICAL GLOVES

How to Decontaminate and Clean Surgical Gloves Before Sterilization or

High-Level Disinfection (HLD) C-1
How to Sterilize Surgical Gloves C-1
How to High-Level Disinfect Surgical Gloves by Steaming C-3
References C-4

Infection Prevention Guidelines xi

APPENDIX D PRECAUTIONS FOR THE SURGICAL TEAM

General Safety Checklist (for surgical team) D-2

Safe Assisting and Operating Checklist D-3
Operating Room Safety Checklist D-4
Delivery Room Safety Checklist D-4
Minimally Invasive Surgery Safety Checklist D-5
Safe Sharps Disposal Checklist D-5
References D-6

APPENDIX E DECONTAMINATING AND CLEANING INSTRUMENTS AND

NEEDLES AND SYRINGES

How to Decontaminate and Clean Surgical (Metal) Instruments E-1

How to Decontaminate, Dispose or Reprocess Needles and Syringes E-1
References E-4

APPENDIX F DISINFECTANTS

Alcohols F-1
Chlorine and Chlorine-Releasing Compounds F-2
Formaldehyde F-5
Glutaraldehydes F-6
Iodines and Iodophor Solutions F-7
References F-10

APPENDIX G INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPERATING AND MAINTAINING

HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM STERILIZERS

Operation G-2
Operating Instructions (Gravity Displacement Steam Sterilizers) G-6
Steam Sterilization Procedure G-7
General Instructions for Operating Gravity Displacement Nonelectric
(Pressure Cooker Type) Steam Sterilizer G-15
Steam Sterilizing Liquids G-17
References G-17

APPENDIX H LAPAROSCOPY

How to Decontaminate and Clean Laparoscopes After Use H-1

How to Clean Lenses on Laparoscopes H-2
How to Sterilize Laparoscopes H-2
How to High-Level Disinfect Laparoscopes H-3
How to Store Laparoscopes H-3
Tips for Prolonging the Life of Laparoscopes H-4
References H-5

xii Infection Prevention Guidelines

APPENDIX I DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS

Type and Duration of Precautions Needed for

Selected Infections and Conditions I-1
References I-8

APPENDIX J CDC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PREVENTION OF SURGICAL SITE

INFECTION

Rationale J-1
Ranking J-1
Recommendations J-2
References J-6

APPENDIX K FETAL AND NEWBORN INFECTIOUS DISEASE PREVENTION

Bacterial Infections K-1

Viral Infections K-4
References K-9

GLOSSARY

Infection Prevention Guidelines xiii

 TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 1-1. Final Processing for Surgical Instruments, Gloves and Other Items 1-5
Table 1-2. Which Final Process to Use 1-6
Figure 1-1. The Disease Transmission Cycle 1-7
Figure 1-2. Transmission of HBV and HIV from Patients to Healthcare Workers 1-9
Table 2-1. Standard Precautions: Key Components 2-4
Table 3-1. Criteria for Handwashing or Use of an Antiseptic Handrub 3-2
Table 3-2. Why Healthcare Professionals Don’t Wash Their Hands 3-10
Table 4-1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Types of Gloves 4-4
Table 4-2. Glove Requirements for Common Medical and Surgical Procedures 4-5
Figure 5-1. Bacterial Transfer Through Fabric 5-2
Table 5-1. How Personal Protective Equipment Blocks the Spread of Microorganisms 5-4
Figure 5-2. Masks 5-5
Figure 5-3. Eyewear 5-6
Figure 5-4. Aprons 5-7
Figure 5-5. Site Drape Sheet 5-8
Figure 5-6. Placing a Site Drape 5-9
Figure 5-7. Squaring Off a Work Area 5-10
Table 6-1. Antiseptics: Microbiologic Activities and Potential Uses 6-3
Table 7-1. Reducing the Risk of Exposure 7-6
Figure 7-1. Creating Gauntlet Gloves from Previously Used Surgical Gloves 7-8
Figure 7-2a and b. Putting on Fingerless and Surgical Gloves 7-9
Figure 7-3a and b. One-Handed Recap Method 7-10

Figure 7-4a and b. Withdrawing Medication Using an Autodisable Syringe (SoloShot FX¥) 7-12
Figure 8-1. Flow Diagram: Collection and Disposal of Medical Waste 8-5
Figure 8-2. Design for a Simple Oil Drum Incinerator 8-9
Figure 8-3. Single-Chamber Clay Incinerator 8-9

xiv Infection Prevention Guidelines

Figure 8-4. Plan for a Small Burial Pit 8-10
Figure 9-1. Processing Instruments, Surgical Gloves and Other Items 9-2
Table 9-1. Guidelines for Processing Instruments, Surgical Gloves and Other Items 9-4
Table 10-1. Preparing Dilute Chlorine Solutions from Liquid Bleach
(Sodium Hypochlorite Solution) for Decontamination and HLD 10-2
Figure 10-1. Formula for Making a Dilute Solution from a Concentrated Solution 10-3
Table 10-2. Preparing Dilute Chlorine Solutions from Dry Powders 10-3
Figure 10-2. Formula for Making Chlorine Solutions from Dry Powders 10-4
Table 10-3. Effectiveness of Methods for Processing Instruments 10-6
Figure 12-1. Steamer Used for HLD 12-4
Figure 12-2. Temperature Rise in Gloves as a Function of Tray Position 12-5
Table 12-1. Preparing and Using Chemical Disinfectants 12-9
Table 13-1. Principles and Key Steps in Processing Linen 13-3
Table 13-2. Recommended Personal Protective Equipment for Processing Linen 13-3
Table 13-3.Guidelines for Processing Linens and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 13-7
Table 14-1. Waste Produced by Disposables per Year 14-3
Table 14-2. Disposables and Their Alternatives 14-3
Figure 15-1a and b. Floor Plans for Instrument Cleaning, High-Level Disinfecting
and Sterilizing Areas in a Clinic and Larger Facility 15-3
Figure 15-2. Floor Plan for a Central Supply Department in a Hospital 15-9
Table 16-1. General Principles of Cleaning 16-2
Table 16-2. Recommended Personal Protective Equipment for Housekeeping Tasks 16-6
Table 19-1. Checklist to Assess Whether Infection Prevention Guidelines Are Being Followed 19-7
Table 21-1. Airborne Precautions 21-3
Table 21-2. Droplet Precautions 21-4
Table 21-3. Contact Precautions 21-5
Table 21-4. Empiric Use of Transmission-Based Precautions (by signs and symptoms) 21-6
Table 21-5. Clinical Syndromes or Conditions to Be Considered for
“Empiric Use” of Transmission-Based Precautions 21-7
Table 21-6. Summary of Types of Precautions and Patients Requiring the Precautions 21-8

Infection Prevention Guidelines xv

Figure 22-1a and b. Catheterization Technique in Women and Men 22-5
Figure 23-1. Cross-Section of Abdominal Wall Showing CDC Classifications of Surgical
Site Infection 23-2
Table 23-1. Patient and Operation Characteristics That May Influence the
Risk of Developing a Surgical Site Infection 23-5
Table 23-2. Prevention of Wound Infection and Sepsis in Surgical Patients 23-10
Table 23-3. Endocarditis Prophylaxis 23-12
Table 24-1. Types of Intravascular Devices and Comments on Their Use 24-3
Table 25-1. Distribution of Nosocomial Infections in Cesarean Section 25-4
Table 25-2. Commonly Isolated Organisms in Women with Endometritis 25-6
Table 28-1. Measures Identified as Effective in Investigating Outbreaks 28-6
Table B-1. Antiseptics: Microbiologic Activities and Potential Uses B-2
Figure C-1. Preparing Gloves for Autoclaving (Steam Sterilization) C-2
Table C-1. Tips to Help Avoid Glove Problems C-2
Figure C-2. Gloves in Steamer Pan C-3
Table F-1. Preparing and Using Chemical Disinfectants F-9
Figure G-1. Simplified Diagram of a Gravity Displacement Steam Sterilizer G-1
Figure G-2. Calories of Heat, Water Temperature and Conversion to Steam G-5
Figure G-3. Typical Wrapping Techniques G-9
Figure G-4. Packs and Ties G-10
Figure G-5. Loading a Steam Sterilizer G-12
Table G-1. Loading the Steam Sterilizer Using Loading Carts or Shelves G-13
Table G-2. Unloading the Steam Sterilizer G-15
Figure G-6. Gravity Displacement Sterilizer (Nonelectric) G-16
Figure H-1. Atlas of Laprocator System H-4
Table K-1. Prophylaxis of Group B Streptococcal Infection K-2
Table K-2. Factors Associated with Increased Risk of Mother-to-Infant Transmission of HIV K-7

xvi Infection Prevention Guidelines

 PREFACE

Since publication of the first manual 11 years ago, considerable progress

has been made globally in understanding the basic principles of infection
prevention as well as acceptance and use of evidence-based infection
prevention practices. Key concepts and practices that are now more widely
accepted in many countries include:

x Recognition of the dual role of infection prevention not only in

reducing the risk of disease transmission to clients and patients but
also protecting healthcare workers at all levels—from physicians and
nurses to cleaning and housekeeping staff.
x Role of handwashing in preventing disease transmission and, where
clean water is not readily available, the use of inexpensive, easy-to-
make, alcohol-based antiseptic handrubs.
x Importance of first decontaminating all soiled instruments, needles and
syringes and other items with dilute (0.5%) bleach solution if cleaning
(washing and rinsing) is done by hand.
x Need for thorough cleaning of soiled instruments, gloves and other
items if final processing, either by high-level disinfection (HLD) or
sterilization, is to be effective.
x Use of HLD by boiling or steaming as cost-effective, readily available
and acceptable alternative to sterilization (autoclaving or dry heat) for
most surgical procedures.
x Multiple uses of dilute chlorine solutions made from inexpensive,
commercial bleach (sodium hypochlorite) products for:

x decontamination (0.5%) of soiled surgical instruments as well as

cleaning large surfaces (examination tables),
x HLD (0.1%) of surgical instruments and other items, and
x preparation of safe drinking water (0.001%).

x Use of the “no touch” surgical technique when performing procedures,

such as IUD insertion and removal or vacuum aspiration for
incomplete abortion, thereby allowing examination gloves to be safely
substituted for sterile surgical gloves, which are expensive and often
difficult to obtain.

Because of the demand for infection prevention guidelines for use at

district hospitals, not just ambulatory family planning services, this
manual contains many new chapters and has been completely rewritten to
take advantage of the wealth of new information and practical
interventions. The content, however, is not all encompassing, nor is it
encyclopedic. The intent is to provide the user a quick reference to what

Infection Prevention Guidelines xvii

 the essentials are without having to consult other sources. In addition, the
manual has been designed to provide the information and
recommendations in a simple, easily understandable format so that users
can find what they want, when they want it.

The infection prevention principles and scientific information, on which

this manual is based, are universally applicable. In selecting the material,
the emphasis has been on choosing those practices and procedures that are
doable even in the poorest settings. Ones designed to minimize cost and
the need for expensive technology or fragile equipment while at the same
time assuring a high degree of safety. As such, this manual is not intended
to be a major resource for infection prevention programs in affluent
settings. In fact, some of the practices recommended may be at odds with
established norms; for example, the need for decontamination as the first
step in processing soiled instruments and other items in order to make
them safer for cleaning staff to handle; or an even larger issue—the reuse
of disposable (single use) items.

Because of the severe cost constraints faced by hospital managers in the

poorest countries, the manual is geared to prevention, especially
preventing postoperative obstetrical and general surgical infections, as
well as those resulting from the use of invasive medical devices. Infection
surveillance and control, both important elements of infection control
programs, are only briefly touched on because sound surveillance systems
are lacking in most countries and resources to treat hospital-acquired
(nosocomial) infections or antibiotic-resistant infections, even when
identified, rarely are available.1

HOW TO USE THE MANUAL

A key purpose of the manual is to enable hospital administrators, clinic

managers and healthcare professionals working in limited resource
settings to develop their own uniform infection prevention policies and
service delivery guidelines. It is recognized, however, that the strategies,
priorities and proven methods of infection risk reduction described in this
manual will need to be adapted to reflect the existing conditions in each
country. Only through this process can much needed changes be
implemented and patient care in hospitals and clinics improved.

Content and The material in this manual is divided into four parts. In the first part,
Organization FUNDAMENTALS OF INFECTION PREVENTION, basic principles
and the recommended practices of modern infection prevention programs

1
In 1997 a second manual dealing with the special infection prevention needs of developing countries became available. In
addition to providing new insights on improving infection prevention, it also contains much needed practical guidance on the
role of infection surveillance and control efforts when resources are limited. Moreover, it provides a broader framework, one
that includes the control and treatment of antibiotic-resistant nosocomial infections. Readers are encouraged to consult this
manual for additional information on these topics. (Lynch P et al. 1997. Infection Prevention with Limited Resources: A
Handbook for Infection Committees. ETNA Communications: Chicago.)

xviii Infection Prevention Guidelines

 are described. The emphasis is on providing the scientific data supporting
their use and appropriateness in situations where resources and manpower
are limited. Also, several new chapters have been added based on the new
Standard Precautions, which must be used when caring for all clients and
patients attending healthcare facilities. Introduced in 1996 by CDC,
Standard Precautions are the first level of the revised isolation guidelines
that replace the older Universal Precautions and Body Substance Isolation
Precautions. Moreover, because the most serious and frequent site for
accidental injuries and exposure to bloodborne pathogens is the operating
room, a separate chapter and appendix detailing safety practices, tips on
how to design safer operations and a full set of safety checklists for making
the operating room safer have been added.

The second part, PROCESSING INSTRUMENTS, GLOVES AND

OTHER ITEMS, has been expanded in order to incorporate additional,
but essential information, needed by healthcare staff working in district
hospitals. When combined with data from several new or updated
appendices, which contain more detailed supplemental “how to”
information, health workers now have the information they need to solve
many of the instrument and equipment problems and reprocessing issues
not previously addressed.

IMPLEMENTING INFECTION PREVENTION IN HEALTHCARE

FACILITIES, the third part, focuses on coordinating and managing the
special infection prevention needs and services at district-level hospitals,
where the volume and type of health services offered are greater than in
the ambulatory setting. In hospitals, housekeeping services and traffic
flow systems and activity patterns are more diverse and complex as well.
Moreover, the risk of exposure to bloodborne pathogens and other life-
threatening infections is not confined just to operating and recovery rooms
and patient care areas. Staff working in routine chemistry, clinical
pathology and bacteriology laboratories as well as those providing blood
bank and transfusions services need to be aware of the risks and how to
prevent accidental injuries and exposures. Therefore, guidelines and
recommended preventive practices for these staff have been included.
Finally, in dealing with the overall management of infection prevention
programs, the role of the infection prevention committee or working group
is critical for handling routine problems, developing workable guidelines
and protocols, actively supporting their use and modeling the appropriate
preventive behaviors. Representatives from all parts of the healthcare
facility who are interested in making the workplace safer should be
encouraged to serve this vitally important function.

The final part, NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS is all new. The

magnitude of the HIV/AIDS crisis globally, coupled with re-emergence of
tuberculosis, especially multidrug resistant strains, has changed the way
healthcare is provided. Hospitals now need practical, symptom-based
isolation guidelines to prevent patients and health workers at all levels

Infection Prevention Guidelines xix

 from being inadvertently exposed to these serious infectious diseases as
well as others transmitted by the airborne, droplet and contact routes.
Therefore, specific information and detailed guidance is provided on how
to implement and use the second level of the CDC isolation guidelines,
Transmission Precautions for Hospitalized Patients. Also included is
practical guidance designed to help prevent the most common and serious
nosocomial infections in hospitalized patients—urinary tract infections,
diarrhea and pneumonia—as well as infections following surgery,
maternal and newborn infections and those associated with the use of an
ever-increasing number of intravascular devices. Because safely managing
food and water in hospitals is important in preventing the spread of
infections, these topics are also covered. Finally, because outbreaks of
serious infections do occur, guidelines are included for how to investigate
them as well as how to monitor infection prevention program activities
most cost-effectively.

Using the Manual It is anticipated this manual will serve as an international reference guide
for use in limited resource settings. Moreover, we hope that health
educators and trainers, public health and medical officials, and hospital
managers as well as lay groups will find the information, practices and
processes relevant and easy to use in adapting or developing their own
infection prevention policies, guidelines, norms, education and training
materials and healthcare monitoring tools. The content also may be used in
different ways including:

! as a text for preservice education, group-based training or on-the-job

learning programs; or
! as content for developing teaching, job or behavior change aids.

For each of these uses, the content may be produced and distributed in a
variety of formats (paper-based, CD-ROM or via Internet). Finally, to
facilitate the manual’s adaptation and use, each chapter has a set of
learning objectives, is fully referenced and is page numbered by chapter.
Thus, each chapter can be reprinted as a stand-alone document for use as a
handout when giving presentations.

xx Infection Prevention Guidelines

 ONE

INTRODUCTION TO INFECTION PREVENTION

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

• What the basic principles of infection prevention are

• What conditions allow infections to be transmitted to others
• How to stop the spread of infectious diseases
• What the role of the CDC isolation guidelines is in preventing nosocomial
infections

BACKGROUND

People receiving health and medical care, whether in a hospital or clinic, are
at risk of becoming infected unless precautions are taken to prevent infection.
Nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections are a significant problem
throughout the world and are increasing (Alvarado 2000). For example,
nosocomial infection rates range from as low as 1% in a few countries in
Europe and the Americas to more then 40% in parts of Asia, Latin America
and sub-Saharan Africa (Lynch et al 1997).

Most of these infections can be prevented with readily available, relatively

inexpensive strategies by:

• adhering to recommended infection prevention practices, especially hand

hygiene and wearing gloves;
• paying attention to well-established processes for decontamination and
cleaning of soiled instruments and other items, followed by either
sterilization or high-level disinfection; and
• improving safety in operating rooms and other high-risk areas where the
most serious and frequent injuries and exposures to infectious agents occur.

How Risky is Healthcare workers, including support staff (e.g., housekeeping and
Working in a Hospital maintenance and laboratory personnel), who work in these settings also are at
or Health Clinic risk of exposure to serious, potentially life-threatening infections. For
example, in the US, more than 800,000 needlestick injuries occur each year
despite continuing education and vigorous efforts aimed at preventing such
accidents (Rogers 1997), including:

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Introduction to Infection Prevention

• reducing unnecessary and unsafe injections,

• training all staff to immediately dispose of needles and syringes in sharps
containers without recapping—attempting to recap them accounts for one
third of all needlesticks (Jagger et al 1988),1
• placing disposable sharps containers within arm’s reach if possible, and
• increasing use of needleless injection systems and shielded syringes.

In many developing countries, however, the risk of needlestick injuries and

accidental exposure to blood or body fluids is even higher (Phipps et al
2002). Moreover, because introduction of needleless injection systems is not
feasible in countries with limited resources, it is important that healthcare
staff know and use recommended infection prevention practices to minimize
their risk of accidental exposure or injury (Tietjen 1997).

Purpose of This Chapter The purpose of this chapter is to assist healthcare workers and hospital and
clinic supervisors, managers and administrators understand the basic
principles of infection prevention and recommended processes and practices.
Also presented is an overview of the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) isolation precaution guidelines for hospitals (Garner and
HICPAC 1996). These guidelines replace both Universal Precautions and
Body Substance Isolation Precautions and provide the framework on which
Part 1. Fundamentals of Infection Prevention and Part 2. Processing
Instruments, Gloves and Other Items are based.

DEFINITIONS

The terms asepsis (aseptic technique), antisepsis, decontamination,

cleaning, high-level disinfection and sterilization often are confusing. For
the purposes of these guidelines, the following definitions will be used:

• Asepsis and aseptic technique. Combination of efforts made to prevent

entry of microorganisms into any area of the body where they are likely
to cause infection. The goal of asepsis is to reduce to a safe level, or
eliminate, the number of microorganisms on both animate (living)
surfaces (skin and mucous membranes) and inanimate objects (surgical
instruments and other items).
• Antisepsis. Process of reducing the number of microorganisms on skin,
mucous membranes or other body tissue by applying an antimicrobial
(antiseptic) agent.
• Decontamination. Process that makes inanimate objects safer to be
handled by staff before cleaning (i.e., inactivates HBV, HCV and HIV
and reduces, but does not eliminate, the number of other contaminating
microorganisms).

1
If recapping must be done, health workers should be trained in the one-hand technique (see Chapter 7).

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Ideally, soiled surgical instruments, gloves and other items should always
be handled by staff wearing gloves or using forceps. Because this is not
always possible, it is safer first to soak these soiled items for 10 minutes
in 0.5% chlorine solution, especially if they will be cleaned by hand
(Nyström 1981). Metal objects should then be rinsed to prevent corrosion
before cleaning (Lynch et al 1997). Other objects that should be
decontaminated, by wiping with the 0.5% chlorine solution, include large
surfaces (e.g., pelvic examination or operating tables) and equipment that
come in contact with patients’ blood or body fluids, secretions or
excretions (except sweat).
• Cleaning. Process that physically removes all visible dust, soil, blood or
other body fluids from inanimate objects as well as removing sufficient
numbers of microorganisms to reduce risks for those who touch the skin
or handle the object. (It consists of thoroughly washing with soap or
detergent and water, rinsing with clean water and drying.2)
• High-level disinfection (HLD). The process that eliminates all
microorganisms except some bacterial endospores from inanimate
objects by boiling, steaming or the use of chemical disinfectants.
• Sterilization. Process that eliminates all microorganisms (bacteria,
viruses, fungi and parasites) including bacterial endospores from
inanimate objects by high-pressure steam (autoclave), dry heat (oven),
chemical sterilants or radiation.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

Microorganisms are the causative agents of infection. They include bacteria,

viruses, fungi and parasites. For infection prevention purposes, bacteria can
be further divided into three categories: vegetative (e.g., staphylococcus),
mycobacteria (e.g., tuberculosis) and endospores (e.g., tetanus). Of all the
common infectious agents, endospores are difficult to kill due to their
protective coating.3

Colonization means that pathogenic (illness or disease causing) organisms

are present in a person (i.e., they can be detected by cultures or other tests)
but are not causing symptoms or clinical findings (i.e., cellular changes or
damage). Infection means that the colonizing organisms now are causing an
illness or disease (cellular response) in the person. Coming in contact with
and acquiring new organisms, while increasing the risk of infection, usually
does not lead to infection because the body’s natural defense mechanisms,
including the immune system, are able to tolerate and/or destroy them. Thus,
when organisms are transmitted from one person to another, colonization

2
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to remove particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with a dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).
3
Prions, which are protein-containing infectious agents present in brain, spinal column and eye tissue of patients with Creutzfeldt-
Jakob disease, are even harder to kill (see Chapter 11).

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rather than infection generally is the result. Colonized persons, however, can
be a major source of transfer of pathogens to other persons (cross-
contamination), especially if the organisms persist in the person (chronic
carrier), such as with HBV, HCV and HIV.

Infection prevention largely depends on placing barriers between a

susceptible host (person lacking effective natural or acquired protection) and
the microorganisms. Protective barriers are physical, mechanical or
chemical processes that help prevent the spread of infectious microorganisms
from:

• person to person (patient, healthcare client or health worker); and/or

• equipment, instruments and environmental surfaces to people.

WHICH PROCESS TO USE

In 1968, Spaulding proposed three categories of potential infection risk to

serve as the basis for selecting the prevention practice or process to use (e.g.,
sterilization of medical instruments, gloves and other items) when caring for
patients. This classification has stood the test of time and still serves as a
good basis for setting priorities for any infection prevention program. The
Spaulding categories are summarized below:

• Critical. These items and practices affect normally sterile tissues or the
blood system and represent the highest level of infection risk. Failure to
provide management of sterile or, where appropriate, high-level
disinfected items (e.g., surgical instruments and gloves), is most likely to
result in infections that are the most serious.

• Semicritical. These items and practices are second in importance and

affect mucous membranes and small areas of nonintact skin. Management
needs are considerable and require knowledge and skills in:

• handling many invasive devices (e.g., gastrointestinal endoscopes and

vaginal specula),
• performing decontamination, cleaning and high-level disinfection,
and
• gloving for personnel who touch mucous membranes and nonintact
skin.

• Noncritical. Management of items and practices that involve intact skin

and represent the lowest level of risk. Some (e.g., hand hygiene) are more
important than others. Poor management of noncritical items, such as
overuse of examination gloves, often consumes a major share of
resources while providing only limited benefit.

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Instrument Processing Decontamination is the first step in processing soiled (contaminated) surgical
instruments, gloves and other items, especially if they will be cleaned by
hand (Nyström 1981). For example, briefly soaking contaminated items in
0.5% chlorine solution, or other locally available disinfectants, rapidly kills
HBV4 and HIV, thereby making the instruments and other items safer to be
handled during cleaning (AORN 1990; DHMH 1990; Lynch et al 1997).
Larger surfaces, such as examination and operating tables, laboratory bench
tops and other equipment that may have come in contact with blood or other
body fluids also should be decontaminated. Wiping with a suitable
disinfectant (e.g., 0.5% chlorine solution or 1–2% phenol) is a practical,
inexpensive way to decontaminate them.

After instruments and other items have been decontaminated, they need to be
cleaned and finally either sterilized or high-level disinfected (Lynch 1997;
Rutala 1993; Tietjen and McIntosh 1989). As outlined in Table 1-1, the
process selected for final processing depends on whether the items will touch
intact mucous membranes or broken skin or tissue beneath the skin that
normally is sterile (Spaulding 1968).

Table 1-1. Final Processing for Surgical Instruments, Gloves and Other Items
TISSUE FINAL PROCESSING EXAMPLES
Intact mucous membranes High-level disinfection Uterine sounds, vaginal
or broken skin (HLD) destroys all specula and plastic
microorganisms except cannulae for suction
some endospores.a curettage
Blood stream or tissue Sterilization destroys all Surgical instruments such
beneath the skin which microorganisms, including as scalpels, trocars for
normally is sterile endospores. insertion/removal of
Norplant® implants and
surgical gloves
a
Bacterial endospores are forms of bacteria that are very difficult to kill because of
their coating. Types of bacteria that make endospores include those causing tetanus
(Clostridium tetani), gangrene (Clostridium perfringens) or anthrax (Bacillus anthracis).

Adapted from: Spaulding 1968.

When Is Sterilization Most authorities recommend sterilization as the final step in processing
Absolutely Essential? instruments and other items used for surgical procedures. Some guidelines,
When Is HLD an however, are more flexible, and state that when sterilization equipment is not
Acceptable Alternative? available, HLD can be used. In fact, the use of sterilization is not possible or
practical in certain situations (Rutala, Weber and HICPAC 2002). For
example, laparoscopes, which would be damaged if submitted to either high-
pressure steam (autoclaving) or dry heat sterilization, usually are processed
between cases by HLD (i.e., soaking in a chemical high-level disinfectant for
20 minutes). When correctly performed, sterilization clearly is the safest and

4
Throughout this manual, when hepatitis B (HBV) is mentioned, hepatitis C (HCV) and Delta hepatitis (HDV) also are referred
to because their occurrence is worldwide and mode of transmission or prevention is similar.

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Introduction to Infection Prevention

most effective method for the final processing of instruments. If it is neither

available nor suitable, however, HLD is the only acceptable alternative for
final processing.

High-level disinfection kills all microorganisms but does not reliably kill
bacterial endospores. Staff must be aware of this limitation if tetanus, a
disease caused by endospores produced by bacteria called Clostridium tetani,
is a significant risk. The information in Table 1-2 will assist healthcare
providers and managers in determining when sterilization is preferable to
HLD in processing surgical instruments and other reusable items. In addition,
as a further guide, throughout this manual frequent reference is made to the
limitations of HLD (i.e., does not reliably kill some endospores).

Table 1-2. Which Final Process to Use

PROCEDURE STERILIZATION HLD
Cesarean section Preferred Acceptable
Abdominal laparotomy Preferred Acceptable
Vaginal delivery Preferred Acceptable
Norplant implants Preferred Acceptable
insertion and removal
Laparoscopy Preferred Acceptable
(chemical only)
MVA cannulaea Acceptable Acceptable
IUD insertion and Acceptable Acceptable
removal
Pelvic examination Acceptable Acceptable
a
MVA: manual vacuum aspiration (for treatment of incomplete abortion)

Adapted from: Tietjen, Cronin and McIntosh 1992.

THE DISEASE TRANSMISSION CYCLE

Microorganisms live everywhere in our environment. Humans normally carry

them on their skin and in the upper respiratory, intestinal and genital tracts.
In addition, microorganisms live in animals, plants, soil, air and water. Some
microorganisms, however, are more pathogenic than others, that is, they are
more likely to cause disease. Given the right circumstances, all
microorganisms may cause infection, such as when transmitted to an
immunocompromised patient with AIDS (Burke 1977).

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All humans are susceptible to bacterial infections and also to most viral
agents. The dose of organisms (inoculum) necessary to produce infection in a
susceptible host varies with the location. When organisms come in contact
with bare skin, infection risk is quite low, and all of us touch materials that
contain some organisms every day. When the organisms come in contact with
mucous membranes or nonintact skin, infection risk increases. Infection risk
increases greatly when organisms come in contact with normally sterile body
sites, and the introduction of only a few organisms may produce disease.

For bacteria, viruses and other infectious agents to successfully survive and
spread, certain factors or conditions must exist. The essential factors in the
transmission of disease-producing microorganisms from person to person are
illustrated and defined in Figure 1-1 (APIC 1983; WPRO/WHO 1990).

Figure 1-1. The Disease Transmission Cycle

Adapted from: APIC 1983; WPRO/WHO 1990.

As shown in this figure, a disease needs certain conditions in order to spread

(be transmitted) to others:

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Introduction to Infection Prevention

• There must be an agent—something that can cause illness (virus,

bacteria, etc.).
• The agent must have a place it can live (host or reservoir). Many
microorganisms that cause disease in humans (pathogenic organisms)
multiply in humans and are transmitted from person to person. Some are
transmitted through contaminated food or water (typhoid), fecal matter
(hepatitis A and other enteric viruses) or the bites of infected animals
(rabies) and insects (malaria from mosquitoes).
• The agent must have the right environment outside the host to survive.
After the microorganism leaves its host, it must have a suitable
environment in which to survive until it infects another person. For
example, the bacteria that cause tuberculosis can survive in sputum for
weeks, but will be killed by sunlight within a few hours.
• There must be a person who can catch the disease (susceptible host).
People are exposed to disease-causing agents every day but do not
always get sick. For a person to catch an infectious disease (e.g., mumps,
measles or chicken pox,) s/he must be susceptible to that disease. The
main reason most people do not catch the disease is that they have been
previously exposed to it (e.g., vaccinated for it or previously had the
disease) and their body’s immune system now is able to destroy the
agents when they enter the body.
• An agent must have a way to move from its host to infect the next
susceptible host. Infectious (communicable) diseases are spread mainly in
these ways:

• Airborne: through the air (chicken pox or mumps).

• Blood or body fluids: if blood or body fluids contaminated with
HBV or HIV comes in contact with another person, such as through a
needlestick, s/he may become infected.
• Contact: either direct (touching an open wound or draining pustule),
or indirect (touching an object contaminated with blood or other
body fluids).
• Fecal-oral: swallowing food contaminated by human or animal feces
(e.g., putting your fingers in your mouth after handling contaminated
objects without first washing your hands).
• Foodborne: eating or drinking contaminated food or liquid that
contains bacteria or viruses (hepatitis A from eating raw oysters).
• Animal- or insect-borne: contact with infected animals or insects
through bites, scratches, secretions or waste.

Infection prevention deals primarily with preventing the spread of infectious

diseases through the air, blood or body fluids, and contact, including fecal-
oral and foodborne.

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Figure 1-2 depicts the steps in the transmission of the hepatitis B (HBV) and
human immunodeficiency (HIV) viruses from colonized persons (e.g., family
planning client or pregnant woman attending an antenatal clinic) or patients
to healthcare workers. Spread of these viruses from person to person can
occur when staff (physician, nurse or housekeeping personnel) are exposed to
the blood or body fluids of an infected person (e.g., needlestick injury).

Figure 1-2. Transmission of HBV and HIV from Patients to Healthcare Workers

Studies in the United States have shown that the risk of disease after
exposure to HBV from a single needlestick injury ranges from 27–37%
(Seeff et al 1978), while the risk following a single needlestick exposure to
HIV is much lower, 0.2–0.4% (Gerberding 1990; Gershon et al 1995), and 3–
10% for HCV (Lanphear 1994). The rate of transmission of HIV is
considerably lower than for HBV, probably because of the lower
concentration of virus in the blood of HIV-infected persons.

The efficiency for transmission of hepatitis B is high. For example,

an accidental splash in the eye of as little as 10-8 mL (.00000001 mL)
of infected blood can transmit HBV to a susceptible host (Bond et al
1982).

In nearly all cases, transmission of HBV or HIV to health workers has

occurred through preventable accidents such as puncture wounds.
Transmission can also occur through mucous membrane contact, such as a

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Introduction to Infection Prevention

splash of blood or amniotic fluid into the surgeon’s or assistant’s eye. Also,
skin damaged by a cut, scrape, chapped skin or contact dermatitis can be a
point of entry for these viruses. While the risk of transmission is much lower
from splashes of blood onto mucous membranes, they should be avoided. If
splashing is anticipated, personal protective equipment such as face shields
or glasses and plastic or rubber aprons, if available, is recommended. This
protection is important because large mucous membrane exposures and
prolonged skin contact may be associated with a higher risk of becoming
infected (DHMH 1990).

Finally, because it is not always possible to know in advance whether or not

a person may be infected with HBV or HIV, contaminated instruments,
needles and syringes as well as other items from all persons (e.g., patients,
pregnant women and other clients) must be handled as if they are
contaminated. This practice is consistent with the recommendations in the
new Standard Precaution Guidelines discussed in the next section (Garner
and HICPAC 1996). For example, several studies have highlighted the
inability to distinguish HBV- or HIV-infected people from noninfected
individuals on clinical grounds (Baker et al 1987; Handsfield, Cummings and
Swenson 1987; Kelen et al 1988).

PREVENTING INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Understanding the disease transmission cycle is important if

healthcare workers are to:

• prevent transmission of microorganisms to patients during

medical and surgical procedures;
• teach others the factors required for transmission to occur and,
most importantly;
• teach others how to break the cycle.

Preventing the spread of infectious diseases requires removing one or more

of the conditions necessary for transmission of the disease from host or
reservoir to the next susceptible host by:

• inhibiting or killing the agent (e.g., applying an antiseptic agent to the

skin before surgery);
• blocking the agent’s means of getting from an infected person to a
susceptible person (e.g., handwashing or using a waterless, alcohol-based
antiseptic handrub to remove bacteria or viruses acquired through
touching an infected patient or contaminated surface);
• making sure that people, especially healthcare workers, are immune or
vaccinated; and

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• providing health workers with the right protective equipment to prevent

contact with infectious agents (e.g., heavy-duty gloves for housekeeping
and waste removal staff).

NEW ISOLATION GUIDELINES AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Since 1970, when CDC first introduced the disease-specific category system
of isolation precautions, many different policies and practices to prevent the
spread of infections in hospitals have been recommended. Traditionally,
barrier precautions (e.g., hand hygiene and gloves) have been used to reduce
the risk of transmission of nosocomial infections to and from hospitalized
patients. The emergence of bloodborne diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis
C (HCV) in the 1980s, coupled with the resurgence of tuberculosis, first led
to the introduction of Universal Precautions (UP) in 1985 and subsequently
Body Substance Isolation (BSI) (1987). While many hospitals quickly began
using some or all of the recommendations, there was much local variation
and confusion in the use and interpretation of both UP and BSI. Thus, in
1996 the CDC and the Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory
Committee (HICPAC) issued a new system of isolation precautions (Garner
and HICPAC 1996). This system involves a two-level approach—Standard
Precautions and Transmission-Based Precautions—and was developed to
meet the following criteria:

• Be epidemiologically sound
• Recognize the pathogenic importance of all body fluids, secretions and
excretions (except sweat)
• Contain adequate precautions for infections transmitted by airborne,
droplet or contact routes
• Be as simple and user-friendly as possible
• Use new terms to avoid confusion with existing systems

The new system accomplishes the following:

• Incorporates the major features of both UP and BSI into a single set of
precautions, called Standard Precautions, that are designed to be used
in treating all clients and patients attending healthcare facilities
regardless of their presumed diagnosis.
• Retains the recommendations that healthcare workers providing direct
care, especially those working in surgical or obstetrical units, should be
immune to rubella, measles, mumps, varicella (chicken pox) and hepatitis
A and B, as well as receive tetanus toxoid.

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Introduction to Infection Prevention

• Collapses the old disease-specific isolation categories into three sets of

precautions based on routes of transmission, called Transmission-Based
Precautions. (These guidelines apply to hospitalized patients or those
in nursing homes or other types of extended care facilities.)
• Lists specific clinical syndromes in hospitalized adult and child
patients that are highly suspicious for infection (i.e., the so called
“empiric use” of Transmission-Based Precautions).

The new isolation guidelines are yet another positive step intended to reduce
the risk of transmitting infections not only to and from patients and clients
using healthcare services, but also to the healthcare personnel caring for
them. As such, healthcare administrators and staff will need to carefully
review the recommendations to determine what is possible, practical and
doable within their resource setting.

Standard Precautions Standard Precautions are designed for use in caring for all people—both
clients and patients—attending healthcare facilities. They apply to blood, all
body fluids, secretions and excretions (except sweat), nonintact skin and
mucous membranes. Implementing these precautions, however, will add
additional cost for personal protective equipment, especially for new
examination gloves, staff training and monitoring in order to be effective.
Because no one really knows what organisms clients or patients may have at
any time, it is essential that Standard Precautions be used all the time. The
details of their use and issues related to implementing them are covered in
Chapter 2.

Transmission-Based The second level of precautions is intended for use in patients known or highly
Precautions suspected of being infected or colonized with pathogens transmitted by:

• air (tuberculosis, chicken pox, measles, etc.);

• droplet (flu, mumps and rubella); or
Note: In all cases, whether
they are used alone or in • contact (hepatitis A or E and other enteric pathogens, herpes simplex, and
combination, Transmission- skin or eye infections).5
Based Precautions must be
used in conjunction with If there is any question of an infectious process in a patient without a known
the Standard Precautions.
diagnosis, implementing Transmission-Based Precautions should be based on
the patient’s signs and symptoms (empiric basis) until a definitive diagnosis
is made.

Use of Transmission-Based Precautions, including their empiric use, is

designed to reduce the risk of spreading infections between hospitalized
patients and healthcare staff. Occasionally, a patient may require isolation

5
Contact precautions also should be used for patients with wet or draining infections that may be contagious (e.g., draining
abscesses, herpes zoster, impetigo, conjunctivitis, scabies, lice and wound infections).

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precautions involving more than one category. Their use is described in more
detail in Chapter 21.

REFERENCES

Alvarado CJ. 2000. The Science of Hand Hygiene: A Self-Study Monograph.

University of Wisconsin Medical School and Sci-Health Communications.
March.
Association of Operating Room Nurses (AORN). 1990. Clinical issues.
AORN J 52: 613–615.
Association for Practitioners in Infection Control (APIC). 1983. The APIC
Curriculum for Infection Control Practice, Vol 1. Soule BM (ed).
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.: Dubuque, IA, p 26.
Baker JL et al. 1987. Unsuspected human immunodeficiency virus in
critically ill emergency patients. JAMA 257(19): 2609–2611.
Bond WW et al. 1982. Transmission of type B hepatitis via inoculation of a
chimpanzee. J Clin Microbiol 15(3): 533–534.
Burke JF et al. 1977. The contribution of a bacterially isolated environment
to the prevention of infection in seriously burned patients. Ann Surg 186(3):
377–387.
Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DHMH). 1990. Occupational
exposure to human immunodeficiency virus. Communicable Disease
Bulletin. State of Maryland, December.
Garner JS and The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee
(HICPAC). 1996. Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. Infect
Control Hosp Epidemiol 17(1): 53–80 and Am J Infect Control 24(1): 24–52.
Gerberding JL. 1990. Current epidemiologic evidence and case reports of
occupationally acquired HIV and other bloodborne diseases. Infect Control
Hosp Epidemiol 11(Suppl): 558–560.
Gershon RR et al. 1995. Compliance with universal precautions among
health care workers at three regional hospitals. Am J Infect Control 23(4):
225–236.
Handsfield HH, MJ Cummings and PD Swenson. 1987. Prevalence of
antibody to human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B surface antigen in
blood samples submitted to a hospital laboratory: implications for handling
specimens. JAMA 258(23): 3395–3397.
Jagger J et al. 1988. Rates of needlestick injury caused by various devices in
a university hospital. N Engl J Med 319(5): 284–288.
Kelen GD et al. 1988. Unrecognized human immunodeficiency virus
infection in emergency department patients. N Engl J Med 318(25): 1645–
1650.

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Introduction to Infection Prevention

Lanphear B. 1994. Trends and patterns in the transmission of bloodborne

pathogens to health care workers. Epidemiol Rev 16(2): 437–450.
Lynch P et al. 1997. Infection Prevention with Limited Resources. ETNA
Communications: Chicago.
Nyström B. 1981. Disinfection of surgical instruments. J Hosp Infect. 2(4):
363–368.
Phipps W et al. 2002. Risk of medical sharps injuries among Chinese nurses.
Am J Infect Control 30(5): 277–282.
Regional Office for the Western Pacific (WPRO), World Health Organization
(WHO). 1990. Infection Control. HIV/AIDS Reference Library for Nurses.
Rogers B. 1997. Health hazards in nursing and health care: An overview. Am
J Infect Control 25(3): 248–261.
Rutala WA, DJ Weber and The Hospital Infection Control Practices
Advisory Committee (HICPAC). 2002. Draft guidelines for disinfection and
sterilization in healthcare facilities. CDC corrected and cleared. February
2002.
Rutala WA. 1993. Disinfection, sterilization, and waste disposal, in
Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections, 2nd ed. Wenzel RP (ed).
Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, MD, pp 460–495.
Seeff LB et al. 1978. Type B hepatitis after needlestick exposure: Prevention
with hepatitis B immunoglobulin. Final report of the Veterans Administration
Cooperative Study. Ann Intern Med 88(3): 285–293.
Spaulding EH. 1968. Chemical disinfection of medical and surgical
materials, in Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation. Lawrence CA et al
(eds). Lea & Febiger: Philadelphia, pp 437–446.
Tietjen LG. 1997. Preventing infections in healthcare workers. Outlook
15(4): 1–4.
Tietjen LG, W Cronin and N McIntosh. 1992. Introduction to infection
prevention, in Infection Prevention Guidelines for Family Planning Service
Programs. Essential Medical Information Systems, Inc.: Durant, OK, pp 1–12.
Tietjen LG and N McIntosh. 1989. Infection control in family planning
facilities. Outlook 7(2): 2–8.

1 – 14 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWO

STANDARD PRECAUTIONS

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the reasons for the new Standard Precautions are

x What Standard Precautions are designed to do
x What preventive processes and practices are recommended
x How protective barriers can help prevent the spread of infections

BACKGROUND

In 1985, largely because of the emergence of HIV/AIDS, guidelines for

protecting healthcare workers from becoming infected with HIV and other
bloodborne infections (e.g., HCV) were quickly developed and became
known as Universal Precautions (UP). Almost from the moment they were
issued and hospitals and clinics began implementing them, it was
recognized that this new strategy, while protecting hospital personnel
(patient-to-personnel transmission), sacrificed some measures of
preventing patient-to-patient and personnel-to-patient transmission. Also,
because many people with bloodborne infections such as HIV/AIDS do
not have symptoms, nor can they be visibly recognized as being infected,
UP had to be modified to include all persons—patients and clients—
attending healthcare facilities regardless of whether or not they are
infected (CDC 1985).

At nearly the same time that UP were being introduced, a new system of
health worker and patient precautions was proposed as an alternative to
the diagnosis-driven UP (Lynch et al 1987). This approach, called Body
Substance Isolation (BSI), focused on protecting patients and health
personnel from all moist and potentially infected body substances
(secretions and excretions), not just blood. BSI was based primarily on the
use of gloves. Personnel were instructed to put on clean gloves just before
touching mucous membranes or nonintact skin, and before anticipated
contact with moist body fluids (e.g., blood, semen, vaginal secretions,
wound drainage, sputum, saliva, amniotic fluid, etc.). Other issues
addressed by BSI included:

x protective immunization of susceptible patients and staff against

infectious diseases that are transmitted by airborne or droplet routes
(measles, mumps, chicken pox and rubella), as well as hepatitis A and
B and tetanus toxoid immunization (or a booster dose) of staff; and

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Standard Precaution Guidelines

x revised instructions to persons wishing to enter a patient’s room or care

for patients with infections transmitted by the airborne route (Lynch et
al 1990).

BSI quickly gained acceptance over UP because it was simple, easy to

learn and implement, and acknowledged that all patients, not just those
diagnosed or with symptoms, may be infected and therefore not free of
risk to other patients or staff. Disadvantages of BSI included the added
cost of protective barrier equipment, particularly gloves, difficulty in
maintaining routine use of the protocol for all patients, uncertainty about
precautions for patients in isolation rooms and the overuse of gloves to
protect staff at the expense of patients (Patterson et al 1991).

As a consequence, by the early 1990s healthcare facilities and staff were

totally confused regarding what to do about patient and staff precaution
guidelines. For example, some hospitals had implemented UP while others
had implemented BSI. Indeed, even hospitals and staff that thought they
were following UP were really using BSI, and vice versa. There was also
much local variation in interpretation and use of both UP and BSI, and a
variety of combinations was common. Moreover, there was continued lack
of agreement about the role of handwashing when gloves were used. This
confusion, coupled with the need to use additional precautions to prevent
diseases spread by airborne, droplet and contact routes, were major
limitations of BSI (Rudnick et al 1993).

In view of these problems and concerns, no simple merging together of

UP or BSI appeared likely to solve them. What has emerged since then is
a new system that provides a single set of isolation guidelines with
logistically feasible recommendations for preventing the many infections
that occur in healthcare facilities through all known modes of
transmission.

STANDARD PRECAUTIONS

The new guidelines issued by CDC in 1996 involve a two-level approach:

x Standard Precautions, which apply to all clients and patients

attending healthcare facilities, and
x Transmission-Based Precautions, which apply only to hospitalized
patients (Garner and HICPAC 1996).

As briefly presented in Chapter 1, this new system retains features of

both UP and BSI. Moreover, it replaces the cumbersome disease-specific
isolation precautions with three sets of transmission-based precautions for
use in hospitalized patients.

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 Standard Precaution Guidelines

Because most people with bloodborne viral infections such as HIV and
HBV do not have symptoms, nor can they be visibly recognized as being
infected, Standard Precautions are designed for the care of all persons—
patients, clients and staff—regardless of whether or not they are infected.
Standard Precautions apply to blood and all other body fluids, secretions
and excretions (except sweat), nonintact skin and mucous membranes.
Their implementation is meant to reduce the risk of transmitting
microorganisms from known or unknown sources of infection (e.g.,
patients, contaminated objects, used needles and syringes, etc.) within the
healthcare system. Applying Standard Precautions has become the primary
strategy to preventing nosocomial infections in hospitalized patients.

Over the years, the indications for use of certain isolation practices over
others (e.g., clean gloves are more effective than gowns in preventing
cross-contamination) have been largely resolved through research
(LeClaire et al 1987). However, the inability of hospital and clinic
administrators in resource-poor countries to provide the required
protective equipment, especially sufficient new examination gloves,
remains a problem. In addition, the challenges of providing clean water
and achieving acceptable standards of medical instrument processing and
waste removal remain unmet in many countries. In most cases, staff
training to implement these new isolation precautions for every client
attending a clinic or every hospitalized patient will require that resources
be shifted from one priority area to another. Moreover, the regular
supervision needed to assure compliance is seldom affordable or available.
As a consequence, healthcare administrators and staff will need to
carefully review the recommendations contained in the Standard
Precautions and modify them according to what is possible and practical
within their resource setting.

KEY COMPONENTS AND THEIR USE

The key components of the Standard Precautions and their use are outlined
in Table 2-1. Placing a physical, mechanical or chemical barrier between
microorganisms and an individual—whether a woman coming for
antenatal care, a hospitalized patient or healthcare worker—is a highly
effective means of preventing the spread of infections (i.e., the barrier
serves to break the disease transmission cycle). For example, the following
actions create protective barriers for preventing infections in clients,
patients and healthcare workers and provide the means for implementing
the new Standard Precautions:

x Consider every person (patient or staff) as potentially infectious and

susceptible to infection.
x Wash hands—the most important procedure for preventing cross-
contamination (person to person or contaminated object to person).

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Standard Precaution Guidelines

x Wear gloves (both hands) before touching anything wet—broken skin,

mucous membranes, blood or other body fluids, or soiled instruments
and contaminated waste materials—or before performing invasive
procedures.

Table 2-1. Standard Precautions: Key Components

Handwashing (or using an antiseptic handrub)
x After touching blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions and contaminated items
x Immediately after removing gloves
x Between patient contact
Gloves
x For contact with blood, body fluids, secretions and contaminated items
x For contact with mucous membranes and nonintact skin
Masks, goggles, face masks
x Protect mucous membranes of eyes, nose and mouth when contact with blood and
body fluids is likely
Gowns
x Protect skin from blood or body fluid contact
x Prevent soiling of clothing during procedures that may involve contact with blood
or body fluids
Linen
x Handle soiled linen to prevent touching skin or mucous membranes
x Do not pre-rinse soiled linens in patient care areas
Patient care equipment
x Handle soiled equipment in a manner to prevent contact with skin or mucous
membranes and to prevent contamination of clothing or the environment
x Clean reusable equipment prior to reuse
Environmental cleaning
x Routinely care, clean and disinfect equipment and furnishings in patient care areas
Sharps
x Avoid recapping used needles
x Avoid removing used needles from disposable syringes
x Avoid bending, breaking or manipulating used needles by hand
x Place used sharps in puncture-resistant containers
Patient resuscitation
x Use mouthpieces, resuscitation bags or other ventilation devices to avoid mouth-to-
mouth resuscitation
Patient placement
x Place patients who contaminate the environment or cannot maintain appropriate
hygiene in private rooms

x Use physical barriers (protective goggles, face masks and aprons) if

splashes and spills of any body fluids (secretions and excretions) are
likely (e.g., cleaning instruments and other items).

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 Standard Precaution Guidelines

x Use antiseptic agents for cleansing the skin or mucous membrane

prior to surgery, cleaning wounds, or doing handrubs or surgical
handscrubs with an alcohol-based antiseptic product.
x Use safe work practices such as not recapping or bending needles,
safely passing sharp instruments and suturing, when appropriate, with
blunt needles.
x Safely dispose of infectious waste materials to protect those who
handle them and prevent injury or spread of infection to the
community.
x Process instruments, gloves and other items after use by first
decontaminating and thoroughly cleaning them, then either sterilizing
or high-level disinfecting them using the recommended procedures.

The use of these precautions, including hand hygiene and prevention-

related services such as immunization of healthcare workers, is fully
described in Chapters 3–8 and Appendices A–D. Details of how to safely
process soiled instruments, gloves and other items are presented in
Chapters 9–14 and Appendices E–H.

REFERENCES

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1985. Recommendations for

preventing transmission of infection with human T-lymphotropic virus
type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in the workplace. MMWR
34(45): 681–686; 691–695.
Garner JS and The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory
Committee (HICPAC). 1996. Guideline for isolation precautions in
hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17(1): 53–80 and Am J Infect
Control 24(1): 24–52.
Lynch P et al. 1990. Implementing and evaluating a system of generic
infection precautions: Body substance isolation. Am J Infect Control
18(1): 1–12.
Lynch P et al. 1987. Rethinking the role of isolation practices in the
prevention of nosocomial infections. Ann Intern Med 107(2): 243–246.
LeClaire JM et al. 1987. Prevention of nosocomial respiratory syncytial
virus infections through compliance with glove and gown isolation
precautions. N Engl J Med 317(6): 329–334.
Patterson JE et al. 1991. Association of contaminated gloves with
transmission of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus var. anitratus in an intensive
care unit. Am J Med 91(5): 479–483.
Rudnick JR et al. 1993. Are US hospitals prepared to control nosocomial
transmission of tuberculosis? Epidemic Intelligence Service Annual
Conference 60: Abstract.

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Standard Precaution Guidelines

2-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 THREE

HAND HYGIENE

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Why hand hygiene is important

x When and how to wash hands
x When and how to use waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic agents for
handrub and surgical handscrub
x What the barriers to appropriate hand hygiene are
x How to improve hand hygiene practices in healthcare facilities

BACKGROUND

Failure to perform appropriate hand hygiene is considered to be

the leading cause of nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections
and the spread of multiresistant microorganisms, and has been
recognized as a significant contributor to outbreaks (Boyce and
Pittet 2002).

Hand hygiene guidelines, which traditionally have dealt with

recommendations for when and how to perform handwashing or surgical
handscrubs, have undergone rapid change in the past 15 years. With the
emergence of the AIDS epidemic in the late 1980s, efforts to prevent
transmission of HIV and other bloodborne viruses from patients to staff
have had an impact on all aspects of infection prevention, but most
dramatically on hand hygiene and glove use practices. For example, current
hand hygiene guidelines must not only provide solid evidence in support of
recommendations to promote improved practices, but increasingly they must
also deal with issues of:

x poor compliance;
x how to minimize skin irritation and contact dermatitis resulting from
frequent handwashing; and
x use of waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrubs, as well as
moisturizing lotions and creams by healthcare personnel.

The criteria for handwashing or use of an antiseptic handrub are presented in

Table 3-1.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 3-1

Hand Hygiene

Table 3-1. Criteria for Handwashing or Use of an Antiseptic Handrub

The decision to clean hands is based on:
x intensity of contact with patient and/or blood and body fluids,
x likelihood of microbial transmission,
x patient’s susceptibility to infection, and
x procedure being performed.

The use of soap and water remains important when hands are visibly soiled.
For routine hand hygiene in the absence of dirt or debris, however,
alternatives such as antiseptic handrubs, which are rapid acting, inexpensive
and easy to make, are gaining acceptance, especially where access to sinks
and clean water is limited.1

From the point of view of infection prevention, hand hygiene practices

(handwashing and surgical handscrubbing) are intended to prevent hand-
borne infections by removing dirt and debris and inhibiting or killing
microorganisms on skin. This includes not only most of the organisms
acquired through contact with patients and the environment, but also some of
the permanent ones that live in the deeper layers of the skin. In addition to
understanding the guidelines and recommendations for hand hygiene,
healthcare workers need to understand the value, and especially the
limitations, of glove use (see Chapter 4).

A key first step in this process is educating health professional students and
healthcare workers about:

x the importance of hand hygiene, how to correctly perform the various

handwashing and handscrubbing procedures; and
x the evidence supporting the use of these procedures in reducing
transmission of microorganisms and therefore decreasing the frequency
of nosocomial infections in patients.

Finally, not only can frequent handwashing reduce the spread of infection
from the hands of health workers, but from everyone else’s as well! For
example, it is estimated that persuading people, especially young children, to
wash their hands with soap and clean water after going to the toilet, handling
or changing a dirty baby, or doing other tasks that potentially contaminate
hands (cleaning vegetables, fresh meat or fish) can reduce diarrheal diseases
by 45%, saving the lives of a million children a year (The Economist 2002).
Moreover, in a large study, the US military found that when troops washed

1
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to remove particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with a dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).

3-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Hand Hygiene

their hands five or more times daily, sniffles, coughs and common “colds”
fell by 43%.

DEFINITIONS

x Antiseptic or antimicrobial agent (terms used interchangeably).

Chemicals that are applied to the skin or other living tissue to inhibit or
kill microorganisms (both transient and resident) thereby reducing the
total bacterial counts. Examples include alcohols (ethyl and isopropyl),
dilute iodine solutions, iodophors, chlorhexidine and triclosan. (See
Appendix B for complete listing of uses, effectiveness, advantages and
disadvantages of selected antiseptic agents.)
x Clean water. Natural or chemically treated and filtered water that is safe
to drink and use for other purposes (e.g., handwashing and medical
instrument cleaning) because it meets specified public health standards.
These standards include: zero levels of microorganisms, such as bacteria
(e.g., fecal coliform and Escherichia coli), parasites (e.g., Giardia
lamblia) and viruses (e.g., hepatitis A or E); low turbidity (cloudiness due
to particulate matter and other contaminants); and minimum levels of
disinfectants, disinfectant by-products, inorganic and organic chemicals
and radioactive materials. At a minimum clean water should be free of
microorganisms and have low turbidity (is clear, not cloudy).
x Emollient. Organic liquid, such as glycerol, propylene glycol or sorbitol,
that when added to handrubs and hand lotions softens the skin and helps
prevent skin damage (cracking, drying, irritation and dermatitis) due to
frequent handwashing with soap (with or without antiseptic agent) and
water.
x Handwashing. Process of mechanically removing soil and debris from
the skin of hands using plain soap and water.
x Nosocomial or hospital-acquired infection (terms used
interchangeably). Infection that is neither present nor incubating at the
time the patient came to the healthcare facility. (Nosocomial refers to the
association between care and the subsequent onset of infection. It is a
time-related criterion that does not imply a cause and effect relationship.)
x Soaps and detergents (terms used interchangeably). Cleaning products
(bar, liquid, leaflet or powder) that lower surface tension, thereby helping
remove dirt, debris and transient microorganisms from hands. Plain
soaps require friction (scrubbing) to mechanically remove
microorganisms, while antiseptic (antimicrobial) soaps also kill or
inhibit growth of most microorganisms.
x Transient and resident flora. Terms that refer to where bacteria and
other microorganisms are located in the layers of the skin. Transient
flora are acquired through contact with patients, other healthcare workers
or contaminated surfaces (e.g., examination tables, floors or toilets)
during the course of the normal workday. These organisms live in the

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Hand Hygiene

upper layers of the skin and are partially removed by washing with plain
soap and clean water. They are the organisms most likely to cause
nosocomial infections. Resident flora live in the deeper layers of the
skin, as well as within hair follicles, and cannot be completely removed,
even by vigorous washing and rinsing with plain soap and clean water.
Fortunately, in most cases, resident flora is less likely to be associated
with infections. The hands or fingernails of some health workers,
however, can become colonized in the deep layers with organisms that
cause infections, such as S. aureus, gram-negative bacilli or yeast.
x Visibly soiled hands. Hands showing visible dirt or are visibly
contaminated with blood or body fluids (urine, feces, sputum or vomit).
x Waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub or antiseptic handrub
(terms used interchangeably). Fast acting antiseptic handrubs that do
not require use of water to remove transient flora, reduce resident
microorganisms and protect the skin. Most contain 60–90% alcohol, an
emollient and often an additional antiseptic (e.g., 2–4% chlorhexidine
gluconate) that has residual action (Larson et al 2001).

HAND HYGIENE PRACTICES

Hand hygiene significantly reduces the number of disease-causing

microorganisms on hands and arms and can minimize cross-contamination
(e.g., from health worker to patient). The indications for hand hygiene are
well known, but guidelines for best practices continue to evolve. For
example, the choice of plain or antiseptic soap, or use of an antiseptic
handrub, will depend on the degree of risk with patient contact (e.g., routine
medical procedure versus surgery) and availability (Larson 1995). Current
recommendations for healthcare workers are:

x When skin is damaged or frequent handwashing is required, a mild soap

(without antiseptic agent) should be used to remove soil and debris.
x If antimicrobial action is desired (e.g., before an invasive procedure or
contact with highly susceptible patients such those with AIDS or
newborns) and hands are not visibly dirty, an antiseptic handrub should
be used rather than washing hands with medicated antiseptic soap.
x In high-risk areas such as the operating room, neonatal ICU or transplant
units, handscrub protocols that use soft brushes or sponges for a shorter
time (at least 2 minutes) should replace harsh scrubbing with hard
brushes for 6–10 minutes.
x For staff who frequently wash their hands (30 times or more per shift),
hand lotions and creams should be provided in order to reduce irritation
of the skin.

Hand hygiene can be accomplished by routine handwashing (with or without

antiseptic agent) or antiseptic handrub and surgical handscrub using a

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 Hand Hygiene

waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic agent. The purpose and way to do each

differs slightly.

Handwashing The purpose of handwashing is to mechanically remove soil and debris from
the skin and reduce the number of transient microorganisms. Handwashing
with plain soap and clean water is as effective as washing with antimicrobial
soaps (Pereira, Lee and Wade 1997).2 In addition, plain soap causes much
less skin irritation (Pereira, Lee and Wade 1990).

Handwashing should be done before:

x examining (direct contact with) a patient; and

x putting on sterile or high-level disinfected surgical gloves prior to an
operation, or examination gloves for routine procedures such as a pelvic
examination.

Handwashing should be done after:

x any situation in which hands may become contaminated, such as:

x handling soiled instruments and other items;

x touching mucous membranes, blood or other body fluids (secretions
or excretions);
x having prolonged and intense contact with a patient; and
x removing gloves.

Hands should be washed with soap and clean water (or an antiseptic
handrub can be used) after removing gloves because the gloves now
may have tiny holes or tears, and bacteria can rapidly multiply on
gloved hands due to the moist, warm environment within the glove
Note: If paper towels are (CDC 1989; Korniewicz et al 1990).
not available, dry hands
with a clean towel or air
dry. (Shared towels quickly To encourage handwashing, program managers should make every effort to
become contaminated and
should not be used.
provide soap and a continuous supply of clean water, either from the tap or a
Carrying one’s own small bucket, and single-use towels.
towel or handkerchief can
help to avoid using dirty The steps for routine handwashing are:
towels. If you use your
own towel, it should be
washed every day.) STEP 1: Thoroughly wet hands.
STEP 2: Apply plain soap (antiseptic agent is not necessary).
STEP 3: Vigorously rub all areas of hands and fingers together for at least 10
to 15 seconds, paying close attention to areas under fingernails and between
fingers.

2
If tap water is contaminated, however, handwashing with plain soap is only effective in removing dirt and debris.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 3-5

Hand Hygiene

STEP 4: Rinse hands thoroughly with clean water.

STEP 5: Dry hands with a paper towel and use the towel to turn off the
faucet.

Because microorganisms grow and multiply in moisture and in standing

water:

Note: When soap dispensers x If bar soap is used, provide small bars and soap racks that drain.
are reused, they should be
thoroughly cleaned before
x Avoid dipping hands into basins containing standing water. Even with
filling. the addition of an antiseptic agent, such as Dettol7 or Savlon7,
microorganisms can survive and multiply in these solutions (Rutala
1996).
x Do not add soap to a partially empty liquid soap dispenser. This practice
of “topping off” dispensers may lead to bacterial contamination of the
Note: Used water should be soap.
collected in a basin and x When no running water is available, use a bucket with a tap that can be
discarded in a latrine if a
drain is not available.
turned off to lather hands and turned on again for rinsing, or use a bucket
and pitcher.

Hand Antisepsis The goal of hand antisepsis it to remove soil and debris as well as to reduce
both transient and resident flora. The technique for hand antisepsis is similar
to that for plain handwashing. It consists of washing hands with water and
soap or detergent (bar or liquid) containing an antiseptic agent (often
chlorhexidine, iodophors or triclosan) instead of plain soap.

Hand antisepsis should be done before:

x examining or caring for highly susceptible patients (e.g., premature

infants, elderly patients or those with advanced AIDS);
x performing an invasive procedure such as placement of an intravascular
device; and
x leaving the room of patients on Contact Precautions (e.g., hepatitis A or
E) or who have drug resistant infections (e.g., methicillin-resistant S
aureus).

Handwashing with medicated soaps or detergents is more irritating to the

skin than using antiseptic handrubs (see next section); therefore, if available,
antiseptic handrubs should be used instead (Larson et al 1990 and Larson et
al 2001).

Antiseptic Handrub Use of an antiseptic handrub is more effective in killing transient and resident
flora than handwashing with antimicrobial agents or plain soap and water, is
quick and convenient to perform, and gives a greater initial reduction in hand
flora (Girou et al 2002). Antiseptic handrubs also contain a small amount of

3-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Hand Hygiene

an emollient such as glycerin, propylene glycol or sorbitol that protects and

softens skin.

The technique for performing antiseptic handrub is:

STEP 1: Apply enough antiseptic handrub to cover the entire surface of

hands and fingers (about a teaspoonful).
STEP 2: Rub the solution vigorously into hands, especially between
fingers and under nails, until dry.

To be effective, an adequate amount of handrub solution should be used.

For example, by increasing the amount of handrub from 1 mL to 5 mL per
application (about 1 teaspoonful), the effectiveness increased significantly
(Larson 1988).

Since antiseptic handrubs do not remove soil or organic matter, if hands are
visibly soiled or contaminated with blood or body fluids, handwashing with
soap and water should be done first. In addition, to reduce the “build up” of
emollients on hands after repeated use of antiseptic handrubs, washing hands
with soap and water after every 5–10 applications is recommended. Finally,
handrubs containing only alcohol as the active ingredient have limited
residual effect (i.e., ability to prevent growth of bacteria after being applied)
compared to those containing alcohol plus an antiseptic such as
chlorhexidine.

As shown below, an effective antiseptic handrub solution is inexpensive and

simple to make.

Alcohol-Based Solution for Handrub

A nonirritating, antiseptic handrub can be made by adding either glycerina,
proplyene glycol or sorbitol to alcohol (2 mL in 100 mL of 60–90% ethyl or
isopropyl alcohol solution) (Larson 1990; Pierce 1990). Use 5 mL (about
one teaspoonful) for each application and continue rubbing the solution
over the hands until they are dry (15–30 seconds).
a
Glycerin is often sold in cosmetic departments because it is used as a hand softener.

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Hand Hygiene

Surgical Handscrub The purpose of the surgical handscrub is to mechanically remove soil, debris
and transient organisms and to reduce resident flora for the duration of
surgery. The goal is to prevent wound contamination by microorganisms
from the hands and arms of the surgeon and assistants.

For many years, preoperative handscrubbing protocols required at least a 6–

10 minute vigorous scrub with a brush or sponge, using soap containing an
antiseptic agent (chorhexidine or an iodophor). This practice, however, has
been shown to damage the skin and can result in increased shedding of
bacteria from the hands (Dineen 1966; Kikuchi-Numagami et al 1999).
Several studies suggest that neither a brush nor sponge is necessary to reduce
bacterial counts on the hands of surgical staff to acceptable levels. For
example, a 2-minute handwashing with soap and clean water followed by
application of 2–4% chlorhexidine or 7.5–10% povidone iodine was
shown to be as effective as a 5-minute handscrub with an antiseptic soap
(Deshmukh, Kramer and Kjellberg 1996; Pereira, Lee and Wade 1997). As a
result, the guidelines for performing the general surgical scrub technique
have been made less harsh and take less time to perform. The steps include:

STEP 1: Remove rings, watches and bracelets.

STEP 2: Thoroughly wash hands, especially between fingers, and forearms
to the elbows with soap and water. (If a brush is used it should be cleaned
and either sterilized or high-level disinfected before reuse; sponges, if used,
should be discarded.)
STEP 3: Clean nails with a nail cleaner.
STEP 4: Rinse hands and forearms with water.
STEP 5: Apply an antiseptic agent to all surfaces of hands and forearms to
the elbows and rub hands and forearms vigorously for at least 2 minutes.
STEP 6: Holding the hands higher than the elbows, rinse hands and forearms
thoroughly with clean water.3
STEP 7: Keep hands up and away from the body, do not touch any surface or
Note: Skin damage caused article and dry hands and forearms with a clean, dry towel or air dry.
by allergic reactions STEP 8: Put sterile or high-level disinfected surgical gloves on both hands.
provides an ideal place for
microorganisms to multiply
and should be avoided. Applying an antiseptic minimizes the number of microorganisms on hands
(Personnel with allergies to under the gloves and minimizes growth of flora during surgery. This is
antiseptics may use plain important because gloves may have inapparent holes or tears, or may be
soap followed by applying nicked during surgery.
the waterless, alcohol-
based handrub described
above.) (Complete instructions for how to do a general surgical handscrub are
outlined in Appendix A.)

3
If tap water is contaminated, use boiled or chlorinated water and filter if necessary.

3-8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Hand Hygiene

Alternatively, handwashing with plain soap and water followed by use of an

antiseptic handrub containing chlorhexidine has been shown to yield
significantly greater reductions in microbial counts on hands, improve skin
health and reduce time and resources (Larson et al 2001).

The steps for performing this simpler and shorter surgical handscrub
technique are:

STEP 1: Remove rings, watches and bracelets.

STEP 2: Thoroughly wash hands, especially between fingers, and forearms
to the elbows with soap and water.
STEP 3: Clean nails with a nail cleaner.
STEP 4: Rinse hands and forearms with water and dry thoroughly with a
clean, dry towel or air dry.
STEP 5: Apply 5 mL (about 1 teaspoonful) of an antiseptic handrub to hands
and forearms and rub until dry; repeat application and rubbing 2 more times
for a total of at least 2 minutes, using a total of about 15 mL (3 teaspoonfuls)
of the handrub.
STEP 6: Keep hands up and away from the body; do not touch any surface
or article prior to putting sterile or high-level disinfected surgical gloves on
both hands.

IMPROVING HAND HYGIENE PRACTICE: WHAT WORKS

Handwashing has been considered one of the most important measures for
reducing transmission of microorganisms and preventing infection for more
than 150 years. For example, the studies of Semmelweiss (1861) and
numerous others since then have demonstrated it is possible to transmit
infectious diseases from patient to patient on the hands of healthcare workers.
Equally well documented is the fact that good hand hygiene can prevent
transmission of microorganisms and decrease the frequency of nosocomial
infections (Boyce 1999; Larson 1995).

The continuing problem, however, is getting healthcare workers to follow

recommended handwashing practices. For example, in the US, handwashing
compliance rates among healthcare workers range from only 25% to 50%,
depending on the setting (i.e., better compliance in pediatric units than
general medical services). Key reasons given for not washing hands
according to recommended guidelines include lack of time, limited access to
sinks and running water, frequent handwashing irritates the hands, belief that
wearing gloves provides total protection, doubt regarding the effectiveness of
handwashing to prevent infections, and perception that peers and supervisors
do not perform handwashing as recommended (Table 3-2). In addition, health
professionals mistakenly believe they wash their hands more often than they
actually do (Tibballs 1996)!

Infection Prevention Guidelines 3-9

Hand Hygiene

Over the years, nurses and physicians have diligently studied and written
about this problem. Numerous reports have documented the effectiveness of
handwashing and other hand hygiene procedures and shown that
handwashing and use of gloves are cost-effective ways to reduce infections.
Despite this, compliance remains poor and the problem of nosocomial
infections transmitted by healthcare workers continues to increase globally.
To correct this situation, in the last few years several strategies to improve
compliance have been designed and tested. Those showing the most promise
combine behavior change activities, such as continuing education, motivation
and system change, with role modeling or mentoring, and ongoing feedback
to staff. While the results to date have not been totally successful,
improvements have been demonstrated (i.e., reduced rates of nosocomial
infections) in several studies (Larson et al 2000; Pittet et al 2000). In the
future, other innovative approaches, such as education of patients and their
families about the importance of staff handwashing, may also prove
successful.

Table 3-2. Why Healthcare Professionals Don’t Wash Their Hands

Belief that:
x Handwashing between every patient encounter is unnecessary
x Handwashing does not affect clinical outcome
x Handwashing is unnecessary when gloves are worn
x Routine or frequent handwashing is unnecessary
x Frequent handwashing interrupts efficient patient care
x Frequent handwashing damages skin and causes cracking, dryness, irritation and
dermatitis
x Handwashing damages nails and nail polish
x Handwashing facilities are not conveniently placed or well designed
x Handwashing is inconvenient
x Handwashing takes too much time
Failure of supervisors and managers to:
x Establish a handwashing policy
x Involve administrators in handwashing policy
x Effectively communicate handwashing policy
x Demonstrate handwashing policy through actions
x Enforce handwashing policy

Adapted from: Alvarado 2000.

3 - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Hand Hygiene

Although it is difficult to change behavior in this area, there are certain steps
that increase the chances of success. These include:

x Widely disseminate current guidelines for hand hygiene practices, the

evidence supporting their effectiveness in preventing disease and the
need for health workers to adhere to the guidelines.
x Involve hospital administrators in promoting and enforcing the guidelines
by convincing them of the cost benefits of handwashing and other hand
hygiene practices.
x Use successful educational techniques including role modeling
(especially by supervisors), mentoring, monitoring and positive feedback.
x Use performance improvement approaches targeted to all healthcare staff,
not just physicians and nurses, to promote compliance.
x Consider the needs of staff for convenient and effective options for hand
hygiene that make compliance easier.

One promising example of how to make compliance easier is providing staff

with small, individual-use containers of an antiseptic handrub. Development
of this product stems from the observation that improper handwashing
techniques and low compliance make current hand hygiene recommendations
ineffective. Use of an inexpensive, simple to prepare antiseptic handrub,
however, minimizes many of the factors limiting better use of recommended
hand hygiene guidelines. In addition, handrubs are more effective compared
to washing hands with plain or medicated soaps, can be made much more
available (no sink or running water needed), require less time to use and are
less likely to irritate the skin (less drying, cracking or chapping). As a
consequence, antiseptic handrubs soon may replace handwashing with plain
or medicated soap and water as the primary procedure for improving
compliance (Larson et al 2000; Pittet et al 2000). Interestingly, the only
large-scale, hospital-based programs that reported sustained improvement in
hand hygiene adherence associated with reduced infection rates incorporated
use of antiseptic handrubs (Larson et al 2000; Pittet et al 2000). It must be
recognized, however, that making a handrub available to staff without
ongoing educational and motivational activities may not result in long-lasting
improvement in hand hygiene practices. Just installing dispensers of a rapid
acting, antiseptic handrub, for example, is not sufficient (Muto et al 2000).

A second example is encouraging staff to use handcare products

(moisturizing lotions and creams) that help prevent skin irritation and contact
dermatitis associated with frequent handwashing, especially with a soap or
detergent containing an antiseptic agent. Not only were staff highly satisfied
with the results but, most importantly, in the study by McCormick et al
(2000), improved skin condition resulting from use of a hand lotion led to a
50% increase in handwashing frequency!

Infection Prevention Guidelines 3 - 11

Hand Hygiene

A final example, which illustrates the role teachers and supervisors can play
in improving hand hygiene practices, relates to current guidelines still calling
for handwashing before and after each patient contact. This recommendation
is confusing because it does not take into account that washing after might
be adequate if no hand contamination occurs before touching the next patient.
Recognizing confusing hand hygiene guidelines and advocating for their
improvement is also a way for teachers and supervisors to demonstrate their
commitment. This also helps health workers to meet criteria both for using
good hand hygiene and providing appropriate patient care.

In summary, although improving compliance with hand hygiene guidelines has

been difficult, some programs and institutions are beginning to have success.
The key to success appears to hinge on multifactored interventions that involve
behavior change, creative education, monitoring and feedback and, above all,
involvement of their supervisors as role models and the support of
administration.

OTHER ISSUES AND CONSIDERATIONS RELATED TO HAND HYGIENE

Glove Use Since 1987 and the emergence of the AIDS epidemic, a dramatic increase in
glove use by all types of healthcare staff has occurred in an effort to prevent
transmission of HIV and other bloodborne viruses from patients to staff.
Although the effectiveness of gloves in preventing contamination of health
workers’ hands has been repeatedly confirmed (Tenorio et al 2001),
preventing gross contamination of hands is considered important. For
example, handwashing, even with an antiseptic agent, may not remove all
potential pathogens when hands are heavily contaminated. These findings
have mistakenly led some health workers to doubt the efficacy of hand
hygiene practices under any circumstances, resulting in poor or infrequent
use of handwashing by these staff.

Gloves, however, do not provide complete protection against hand

contamination. For example, bacteria from patients can be recovered in up to
30% of staff who wear gloves during patient care (Kotilainen et al 1989).
Also, oral surgeons wearing gloves and other protective devices have become
infected with hepatitis B, presumably via small defects in the gloves or their
hands becoming contaminated during glove removal (Reingold, Kane and
Hightower 1988). Moreover, wearing the same pair of gloves and washing
gloved hands between patients or between dirty to clean body site care is not
a safe practice. Doebbeling and colleagues (1988) recovered significant
amounts of bacteria on the hands of staff not changing gloves between
patients, but just washing their gloved hands.

The overall influence of glove use on hand hygiene practices of staff is not
clear, however. For example, some studies have reported that staff who wear
gloves were less likely to wash their hands, while others have found the
opposite. Given the generally poor compliance with hand hygiene practices,

3 - 12 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Hand Hygiene

every effort must be made to reinforce the message that gloves do not replace
the use of hand hygiene, but in certain circumstances, gloves should be used
in addition to hand hygiene.

Hand Lotions and In an effort to minimize hand hygiene-related contact dermatitis due to
Hand Creams frequent handwashing (>30 times per shift), use of harsh detergents and
exposure to antiseptic agents (60–90% alcohol is less irritating to skin than
any other antiseptic or nonantiseptic detergent), health workers have resorted
to using hand lotions, creams and moisturizing skin care products. Several
studies have shown that regular use (at least twice per day) of such products
can help prevent and treat contact dermatitis (McCormick et al 2000). In
addition, moisturizers can prevent drying and damage to the skin and loss of
skin fats. There is also biological evidence that emollients, such as glycerol
and sorbitol, with or without antiseptics, may decrease cross contamination
because they reduce shedding of bacteria from skin for up to 4 hours.

While use of hand lotions, creams and moisturizers by health workers should
be encouraged, it is recommended that the products be supplied in either
small, individual-use containers that can be easily carried or in pump
dispensers that cannot be refilled to reduce the possibility of becoming
contaminated. (To avoid confusion, these dispensers should not be located
near dispensers of antiseptic solutions.) By contrast, oil-based barrier
products, such as those containing petroleum jelly (Vaseline® or lanolin),
should not be used because they damage latex rubber gloves.

Resistance to Topical With increasing use of topical antiseptics, particularly in home settings,
Antiseptic Agents concern has been raised regarding the development of resistance. Although
low-level bacterial tolerance to triclosan, a commonly used antiseptic agent,
has been noted in several laboratory-based studies, prolonged clinical studies
have found that extended use of triclosan-containing products does not lead to
resistance of skin flora. Moreover, other studies have noted no clinical
evidence to date that supports development of resistant organisms following
use of any topical antiseptics agents.

Lesions and Skin Breaks Cuticles, hands and forearms should be free of lesions (dermatitis or eczema)
and skin breaks (cuts, abrasions and cracking). Cuts and abrasions should be
covered with waterproof dressings. If covering them in this way is not
possible, surgical staff with skin lesions should not operate until the lesions
are healed.

Fingernails Research has shown that the area around the base of nails (subungual space)
contains the highest microbial count on the hand (McGinley, Larson and
Leydon 1988). In addition, several recent studies have shown that long nails
may serve as a reservoir for gram-negative bacilli (P. aeruginosa), yeast and
other pathogens (Hedderwick et al 2000). Moreover, long nails, either natural
or artificial, tend to puncture gloves more easily (Olsen et al 1993). As a
result, it is recommended that nails be kept moderately short—not extend
more than 3 mm (or 1/8 inch) beyond the fingertip.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 3 - 13

Hand Hygiene

Artificial Nails Artificial nails (nail wraps, nail tips, acrylic lengtheners, etc.) worn by
healthcare workers can contribute to nosocomial infections (Hedderwick et al
2000). In addition, because there is evidence that artificial nails may serve as
a reservoir for pathogenic gram-negative bacilli, their use by health workers
should be restricted, especially by surgical team members, and those who:

x work in specialty areas such as neonatal ICUs,

x care for patients highly susceptible to infection, or
x manage patients who have infections with resistant organisms
(Moolenaar et al 2000).

Nail Polish Although there is no restriction to wearing nail polish, it is suggested that
surgical team members and those staff working in specialty areas wear
freshly applied, clear nail polish. Chipped nail polish supports the growth of
larger numbers of organisms on fingernails compared to freshly polished or
natural nails. Also, dark colored nail polish may prevent dirt and debris under
fingernails from being seen and removed (Baumgardner et al 1993).

Jewelry Although several studies have shown that skin under rings is more heavily
colonized than comparable areas of skin on fingers without rings (Jacobson et
al 1985), at the present time it is not known whether wearing rings results in
greater transmission of pathogens. It is suggested that surgical team members
not wear rings because it may be more difficult for them to put on surgical
gloves without tearing them.

REFERENCES

Alvarado CJ. 2000. The Science of Hand Hygiene: A Self-Study Monograph.

University of Wisconsin Medical School and Sci-Health Communications.
March.
Baumgardner CA et al. 1993. Effects of nail polish on microbial grown of
fingernails. AORN J 58(4): 84–88.
Boyce JM and D Pittet. 2002. Guidelines for hand hygiene in healthcare settings:
recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory
Committee and the HICPAC/SHSA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force.
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23(Suppl): S3–S40. Available at:
http://www.cdc.gov/handhygiene.
Boyce JM. 1999. It is time for action: Improving hand hygiene in hospitals
(editorial). Ann Intern Med 130(2): 153–155.
Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1989. Guidelines for prevention of
transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis virus to health
care and public-safety workers. MMWR 38(S-6): 5–6.

3 - 14 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Hand Hygiene

Deshmukh N, JW Kramer and SI Kjellberg.1996. A comparison of 5-minute

povidone-iodine scrub and a 1-minute povidone-iodine scrub followed by
alcohol foam. Mil Med 163(3): 145–147.
Dineen P. 1966. The use of a polyurethane sponge in surgical scrubbing.
Surg Gynecol Obstet 123(3): 595–598.
Doebbeling BN et al. 1988. Removal of nosocomial pathogens from the
contaminated glove. Arch Intern Med 109(5): 394–398.
Girou E et al. 2002. Efficacy of handrubbing with alcohol based solution
versus standard handwashing with antiseptic soap: Randomized clinical trial.
BMJ 325(7360): 362–365.
Hedderwick SA et al. 2000. Pathogenic organisms associated with artificial
fingernails worn by healthcare workers. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol
21(8): 505–509.
Jacobson G et al. 1985. Handwashing: Ring-wearing and number of
microorganisms. Nurs Res 34(3): 186–188.
Kikuchi-Numagami K et al. 1999. Irritancy of scrubbing up for surgery with
or without a brush. Acta Derm Venereol 79(3): 230–232.
Korniewicz D et al. 1990. Leakage of virus through used vinyl and latex
examination gloves. J Clin Microbiol 28(4): 787–788.
Kotilainen HR et al. 1989. Latex and vinyl examination gloves. Arch Intern
Med 149(12): 2749–2753.
Larson E et al. 2001. Comparison of different regimens for surgical hand
preparation. AORN J 73(2): 412–432.
Larson E et al. 2000. An organizational climate intervention associated with
increased handwashing and decreased nosocomial infections. Behav Med
26(1): 14–22.
Larson E. 1995. APIC guidelines for handwashing and hand antisepsis in
health care settings. Am J Infect Control 23(4): 251–269.
Larson E et al. 1990. Alcohol for surgical scrubbing? Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 11(3): 139–143.
Larson E. 1988. Guideline for use of topical antimicrobial agents. Am J Infect
Control 16(6): 253–266.
McCormick RD et al. 2000. Double-blind, randomized trial of scheduled use
of a novel barrier cream and an oil-containing lotion for protecting the hands
of health care workers. Am J Infect Control 28(4): 302–310.
McGinley KJ, EL Larson and JJ Leydon. 1988. Composition and density
of microflora in the subungual space of the hand. J Clin Microbiol 26(5):
950–953.

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Hand Hygiene

Moolenaar RL et al. 2000. A prolonged outbreak of Pseudomonas

aeruginosa in a neonatal intensive care unit: did staff fingernails play a role
in disease transmission? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21(2): 80–85.
Muto CA et al. 2000. Hand hygiene rates unaffected by installation of
dispensers of a rapidly acting hand antiseptic Am J Infect Control 28(3): 273–
276.
Olsen RJ et al. 1993. Examination gloves as barriers to hand contamination
in clinical practice. JAMA 270(3): 350–353.
Pereira LJ, GM Lee and KJ Wade. 1997. An evaluation of five protocols for
surgical handwashing in relation to skin condition and microbial counts. J
Hosp Infect 36(1): 49–65.
Pereira LJ, GM Lee and KJ Wade. 1990. The effect of surgical handwashing
routines on the microbial counts of operating room nurses. Am J Infect
Control 18(6): 354–364.
Pierce M. 1990. Personal reference. Johnson and Johnson Medical, Inc.,
Research Division: Arlington, TX.
Pittet D et al. 2000. Effectiveness of a hospital-wide programme to improve
compliance with hand hygiene. Lancet 356(9238): 1307–1312.
Reingold Al, MA Kane and AW Hightower. 1988. Failure of gloves and
other protective devices to prevent transmission of hepatitis B virus to oral
surgeons. JAMA 259(17): 2558–2560.
Rutala WA. 1996. APIC guideline for selection and use of disinfectants.
Amer J Infect Control 24(4): 313–342.
Semmelweiss IP. 1861. Die Aetologie, der Begriff und die Prophylaxis Des
Kindbettfiebers. Pest: CA Hattleberi’s Verlags-Expeditions.
Tenorio AR et al. 2001. Effectiveness of gloves in the prevention of hand
carriage of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus species by health care workers
after patient care. Clin Infect Dis 32(5): 826–829.
The Economist. 2002. How to save a million lives. 4 July (print edition).
Tibballs J. 1996. Teaching hospital medical staff to handwash. Med J Aust
164(7): 395–398.

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 FOUR

GLOVES

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x When gloves should be worn

x Which type of glove to use
x What the glove requirements for clinical procedures are
x Glove use DOs and DON’Ts

BACKGROUND

Hand hygiene, coupled with the use of protective gloves, is a

key component in minimizing the spread of disease and
maintaining an infection-free environment (Garner and
Favero 1986). In addition, understanding when sterile or high-
level disinfected gloves are required and, equally important,
when they are not, can reduce costs while maintaining safety
for both patients and staff.

Until about 15 years ago, healthcare workers wore gloves for three
reasons:

1. To reduce the risk of staff acquiring bacterial infections from patients.

2. To prevent staff from transmitting their skin flora to patients.
3. To reduce contamination of the hands of staff by microorganisms that
can be transmitted from one patient to another (cross-contamination).

Furthermore, gloves were primarily worn only by staff caring for patients
infected with certain pathogens or exposed to patients with high risk of
hepatitis B.

Since 1987 and the emergence of the AIDS epidemic, a dramatic increase
in glove use by all types of healthcare staff has occurred in an effort to
prevent transmission of HIV and other bloodborne and body fluid viruses
from patients to staff. As a result, disposable examination and surgical
gloves are the item of personal protective equipment most frequently used
by healthcare providers today. In the US, for example, glove usage has
grown from 1.4 billion pairs in 1988 to 8.3 billion in 1993 (NIOSH 1997).

Infection Prevention Guidelines 4-1

Gloves

WHEN TO WEAR GLOVES

Although the effectiveness of gloves in preventing contamination of

healthcare workers’ hands has been repeatedly confirmed (Tenorio et al
2001), wearing gloves does not replace the need for handwashing. For
Remember: Wash hands
or use an antiseptic
example, even the best quality latex surgical gloves may have small,
handrub before putting on inapparent defects, gloves may be torn during use and hands can become
gloves and after removing contaminated during removal (Bagg, Jenkins and Barker 1990; Davis
them. 2001).

Depending on the situation, clean examination or utility gloves should be

worn by all staff when:

x there is reasonable chance of hand contact with blood or other body

fluids, mucous membranes or nonintact skin;
x they perform invasive medical procedures (e.g., inserting vascular
Note: Examination gloves devices such as peripheral venous lines); or
should be changed as soon
as possible when visibly x they handle contaminated waste items or touch contaminated surfaces.
soiled, torn or punctured.
A separate pair of gloves must be used for each patient to avoid cross-
contamination (CDC 1987). Wearing the same pair of gloves and washing
gloved hands between patients or between dirty to clean body site care is
not a safe practice. Doebbeling and colleagues (1988) recovered
significant amounts of bacteria on the hands of staff who were just
washing their gloved hands, not changing gloves between patients.

What to Do When Hospital and clinic managers, and supervisors as well, should first check
Supplies of Gloves Are to be sure staff are not wearing gloves when they are not needed (i.e., for
Limited activities such as taking a patient’s blood pressure, using the telephone or
writing in a chart, and that do not involve contact with blood or other
potentially infectious materials). In addition, when resources are limited
and examination gloves are in short supply, soiled disposable surgical
gloves can be reprocessed for reuse if they are:

x decontaminated by soaking in 0.5% chlorine solution for 10 minutes,

x washed and rinsed, and
x sterilized (by autoclaving) or high-level disinfected (by steaming).1

Do not reprocess gloves that are cracked, peeling or have

detectable holes or tears (Bagg, Jenkins and Barker 1990).

1
In the past, boiling has been recommended as a method for HLD of surgical gloves; however, it is difficult to dry gloves
without contaminating them using this method. Because steaming is easier to do and equally effective, it is the recommended
method for HLD of surgical gloves (see Appendix C).

4-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Gloves

Where utility gloves are not available, putting on two pairs of examination
or reprocessed surgical gloves (double gloving) provides some protection
for cleaning staff and for staff handling and disposing of contaminated
medical waste.

TYPES OF GLOVES

There are three types of gloves used in healthcare facilities: surgical,

examination and utility or heavy-duty household gloves:

1. Surgical gloves should be used when performing invasive medical or

surgical procedures.
2. Examination gloves provide protection to healthcare workers when
performing many of their routine duties.
3. Utility or heavy-duty household gloves should be worn for
processing instruments, equipment and other items; for handling and
disposing of contaminated waste; and when cleaning contaminated
surfaces.

The best surgical gloves are made of latex rubber, because of rubber’s
natural elasticity, sensitivity and durability and it provides a comfortable
fit. Because of the increasing problem of latex allergy, a new synthetic
rubber-like material called “nitrile,” which has properties similar to latex,
has been developed. Nitrile gloves are less likely to cause allergic
reactions. In many countries, the only type of examination gloves usually
available are made of vinyl, a synthetic material that is less expensive than
latex rubber. Because vinyl is inelastic (does not stretch like latex), the
gloves are loose-fitting and can tear easily. Better quality examination
gloves are made from latex or nitrile and can be found in medical supply
stores in most countries. Because utility gloves are made of thick rubber,
which is much less flexible and sensitive,e they provide maximum
protection as a barrier.

All types of examination gloves are very thin and should not be
reprocessed for reuse (Korniewicz et al 1990).

The advantages and disadvantages of different types of gloves are

described in Table 4-1.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 4-3

Gloves

Table 4-1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Types of Gloves

TYPE OF GLOVE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Sterile or High-Level Disinfected Gloves are sized to fit, permitting Expensive; do not use for tasks where other
Surgical Glovesa: Use for all greater movement during surgical types of gloves can be worn.
procedures involving contact with procedures.
tissue deep under the skin (e.g.,
cesarean section or laparotomy).
Examination Gloves: Use for Inexpensive exam gloves are one Usually, only small, medium and large sizes;
contact with mucous membranes quarter to one third the cost of may not be available in every country. When
and nonintact skin (e.g., pelvic surgical gloves and usually are exam gloves are not available, used latex
examination). available in most countries. surgical gloves may be washed and steamed
for reuse in patient care tasks requiring exam
gloves.
Utility or Heavy-Duty Household Inexpensive; can be rewashed and Not available in every country. If not
Gloves: Use when handling used reused many times. The thick available, double gloving using either new
instruments and equipment that rubber surface helps to protect examination or reprocessed surgical gloves
may have come in contact with cleaning personnel and waste provides some protection.
blood or body fluids and for handlers.
handling medical waste and linens.
a
When surgical gloves are reused, they must be checked carefully for tears or cuts before final processing (Bagg, Jenkins and
Barker 1990).
Adapted from: Tietjen, Cronin and McIntosh 1992.

Examination Gloves Deciding which type of examination glove is best for a task (if a choice is
available) should be determined by the degree of risk of exposure (low or
high risk) to blood or potentially infected body fluids, the length of the
procedure and possibility of allergy to latex or, rarely, nitrile.

x Vinyl examination gloves are the least expensive of the three types
generally available. They are good for short tasks that involve minimal
stress on the glove and low risk of exposure. They are loose-fitting
(baggy), have limited elasticity and tear easily. Suggested use would
be for briefly suctioning endotracheal secretions, emptying emesis
basins and removing an IV line. (If they are the only type of
examination glove available and the risk of exposure to blood and
Note: When using latex body fluids is high, change them frequently and consider double gloving.)
rubber gloves, do not use
hand cream or lotions that x Natural rubber latex examination gloves provide the best protection.
contain mineral oil, They are preferred for surgical procedures and tasks of moderate to
petroleum jelly (Vaseline) high risk such as exposure to blood or potentially contaminated body
or lanolin to protect your
hands, because they may
fluids. They should not be used by staff with known or suspected
cause the gloves to break allergy to latex or for prolonged (>1 hour) contact with high-level
down within minutes. disinfectants such as glutaraldehyde (may cause loss of effectiveness
due to breakdown of latex).
x Nitrile examination gloves are the preferred choice for staff with latex
allergy and may be used for activities of moderate to high risk. Nitrile
gloves have many of the same characteristics as latex but have better
resistance to oil-based products. Staff with known allergy to nitrile
compounds should not use nitrile gloves.

4-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Gloves

GLOVE REQUIREMENTS FOR CLINICAL PROCEDURES

Listed in Table 4-2 are common medical and surgical procedures that may
require the use of protective gloves and the type of glove and or
processing required. Sterile disposable surgical gloves always can be used,
but because of their high cost should only be used when necessary. If the
risk of endospores is not high (e.g., cesarean section or laparotomy), high-
level disinfected surgical gloves are an acceptable alternative. (See
Chapter 1 for discussion.)2

Instructions are provided in Appendix C for how to process surgical gloves

and either sterilize or high-level disinfect them, and how to store them safely.

Table 4-2. Glove Requirements for Common Medical and Surgical Procedures
TASK OR ACTIVITY ARE GLOVES PREFERRED ACCEPTABLE
NEEDED? GLOVESa GLOVES
Blood pressure check No
Temperature check No
Injection No
Blood drawing Yes Examb HLD Surgicald
IV insertion and removal Yes Examb HLD Surgicald
Pelvic examination Yes Exam HLD Surgicald
IUD insertion (loaded in sterile package and Yes Exam HLD Surgicald
inserted using no-touch technique)
IUD removal (using no-touch technique) Yes Exam HLD Surgicald
Manual vacuum aspiration (using no-touch Yes Exam HLD Surgicald
technique)
Norplant implants insertion and removal Yes Sterile Surgicalc HLD Surgicald
Vaginal delivery Yes Sterile Surgicalc HLD Surgicald
Cesarean section or laparotomy Yes Sterile Surgicalc HLD Surgicald
Vasectomy or laparoscopy Yes Sterile Surgicalc HLD Surgicald
Handling and cleaning instruments Yes Utility Exam or
HLD Surgicald
Handling contaminated waste Yes Utility Exam or
HLD Surgicald
Cleaning blood or body fluid spills Yes Utility Exam or
HLD Surgicald
a
Although sterile gloves may be used for any surgical procedure, they are not always required. In some cases, examination
or HLD surgical gloves are equally safe and less expensive.
b
This includes new, “never” used individual or bulk-packaged examination gloves (as long as boxes are stored properly).
c
When sterilization equipment (autoclave) is not available, high-level disinfection is the only acceptable alternative.
d
Reprocessed surgical gloves.
Adapted from: Tietjen, Cronin and McIntosh 1992.

2
Martin et al (1988) has reported that reprocessing surgical gloves more than three times usually is not cost-effective.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 4-5

Gloves

ACCIDENTAL CONTAMINATION OF STERILE OR HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTED

SURGICAL GLOVES

There are several ways to contaminate sterile or high-level disinfected

surgical gloves:

Remember: Surgical staff

wearing sterile or high- x tearing or puncturing the glove,
level disinfected gloves x touching any nonsterile or high-level disinfected object with the
should be careful not to glove, or
contaminate gloved hands
inadvertently by touching x touching the outside of a glove with an ungloved hand.
nonsterile items and
unprepped skin or mucous
Regloving after contamination. To reglove after contaminating a glove
membranes.
during a surgical procedure:

x Remove contaminated glove by the cuff and, if reusing, place it in a

0.5% chlorine solution for decontamination; otherwise, put in waste
container.

Sterile Glove x Have the circulating nurse open the sterile glove pack, laying the glove
package on a clean surface.
x Pick up the sterile glove with the gloved hand and put on the
replacement glove in the usual manner.

Alternatively:

x Have the circulating nurse open the sterile glove package; then have
the surgical assistant or scrub nurse, who is gloved, remove a sterile
glove and hold the glove open by the cuff.3 Put hand into the glove
without touching the outside of the glove.
x Adjust the glove after the surgical assistant or scrub nurse lets go of
the cuff (Sorensen and Luckman 1979).

High-Level x Have the circulating nurse pick up the replacement glove with high-
Disinfected Glove level disinfected forceps.
x Grasp the replacement glove by the turned-down cuff and put on the
glove in the usual manner.

Alternatively:

x Have the circulating nurse remove a replacement glove from the high-
level disinfected container with forceps. Have the surgical assistant,

3
If the assistant or scrub person’s gloves are contaminated with blood or body fluids, have someone with uncontaminated
sterile gloves pick up and hold the replacement sterile glove.

4-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Gloves

who is gloved, take the glove and hold it open by the cuff.4 Put hand
into the glove without touching the outside of the glove.
x Adjust the glove after the surgical assistant or scrub nurse lets go of
the cuff.

SOME DOs AND DON’Ts ABOUT GLOVES

x Do wear the correct size glove, particularly surgical gloves. A poorly

fitting glove can limit your ability to perform the task and may be
damaged (torn or cut) more easily.
x Do change surgical gloves periodically during long cases as the
protective effect of latex rubber gloves decreases with time and
inapparent tears may occur.
x Do keep fingernails trimmed moderately short (less than 3 mm or 1/8
inch beyond the finger tip) to reduce the risk of tears.
x Do pull gloves up over cuffs of gown (if worn) to protect the wrists.
x Do use water-soluble (nonfat-containing) hand lotions and
moisturizers often to prevent hands from drying, cracking and
chapping due to frequent handwashing and gloving.
x Don’t use oil-based hand lotions or creams, because they will damage
latex rubber surgical and examination gloves.
x Don’t use hand lotions and moisturizers that are very fragrant
(perfumed) as they irritate the skin under gloves.
x Don’t store gloves in areas where there are extremes in temperature
(e.g., in the sun, or near a heater, air conditioner, ultraviolet light,
fluorescent light or X-ray machines). These conditions may damage
the gloves (cause breakdown of the material they are made of), thus
reducing their effectiveness as a barrier.

ALLERGIC REACTIONS TO GLOVES

Allergic reactions to latex rubber gloves are being increasingly reported

among healthcare workers of all types, including housekeepers, laboratory
workers and dentists. (Allergic reactions to nitriles also occur, but less
frequently.) If possible, nonlatex (nitrile) or low-allergen latex gloves
should be used if allergy is suspected. In addition, wearing powder-free
gloves is recommended. (Powdered gloves may result in more reactions
because the powder from the gloves carries the latex particles in the air.) If
this is not possible, then wearing cloth or vinyl gloves beneath latex
gloves may help to prevent skin sensitization. It will not, however, prevent
sensitization of the mucous membranes of the eyes and nose if these
gloves are powdered (Garner and HICPAC 1996).

4
If the assistant or scrub person’s gloves are contaminated with blood or body fluids, have someone with uncontaminated
high-level disinfected gloves pick up and hold the replacement sterile glove.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 4-7

Gloves

For most sensitized people, the symptoms are skin rashes, runny nose and
itchy eyes that may persist or get progressively worse (i.e., cause breathing
problems such as asthma). An allergic reaction to latex can develop within
1 month of use. Even in people who are susceptible, however, reactions
generally take longer to develop (within 3–5 years) and may not develop
for as long as 15 years (Baumann 1992). No therapy or desensitization
exists for latex allergy; therefore, the only option is to avoid contact.

REFERENCES

Bagg J, S Jenkins and GR Barker. 1990. A laboratory assessment of the

antimicrobial effectiveness of glove washing and re-use in dental practice.
J Hosp Infect 15(1): 73–82.
Baumann MA. 1992. Protective gloves. Int Dent J 42(3): 170–180.
Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1987. Recommendations for
prevention of HIV transmission in healthcare settings. MMWR 36(Suppl
2): 1S–18S.
Davis MS. 2001. Choices of effective personal protective equipment, in
Advanced Precautions for Today’s OR: The Operating Room Professional's
Handbook for the Prevention of Sharps Injuries and Bloodborne Exposures,
2nd ed. Sweinbinder Publications LLC: Atlanta, pp 39–48.
Doebbeling BN et al. 1988. Removal of nosocomial pathogens from the
contaminated glove. Ann Intern Med 109(5): 394–398.
Garner JS and The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory
Committee (HICPAC). 1996. Guideline for isolation precautions in
hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17(1): 53–80 and Am J Infect
Control 24(1): 24–52.
Garner JS and MS Favero. 1986. CDC guideline for handwashing and
hospital environmental control, 1985. Infect Control 7(4): 231–243.
Korniewicz D et al. 1990. Leakage of virus through used vinyl and latex
examination gloves. J Clin Microbiol 28(4): 787–788.
Martin MV et al. 1988. A physical and microbial evaluation of the re-use
of non-sterile gloves. Brit Dent J 165(12): 421.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Department of
Health and Human Services (NIOSH). 1997. NIOSH Alert: Preventing
Allergic Reaction to Nature Rubber Latex in the Workplace. No. 97: 135.
Sorensen KC and J Luckman. 1979. Basic Nursing: A Psychophysiologic
Approach. WB Saunders Co.: Philadelphia, pp 934–938.
Tenorio AR et al. 2001. Effectiveness of gloves in the prevention of hand
carriage of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus species by health care
workers after patient care. Clin Infect Dis 32(5): 826–829.
Tietjen LG, W Cronin and N McIntosh. 1992. Handwashing and gloving,
in Infection Prevention Guidelines for Family Planning Service Programs.
Essential Medical Information Systems, Inc.: Durant, OK, pp 13–20.

4-8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 FIVE

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND DRAPES

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Which personal protective equipment (PPE) and practices are effective

x What the limitations of PPE are
x What the various types of drapes are
x How to use drapes appropriately

BACKGROUND

Healthcare workers are confronted each day with the difficult task of
working safely within a hazardous environment. Today, the most common
occupational risk faced by healthcare personnel is contact with blood and
body fluids during routine patient care. This exposure to pathogens
increases their risk for serious infection and possible death. Health
workers in some occupational settings, such as surgery and delivery
rooms, have a higher risk of exposure to these pathogens than in all other
departments combined (Gershon and Vlahov 1992; Gershon and Zirkin
1995). Because of this increasing risk, better infection prevention
guidelines and practices are needed to protect staff working in these areas.
Moreover, staff members who know how to protect themselves from
blood and body fluid exposures and consistently use these measures will
also help protect their patients.

While there is a growing awareness of the seriousness of AIDS, as well as

hepatitis C, and how they are acquired in the workplace, many healthcare
staff do not perceive themselves to be at risk. Moreover, even those that
do perceive the risk do not regularly use protective equipment such as
gloves, or other practices (e.g., handwashing) available to them. This is
due in part to a mistaken belief that AIDS is largely confined to certain
“at-risk” groups—sex workers, IV drug users or homosexuals. Although
this may have been true several years ago, in 2002 WHO estimated that
more than 40 million people were infected with HIV around the world and
that the virus is increasingly affecting the heterosexual population and
spreading to nonurban areas.

Ongoing research has identified several psychosocial and organizational

factors that may contribute to lack of compliance by healthcare staff. The
most important of these are perceived to be:

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Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

x poor safety conditions for staff working in hospitals and clinics, and
x conflict of interest between providing the best patient care and
protecting oneself from exposure (Gershon 1996).

Finally, a study by the Institute of Medicine (1996) in the US implicated

insufficient staffing and/or staff lacking the required knowledge and skills
to meet the increased workload as important factors contributing to work-
related injuries of nurses in hospitals. This situation also exists in most
countries with limited resources as well.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPEMENT

Protective barriers, now commonly referred to as personal protective

equipment (PPE), have been used for many years to protect patients from
microorganisms present on staff working in the healthcare setting. More
recently, with the emergence of AIDS and HCV and the resurgence of
tuberculosis in many countries, use of PPE now has become important for
protecting staff as well.

While some PPE, such as clean examination gloves, are extremely

important in reducing the risk of transmission, others (e.g., cloth caps and
shoe covers) continue to be used without convincing evidence of their
effectiveness (Larson et al 1995). In fact, some common practices, such as
having all staff in the operating room, not just the surgical team, wear
masks, may increase costs while providing minimal, if any, protection to
patients (Mitchell 1991). In addition, to be effective, PPE must be used
correctly. For example, surgical gowns and drapes have been shown to
prevent wound infection only when dry. When wet, cloth acts as a wick or
sponge to draw bacteria from skin or equipment up through the fabric that
can then contaminate a surgical wound (Figure 5-1).

Figure 5-1. Bacterial Transfer Through Fabric

As a consequence, hospital administrators, supervisors and healthcare

workers need to be aware not only of the benefits and limitations of

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 Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

specific PPE, but also of the actual role PPE play in preventing infection
so that they can use them effectively and efficiently.

What Is Personal Personal protective equipment includes: gloves, masks/respirators, eyewear

Protective Equipment? (face shields, goggles or glasses), caps, gowns, aprons and other items. In
many countries caps, masks, gowns and drapes are made of cloth or paper.
The most effective barriers, however, are made of treated fabrics or
synthetic materials that do not allow water or other liquids (blood or body
fluids) to penetrate them. These fluid-resistant materials are not, however,
widely available because they are expensive. Lightweight cotton cloth
(with a thread count of 140/inch2) is the material most commonly used for
surgical clothing (masks, caps and gowns) and drapes in many countries.
Unfortunately, lightweight cotton does not provide an effective barrier
because moisture can pass through it easily, allowing contamination.
Denims, canvas and heavy twill, on the other hand, are too dense for steam
penetration (i.e., they cannot be sterilized), are hard to wash and take too
long to dry. When fabric is used, it should be white or light in color in
order to show dirt and contamination easily.

Caps, masks or drapes made from paper should never be reused

because there is no way to properly clean them. If you can’t
wash it, don’t reuse it!

Examples of how PPE can reduce the risk of spreading microorganisms

and who (patients, staff or the community) the equipment protects are
shown in Table 5-1.

In the following sections, the PPE that has proven to be effective is

described as well as some commonly used items not shown to be effective.

Types of Personal Protective Equipment

Gloves protect hands from infectious materials and protect patients from
microorganisms on staff members’ hands. They are the most important
Remember: Wearing physical barrier for preventing the spread of infection, but they must be
gloves does not replace changed between each patient contact to avoid cross-contamination. For
handwashing or use of
antiseptic handrubs. example, examination gloves should be worn when handling blood, body
fluids, secretions and excretions (except sweat), contaminated surfaces or
equipment, and when touching nonintact skin or mucous membranes. (The
appropriate use of gloves is discussed in detail in Chapter 4.)

Masks should be large enough to cover the nose, lower face, jaw and
facial hair (Figure 5-2). They are worn in an attempt to contain moisture
droplets expelled as health workers or surgical staff speak, cough or
sneeze, as well as to prevent accidental splashes of blood or other
contaminated body fluids from entering the health workers’ nose or

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Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

mouth. Unless the masks are made of fluid-resistant materials, however,

they are not effective in preventing either very well.

Table 5-1. How Personal Protective Equipment Blocks the Spread of Microorganisms
WHERE HOW BARRIERS TO STOP WHO THE BARRIER
MICROORGANISMS ARE MICROORGANISMS THE SPREAD OF PROTECTS
FOUND ARE SPREAD MICROORGANISMS
Healthcare staff
hair and scalp shedding skin or hair cap patient
nose and mouth coughing, talking mask patient
body and skin shedding skin or hair scrubsuit, covergown patient
hands touching gloves, handwashing or patient
waterless antiseptic
handrub
Patient’s mucous membranes touching gloves patient and staff
and nonintact skin
Patient’s blood and body fluids splashing or spraying gloves, eyewear, mask, staff
drapes, apron
touching (contact) instrument processing patient
utility gloves, staff
accidental exposure with protective footwear, staff
contaminated needles and decontamination and
scalpel blades disposal; use a Safe or
Neutral Zone during
surgery
infectious waste utility gloves, plastic bags staff and community
and disposal
Patient’s unprepped skin touching skin prep, drapes, gloves patient
Clinic or hospital environment touching gloves, handwashing staff and their family
dressings staff and community

Masks are made from a variety of materials ranging from lightweight

cotton, gauze or even paper to synthetics, some of which are fluid-
resistant. Masks made from cotton or paper are very comfortable but not
fluid-resistant or effective as a filter. Masks made from synthetics can
provide some protection from large-particle droplets (> 5 µm in size)
spread by coughs or sneezes from a healthcare worker who is close (less
than 3 feet/1 meter) to a patient. They are, however, somewhat
uncomfortable to wear (difficult to breath through). Even the best surgical
masks, however, are not designed to provide a tight enough fit (face seal)
to prevent air leakage around the edges. Thus, they do not effectively filter
inhaled air (Chen and Welleke 1992) and should no longer be
recommended for that purpose.

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 Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

Figure 5-2. Masks

When removing, handle masks by the strings as the center of the

mask contains the most contamination (Rothrock, McEwen and
Smith 2003).

The true need for all operating room staff to wear a surgical mask as a
means of preventing wound infection is questionable. Study results are
conflicting, but even the authors of those showing no increase in wound
infection rates acknowledge that masks should be worn by the surgeon and
all staff who are scrubbed, in case of sneezing or coughing (Mitchell
1991). Thus, at present, the primary reason for wearing masks, especially
those made of cotton gauze or paper (materials that are not fluid-resistant),
is to provide some protection to the wearer from splashes or sprays of a
patient’s blood or potentially contaminated body fluids from entering the
nose and mouth.

Respirators are specialized types of masks, called particulate respirators,

that are recommended for situations in which filtering inhaled air is
deemed important (e.g., for the care of a person with pulmonary
tuberculosis). They contain multiple layers of filter material and fit the
face tightly. They are considerably more difficult to breathe through and
more expensive than surgical masks. Evidence that use of these
specialized masks is effective is lacking.

Eyewear protects staff in the event of an accidental splash of blood or

other body fluid by covering the eyes. Eyewear includes clear plastic
goggles, safety glasses, face shields and visors. Prescription glasses or
glasses with plain lenses also are acceptable (Figure 5-3). Masks and
eyewear or face shields should be worn when performing any task where
an accidental splash into the face is likely (e.g., performing cesarean
section or vaginal delivery or when cleaning instruments). If face shields
are not available, goggles or glasses and a mask can be used together.

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Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

Figure 5-3. Eyewear

Caps are used to keep the hair and scalp covered so that flakes of skin and
hair are not shed into the wound during surgery. Caps should be large
enough to cover all hair. While caps provide some protection to the
patient, their primary purpose is to protect the wearer from blood or body
fluid splashes and sprays.

Scrubsuits or covergowns are worn over, or instead of, street clothes.

The main use of covergowns is to protect the healthcare workers’ clothing.
Scrubsuits usually consist of drawstring pants and a shirt. A V-neck shirt
must not be cut so low as to slide off the wearer’s shoulders or expose
men’s chest hair. There is little evidence that scrubsuits are needed during
routine procedures when soiling of clothes is not likely (Goldman 1991).
For example, in two studies, having personnel wear isolation gowns, caps
and masks was not successful in reducing infection risk for patients as
measured by infection or colonization (Donowitz 1986; Haque and Chagla
1989).

Surgical gowns were first used to protect patients from microorganisms

present on the abdomen and arms of healthcare staff during surgery.
Surgical gowns made of fluid-resistant materials do play a role in keeping
Remember: Do not lean blood and other fluids, such as amniotic fluid, off the skin of personnel,
on or rub up against draped particularly in operating, delivery and emergency rooms. Lightweight
areas, because bacteria
penetrate even dry material
cloth gowns, however, which are generally all that are available in most
easily due to the physical countries, offer little protection. Under these circumstances, if large spills
pressure exerted by leaning occur, the best thing to do is shower or bathe as soon as possible after
against the drapes. completing the operation or procedure. If surgical gowns are worn, sleeves
should either taper gently toward the wrists or end with elastic or ties
around the wrists. (Large, droopy sleeves invite accidental contamination.)

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 Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

In addition, the cuffs of the surgical gloves should completely cover the
end of the sleeves.

Aprons made of rubber or plastic provide a waterproof barrier along the

front of the health worker’s body (Figure 5-4). An apron should be worn
when cleaning or during a procedure in which blood or body fluid spills
are anticipated (e.g., cesarean section or vaginal delivery). Aprons keep
contaminated fluids off the healthcare worker’s clothing and skin. In
surgery, wearing a clean plastic apron over the scrubsuit will not only help
prevent the surgeon or assistant from being exposed to blood or body
fluids (e.g. amniotic fluid), but also prevent the surgeon’s or assistant’s
abdominal skin from being a source of contamination to the patient
(Moylan and Kennedy 1980).

Figure 5-4. Aprons

Footwear is worn to protect feet from injury by sharps or heavy items that
may accidentally fall on them. For this reason, sandals, “thongs” or shoes
made of soft materials (cloth) should not be worn. Rubber boots or leather
shoes provide more protection, but they must be kept clean and free of
contamination from blood or other body fluid spills. Shoe covers are
unnecessary if clean, sturdy shoes are available for use only in the surgical
area. One study suggests that cloth or paper shoe covers may increase
contamination because they allow blood to soak through to shoes and they
are often worn outside the operating room where they are then removed
with ungloved hands (Summers et al 1992).

THE ROLE OF DRAPES

In many countries, drapes are usually made of hemmed linen squares of

varying sizes. They are used to create an operative field around an
incision, wrap instruments and other items for sterilization, cover tables in
the operating room and keep clients warm during surgical procedures (OR
Manager 1990a). The main types of drapes are:

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Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

x Towel drapes are used for drying hands, squaring off the operative
site (several towel drapes are needed for this) and wrapping small
instruments and syringes. They are often made of heavier cotton cloth
than other linen items, which makes them somewhat more water-
resistant.
x Drapes or lap sheets are used for covering the patient. They are large,
usually made of lightweight cotton and provide only limited protection
to patients or staff.
x Site drapes are made of cotton and have a circular opening in the
center that is placed over the prepped operative site (Figure 5-5).
These drapes are primarily intended for use with minor surgical
procedures (small incisions).

Figure 5-5. Site Drape Sheet

x Pack wrapper drapes, large drapes that become a table cover when
the sterile instrument pack is opened. This drape only needs to be large
enough for wrapping the instruments and, when opened, to cover the
tabletop completely.

Using Drapes for Using sterile towel drapes to create a work area around the incision limits
Surgical Procedures the amount of skin that needs to be cleaned and prepped with antiseptic
solution prior to placing the drapes. Although this area is often called the
“sterile field,” it is only briefly sterile. As shown in Figure 5-1, cloth
drapes allow moisture to soak through them and can help spread organisms
Remember: Once a sterile from skin, even after surgical cleansing with an antiseptic agent, into the
drape touches the patient’s
skin, it is no longer sterile.
incision. Thus, neither gloved hands (sterile or high-level disinfected) nor
sterile or high-level disinfected instruments and other items should touch
the towel drapes once they are in place. Because cloth drapes do not serve
as an effective barrier, clean, dry towel drapes can be used if sterile towel
drapes are not available.

The way in which the operative site is prepared and draped depends on the
type of procedure to be performed. The following guidelines for draping
are designed to reduce overuse of costly sterile items and to avoid
unnecessary draping:

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 Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

x All drapes should be applied around a completely dry, widely prepped

area.
x If sterile drapes are used, sterile or high-level disinfected surgical
gloves should be worn when placing the drapes. (When putting drapes
in place, care must be taken not to touch the patient=s body with gloved
hands.)
x Drapes should be handled as little as possible and should never be
shaken or flapped. Always hold drapes above the area to be draped,
and discard the drape if it falls below this area.

Minor Surgical Procedures (Norplant implants insertion or removal or

minilaparotomy)

x Use a site drape that allows at least 5 cm (or 2 inches) of open skin
around the incision (Figure 5-6). Alternatively, towel drapes can be
used. (If sterile site or towel drapes are not available, clean, dry drapes
can be used.)

Figure 5-6. Placing a Site Drape

x Place the hole in the drape over the prepped incision site and do not
move it once it has touched the skin.
x If the site drape is not sterile, put on sterile or high-level disinfected
gloves after placing the drape on the patient to avoid contaminating
the gloves.

Major Surgical Procedures (laparotomy or cesarean section)

Remember: Lap sheets do

x Use large drapes or lap sheets to cover the patient=s body if it is
not need to cover the entire necessary to keep her warm. These drapes do not need to be sterile
patient. because they will not be near the incision site (Belkin 1992). They
should be clean and dry.
x After cleansing the skin with an antiseptic agent, place the towel
drapes to square off the incision site (allow at least 5 cm, or 2 inches,
Remember: Sterile cloth of open skin around all sides of the proposed incision site).
drapes do not replace good
aseptic technique.
x Begin by placing the towel drape closest to you to decrease the chance
of contamination (Figure 5-7). Holding one side of the drape, allow
the other side to touch the abdominal skin about 2 inches away from

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Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

the proposed incision site. Gently drop the rest of the drape onto the
abdomen. Once in place, the drape should never be moved closer to
the incision. It can, however, be pulled away from it.
x Place three additional drapes (2, 3 and 4) to square off the work area as
shown in Figure 5-7.
Note: Avoid reaching
across the incision site
Figure 5-7. Squaring Off a Work Area
unless it has been draped.

x Use nonperforating towel clips to secure the corners of the towel

drapes.

During Procedures

Do not use the patient’s body or the draped area for placing instruments.
Placing sterile or high-level disinfected instruments or other items on
drapes, even if they were sterile initially, will contaminate them. Also,
doing this may make the items harder to find and may cause them to fall
off the operating room table if the patient moves. If an instrument stand
(Mayo) covered with a sterile towel or drape is not available, a sterile or
high-level disinfected plastic or metal instrument tray can be placed on the
drape covering the patient and used to hold instruments during the
procedure.

If a drape is torn or cut during a procedure, it should be covered with a

new drape. Do not, however, place new drapes on top of a drape that has
become wet. There is no evidence that this is effective in creating a barrier
(OR Manager 1990b).

As drapes wear out and new drapes are needed, try to buy
replacement drapes that have a high thread count.

See Chapter 13 for information on processing linens (caps, gowns, masks

and drapes).

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 Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

MAKING THE WORKPLACE SAFER

Despite the limited success of educational programs aimed at changing

healthcare worker behavior regarding use of PPE, primary prevention
must continue to be the focus of future actions. To be more successful,
efforts designed to make the workplace environment safer should be
directed to all cadres of health workers—not just physicians and nurses.
For example, in some countries, with the exception of operating room
personnel, housekeeping staff have the highest rate of needlesticks injuries
caused by used needles being incorrectly discarded in wastebaskets.

Improving compliance following educational and behavior change efforts

can be enhanced if:

x There is consistent support by hospital administrators of the

recommended safety efforts (e.g., identified deficiencies are corrected,
dangerous practices are eliminated and staff are actively encouraged to
seek inexpensive, doable solutions).
x Supervisors regularly provide feedback and reward appropriate
behavior (e.g., handwashing between patient contacts).
x Role models, especially physicians and other senior staff and faculty,
actively support recommended infection prevention practices and
model appropriate behavior (Lipscomb and Rosenstock 1997).

Moreover, making the recommendations appropriate and easy for staff to

use and monitor can lead to better compliance and health worker safety.
Finally, because healthcare is a vitally important and rewarding
profession, it is the responsibility of all healthcare professionals to help
create a safer environment for patients and fellow workers.

REFERENCES

Belkin N. 1992. Barrier methods: Their influence on surgical wound

infection. AORN J 55(6): 1521–1528.
Chen CC and K Welleke. 1992. Aerosol penetration through surgical
masks. Am J Infect Control 20(4): 177–184.
Donowitz LG (ed). 1986. Failure of the cover gown to prevent nosocomial
infection in pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatrics 77(1): 35–38.
Gershon R. 1996. Facilitator report: Bloodborne pathogens exposure
among health care workers. Am J Ind Med 29(4): 418–420.
Gershon R and B Zirkin. 1995. Behavioral factors in safety training, in
Laboratory Safety, Principles and Practices, 2nd ed. Flemming DO et al
(eds). AMS Press: Washington, DC, pp 269–277.
Gershon R and D Vlahov. 1992. Assessing and reducing HIV risk to the
critical care nurse. Critical Care Nursing Currents 3: (No 3).

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Personal Protective Equipment and Drapes

Goldman DA. 1991. The role of barrier precautions in infection control. J

Hosp Infect 18(Suppl A): 515–523.
Haque KN and AH Chagla. 1989. Do gowns prevent infections in neonatal
intensive care units? J Hosp Infect 14(2): 159–162.
Institute of Medicine. 1996. Nursing Staff in Hospitals and Nursing
Home—Is It Adequate? National Academy Press: Washington, DC.
Larson EL et al. 1995. APIC Guidelines for Infection Control Practice.
Guidelines for handwashing and hand antisepsis in health care settings.
Am J Infect Control 23(4): 251–269.
Lipscomb J and L Rosenstock. 1997. Health care workers: protecting
those who protect our health. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 18(6):
397–399.
Mitchell NJ. 1991. Surgical facemasks in modern operating rooms—a
costly and unnecessary ritual? J Hosp Infect 18(3): 239–242.
Moylan JS and BV Kennedy. 1980. The importance of gown and drape
barriers in the prevention of wound infection. Surg Gynecol Obstet
151(4): 465.
OR Manager. 1990a. Draping controversy unveiled. Today=s OR Nurse
12(8): 33.
OR Manager. 1990b. Draping: how much and which one? Today=s OR
Nurse12(9): 29.
Rothrock J, D McEwen and D Smith (eds). 2003. Alexander’s Care of the
Patient in Surgery, 12th ed. Mosby-Year Book, Inc.: St Louis, MO.
Summers PR et al. 1992. Blood-saturated operating-room shoe covers.
West J Med 157(2): 184–185.

5 - 12 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 SIX

SURGICAL ANTISEPSIS

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the causes of wound infections are

x What the safest and most effective antiseptics are
x How to use antiseptics and perform surgical antisepsis
x How to prevent contamination of antiseptics

BACKGROUND

Although considerable progress has been made in understanding the cause

and prevention of surgical site infections during the past 100 years,
postoperative wound infections (incisional and deep) remain a leading cause
of nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections, especially in developing
countries. The vast majority of postoperative incisional or superficial wound
infections are caused by microorganisms (usually bacteria or sometimes
fungi) normally found on the patient’s skin or from mucous membranes
adjacent to the surgical site, and less often from other sites (e.g., nose, mouth
or respiratory tract in abdominal operations). By contrast, microorganisms
from the hands of the surgeon or assistant are seldom the cause of incisional
surgical site infections (Galle, Homesley and Rhyne 1978), nor are organisms
present in the operating room or on other surgical staff.

Preoperative surgical antisepsis consists of three processes (hand hygiene and

gloving of surgical team members combined with applying an antiseptic
agent to the surgical site) designed to block transmission of infectious agents
into the surgical wound. The effectiveness of handwashing followed by
briefly applying a waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub or antiseptic
solution in reducing the number of bacteria and fungi on hands has been
amply documented (Galle, Homesley and Rhyne 1978; Larson et al 2001). In
fact, one large, 10-year prospective study found no postoperative wound
infections after 141 operations during which the surgeon’s glove was
punctured (Cruse and Foord 1980). In addition, preoperative skin preparation
using an antiseptic agent, when done correctly, has been shown to effectively
reduce both transient and resident skin flora, as well as infection rates (Platt
and Bucknall 1984).

Whether a postoperative infection occurs depends on several risk factors, the

most important being:

Infection Prevention Guidelines 6-1

Surgical Antisepsis

x number of microorganisms entering the wound;

x type and virulence (ability to cause disease) of the bacteria;
x strength of the patient’s defense mechanisms (e.g., status of the immune
system); and
x external factors, such as the patient being in the hospital several days
before the surgery or duration of the surgery (>4 hours).1

Thus surgical antisepsis, by limiting the type and number of microorganisms

transferred into the wound during surgery, plays an important, but not
necessarily major, role in preventing postoperative wound infections.

DEFINITIONS

x Antiseptic or antimicrobial agent (terms used interchangeably).

Chemicals that are applied to the skin or other living tissue to inhibit or kill
microorganisms (both transient and resident) thereby reducing the total
bacterial count. Examples include alcohols (ethyl and isopropyl), dilute
iodine solutions, iodophors, chlorhexidine and triclosan. (See Appendix B
for complete listing of uses, effectiveness, advantages and disadvantages.)
x Antisepsis. Process of reducing the number of microorganisms on skin,
mucous membranes or other body tissue by applying an antimicrobial
(antiseptic) agent.

SELECTION OF ANTISEPTICS

While plain soap and clean water physically remove dirt and other material as
well as some transient microorganisms from the skin, antiseptic solutions kill
or inhibit almost all transient and many resident microorganisms, including
most vegetative bacteria and many viruses. Antiseptics are designed to remove
as many microorganisms as possible without damaging or irritating the skin or
mucous membrane on which they are used. In addition, some antiseptic
solutions have a residual effect, meaning their killing action continues for a
period of time after they have been applied to skin or mucous membranes.

Many chemicals qualify as safe antiseptics. Table 6-1 lists several

recommended antiseptic solutions, their microbiologic activity and their
potential uses. (The grading system used in this table is excellent, good, fair,
and none.) The most frequently used antiseptics are chlorhexidine gluconate,
which is contained in Hibitane®, Hibiscrub®, and iodophors such as
Betadine® and Wescodyne®. Not listed in Table 6-1 is Savlon®, which
contains chlorhexidine and is available throughout the world, because it is
largely sold as concentrated solution that is then diluted with water. In many
countries, the concentration used is less than 1%, which is too low to be
effective.
1
The factors responsible for postoperative wound infections are discussed in more detail in Chapter 23.

6-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

Table 6-1. Antiseptics: Microbiologic Activities and Potential Uses
GROUP ACTIVITY AGAINST POTENTIAL USES
BACTERIA
Affected
Most Relative
Gram- by Surgical Skin
Gram- TB Viruses Fungi Endospores Speed of Comments
Positive Organic Scrub Preparation
Negative Action
Matter
Alcohols Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent None Fast Moderate Yes Yes Not for use on
(60–90% ethyl or mucous membranes
isopropyl)
Not good for
physical cleaning
of skin, no
persistent activity

Chlorhexidine (2–4%) Excellent Good Fair Excellent Fair None Intermediate Slight Yes Yes Has good persistent
(Hibitane, Hibiscrub) effect
Toxicity to ears
and eyes

Iodine preparations Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Good Fair Intermediate Marked No Yes Not for use on
(3%) mucous membranes
Can burn skin so
remove after
several minutes

Iodophors (7.5–10%) Excellent Excellent Fair Good Good None Intermediate Moderate Yes Yes Can be used on
(Betadine) mucous membranes

Para-chloro- Good Excellent Fair Good Fair Unknown Slow Minimal No Yes Penetrates the skin
metaxylenol (PCMX) and should not be
(0.5–4%) used on newborns

Triclosan (0.2–2%) Excellent Good Fair Excellent None Unknown Intermediate Minimal Yes No Acceptability on
hands varies

Adapted from: Boyce and Pittet 2002; Olmsted 1996.

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Surgical Antisepsis

Although antiseptics are sometimes used as disinfectants (e.g., Savlon or

Dettol®) for processing instruments and other inanimate objects, they are not
designed for this use. They do not have the same killing power as chemical
disinfectants (e.g., glutaraldehydes, hypochlorite and peroxides) and should
not be used for this purpose (Rutala 1996).

Additional information, including advantages and disadvantages of

commonly used antiseptics, is presented in Appendix B.

USE OF ANTISEPTICS

Hand Hygiene Antimicrobial soaps or detergents are no more effective than plain soap and
clean water in reducing the risk of infection when used for routine
handwashing, provided the water quality is satisfactory (Pereira, Lee and
Wade 1997). Water that contains large amounts of particulate matter (makes
the water cloudy) or is contaminated (high bacteria count) should not be used
for performing a surgical handscrub2. In addition, antimicrobial soaps are
costly and are more irritating to the skin than plain soap. Detailed
instructions for performing a surgical handscrub using either an antiseptic
solution or antiseptic handrub are presented in Chapter 3 and Appendix A.

Skin Preparation Prior Although skin cannot be sterilized, applying an antiseptic solution minimizes
to Surgical Procedures the number of microorganisms around the surgical wound that may
contaminate and cause infection.

Instructions

STEP 1: Do not shave hair around the operative site. Shaving increases the
risk of infection 5–10 fold because the tiny nicks in the skin provide an ideal
setting for microorganisms to grow and multiply (Nichols 1991; Seropian
and Reynolds 1971). If hair must be cut, trim the hair close to the skin
surface with scissors immediately before surgery.
STEP 2: Ask the patient about allergic reactions (e.g., to iodine
preparations) before selecting an antiseptic solution.
STEP 3: If the skin or external genital area is visibly soiled, gently wash it
with soap and clean water and dry the area before applying the antiseptic.

Select the antiseptic solution from the following recommended products:

x Alcohol-based solutions (tinctures) of iodine or chlorhexidine

x Alcohols (60–90% ethyl, isopropyl or “methylated spirit”) (see
Appendix B)

2
If tap water is cloudy, most particulates (debris and organic material) can be removed by filtering through four layers of
moderately woven cotton cloth, such as cheese cloth or old sari material, before boiling or treating with dilute chlorine (sodium
hypochlorite) solution (Colwell et al 2003; Huq et al 1996).

6-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Surgical Antisepsis

x Chlorhexidine gluconate (2–4%) (e.g., Hibitane, Hibiscrub, Hibiclens®)

x Chlorhexidine gluconate and cetrimide, various concentrations at least
2% (e.g., Savlon)
x Iodine (3%); aqueous iodine and alcohol-containing (tincture of iodine)
products
x Iodophors (7.5–10%), various other concentrations (e.g., Betadine)
Note: Do not allow the x Chloroxylenol (Para-chloro-metaxylenol or PCMX) (0.5–3.75%), various
antiseptic to pool other concentrations (e.g., Dettol)
underneath the client=s
body; this can irritate the
skin. STEP 4: Using dry, high-level disinfected forceps and new cotton or gauze
squares soaked in antiseptic, thoroughly cleanse the skin.3 Work from the
operative site outward for several centimeters. (A circular motion from the
center out helps to prevent recontamination of the operative site with local
skin bacteria.)
STEP 5: Allow the antiseptic enough time to be effective before beginning
the procedure. For example, when an iodophor is used, allow 2 minutes or
wait until the skin is visibly dry before proceeding, because free iodine, the
active agent, is only released slowly (see Appendix B).

INSTRUCTIONS FOR CERVICAL OR VAGINAL PREPARATION

For cervical and vaginal antisepsis, prior to inserting a uterine elevator for
minilaparotomy or doing an endometrial biopsy, select an aqueous (water-
based) antiseptic such as an iodophor (povidone-iodine) or 2–4%
chlorhexidine gluconate (e.g., Hibiclens or Savlon if properly prepared). Do
not use alcohols or alcohol-containing preparations, such as Dettol.
Alcohols burn, and they also dry and irritate mucous membranes that in turn
promote the growth of microorganisms. In addition, hexachlorophene
(pHisoHex®) is neurotoxic (Larson 1988) and should not be used on mucous
membranes, such as the vaginal mucosa, because it is readily absorbed
(Larson 1995).

STEP 1: Ask the patient about allergic reactions (e.g., to iodine

preparations) before selecting an antiseptic solution.
STEP 2: If the external genital area is visibly soiled, gently wash it with soap
and clean water and dry the area before applying the antiseptic.
STEP 3: After inserting the speculum, apply antiseptic solution liberally to
the cervix and vagina (two times). It is not necessary to prep the external
genital area with antiseptic solution if it appears clean.
STEP 4: If an iodophor is used, allow time (2 minutes) before proceeding.

3
The cotton or gauze swabs or pads do not need to be made up from sterile items. Clean, new (not reprocessed) cotton or gauze
swabs can be used, because they do not contain harmful organisms and will be touching only noncritical (intact skin) and
semicritical (mucous) membranes (Spaulding 1968).

Infection Prevention Guidelines 6-5

Surgical Antisepsis

Skin Preparation for According to WHO and its Safe Injection Global Network (SIGN),
Injections “swabbing of clean skin—with an antiseptic solution—prior to giving an
injection is unnecessary,” because in controlled trials no infections were
noted. In addition, a review of microbiologic studies did not suggest that
wiping the skin with an antiseptic before giving an intradermal, subcutaneous
or intramuscular injection reduced the risk of infection (Hutin et al 2001).

If the injection site is visibly soiled, wash the site with soap and
water and dry with a clean towel, and then give the injection.4

STORING AND DISPENSING OF ANTISEPTICS

Contamination of every antiseptic agent has been documented.

Microorganisms contaminating antiseptic solutions include Staphylococcus
epidermidis and aureus, gram-negative bacilli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
and some endospores. Contaminated antiseptics can cause subsequent
infection when used for handwashing or preparing a client’s skin. The
following can prevent contamination of antiseptic solutions:

x Unless supplied commercially in small quantities, pour the antiseptic into

a small, reusable container for daily use. This prevents evaporation and
contamination. Make sure the correct name of the solution is on the
container each time you refill it. Do not store gauze or cotton wool in
antiseptics because this promotes contamination.
x Establish a routine schedule for preparing new solutions and cleaning
reusable containers. (Solutions are at increased risk of becoming
contaminated after 1 week of storage.) Do not “top off” antiseptic
dispensers.
x Wash reusable containers thoroughly with soap and clean water, rinse
with boiled water if available and drip dry before refilling.
x Label reusable containers with the date each time they are washed, dried
and refilled.
x Concentrated antiseptic solutions should be stored in a cool, dark area.
Never store them in direct sunlight or in excessive heat (e.g., upper
shelves in a tin-roofed building).

4
Patients receiving injections regularly (e.g., using DMPA for contraception) should be taught to wash the injection site (arm
or buttocks) with soap and clean water just prior to coming to the clinic or receiving the injection at their home.

6-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Surgical Antisepsis

REFERENCES

Boyce JM and D Pittet. 2002. Guidelines for hand hygiene in healthcare

settings: Healthcare infection control practices advisory committee and the
HICPAC/SHSA/APIC/IDSA hand hygiene task force. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 23(12 Suppl): S3–S40. (Also can be accessed at
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/nip/default.htm.)
Colwell RR et al. 2003. Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by
simple filtration. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 100(3): 1051–1055.
Cruse PJE and R Foord. 1980. The epidemiology of wound infection: A 10-
year prospective study of 62,939 wounds. Surg Clin North Am 60(1): 27–40.
Galle PC, HD Homesley and AL Rhyne. 1978. Reassessment of the surgical
scrub. Surg Gynecol Obstet 147(2): 215–218.
Huq A et al. 1996. A simple filtration method to remove plankton-associated
Vibrio cholera in raw water supplies in developing countries. Appl Environ
Microbiol 62(7): 2508–2512.
Hutin Y et al. 2001. Best infection control practices for intradermal,
subcutaneous and intramuscular needle injections. World Health
Organization (WHO), Safe Injection Global Network: Geneva.
Larson EL et al. 2001. Comparison of different regimens for surgical hand
preparation. AORN J 73(2): 412–432.
Larson EL. 1995. APIC guidelines for handwashing and hand antisepsis in
health care settings. Am J Infect Control 23(4): 251–269.
Larson EL. 1988. Guideline for use of topical antimicrobial agents. Am J
Infect Control 16(6): 253–266.
Nichols RL. 1991. Surgical wound infection. Am J Med 91(Suppl 3B): 54S–
64S.
Olmsted RN (ed). 1996. Infection Control and Applied Epidemiology:
Principles and Practices. Association for Practitioners in Infection Control
(APIC), Table 19-2. CV Mosby: St. Louis, MO.
Pereira LJ, GM Lee and KJ Wade. 1997. An evaluation of five protocols for
surgical handwashing in relation to skin condition and microbial counts. J
Hosp Infect 36(1): 49–65.
Platt J and RA Bucknall. 1984. An experimental evaluation of antiseptic
wound irrigation. J Hosp Infect 5(2): 181–188.
Rutala WA. 1996. APIC guidelines for selection and use of disinfectants. Am
J Infect Control, 24(4): 313–342.

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Surgical Antisepsis

Seropian R and BM Reynolds. 1971. Wound infections after preoperative

depilatory versus razor preparation. Am J Surg 121(3): 251–254.
Spaulding EH (ed). 1968. Chemical disinfection of medical and surgical
materials, in Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation. Lawrence CA et al
(eds). Lea & Febiger: Philadelphia, pp 437–446.

6-8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 SEVEN

SAFE PRACTICES IN THE OPERATING ROOM

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Why the operating room is so risky for patients and staff

x Which instruments cause most injuries in the operating room and why
x How to avoid injuries from sharps
x How to manage exposure to blood and potentially contaminated body
fluids

BACKGROUND

“The operating room is clearly one of the most hazardous

environments in the healthcare delivery system. By
definition, surgery is invasive. Instruments that are designed
to penetrate patients’ tissue can just as easily injure the
provider. Blood is everywhere. Speed is essential.
Emergencies can occur at any time and interrupt routines.
Preventing injuries and exposures [to infectious agents]
under these circumstances is indeed challenging!”

—Julie Louise Gerberding, MD, MPH

Advanced Precautions for Today’s OR (Davis 2001a)

In the past decade, awareness of the risk of exposure to blood and body
fluids containing HIV, HBV and most recently HCV have created a new
era in surgical infection prevention practices. Just as patients must be
protected from wound contamination and infections, so must providers be
protected from intraoperative injuries and exposure to patients’ blood and
other body fluids.

Preventing infections following an operation is a complex process that

begins in the operating room by preparing and maintaining a safe
environment for performing the surgery. Surgical aseptic techniques are
designed to create such an environment by controlling the four main
sources of infectious organisms: the patient, surgical staff, equipment and
the operating room environment. Although the patient is often the source
of surgical infections, the other three sources are important and should not
be overlooked (see Chapter 6).

The science of safety in the surgical unit, whether it is located in a large

specialty hospital or freestanding primary healthcare clinic, has not kept
pace with the urgent need for prevention strategies. Although some of the

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Safe Practices in the Operating Room

specific recommendations presented in this chapter have not been

evaluated in clinical trials, they have been found over time to be
worthwhile and merit further consideration. Fortunately, the effectiveness
of many of these recommendations—HBV immunization, use of
appropriate personal protective equipment when indicated (see Chapter
5), double gloving, sharps management and the use of blunt needles for
suturing—is well-supported by data.

Specific techniques required to establish and maintain surgical asepsis and

make the surgical environment safer include the following:

x Patient considerations: skin cleaning pre-operatively, skin antisepsis

and wound covering (Chapters 6 and 23)
x Surgical staff considerations: hand hygiene (handwashing and/or
handrub and handrubbing with waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic
agents); use and removal of gloves and gowns (Chapters 3 and 5)
x Equipment and room preparation considerations: traffic flow and
activity patterns as well as housekeeping practices (Chapters 15 and
16) and decontamination, cleaning and either sterilization or high-level
disinfection of instruments, gloves and other items (Chapters 10–12)
x Environmental considerations: maintaining an aseptic operating field
and using safer operating practices and techniques (Chapter 7 and 15)

Because traffic flow, equipment processing and room preparation

requirements are discussed in other chapters, the focus of this chapter will
be on improving the surgical environment (operating room), especially the
practices and techniques that make surgery safer for both the patient and
staff.

DEFINITIONS

x Antisepsis. Process of reducing the number of microorganisms on

skin, mucous membranes or other body tissue by applying an
antimicrobial (antiseptic) agent.
x Asepsis and aseptic technique: Combination of efforts made to
prevent entry of microorganisms into any area of the body where they
are likely to cause infection. The goal of asepsis is to reduce to a safe
level or eliminate the number of microorganisms on both animate
(living) surfaces (skin and tissue) and inanimate objects (surgical
instruments and other items).
x Surgical asepsis. Preparation and maintenance of a reduced (safe)
level of microorganisms during an operation by controlling four main
sources of infectious organisms: the patient, personnel, equipment and
the environment.

7-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Safe Practices in the Operating Room

THE SURGICAL ENVIRONMENT

The operating room has special characteristics that increase the chance of
accidents. For example, staff often use and pass sharp instruments without
looking or letting the other person know what they are doing. The
workspace is confined and the ability to see what is going on in the
operative field for some members of the team (scrub nurse or assistant)
may be poor. There is, moreover, the need for speed and the added stress
of anxiety, fatigue, frustration and occasionally even anger. Finally, there
is the fact that exposure to blood often occurs without the person’s
knowledge, usually not until the gloves are removed at the end of the
procedure, which prolongs the duration of exposure. The fact that fingers
are frequently the site of minor scratches and cuts further increases the risk
of infection with bloodborne pathogens.

Which Instruments The vast majority of sharps injuries in hospitals occur in the operating
Cause Injuries room, and most are due to scalpel and suture-needle injuries, which is not
surprising given that these are the two most frequently used sharps during
operations. Many other items can also cause sharps injuries and glove
tears resulting in exposure to blood. Some of the most important are:

x Hypodermic needles
x Wire sutures
x Laparoscopy and surgical drain trocars
x Orthopedic drill bits, screws, pins, wires and saws
x Needle point cautery tips
x Skin hooks and towel clips
x Sharp-pointed scissors and sharp-tipped mosquito forceps
x Dissecting forceps
x Sharp-toothed tenaculi

When Do Injuries Scalpel injuries most often occur when:

Occur
x Putting on and taking off the disposable blade
x Passing the scalpel hand to hand between team members
x Cutting (e.g., in using fingers to hold or spread tissue or cutting toward
the fingers of the surgeon or assistant)
x Before and after using the scalpel: leaving it on the operative field,
dropping it on your own or the assistant’s foot, and reaching for
scalpels sliding off the drapes
x Placing the scalpel in an over-filled sharps container or a poorly
located container

Infection Prevention Guidelines 7-3

Safe Practices in the Operating Room

Suture needle injuries most often occur when:

x Loading or repositioning it in the needle holder

x Passing the needle hand to hand between team members
x Suturing: using fingers to hold tissue or to guide the needle, sewing
toward the surgeon or assistant and holding back other tissues by the
surgeon or assistant
x Tying with the needle still attached or left on the operative field
x Before and after using the needle: leaving it on the operative field,
dropping it on your own or the assistant’s foot, and reaching for suture
needles or needles loaded in the needle holder sliding off the drapes
x Placing needles in an over-filled sharps container or a poorly located
container

Not surprisingly, almost all of these injuries can be easily avoided and
with little expense. For example:

x Use a small Mayo forceps (not fingers) when holding the scalpel
blade, when putting it on or taking it off or loading the suture needle.
(Alternatively, use disposable scalpels with a permanent blade that
cannot be removed.)
x Always use tissue forceps, not fingers, to hold tissue when using a
scalpel or suturing.
x Use a “hands-free” technique to pass or transfer sharps (scalpel,
needles and sharp-tipped scissors) by establishing a Safe or Neutral
Zone in the operative field (see below).
x Always remove sharps from the field immediately after use.
x Make sure that sharps containers are replaced when they are only
three-quarters full and place containers as close to where sharps are
being used as conveniently possible (i.e., within arm’s reach).

The “Hands-Free” A safer method of passing sharp instruments (scalpels, suture needles and
Technique for Passing sharp scissors) during surgery, called the “hands-free” technique, has
Surgical Instruments recently been recommended. This technique for sharps is inexpensive,
simple to use, and ensures that the surgeon, assistant or scrub nurse never
touches the same instrument at the same time (Bessinger 1988; Fox 1992).

Instruments passed with the hands-free technique (besides those listed

above) include anything sharp enough to puncture a glove (e.g., trocars,
sharp-tipped mosquito forceps and loaded needle holders). Using the
hands-free technique, the assistant or scrub nurse places a sterile or high-
level disinfected kidney basin, or other suitable small container, on the
operative field between her/himself and the surgeon. The container is
designated as the Safe or Neutral Zone in which sharps are placed before

7-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Safe Practices in the Operating Room

and immediately after use.1 For example, the assistant or scrub nurse alerts
the surgeon that a sharp instrument has been placed in or on the Safe
Zone, with the handle pointing toward the surgeon, by saying “scalpel” or
“sharp” while placing it there. The surgeon then picks up the instrument
Note: To avoid dulling and returns it to the container after use, this time with the handle pointing
scalpel blades, use a plastic away from her/him.
container or place a sterile
cloth in a metal container. Another way to do this is to have the assistant or scrub nurse place the
instrument in a container and pass it to the surgeon. The surgeon lifts the
instrument out of the container, which is left on the field until the surgeon
returns the instrument to it. The assistant or scrub nurse then picks up the
container and returns it to the Mayo stand.

DESIGNING SAFER OPERATIONS

Using the least dangerous instrument or device that will effectively

accomplish the task, while at the same time minimizing risks to the patient
and surgical team, should be a goal of any operation. Simple things, such
as a brief pre-op discussion of how sharps will be handled by the surgeon,
assistant or scrub nurse, can be very helpful. Better still is for the surgical
team to review how to make each step in the operation safer, from
securing the towel drapes around the proposed incision with
nonperforating towel clips to using blunt-tipped needles for closure of all
layers except the skin (CDC 1997; Dauleh et al. 1994). Other examples of
instruments or devices that protect the surgical team without sacrificing
patient safety or staff performance are shown in Table 7-1.

In addition, the use of hand-held straight suture needles to close skin

incisions is especially dangerous, with a reported injury rate of 17%, much
higher than with curved needles carried in a needle holder (Davis 2001b).
Anesthesiologists, radiologists and others who close small incisions after
placement of vascular catheters or cut-downs should be made aware of
this hazard.

The risk associated with assisting or being the scrub nurse in surgery may
be reduced by anticipating (preferably knowing) the needs of the surgeon
for each step of the operation in advance. Where procedures are short (30
minutes or less) and/or the surgical steps are straightforward such as a
D&C or cesarean section, this can be accomplished by developing
checklists that lay out each step (or task) in the operation or procedure in
the sequence in which they usually will be performed (i.e., from skin
incision to closure). Reviewing the checklist with the surgical team just
before starting the case and pointing out where deviations may be
necessary will make the planned surgery go more smoothly and with less

1
Various items, such as basins, mats or trays, including part of a sterile instrument stand or a designated area on the
operative field, have been used as the Safe Zone.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 7-5

Safe Practices in the Operating Room

risk of injury. An additional advantage of this review is that it can help

protect patients from injury or increased blood loss.

Table 7-1. Reducing the Risk of Exposure

FUNCTION SAFER LESS SAFE LEAST SAFE1
Skin incision cautery disposable scalpel scalpel with
removable blade
Cutting scissors, blunt tip scissors, sharp tip scalpel
or cautery probe
Hemostasis blunt suture needles sharp suture wire sutures
staples needles
or cautery
Sponging with surgeon does assistant sponges assistant sponges
gauze while using sponging; but only by request spontaneously (no
a scalpel assistant only communication)
retracts
Retraction blunt retractor sharp retractor fingers or hands
Sharps transfer Neutral Zone hand-to-hand hand to hand (no
(communication) communication)
Surgical gloves double gloving single pair of single pair of
gloves or double reprocessed gloves,
gloving with
reprocessed gloves
Closing do not close purse-string closure purse-string closure
peritoneum (small, using tissue forceps using fingers to
2–3 cm incision) to grasp needle grasp needle

1
Should be avoided if at all possible.

Blunt Needles for The range of “bluntness” in commercially available blunt-tipped needles
Suturing varies from minimal (no extra effort needed to use them) to very blunt
(does not penetrate tissue such as fascia and requires conscious effort).
Minimally blunt needles can be used for closure of all layers from fascia
to skin. Intermediate blunt needles require some additional conscious
effort to close fascia, but are safer to use. Very blunt needles are seldom
used except when operating deep in the pelvis where the needle absolutely
must be retrieved with fingers. The technique for using blunt needles is as
follows:

STEP 1: Use a strong needle holder and lock it fully.

STEP 2: Position the needle in the mid-curve, rather than three-quarters of
the way back to prevent slippage or bending the needle. (This usually is
not necessary when using minimally blunt needles.)
STEP 3: Grasp and hold the tissue to be sutured with a tissue forceps to
make it easier for the needle to go through the tissue being sutured.

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 Safe Practices in the Operating Room

In general, the blunter the tip, the more important it is to follow these three
steps.

Double Gloving The transmission of HBV and HCV from surgeon to patient and vice versa
has occurred in the absence of breaks in technique and with apparently
intact gloves (Davis 2001c). Even the best quality, new latex rubber
surgical gloves may leak up to 4% of the time.2 Moreover, latex gloves,
especially when exposed to fat in wounds, gradually become weaker and
lose their integrity.

Although double gloving is of little benefit in preventing blood exposure if

needlesticks or other injuries occur, it may decrease the risk of blood-hand
contact. For example, one recent study showed that surgeons wearing
single gloves had a blood-hand contact rate of 14% while surgeons
wearing double gloves had only a rate of 5% (Tokars et al 1995; Tokars et
al 1992). Based on this study, the following are reasonable guidelines for
when to double glove:

x The procedure involves coming in contact with large amounts of blood

or other body fluids (e.g., vaginal deliveries and cesarean sections).
x Orthopedic procedures in which sharp bone fragments, wire sutures
and other sharps are likely to be encountered.
x Surgical gloves are reused. (The possibility of inapparent holes or
perforations in any type of reprocessed glove is higher than with new
gloves.)

In general, for surgical procedures that are short (30 minutes or less) and
involve minimal exposure to blood or mucous secretions (e.g.,
laparoscopy or minilaparotomy), double gloving is probably not
necessary. Whether or not the surgeon, assistant or nurse should double
glove should be considered carefully, especially where gloves are reused
and in areas where the risk of contracting bloodborne pathogens, such as
HIV, is high (>5% prevalence).

Elbow-length Gloves for Blood contact with the skin and mucous membranes of providers occurs in
Obstetrical Procedures 25% of vaginal deliveries and 35% of cesarean sections (Davis 2001d). In
addition, large volumes of amniotic fluid contaminated with blood are
routine in obstetrics. For skilled birth attendants doing home deliveries,
wearing clean examination gloves and avoiding contact with the vaginal
area as much as possible is recommended, especially after the membranes
have ruptured. Also, changing gloves and washing hands if gloved hands
become heavily contaminated with blood or amniotic fluid can minimize
the risk of exposure.

2
The “acceptable” leak rate for new surgical and examination gloves designated by regulatory agencies is up to 4% (Davis 2001c).

Infection Prevention Guidelines 7-7

Safe Practices in the Operating Room

Where the hand and forearm need to be inserted into the vagina (manual
removal of a retained placenta) or deep into the uterus to deliver the
infant’s head (cesarean section), elbow-length, so-called “gauntlet” gloves,
help protect the provider from significant blood and amniotic fluid
contamination. Moreover, by wearing gauntlet gloves, the mother will be
protected as well.

If gauntlet gloves are not available, an inexpensive, effective alternative

can be easily made from previously used surgical gloves that have been
decontaminated, cleaned and dried.3 The steps for making them are:

STEP 1: Cut the four fingers completely off each glove just below where
all the fingers join the glove (Figure 7-1).
STEP 2: Sterilize or high-level disinfect 2–3 pairs of cut-off (fingerless)
gloves according to the recommended process for each method (Appendix
C) and store the gloves after final processing in a sterile or high-level
disinfected container until needed.

Figure 7-1. Creating Gauntlet Gloves from Previously Used Surgical Gloves

Note: If the need for

protection of the forearm(s)
occurs during a procedure If it is anticipated that the forearms need to be protected before starting
(e.g., removal of a retained the procedure (e.g., cesarean section with presenting part deep in the
placenta), first remove the pelvis), the steps are:
surgical glove from one or
both hands using the
technique described in STEP 1: Perform surgical handscrub, including the forearms up to the
Chapter 3. Next, put on a elbows, as detailed in Chapter 3 using an alcohol-based antiseptic agent.
fingerless sterile or high-
level disinfected glove(s) STEP 2: Put fingerless sterile or high-level disinfected gloves on both
and pull up onto the hands and pull up onto the forearm(s) (as shown in Figure 7-2a).
forearm(s). Finally, put a
new sterile or high-level STEP 3: Put intact sterile or high-level disinfected surgical gloves on both
disinfected surgical glove hands so that the distal (lower) end of the fingerless glove is completely
on one or both hands. covered (Figure 7-2b).

3
Latex rubber surgical gloves are preferred over examination gloves or even nitrile surgical gloves because they have longer
cuffs, are more elastic, fit tighter on the forearm and are more durable.

7-8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Safe Practices in the Operating Room

Figure 7-2a and b. Putting on Fingerless and Surgical Gloves

SAFE HANDLING OF HYPODERMIC NEEDLES AND SYRINGES

In the operating room, scalpels and suture needles are the leading source
of penetrating injuries. Hypodermic (hollow bore) needles, however, cause
the most injuries to health workers at all levels. Consider:

x Surgeons and assistants are most often stuck by hypodermic needles

during procedures.
x Cleaning staff are most often stuck by needles when washing soiled
instruments.
x Housekeeping staff are most often stuck by needles when disposing of
infectious waste material.

Safety Tips for Using Hypodermic Needles and Syringes

x Use each needle and syringe only once.4
x Do not disassemble the needle and syringe after use.
x Do not recap, bend or break needles prior to disposal.
x Decontaminate the needle and syringe prior to disposal.
x Dispose of the needle and syringe in a puncture-resistant container.

4
Several studies have documented that unsafe injection practices, such as using the same needle, syringe or both for more
than one injection or improperly processed syringes and needles, are responsible for transmitting HIV, HBV and HCV
(Drucker, Alcabes and Marx 200l; Simonsen et al 1999). Therefore, after each use, the assembled needle and syringe should
either be decontaminated and placed in a sharps container for disposal, or reprocessed using recommended infection
prevention practices (see Chapter 14 and Appendix E).

Infection Prevention Guidelines 7-9

Safe Practices in the Operating Room

If the needle must be recapped, use the “one-handed” recap method:

x First, place the needle cap on a firm, flat surface; then remove hand.
x Next, with one hand holding the syringe, use the needle to “scoop” up
the cap (Figure 7-3a).
x With the cap now covering the needle tip, turn the syringe upright
(vertical) so the needle and syringe are pointing toward the ceiling.
x Finally, using the forefinger and thumb of your other hand, grasp the
cap just above its open end (Figure 7-3b) and push the cap firmly
down onto the hub (the place where the needle joins the syringe under
the cap).

Figure 7-3a and b. One-Handed Recap Method

Safety Tip for Using a Needle and Syringe for Multiple Injections in
the Operating Room
If a hypodermic needle must be used for multiple injections during a
surgical procedure, one option for preventing accidents between uses is
as follows:
x Roll a sterile towel into a tube shape.
x Stick the needle into the towel between uses.

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 Safe Practices in the Operating Room

How to Withdraw x Wipe the top of the bottle with a cotton swab soaked in 60–90%
Medication from a alcohol or other locally available disinfectant. Allow it to dry.
Sterile Multidose Bottle x If using a new disposable needle and syringe, open the sterile pack.
Note: Do not leave a
x If using a sterile or high-level disinfected syringe, remove it from the
needle inserted in the covered container using dry, sterile or high-level disinfected forceps.
rubber stopper of a
multidose bottle. This
x Attach the needle to the syringe.
practice provides a direct x Remove the needle cap and insert the needle tip until it touches the
route for microorganisms, bottom of the bottle.
including HIV, to enter the
bottle and contaminate the x After filling the syringe, withdraw both the needle and syringe from
fluid between each use. the bottle.5

How to Withdraw In seeking to improve injection safety, several years ago WHO
Medication Using an recommended that all immunizations be given using autodisable syringes.
Autodisable Syringe Since then they have been widely used in both campaign and routine
immunization settings. Although there are many types of autodisable
syringes, the key feature of all of them is that they only permit the syringe
to be filled and emptied once. In 2002, USAID began providing the
SoloShot FX¥ autodisable syringe for use in giving the injectable
contraceptive DMPA (Depo Provera£).

The SoloShot FX syringe is a single-use, disposable syringe with a metal

clip that locks the plunger after a single use (i.e., it can not be pulled back
a second time). The syringe is packaged with a detachable needle, which
cannot be attached to any other type of syringes, in a sterile package.

Although autodisable syringes and needles are similar to conventional ones,

most health workers will require practice in learning to correctly fill them to
avoid wasting medication, syringes and needles (i.e., if air is drawn up into
the syringe instead of the prescribed amount of medication, the syringe
cannot be refilled). Moreover, it is anticipated that with time use of
autodisable syringes for giving other types of injections will increase;
therefore, clinicians need to be familiar with using autodisable syringes.

The following instructions are specific for the SoloShot FX syringe and
needle:

x Open the sterile pack containing the needle and syringe and attach the
needle firmly.
x Remove the needle cap and insert the needle tip until it touches the
bottom of the bottle as shown in Figure 7-4a. (To avoid drawing air into
the syringe, be sure the needle tip stays below the fluid level in the bottle.)

5
Store opened multidose bottles in a separate, covered container to avoid contamination. Also, mark the date of the first
withdrawal. Discard if unused after 30 days or if contaminated at any time.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 7 - 11

Safe Practices in the Operating Room

x While holding the bottle with one hand, slowly pull back on the
plunger of the syringe and draw up fluid to just above the “fill line”
mark (Figure 7-4b).6

Figure 7-4a and b. Withdrawing Medication Using an Autodisable Syringe

(SoloShot FX¥)

x Withdraw the needle and syringe from the bottle and hold the syringe
upright (needle pointing to the ceiling) to see if any air is in the
syringe.
x If there are air bubbles, slowly push the plunger in, but only until the
“fill line” mark is reached.
x Check to be sure the fluid level in the syringe is at or slightly above
the “fill line” mark. If it is below the fill line mark, there may not be
enough medication to be effective and the injection should not be
administered. In this situation, either inject the medication back into
the single dose bottle and draw up the medication again using a new
autodisable syringe and needle, or discard the partially filled syringe
and use a new bottle and autodisable syringe and needle.

SHARPS CONTAINERS: DOs AND DON’Ts

Sharps containers are a key component in minimizing injuries from

disposable sharps—such as hypodermic needles, scalpels and suture
needles—that are used at all levels of the healthcare system. Other
operating room-specific sharps that require similar disposal include:
surgical drain trocars, needle point cautery tips, wire sutures, orthopedic
drill bits and a range of hollow injection needles used by radiologists and

6
For the SoloShot FX syringes used with DMPA, the “fill line” mark is at 1 mL.

7 - 12 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Safe Practices in the Operating Room

anesthesiologists for various medical invasive procedures. Disposal of

these items after their use requires careful planning and action on the part
Note: Educating staff on of the healthcare team to avoid injury to the housekeeping and maintenance
the safe handling of sharps staff that ultimately will be removing them.
reduces the risk of injury
(Managan et al 2001). In the US and other developed countries, a whole industry has grown up to
meet the increasing demand for sharps containers. Today, sharps containers
of all sizes and shapes are available, either disposable or reusable. Most
manufactured containers are designed to be wall mounted or attached to a
surface and come with special mounting brackets. A few, however, are still
designed to be freestanding (ECRI 1993). In most developing countries,
these manufactured items are a luxury. As a result, health workers
throughout the world have cleverly developed sharps containers from
readily available “throw away” items, such as metal food containers made
of aluminum, tin or heavy plastic (e.g., cooking oil bottles and cans), heavy-
duty cardboard boxes and even the used plastic drinking water bottles with
caps that litter the streets and countryside. Although some are safer than
others, they all provide a no-cost, sustainable source of disposable sharps
containers for use in small clinics, polyclinics and district-level hospitals
with limited budgets. Rather than discouraging practitioners from using
these items in favor of manufactured products, they should be given help in
developing better, safer containers from existing materials (e.g., advised on
which items are more appropriate to use).

When using sharps containers, either commercial or locally produced, here

are some DOs and DON’Ts to consider:

x DO put sharps containers as close to the point of use as possible and

practical, ideally within arm’s reach. Also, they should be easy to see,
recognize and use.
x DO attach containers to walls or other surfaces if at all possible.
x DO mark them clearly so that people will not unknowingly use them as
a garbage container or for discarding cigarettes.
x DO place them at a convenient height so staff can use and replace them
easily.
x DO mark the fill line at the three quarters full level.
x DON’T shake a container to settle its contents and make room for more
sharps.
x DON’T place containers in high traffic areas (corridors outside patient
rooms or procedure rooms) where people could bump into them or be
stuck by someone carrying sharps to be disposed of.
x DON’T place containers on the floor or anywhere they could be
knocked over or easily reached by a child.
x DON’T place containers near light switches, overhead fans or thermostat
controls where people might accidentally put their hand into them.

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Safe Practices in the Operating Room

MANAGING EXPOSURE TO BLOOD AND BODY FLUIDS

Healthcare professionals (physicians, nurses and midwives) who work in

high-risk areas such as surgical and obstetrical units should know what to
do in the event of a possible blood exposure to themselves or another
health worker. Preventing accidents (needlesticks) and other blood or body
fluid exposures are the primary means of preventing work-related
transmission of HIV or HCV. For HBV, however, an effective vaccine has
been available for nearly 20 years. Unfortunately, in many countries, even
health professionals have not been immunized against this serious
bloodborne disease. Although only about 5% of people who contract
hepatitis B die from the disease, a high percentage become chronic carriers
or are disabled and cannot work because of permanent damage to the liver
(cirrhosis). In addition, hepatitis B infection is a necessary precursor for
hepatitis D (HDV) and primary liver cancer.7 Being vaccinated protects not
only the individual, but also fellow workers, other patients and the
individual’s family.

Hepatitis B Post - Several studies have demonstrated that, in susceptible persons (i.e., negative
Exposure Guidelines hepatitis B surface antigen [HBsAG] test and no history of receiving
immune serum globulin), giving hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG) is
better than conventional immune serum globulin (ISG) (or by inference
doing nothing) in preventing acute hepatitis B and seroconversion
(Desmyter et al 1975; Grady and Lee 1975). For example, in the study by
Seeff et al (1975), a randomized clinical trial comparing HBIG to ISG, only
1.4% compared to 5.9% of susceptible individuals developed acute
hepatitis, and only 5.6% compared to 20.7 % seroconverted. Both results
were statistically significant at the P <0.01 level, and the findings persisted
for up to 1 year. In this trial, the first dose of HBIG (5 mL intramuscularly)
was given within 7 days of exposure; with the second dose approximately 1
month later. Only brief and mild side effects were noted with either HBIG
(3%) or ISG (3.2%). Unfortunately, the availability of HBIG is limited in
many countries, but if accidental exposure is reported promptly, there may
be time to procure the HBIG and still give it within 7 days of exposure.
Whether ISG provides any protection is not known.

The suggested steps for managing an injury is as follows8:

STEP 1: Treat the exposure site if appropriate (e.g., an open wound or

cut).
STEP 2: If tetanus immunization or boosters are indicated (>10 years
since immunization), give it.

7
HDV is an incomplete virus that is unable to replicate (make more virus particles) in humans without binding to HBV
(Davis 2001e).
8
If exposure is limited to contact with blood or body fluids on intact skin (hands), wash affected areas with soap and water
as soon as possible. For contact with mucous membranes (eyes, nose or mouth), rinse with clean water at least two times.

7 - 14 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Safe Practices in the Operating Room

STEP 3: Assess the risk of HBV exposure and determine the immune
status of the patient (i.e., history of jaundice, hepatitis or previous
immunization with hepatitis B vaccine). If status is unknown, continue
assessment.
STEP 4: Collect a specimen from the source person (i.e., the carrier or
person suspected of being infected) if possible and from the patient for
HBsAGg testing. If testing is not possible, base the HBV status of the
infected person on clinical history and clinical findings.
STEP 5: Give HBIG (5mL IM) as soon as possible and within 7 days of
exposure, and also give the first dose of hepatitis B vaccine, which should
be repeated at 1 and 6 months. If active immunization with hepatitis B
vaccine is not possible, a second dose of HBIG should be given 1 month
later (Chin 2000).

HIV Post-Exposure The plan for assessing the risk of accidental exposure to HIV is similar
Prophylaxis Guidelines to that for HBV. Because there is no vaccine for passive or active
immunization against HIV, post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is much
more complicated; therefore, the decision to recommend it needs to be
based on a careful assessment of the injury. For example, although the risk
of HIV seroconversion after all types of work-related percutaneous
(breaks the skin) exposure is only about 0.3% (Tokars et al 1993), the risk
for deep injuries (extends into the muscle), including deep needlesticks, is
15 times greater than for superficial injuries (CDC 1995; Cardo et al
1997).

If the assessment is positive for a high risk of HIV exposure (i.e., deep
injury or needlestick), consider giving treatment with antiretroviral agents
(zidovudine [ZDV] plus lamivudine [3TC] has been shown to prevent HIV
transmission) (CDC 2001).9 Determining whether or not PEP should be
initiated for a potentially HIV-exposed individual is more difficult than for
HBV for three reasons. First, treatment should be initiated as soon as
possible and at least within hours after exposure to HIV. Second, a
physician or other health professional with knowledge and experience in
managing patients with HIV should do the assessment of risk. And third,
treatment with antiretroviral agents has considerable side effects, even for
prophylaxis, and the long-term safety is not known. Whether or not health
workers with exposure to HIV are given PEP, they should receive
followup counseling, post-exposure testing and a medical evaluation.

Hepatitis C Post- There is no post-exposure vaccine or drug prophylaxis for hepatitis C

Exposure Guidelines (immune globulin is ineffective). Prevention of exposure, therefore, is the
only effective strategy for prevention of HCV.

9
For the most recent information on post-exposure prophylaxis, go to http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/hip/guide/phspep.htm.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 7 - 15

Safe Practices in the Operating Room

The CDC (1998) has recommended the following guidelines that

institutions should consider for followup of health workers exposed to
HCV-positive blood or other body fluids:

x Baseline testing of the source patient (if available and a consent form
is signed) for anti-HCV antibody (if the test is available).
x Baseline and 6-month followup testing of exposed health worker for
anti-HCV antibody and liver function screen.
x If available, treatment of early HCV infection with pegylated
interferon alfa before significant liver damage has occurred.10

Where possible, all positive anti-HCV results should be confirmed by

supplemental, accurate anti-HCV antibody testing.

MAKING THE SURGICAL ENVIRONMENT SAFER

The responsibility for making today’s operating rooms safer extends

beyond concern for the well-being of the patient to all healthcare staff who
together form the surgical team. The approaches to making operations
safer outlined in this chapter are simple, practical and have been
documented over a 10-year period. The key to success is to apply the
principles and practices in an integrated and consistent manner, with daily
attention to detail and, above all, with support at all levels of the
healthcare system.

REFERENCES

Bessinger CD Jr. 1988. Preventing transmission of human immunodeficiency

virus during operations. Surg Gynecol Obstet 167(4): 287–289.
Cardo DM et al. 1997. A case-control study of HIV seroconversion in
healthcare workers after percutaneous exposure. N Engl J Med 337: 1485–
1490.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2001. Updated U.S.
public health service guidelines for the management of occupational
exposures to HBV, HCV, and HIV and recommendations for postexposure
prophylaxis. MMWR 50(No. RR-11): 26–27.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 1998. Public health
service guidelines for the management of health-care worker exposures to
HIV and recommendations for post-exposure prophylaxis. MMWR 47(RR-
7): 1–33.

10
Adding polyethylene glycol (PEG) to the interferon molecule increases the half-life of the drug, allowing for less frequent
dosing (from three to once a week), but the cost of treatment per month is still nearly USD $2000 (Pharmacology Watch 2002).

7 - 16 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Safe Practices in the Operating Room

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 1997. Evaluation of

blunt suture needles in preventing percutaneous injuries among health-care
workers during gynecological surgical procedures. MMWR 46(2): 25–29.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 1995. Case-control
study of HIV seroconversion in healthcare workers after percutaneous
exposures to HIV-infected blood—France, United Kingdom and United
States, January 1988–August 1994. MMWR 44(50): 929–933.
Chin J (ed). 2000. Viral hepatitis B, in Control of Communicable Diseases
Manual, 17th ed. American Public Health Association (APHA):
Washington, DC, pp 247–251.
Dauleh MI et al. 1994. Needle prick injury to the surgeon—do we need
sharp needles? J R Coll Surg Edinb 39(5): 310–311.
Davis MS. 2001a. Advanced Precautions for Today’s OR: The Operating
Room Professional's Handbook for the Prevention of Sharps Injuries and
Bloodborne Exposures, 2nd ed. Sweinbinder Publications LLC: Atlanta.
Davis MS. 2001b. Blunt alternatives to sharps, in Advanced Precautions
for Today’s OR: The Operating Room Professional's Handbook for the
Prevention of Sharps Injuries and Bloodborne Exposures, 2nd ed.
Sweinbinder Publications LLC: Atlanta, pp 53–63.
Davis MS. 2001c. Choices of effective personal protective equipment, in
Advanced Precautions for Today’s OR: The Operating Room
Professional's Handbook for the Prevention of Sharps Injuries and
Bloodborne Exposures, 2nd ed. Sweinbinder Publications LLC: Atlanta,
pp 39–48.
Davis MS. 2001d. Obstetrical procedures, in Advanced Precautions for
Today’s OR: The Operating Room Professional's Handbook for the
Prevention of Sharps Injuries and Bloodborne Exposures, 2nd ed.
Sweinbinder Publications LLC: Atlanta, pp 85–92.
Davis MS. 2001e. Bloodborne pathogens and occupational risk, in
Advanced Precautions for Today’s OR: The Operating Room
Professional's Handbook for the Prevention of Sharps Injuries and
Bloodborne Exposures, 2nd ed. Sweinbinder Publications LLC: Atlanta,
pp 1–8.
Desmyter J et al. 1975. Hepatitis-B immunoglobulin in prevention of HBS
antigenemia in hemodialysis patients. Lancet 2(7931): 376–379.
Drucker EM, PG Alcabes and PA Marx. 2001. The injection century:
Consequences of massive unsterile injecting for the emergence of human
pathogens. Lancet 358: 1989–1992.
ECRI. 1993. Some dos and don’ts for installing and handling sharps
containers, in Technology for Critical Care Nurses. Plymouth Meeting,
PA and from Nursing96 (February): 51.
Fox V. 1992. Passing surgical instruments, sharps without injury. AORN J
55(1): 264.

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Safe Practices in the Operating Room

Grady GF and VA Lee. 1975. Hepatitis B immune globulin—prevention

of hepatitis from accidental exposure among medical workers. N Engl J
Med 293(21): 1067–1070.
Manangan LP. 2001. Infection control dogma: Top 10 suspects. Infect
Control Hosp Epidemiol 22(4): 243-247.
Pharmacology Watch. 2002. Pegasys approved to treat hepatitis C.
December 1.
Seeff LB et al. 1975. Type B hepatitis after needle-stick exposure:
Prevention with hepatitis B immune globulin. Ann Int Med 88(3): 285–
293.
Simonsen L et al. 1999. Unsafe injections in the developing world and
transmission of bloodborne pathogens: A review. Bull World Health
Organ 77(10): 789–800.
Tokars JI et al. 1995. Skin and mucous membrane contacts with blood
during surgical procedures: Risk and prevention. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 16(12): 703–711.
Tokars JI et al. 1993. Surveillance of HIV infection and zidovudine use
among healthcare workers after occupational exposure to HIV-infected
blood. Ann Intern Med 118(12): 913–919.
Tokars JI et al. 1992. Double gloving cuts blood contacts 70%. Ob/Gyn
News 26(23): 1.

7 - 18 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 EIGHT

WASTE MANAGEMENT

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the purpose of waste management is

x What methods are used to handle contaminated and noncontaminated
waste
x How simple, inexpensive incinerators and burial sites are built and used
x What some of the problems of waste removal are

BACKGROUND

Wastes from hospitals and healthcare facilities may be contaminated

(potentially infectious) or noncontaminated. Approximately 85% of the
general waste produced by hospitals and clinics is noncontaminated waste
and poses no infectious risk to persons who handle it. Examples of
noncontaminated waste include paper, trash, boxes, bottles, plastic containers
and food. They can be disposed of by the usual methods or sent to the local
landfill or dumpsite (CDC 1985; Rutala 1993).

Some waste from healthcare facilities, however, is contaminated. If not

disposed of properly, contaminated wastes may carry microorganisms that
can infect the people who come in contact with the waste as well as the
community at large. Contaminated wastes include blood, pus, urine, stool and
other body fluids, as well as items that come in contact with them, such as
used dressings. Wastes from operating rooms (human tissue, blood or blood
soaked sponges, gauze or cotton) and laboratories (blood, feces, sputum,
urine specimens and microbiological cultures) should be considered
contaminated. Soiled medical devices or items that can inflict injury (e.g.,
used needles and scalpel blades) are capable of spreading bloodborne
diseases such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C and AIDS, and are also considered
contaminated waste.

Other types of waste that do not contain infectious agents, but are considered
hazardous because of the potential harm they can cause to the environment
include:

x chemical and pharmaceutical residues (e.g., cans, bottles or boxes

containing expired drugs and vaccines, laboratory reagents and
disinfectants such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehydes, and organic
solvents such as acetone and chloroform);
x cytotoxic waste (e.g., drugs typically used in cancer chemotherapy);

Infection Prevention Guidelines 8-1

Waste Management

x waste with a high content of heavy metals (e.g., mercury from broken
thermometers, blood pressure gauges or dentistry materials, and cadmium
from discarded batteries); and
x nonrecyclable and discarded pressurized containers (spray cans), that are
hazardous if burned because they can explode.

DEFINITIONS

x Contaminated. State of having been actually or potentially in contact

with microorganisms. As used in healthcare, the term generally refers to
the presence of microorganisms that could be capable of producing
disease or infection.
x Container. Vessel in which waste is placed for handling, transportation,
storage and/or eventual disposal.
x Disposal. Intentional burial, deposit, discharge, dumping, placing or
release of any waste material into or on air, land or water. Disposal is
undertaken without the intention of retrieval.
x Encapsulation. Filling a sharps container that is three-quarters full with
cement or clay, which, after hardening, can be disposed of safely in a
landfill.
x Hazard. Intrinsic potential property or ability of any agent, equipment,
Note: Harm is an injury or material or process that can cause harm.
damage done to the health
of people and/or to the x Incineration. Controlled burning of solid, liquid or gaseous combustible
environment. (burnable) wastes to produce gases and residues containing little or no
burnable material.
x Infectious waste. The part of medical waste that is capable of causing
infectious diseases.
x Municipal waste. General waste for collection by municipalities (e.g.,
local city or town authorities) generated mainly by households,
commercial activities and street-sweeping.
x Sanitary landfill. Engineered method of disposing of solid waste on land
in a manner that protects the environment (e.g., by spreading the waste in
thin layers, compacting it to the smallest practical volume and then
covering it with soil at the end of each working day).
x Scavenging. Manual sorting of solid waste at landfills and removal of
usable material.
x Segregation. Systematic separation of solid waste into designated
categories.
x Sewerage. System for the collection and transport of sewage, including
conduits, pipes and pumping stations.
x Sharps. Hypodermic needles, suture needles, scalpel blades, scissors,
wire sutures, broken glass or any object that can cause a puncture or cut.

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 Waste Management

x Waste management. All activities, administrative and operational

(including transportation activities), involved in the handling, treatment,
conditioning, storage and disposal of waste.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

The purpose of waste management is to:

x protect people who handle waste items from accidental injury,

x prevent the spread of infection to healthcare workers who handle the
waste,
x prevent the spread of infection to the local community, and
x safely dispose of hazardous materials (toxic chemicals and radioactive
compounds).

Open piles of waste should be avoided because they:

x are a risk to those who scavenge and unknowingly reuse contaminated

items,
x allow persons to accidentally step on sharp items and injure themselves,
x produce foul odors, and
x attract insects and animals.

Disposal of Proper disposal of contaminated waste may include:

Contaminated Waste
x Pouring liquids or wet waste directly into a safe sewerage system.
Note: If a sewerage system
does not exist, dispose of x Incinerating (burning) items to destroy the item as well as any
waste in a deep hole and microorganisms. (This is the best method for disposal of contaminated
cover. waste. Burning also reduces the bulk volume of waste and ensures that
the items are not scavenged and reused.)1
x Burying all contaminated wastes to prevent further handling.

Proper handling of contaminated waste minimizes the spread of infection to

healthcare personnel and to the local community. Whenever possible,
contaminated waste should be collected and transported to disposal sites in
leakproof, covered waste containers.

x Use plastic or galvanized metal containers with tight-fitting covers for

contaminated wastes. Many facilities now use colored plastic bags to
alert handlers to the contents and to keep the general (noncontaminated)
waste separate from contaminated waste.

1
Burning may release toxic chemicals into the air however.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 8-3

Waste Management

x Use puncture-resistant sharps containers for all disposable sharps (sharps

that will not be reused).
x Place waste containers close to where the waste is generated and where
convenient for users (carrying waste from place to place increases the
risk of infection for handlers). This is especially important for sharps,
which carry the highest risk of injury for health workers and staff.

Note: Clean contaminated

x Equipment that is used to hold and transport wastes must not be used for
waste containers each time any other purpose in the clinic or hospital. (Contaminated waste
they are emptied, and clean containers should be marked as such.)
those for noncontaminated
waste when visibly soiled.
x Wash all waste containers with a disinfectant cleaning solution (0.5%
chlorine solution plus soap) and rinse with water regularly.
x When possible, use separate containers for combustible and
noncombustible wastes prior to disposal. This step prevents workers from
having to handle and separate wastes by hand later.

Combustible (burnable) wastes include paper, cardboard and

contaminated wastes such as used dressings and gauze.
Noncombustible (nonburnable) wastes include glass and metals.

x Use personal protective equipment (PPE) when handling wastes (e.g.,

heavy-duty utility gloves and closed protective shoes).
x Wash hands or use a waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub after
removing gloves when handling wastes.

Note: Training staff and

Because most of the waste from healthcare facilities can be sent to a
having conveniently placed municipal landfill or dumpsite (the least expensive and easiest way to dispose
sharps containers available of waste), it is important to train all healthcare workers, including physicians,
close to where sharps are to keep contaminated and noncontaminated waste separate. For example,
used will help eliminate the throwing a hypodermic needle into a wastebasket in a patient’s room
problem of improper
disposal. automatically makes that container hazardous for housekeeping staff to
handle. And, if discovered, that wastebasket now needs to be handled and
disposed of as contaminated waste.

Figure 8-1 is a flow diagram for the separate collection and disposal of wet
and dry waste that was first described in Bangladesh (Juncker et al 1994).

In the following sections, specific information and the steps for disposing of
sharps, contaminated liquid and solid waste, and hazardous waste items are
presented.

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 Waste Management

Figure 8-1. Flow Diagram: Collection and Disposal of Medical Waste

(1) Small quantities of syringes made of polyethene or polypropene can be incinerated outside without producing any
environmental health hazard.
(2) Transfusion sets or syringes made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) should not be incinerated because they release hazardous
chemicals.
(3) Built with local materials (e.g., drum or clay single-chamber incinerator; see Figure 8-3).

HOW TO DISPOSE OF SHARPS

Disposable sharp items (hypodermic needles, suture needles, razors and

scalpel blades) require special handling because they are the items most
likely to injure the healthcare workers who handle them as well as people in
the community if these items go to the municipal landfill.

Encapsulation Encapsulation is recommended as the easiest way to safely dispose of sharps.

Sharps are collected in puncture-resistant and leakproof containers. When
the container is three-quarters full, a material such as cement (mortar), plastic
foam or clay is poured into the container until completely filled. After the
material has hardened, the container is sealed and may be landfilled, stored or
buried. It is also possible to encapsulate chemical or pharmaceutical waste
together with sharps (WHO 1999).

Disposal in the STEP 1: Do not recap needle or disassemble needle and syringe.
Procedure Area
STEP 2: After use, to decontaminate the assembled hypodermic needle and
syringe, hold the needle tip under the surface of a 0.5% chlorine solution, fill
the syringe with solution and push out (flush) three times (if the syringe

Infection Prevention Guidelines 8-5

Waste Management

and/or needle will be reprocessed, fill the syringe with 0.5% chlorine solution
Remember: To avoid and soak for 10 minutes for decontamination).
accidental needlesticks, do
not bend, break or recap See Appendix E for more information on handling, processing or disposing
needles prior to disposal.
of needles and syringes.

STEP 3: Place assembled needles and syringes to be disposed of in a

puncture-resistant sharps container such as a heavy cardboard box, plastic
bottle or tin can with lid. The opening in the lid should be large enough that
Note: The container should
be placed at the point of items can be easily dropped through it, but small enough that nothing can be
use so that healthcare removed from inside. (Old intravenous fluid bottles may also be used, but
workers do not have to they can break.)
carry sharp items.
STEP 4: When the container is three-quarters full, it should be removed from
the procedure area for disposal.

Disposing of the STEP 1: Wear heavy-duty utility gloves.

Sharps Container
STEP 2: When the sharps container is three-quarters full it should be capped,
plugged or taped tightly closed. Be sure that no sharp items are sticking out of
Note: Although suture the container.
needles, scalpel blades and
other sharp objects may not STEP 3: Dispose of the sharps container by burning, encapsulating or
be completely destroyed by burying.
burning, it does make them
less likely to be picked up STEP 4: Remove utility gloves (wash daily or when visibly soiled, and dry).
by scavengers.
STEP 5: Wash hands and dry them with a clean cloth or towel or air dry.
(Alternatively, if hands are not visibly soiled, apply 5 mL, about 1
teaspoonful, of an antiseptic handrub and rub the solution vigorously into
hands until dry.)

HOW TO DISPOSE OF LIQUID CONTAMINATED WASTES

Liquid contaminated waste (e.g., human tissue, blood, feces, urine and other
body fluids) requires special handling, because it may pose an infectious risk
to healthcare workers who contact or handle the waste.

STEP 1: Wear PPE (utility gloves, protective eyewear and plastic apron)
Note: Liquid wastes can when handling and transporting liquid wastes.
also be poured into the
latrine. STEP 2: Carefully pour wastes down a utility sink drain or into a flushable
toilet and rinse the toilet or sink carefully and thoroughly with water to
remove residual wastes. Avoid splashing.
STEP 3: If a sewage system doesn’t exist, dispose of liquids in a deep,
covered hole, not into open drains.
STEP 4: Decontaminate specimen containers by placing them in a 0.5%
chlorine solution for 10 minutes before washing them.

8-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Waste Management

STEP 5: Remove utility gloves (wash daily or when visibly soiled and dry).
STEP 6: Wash and dry hands or use an antiseptic handrub as described
above.

Cholera Epidemic In case of a cholera epidemic, hospital sewage must also be treated and
disinfected. Vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of cholera, is easily killed
and does not require use of strong disinfectants. Buckets containing stools
from patients with acute diarrhea may be disinfected by the addition of
chlorine oxide powder or dehydrated lime oxide (WHO 1999).

HOW TO DISPOSE OF SOLID CONTAMINATED WASTES

Remember:
Solid contaminated waste (e.g., surgical specimens, used dressings and other
x Never use hands to items contaminated with blood and organic materials) may carry
compress waste into microorganisms.
containers.
x Hold plastic bags at STEP 1: Wear heavy-duty or utility gloves when handling and transporting
the top.
solid wastes.
x Keep bags from
touching or brushing STEP 2: Dispose of solid wastes by placing them in a plastic or galvanized
against the body while metal container with a tight-fitting cover.
lifting or during
transport. STEP 3: Collect the waste containers on a regular basis and transport the
burnable ones to the incinerator or area for burning.
Note: If incineration is not
available or waste is
STEP 4: Remove utility gloves (wash daily or when visibly soiled and dry).
nonburnable, bury it. STEP 5: Wash and dry hands or use an antiseptic handrub as described
above.

Special Situations x If a patient or family member wants to take home the placenta or body
parts for burial, first place them in a plastic bag and then into a rigid
container (clay bowl, metal or plastic container) for transport.
x Blood and other cultures and stocks of infectious agents from laboratory
work should be sterilized by steam sterilization at the earliest stage (i.e.,
inside the healthcare facility) prior to disposal if possible.

INCINERATION

Incineration is a high-temperature process that reduces the volume and

weight of waste. This process is usually selected to treat waste that can not be
recycled, reused or disposed of in a sanitary landfill or dumpsite.

Types of Incinerators Incinerators can range from extremely sophisticated, high-temperature ones
to very basic units that operate at much lower temperatures. All types of
incinerators, if operated properly, eliminate microorganisms from waste and
reduce the waste to ashes.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 8-7

Waste Management

Four basic types of incinerators are used for treating waste:

1. Double-chamber, high-temperature incinerators are designed to burn

infectious waste.
2. Single-chamber, high-temperature incinerators are less expensive and are
used when double-chamber incinerators are not affordable.
Note: In this chapter, only 3. Rotary kilns operate at high temperatures and are used for destroying
inexpensive drum or brick cytotoxic substances and heat-resistant chemicals.
incinerators will be
4. Drum or brick (clay) incinerators operate at lower temperatures and are
discussed.
less effective, but can be made locally using readily available materials.

Types of Waste That Should Not Be Incinerated

x Pressurized gas containers (aerosol cans)
x Large amounts of reactive chemical waste
x Silver salts and photographic or radiographic wastes
x Plastic containing polyvinyl chloride (blood bags, IV tubing or
disposable syringes)
x Waste with high mercury or cadmium content, such as broken
thermometers, used batteries and lead-lined wooden panels
Adapted from: WHO 1999.

Open burning is not recommended because it is dangerous, unsightly and

the wind will scatter the waste. If open burning must be done, burn in a
small, designated area, transport waste to the site just before burning and
remain with the fire until it is out.

For healthcare facilities with limited resources and where high-temperature

incinerators are not affordable, waste may be incinerated in a drum
incinerator. A drum incinerator is the simplest form of single-chamber
incinerator. It can be made inexpensively and is better than open burning.

How to Build and Use a STEP 1: Where possible, select a site downwind from the clinic.
Simple Drum
STEP 2: Build a simple incinerator using local materials (mud or stone) or a
Incinerator for Waste
used oil drum (e.g., a 55-gallon drum). The size depends on the amount of
Disposal2
daily waste collected (Figure 8-2).
STEP 3: Make sure the incinerator has:

x Sufficient air inlets underneath for good combustion

x Loosely placed fire bars to allow for expansion
x An adequate opening for adding fresh refuse and for removal of ashes

2
Adapted from: SEARO/WHO 1988.

8-8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Waste Management

x A long enough chimney to allow for a good draft and evacuation of

smoke

STEP 4: Place the drum on hardened earth or a concrete base.

STEP 5: Burn all combustible waste, such as paper and cardboard, as well as
used dressings and other contaminated wastes. If the waste or refuse is wet,
add kerosene so that a hot fire burns all the waste. Ash from incinerated
material can be treated as noncontaminated waste.

Figure 8-2. Design for a Simple Oil Drum Incinerator

Source: SEARO/WHO 1988.

Figure 8-3. Single-Chamber Clay Incinerator

Source: Juncker et al 1994.

BURYING WASTE

Note: Only contaminated In healthcare facilities with limited resources, safe burial of wastes on or
and hazardous waste needs near the facility may be the only option available for waste disposal. To
to be buried. limit health risks and environmental pollution, some basic rules are:

Infection Prevention Guidelines 8-9

Waste Management

x Access to the disposal site should be restricted. (Build a fence around the
site to keep animals and children away.)
x The burial site should be lined with a material of low permeability (e.g.,
clay), if available.
x Select a site at least 50 meters (55 feet) away from any water source to
Remember: Large
quantities (over 1 kg) of
prevent contamination of the water table.
chemical (liquid) wastes x The site should have proper drainage, be located downhill from any
should not be buried at the wells, free of standing water and not in an area that floods.
same time; burial should be
spread over several days.
Safe on-site burial is practical for only limited periods of time (1–2 years),
and for relatively small quantities of waste. During the interval, staff should
continue to look for a better, permanent method for waste disposal.

How to Make and Use a STEP 1: Find an appropriate location (see above).
Small Burial Site for
STEP 2: Dig a pit 1 meter (3 feet) square and 2 meters (6 feet) deep. The
Waste Disposal3
bottom of the pit should be 2 meters (6 feet) above the water table.4
(Figure 8-4)
STEP 3: Dispose of the contaminated waste in the pit and cover the waste
with 10–15 cm (4–6 inches) of dirt each day. The final layer of dirt should be
50–60 cm (20–24 inches) and compacted to prevent odors and attraction of
insects, and to keep animals from digging up the buried waste.

Depending on the volume of waste, this pit should last 30 to 60 days.

Figure 8-4. Plan for a Small Burial Pit

Adapted from: WHO 1999.

3
Adapted from: SEARO/WHO 1988.
4
Burial can be used as a method of waste disposal only where the water table is more than 12 feet below the surface.

8 - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Waste Management

HOW TO DISPOSE OF HAZARDOUS WASTE5

Chemical Waste Chemical waste includes residues of chemicals in their packaging, outdated
or decomposed chemicals, or chemicals that are no longer required. Small
quantities of chemical waste are generally collected in containers with
infectious waste, and are either incinerated, encapsulated or buried. Large
quantities should not be collected with infectious waste. Because there is no
safe and inexpensive method for their disposal, the treatment options are the
following:
Remember:
x Chemical waste of x Incineration at a high temperature is the best option for the disposal of
different types should chemical waste.
never be mixed.
x Chemical waste should
x If this is not possible, return the chemical waste to the original supplier.
not be disposed of in
sewer systems. Because either method is expensive and may be impractical, it is important to
keep chemical waste to a minimum.

How to Dispose of Used x Rinse glass containers thoroughly with water. Glass containers may be
Chemical Containers washed with soap, rinsed and reused.
x For plastic containers that contained toxic substances such as
glutaraldehyde (e.g., Cidex®) or formaldehyde, rinse three times with
water and dispose of by burning, encapsulating or burying. Do not reuse
these containers for other purposes.

Pharmaceutical Waste Small quantities of pharmaceutical (drugs or medicine) waste are usually
placed in containers with infectious waste and disposed of in the same way—
either incinerated, encapsulated or safely buried. It should be noted, however,
that temperatures reached in a single-chamber drum or brick incinerator may
be insufficient to totally destroy the pharmaceuticals; therefore, they can
remain hazardous.

Small quantities of pharmaceutical waste, such as outdated drugs (except

cytotoxics and antibiotics), may be discharged into the sewer but should not
be discharged into natural waters (rivers, lakes, etc.).

Large amounts of pharmaceutical waste may be disposed of by the

following methods:

x Cytotoxics and antibiotics may be incinerated with the residues then

going to the landfill. (An incinerator, like those used in making cement,
that is capable of reaching a combustion temperature of at least 800°C
should be used.)6

5
Adapted from: WHO 1999.
6
When incineration is not available, these pharmaceuticals should be encapsulated.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 8 - 11

Waste Management

x Water-soluble, relatively mild pharmaceutical mixtures, such as vitamin

solutions, cough syrups, intravenous solutions, eye drops, etc., may be
diluted with large amounts of water and then discharged to sewers (where
sewerage systems exist).
x If all else fails, return pharmaceutical waste to the original supplier if
possible.

The following recommendations also should be followed:

x Residues from cytotoxic drugs or other cytotoxic waste should never be

mixed with other pharmaceutical waste.
x Cytotoxic waste should never be discharged into natural water sources
(rivers, lakes, etc) or landfilled.

Waste with High Batteries, thermometers and other items may have a high content of heavy
Content of Heavy metals, such as mercury or cadmium. Disposal options are as follows:
Metals
x Recycling is sometimes available (through cottage industries). This is the
best disposal solution when available.
x Encapsulation. If recycling is not feasible, encapsulated waste may be
disposed of in a landfill, if available.

This type of waste should not be incinerated because of the toxic metallic
vapors emitted, nor should it be buried without encapsulation because it may
Note: Do not touch the
cause pollution of groundwater. Usually, healthcare facilities have small
droplets with your hands amounts of this type of waste.
unless wearing examination
or utility gloves. Mercury is a potent neurotoxin, especially during fetal and infant
development. When released into water or air, mercury enters the
environment, thereby contaminating lakes, rivers and streams. To minimize
the risk of mercury pollution, mercury products, such as thermometers and
blood pressure equipment, should be replaced with those that do not contain
mercury. In case of a spill from a broken thermometer:

x put examination gloves on both hands,

x collect all droplets of mercury with a spoon, and
x place in a small, closed container for disposal or reuse.

Nonrecyclable x Any residual pressure should be released before aerosol containers are
Aerosol Containers buried.
x Pressurized containers should never be burned or incinerated because of
the risk of explosion.

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 Waste Management

In summary, avoid buying or using chemical products that create impossible

or very expensive disposal problems wherever possible.

REFERENCES

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1985. Recommendations for preventing

transmission of infection with human T-lymphotropic virus type
III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in the workplace. MMWR 34(45): 681–
686; 691–695.
Juncker T et al. 1994. Clinical disposal at the THC level. MCH-FP Extension
Project (rural). ICDDR: Bangladesh.
Rutala WA. 1993. Disinfection, sterilization and waste disposal, in
Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections, 2nd ed. Wenzel RD (ed).
Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, MD.
South East Asia Regional Office (SEARO), World Health Organization.
1988. A Manual on Infection Control in Health Facilities. SEARO: New
Delhi, pp 72–88
World Health Organization (WHO). 1999. Safe Management of Wastes from
Healthcare Activities. WHO: Geneva.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 8 - 13

Waste Management

8 - 14 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 NINE

OVERVIEW OF RECOMMENDED PROCESSES1

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x How soiled instruments, gloves and other reusable items are processed
x How decontamination with 0.5% chlorine solution makes soiled items
safer to touch and handle
x When and why each process is used

BACKGROUND

In working to create an infection-free environment, it is

important that the rationale for each of the recommended
infection prevention processes, and their limitations, be clearly
understood by clinic staff at all levels—from healthcare
providers to cleaning and maintenance staff.

The basic infection prevention processes recommended to reduce disease

transmission from soiled instruments, surgical gloves and other reusable
items are decontamination, cleaning and either sterilization or high-level
disinfection (HLD). Regardless of the type of operative procedure, the steps
in processing surgical instruments and other items are the same, and are
illustrated in Figure 9-1.

After completing an operation or invasive medical procedure, and while still

wearing gloves, the physician or assistant should dispose of contaminated
objects (gauze or cotton and other waste items) in a plastic bag or leakproof,
covered container. Next, disposable sharps (e.g., scalpel blades and suture
needles) should be placed in a sharps container. Finally, all instruments and
reusable items such as surgical gloves, syringes and suction cannulae,
whether or not they were used in the operation, should be decontaminated by
soaking for 10 minutes in a disinfectant (e.g., 0.5% chlorine solution). This
step is especially important if these items are to be cleaned by hand (Nyström
1981).

Following decontamination, the instruments and reusable items should be

thoroughly cleaned with soap and water, completely rinsed and dried. Then,
surgical instruments and those items that come in contact with the blood
stream or touch normally sterile tissue beneath the skin (critical items) should
be sterilized to destroy all microorganisms including bacterial endospores.

1
Adapted from: Tietjen, Cronin and McIntosh 1992.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 9-1

Overview of Recommended Processes

(When sterilization is not feasible or equipment not available, however, HLD

by boiling, steaming or soaking in a chemical disinfectant is the only
acceptable alternative.) Instruments and other items that touch only mucous
Remember: Steaming and
membranes or broken skin (semicritical items), however, only need to be
boiling, even for prolonged high-level disinfected.
periods, or soaking for 20
minutes in a high-level Figure 9-1. Processing Instruments, Surgical Gloves and Other Items
disinfectant do not destroy
endospores reliably. Staff
should be aware of the
limitations of HLD.

DEFINITIONS

x Cleaning. Process that physically removes all visible dust, soil, blood or
other body fluids from inanimate objects as well as removing sufficient
numbers of microorganisms to reduce risks for those who touch the skin
or handle the object. It consists of thoroughly washing with soap or
detergent and water, rinsing with clean water and drying.2
x Decontamination. Process that makes inanimate objects safer to be
handled by staff before cleaning (i.e., inactivates HBV, HBC and HIV

2
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to remove particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with a dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).

9-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Overview of Recommended Processes

and reduces, but does not eliminate, the number of other contaminating
microorganisms).
x High-level disinfection (HLD). Process that eliminates all
microorganisms except some bacterial endospores from inanimate
objects by boiling, steaming or the use of chemical disinfectants.
x Sterilization. Process that eliminates all microorganisms (bacteria,
viruses, fungi and parasites) including bacterial endospores from
inanimate objects by high-pressure steam (autoclave), dry heat (oven),
chemical sterilants or radiation.

GUIDELINES FOR PROCESSING ITEMS

Each item, whether a soiled metal instruments or pair of surgical gloves,

requires special handling and processing in order to:

x minimize the risk of accidental injury or blood or body fluid exposure to

cleaning and housekeeping staff; and
x provide a high quality end product (i.e., sterile or high-level disinfected
instruments and other items).

Specific guidelines for processing instruments, surgical gloves, equipment

and other items used to provide healthcare services are summarized in Table
9-1. In this table, the first column lists the item to be processed. The next two
columns describe how to decontaminate and clean each item, while in the last
two columns the conditions for sterilizing or high-level disinfecting the item,
if necessary, are presented.

Additional information and evidence supporting the use of each of these

processes is provided in Chapters 10–12 and Appendices E–H. When
performed correctly, these processes provide excellent barriers to preventing
the spread of infection from medical instruments, surgical gloves and other
items to patients and healthcare personnel.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 9-3

Table 9-1. Guidelines for Processing Instruments, Surgical Gloves and Other Items
Process Decontamination is the first step in Cleaning removes all visible Sterilization destroys all High-Level Disinfection destroys
handling used items; it reduces risk blood, body fluids and dirt. microorganisms, including all viruses, bacteria, parasites,
of HBV, HCV and HIV viruses. endospores. fungi and some endospores.
INSTRUMENTS OR DECONTAMINATION CLEANING STERILIZATIONa OR HIGH-LEVEL
OTHER ITEMS ITEMS DISINFECTIONb
Airways (plastic) Soak in a 0.5% chlorine solution Wash with soap and water. Rinse Not necessary. Not necessary.
for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. with clean water, air or towel dry.
Rinse and wash immediately.
Ambu bags and CPR face Wipe exposed surfaces with Wash with soap and water. Rinse Not necessary. Not necessary.
masks gauze pad soaked in 60B90% with clean water, air or towel dry.
alcohol or 0.5% chlorine; rinse
immediately.
Aprons (heavy plastic or Wipe with 0.5% chlorine Wash with liquid soap and water. Not necessary. Not necessary.
rubber) solution. Rinse with clean water. Rinse with clean water, air or
Between each procedure or each towel dry at the end of the day or
time they are taken off. when visibly soiled.
Bed pans, urinals or emesis Not necessary. Using a brush, wash with Not necessary. Not necessary.
basins disinfectant solution (soap and
0.5% chlorine). Rinse with clean
water.
Blood pressure cuff If contaminated with blood or If soiled, wash with soap and Not necessary. Not necessary.
body fluids, wipe with gauze pad water. Rinse with clean water, air
or cloth soaked with 0.5% or towel dry.
chlorine solution.
Diaphragms or fitting rings Soak in 0.5% chlorine solution Wash with soap and water. Rinse Not necessary but can be autoclaved x Steam or boil for 20
(used for sizing with clients) for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. with clean water. Air or towel at 121°C (250°F) 106 kPa (15 lbs/in2) minutes.
Rinse or wash immediately. dry. for 20 minutes (unwrapped). x Chemically high-level
disinfect by soaking in 8%
formaldehyde, or a 2–4%
glutaraldehyde for 20
minutes. Rinse well in
water that has been boiled.
Exam or operating room tables Wipe off with 0.5% chlorine Wash with soap and water if Not necessary. Not necessary.
or other large surface areas solution. organic material remains after
(carts and stretchers) decontamination.

9-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 INSTRUMENTS OR DECONTAMINATION CLEANING STERILIZATIONa OR HIGH-LEVEL
OTHER ITEMS ITEMS DISINFECTIONb
Footwear (rubber shoes or Wipe with 0.5% chlorine Wash with liquid soap and water. Not necessary. Not necessary.
boots) solution. Rinse with clean water. Rinse with clean water, air or
At the end of the day or when towel dry at the end of the day or
visibly soiled. when visibly soiled.
Hypodermic needles and While holding needle under the Disassemble, and then wash with Preferable (glass only): Acceptable (glass or plastic):
syringes (glass or plastic) surface of 0.5% chlorine solution, soap and water. Rinse with clean x Dry heat for 2 hours after x Steam or boil for 20
fill assembled needle and syringe water, air or towel dry syringes reaching 160°C (320°F) (glass minutes.
with solution and soak for 10 (only air dry needles). syringes only), or
minutes prior to cleaning. Rinse x Autoclave at 121°C (250°F) and (Chemical HLD is not
by flushing three times with clean 106 kPa (15 lbs/in2) for 20 recommended because
water. minutes (30 minutes if wrapped). chemical residue may remain
even after repeated rinsing with
boiled water. These residues
may interfere with the action of
drugs being injected.)
IUDs and inserters Not appropriate. Not appropriate. Not recommended. Most IUDs and Not recommended.
(never reuse) inserters come in sterile packages.
Discard if package seal is broken.
Laparoscopes Wipe exposed surfaces with Disassemble, then using a brush Sterilize daily using chemical Between cases, soak for 20
gauze pad soaked in 60B90% wash with soap and water. Rinse sterilization. Soak in: minutes in:
alcohol; rinse immediately. with clean water, towel dry. x a glutaraldehyde (usually 2%) for x a glutaraldehyde (usually
10 hours, or 2–4%), or
x 8% formaldehyde for 24 hours. x 8% formaldehyde, or
Rinse with sterile water or water x 0.1% chlorine solution
which has been boiled for 20 minutes with boiled and filtered (if
three times. necessary) water.
Rinse three times with water
that has been boiled for 20
minutes.
PPE (caps, masks, Not necessary. (Laundry staff Wash with soap and hot water. Not necessary. Not necessary.
covergowns)d should wear plastic aprons, gloves Rinse with clean water, air or
and protective foot and eyewear machine dry. Wrap for reuse.
when handling soiled linen.)
Stethoscopes Wipe with gauze pad soaked in If soiled, wash with soap and Not necessary. Not necessary.
60–90% alcohol. water. Rinse with clean water, air
or towel dry.

9-5 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 INSTRUMENTS OR DECONTAMINATION CLEANING STERILIZATIONa OR HIGH-LEVEL
OTHER ITEMS ITEMS DISINFECTIONb
Storage containers for Soak in 0.5% chlorine solution Wash with soap and water. Rinse x Dry heat for 1 hour after reaching Boil container and lid for 20
instruments (metal or plastic) for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. with clean water, air or towel dry. 170°C (340°F), or minutes. If container is too
Rinse or wash immediately.c x Autoclave at 121°C (250°F) and large:
106 kPa (15 lbs/in2) for 20 x Fill container with 0.5%
minutes (30 minutes if wrapped). chlorine solution and soak
for 20 minutes.
x Rinse with water that has
been boiled for 20 minutes
and air dry before use.
Suction bulbs (rubber) Soak in a 0.5% chlorine solution Wash with soap and water. Rinse Not necessary. Not necessary.
for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. with clean water, air or towel dry.
Rinse and wash immediately.
Suction cannulae (plastic) for Soak in 0.5% chlorine solution Pass soapy water through Not recommended. (Heat from Steam or boil for 20 minutes.
manual vacuum aspiration for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. cannulae three times, removing autoclaving or dry- heat ovens will
(MVA) Rinse or wash immediately. all particles. damage cannulae.)
Suction catheters Soak in 0.5% chlorine solution Pass soapy water through catheter Not recommended. (Heat from x Steam or boil for 20
(rubber or plastic) for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. three times. Rinse three times autoclaving or dry-heat ovens will minutes.
Rinse or wash immediately. with clean water (inside and damage plastic catheters; rubber (Chemical HLD is not
outside). catheters can be autoclaved.) recommended because
chemical residue may remain
even after repeated rinsing with
boiled water.)
Surgical gloves Soak in 0.5% chlorine solution Wash with soap and water. Rinse If used for surgery: x Steam for 20 minutes and
for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. with clean water and check for x Autoclave at 121°C (250°F), and allow to dry in steamer.
Rinse or wash immediately. holes. If to be sterilized, dry 106 kPa (15 lbs/in2) for 20 minutes.
inside and out (air or towel dry) x Do not use for 24B48 hours.
and package.
Surgical gowns, linen drapes Not necessary. (Laundry staff Wash with soap and hot water. Autoclave at 120°C/250°F and 106 Not practical.
and wrappersd should wear plastic aprons, Rinse with clean water, air or kPa (15 lbs/in2) for 30 minutes.
gloves and protective foot and machine dry.
eyewear, when handling soiled
linen.)

9-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 INSTRUMENTS OR DECONTAMINATION CLEANING STERILIZATIONa OR HIGH-LEVEL
OTHER ITEMS ITEMS DISINFECTIONb
Surgical instruments (metal) Soak in 0.5% chlorine solution Using a brush, wash with soap Preferable: Acceptable:
for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. and water. Rinse with clean x Dry heat for 1 hour after reaching x Steam or boil for 20
Rinse or wash immediately.c water. If to be sterilized, air or 170°C (340°F)e, or minutes.
towel dry and wrap in packs or x Autoclave at 121°C (250°F) and x Chemically high-level
individually. 106 kPa (15 lbs/in2) for 20 minutes disinfect by soaking for 20
(30 minutes if wrapped). minutes. Rinse well with
For sharp instruments: Dry heat for boiled water and air dry
2 hours after reaching 160°C (320qF).e before use or storage.
Thermometers (glass) Not necessary. Wipe with disinfectant solution Not necessary. Not necessary.
(soap and 0.5% chlorine). Rinse
with clean water, air or towel dry.
Transfer forceps (chittle) and Soak in 0.5% chlorine solution Using a brush, wash with soap Preferable: Acceptable:
container (metal) for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. and water. Rinse with clean x Dry heat for 1 hour after reaching x Steam or boil for 20
Rinse or wash immediately.c water. If to be sterilized, air or 170°C (340°F)e, or minutes.
(Reprocess per shift or when towel dry. x Autoclave at 121°C (250°F) and
contaminated.) Chemically high-level disinfect
106 kPa (15 lbs/in2) for 20 by soaking for 20 minutes.
minutes (30 minutes if wrapped). Rinse well with boiled water
and air dry before use.
Urinary catheters (rubber and Soak in 0.5% chlorine solution Using a brush, wash with soap Preferable (metal only): Acceptable (rubber or metal):
straight metal) for 10 minutes prior to cleaning. and water. Rinse three times with x Dry heat for 2 hours after reaching x Steam or boil for 20
Rinse or wash immediately.c clean water (inside and outside). 160°C (320°F), or minutes.
x Autoclave at 121°C (250°F) and
106 kPa (15 lbs/in2) for 20 minutes
(30 minutes if wrapped).
Ventilator tubing or circuits Not necessary. Using a brush, wash with soap Not possible using an autoclave or dry Acceptable
and water. Rinse with clean water heat oven. x Steam or boil for 20
and air dry. minutes.
x Air dry before use.
a
If unwrapped, use immediately; if wrapped, reprocess if package becomes damaged or contaminated.
b
If sterilization (dry-heat or autoclave) is not available, these items can be high-level disinfected either by boiling, steaming or soaking in a chemical disinfectant.
c
Avoid prolonged exposure (> 20 minutes) to chlorine solution (> 0.5%) to minimize corrosion (rusting) of instruments and deterioration of rubber or cloth products.
d
Paper or plastic gowns, caps or masks. Place in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container for disposal.
e
Instruments with cutting edges or needles should not be sterilized at temperatures above 160(C to avoid dulling.

9-7 Infection Prevention Guidelines

Overview of Recommended Processes

REFERENCES

Nyström B. 1981. Disinfection of surgical instruments. J Hosp Infect

2(4): 363–368.
Tietjen LG, W Cronin and N McIntosh. 1992. Processing
instruments, gloves and other items, in Infection Prevention
Guidelines for Family Planning Service Programs. Essential Medical
Information Systems, Inc.: Durant, OK, pp 29–43.

9-8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TEN

DECONTAMINATION AND CLEANING1

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Why decontamination and cleaning are important initial steps in

processing soiled items
x How effective decontamination and cleaning are
x How to prepare dilute bleach solutions for decontamination
x How to decontaminate and clean instruments, surgical gloves and other
items

BACKGROUND

Healthcare workers are increasingly at risk of becoming infected with serious

bloodborne viruses such as HBV, HCV and HIV. The greatest risk is for staff
who:

x perform or assist with surgical procedures (physicians, nurses and

midwives);
x process surgical instruments and equipment (staff); and
x perform housekeeping and waste management tasks, including disposal
of infectious waste items.

Decontamination and cleaning are two highly effective infection prevention

measures that can minimize the risk of transmission of these viruses to
healthcare workers, especially cleaning and housekeeping staff, when they
handle soiled medical instruments, surgical gloves or other items. These
measures are also important steps in breaking the infection transmission
cycle for patients (see Chapter 1). Both processes are easy to do and are
inexpensive ways of ensuring that patients and staff are at a lower risk of
becoming infected from contaminated instruments and other inanimate
objects.

DECONTAMINATION

More than 20 years ago it was shown that decontamination markedly reduces
the level of microbial contamination of surgical instruments. For example, in
the study by Nyström (1981), 75% of previously soiled instruments had
fewer than 10 microorganisms and 98% had fewer than 100 after being
decontaminated prior to cleaning. Because of these findings, it was strongly

1
Adapted from: Tietjen, Cronin and McIntosh 1992.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 10 - 1

Decontamination and Cleaning

recommended that if instruments and other items are to be cleaned by hand,

they first should be decontaminated to minimize the risk of infection
following accidental injury to cleaning staff as well as to reduce microbial
contamination of their hands.

As presented in Figure 9-1, decontamination is the first step in processing

soiled surgical instruments, surgical gloves and other items. It is important,
before cleaning, to decontaminate these items by placing them in a 0.5%
chlorine solution for 10 minutes. This step rapidly inactivates HBV, HCV and
HIV and makes the items safer to handle by personnel who clean them (AORN
1990; ASHCSP 1986).

Decontamination Chlorine solutions made from sodium hypochlorite generally are the least
Products expensive and the most rapid acting and effective products to use for
decontamination, but other agents can also be used such as 70% ethyl or
isopropyl alcohol and 0.5–3% phenolic compounds (Crutcher et al 1991).

If no disinfectants are available for decontamination, extreme care

must be taken when handling and cleaning sharps (e.g., suture
needles, scissors and scalpel blades).

Table 10-1 describes how to make 0.1% and 0.5% chlorine solutions using
commercially available liquid bleach products.

Table 10-1. Preparing Dilute Chlorine Solutions from Liquid Bleach (Sodium Hypochlorite Solution) for
Decontamination and HLD
TYPE OR BRAND OF BLEACH (BY COUNTRY) CHLORINE PARTS WATER TO 1 PART
BLEACHa
% available 0.5% 0.1%b
8 qchlorumc 2.4% 4 23
JIK (Kenya), Robin Bleach (Nepal) 3.5% 6 34
12 qchlorum 3.6% 6 35
Household bleach (USA, Indonesia), ACE (Turkey), Eau de 5% 9 49
Javal (France)
(15 qchlorum), Lejía (Peru)
Blanquedor, Cloro (Mexico) 6% 11 59
Lavandina (Bolivia) 8% 15 79
Chloros (UK) 10% 19 99
Chloros (UK), Extrait de Javel (France) 15% 29 149
(48 qchlorumc)
a
Read as one part (e.g., cup or glass) concentrated bleach to x parts water (e.g., JIK [0.5% solution]—mix 1 cup bleach
with 6 cups water for a total of 7 cups).
b
Use boiled water when preparing a 0.1% chlorine solution for HLD because tap water contains microscopic organic
matter that inactivates chlorine.
c
In some countries, the concentration of sodium hypochlorite is expressed in chlorometric degrees (qchlorum); one
qchlorum is approximately equivalent to 0.3% available chlorine.
Adapted from: WHO 1989.

10 - 2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Decontamination and Cleaning

The formula for making a dilute chlorine solution from any concentrated
hypochlorite solution is shown in Figure 10-1.

Figure 10-1. Formula for Making a Dilute Solution from a Concentrated Solution

x Check concentration (% concentrate) of the chlorine product you are using.

x Determine total parts water needed using Table 10-1 or the formula below.

Total Parts (TP) water = ª % Concentrate º -1

«¬ % Dilute »¼

x Mix 1 part concentrated bleach with the total parts water required.
Example: Make a dilute solution (0.5%) from 5% concentrated solution
5.0% º
STEP 1: Calculate TP water: ª -1 = 10 – 1 = 9
«¬ 0.5% »¼
STEP 2: Take 1 part concentrated solution and add to 9 parts water.

The approximate amounts (grams) needed to make 0.1% and 0.5% chlorine-
releasing solutions from several commercially available chlorine-releasing
compounds (dry powders) are listed in Table 10-2.

Table 10-2. Preparing Dilute Chlorine Solutions from Dry Powders

AVAILABLE 0.5% 0.1%b
CHLORINE REQUIRED
Calcium hypochlorite (70% 7.1 g/La 1.4 g/L
available chlorine)
Calcium hypochlorite (35% 14.2 g/L 2.8 g/L
available chlorine)
NaDCCc (60% available 8.3 g/L 1.5 g/L
chlorine)
Chloramine tabletsd (1 g of 20 g/L (20 tablets/liter) d 4 g/L (4 tablets/liter) d
available chlorine per tablet)
NaDCC-based tablets (1.5 g 4 tablets/liter 1 tablet/liter
of available chlorine per
tablet)

a
For dry powders, read x grams per liter (example: Calcium hypochlorite—7.1 grams
mixed with 1 liter water).
b
Use boiled water when preparing a 0.1% chlorine solution for HLD because tap water
contains microscopic organic matter that inactivates chlorine.
c
Sodium dichloroisocyanurate
d
Chloramine releases chlorine at a slower rate than does hypochlorite. Before using the
solution, be sure the tablet is completely dissolved.

Adapted from: World Health Organization (WHO) 1989.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 10 - 3

Decontamination and Cleaning

The formula for making a dilute solution from a powder of any percent
available chlorine is shown in Figure 10-2.

Figure 10-2. Formula for Making Chlorine Solutions from Dry Powders

x Check concentration (% concentrate) of the powder you are using.

x Determine grams bleach needed using Table 10-2 or the formula below.

Grams/Liter = ª % Dilute º x 1000

« % Concentrate »
¬ ¼
x Mix measured amount of bleach powder with 1 liter of water.
Example: Make a dilute chlorine-releasing solution (0.5%) from a concentrated powder
(35%).

ª 0.5% º
STEP 1: Calculate grams/liter:
« 35% » x 1000 = 14.2 g / L
¬ ¼
STEP 2: Add 14.2 grams (14 g) to 1 liter of water.

WHO (1989) recommends 0.5% chlorine solution for decontaminating

instruments and surfaces before cleaning because potable (clean) tap water
often is not available for making the solution. In addition, because of the
potentially high load of microorganisms and/or other organic material (blood
or other body fluids) on soiled items, using a 0.5% solution for
decontamination provides a wider margin of safety (Tietjen and McIntosh
1989). For HLD, a 0.1% chlorine solution can be prepared provided boiled
and filtered (if necessary) water is used for dilution, and the items have been
thoroughly cleaned and rinsed.

Decontamination Tips x Use a plastic container for decontamination to help prevent:

x dulling of sharps (e.g., scissors) due to contact with metal containers;

and
x rusting of instruments due to a chemical reaction (electrolysis) that
can occur between two different metals (i.e., the instrument and
container) when placed in water.

x Do not soak metal instruments that are electroplated (i.e., not 100%
stainless steel) even in plain water for more that an hour because rusting
will occur.

After decontamination, instruments should be rinsed immediately with cool

water to remove visible organic material before being thoroughly cleaned.
For example, some healthcare facilities now keep two buckets in the
procedure areas or operating rooms, one filled with 0.5% chlorine solution
and one with water, so that the instruments can be placed in the water after
soaking in the chlorine solution for 10 minutes. Although this will help to

10 - 4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Decontamination and Cleaning

prevent corrosion, even leaving the instruments in plain water for more than
1 hour can lead to rusting.

Hypodermic needles and syringes that are to be disposed of should be

decontaminated, placed in a puncture-resistant sharps container and, when
the container is three-quarters full, burned, encapsulated or buried. If
syringes (and needles) are to be reused, however, they should be
thoroughly washed and rinsed after decontamination.

Because it is the contaminated needle that primarily is responsible for

injuries, it is recommended that only the syringe, but not the needle, be
processed for reuse. Doing this is safer than processing both the needle and
the syringe (Appendix E). Furthermore, as discussed in Chapter 14, it
reduces costs and creates less contaminated waste than disposing of both.

Remember: The objective Large surfaces, such as pelvic examination or operating tables, that may
of decontamination is to have come in contact with blood and body fluids should be decontaminated.
protect individuals who Wiping with a suitable disinfectant such as 0.5% chlorine solution before
handle surgical instruments
reuse or when visibly contaminated is an easy, inexpensive way to
and other items, which
have been in contact with decontaminate these large surfaces.
blood or body fluids, from
serious diseases. Once instruments and other items have been decontaminated, they can safely
be further processed. This consists of cleaning and finally either sterilization
or high-level disinfection.

CLEANING
Cleaning is important because:

x It is an effective way to reduce the number of microorganisms, especially

endospores that cause tetanus, on soiled instruments and equipment.
x Neither sterilization nor high-level disinfection is effective without prior
Note: Many cleaning cleaning (Porter 1987).
products contain ammonia,
which can interact with A thorough washing with soap and clean water also physically removes
bleach and cause the
formation of toxic fumes.
organic material such as blood and body fluids.2 This is important because
Check the label of any dried organic material can entrap microorganisms, including endospores, in a
cleaning product to see if it residue that protects them against sterilization or disinfection. Organic matter
contains ammonia. also can partially inactivate some high-level disinfectants, rendering them
(Sometimes you can be less effective (AORN 1992; Rutala et al 1998).
alerted to this if you smell
ammonia when opening the
container.) Use of soap is important for effective cleaning because water alone will not
remove protein, oils and grease (Nyström 1981). The use of hand (bar) or
powdered soap is discouraged because the fatty acids in bar soap react with

2
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to remove particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with a dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).

Infection Prevention Guidelines 10 - 5

Decontamination and Cleaning

the minerals in hard water leaving a residue or scum (insoluble calcium salt),
which is difficult to remove. Using liquid soap, if available, is preferable
because it mixes more easily with water than bar or powdered soaps. In
addition, liquid soap breaks up and dissolves or suspends grease, oil and
other foreign matter in solution so that they can be removed more easily by
the cleaning process.

Do not use abrasive cleaners (e.g., Vim® or Comet®) or steel wool

because these products can scratch or pit metal or stainless steel.
These scratches then become a nesting place for microorganisms,
making cleaning more difficult, as well as increasing the chance of
corrosion (rusting).

As shown in Table 10-3, most microorganisms (up to 80%) in blood and

other organic material are removed during the cleaning process. Moreover,
following standard cleaning, most nonlumen surgical instruments contained
less than 100 colony-forming units (CFU) consisting of relatively
nonpathogenic microorganisms (Rutala et al 1998). This study confirms that
thorough cleaning is more effective than previously assumed and documents
the importance of cleaning in producing a safe product for surgery.

Table 10-3. Effectiveness of Methods for Processing Instruments

METHOD EFFECTIVENESS END POINT
(kill or remove
microorganisms)
Decontamination Kills HBV and HIV and 10 minute soak
most microorganisms
Cleaning (water only) Up to 50% Until visibly clean
Cleaning (soap and rinsing Up to 80% Until visibly clean
with water)
Sterilization 100% High-pressure steam, dry
heat or chemical for
recommended time
High-Level Disinfection 95% (does not inactivate Boiling, steaming or
some endospores) chemical for 20 minutes

Once an item is washed it also needs to be rinsed and usually dried.

Thorough rinsing with clean water removes any soap residue that can
interfere with sterilization or HLD.3 After rinsing, items should be dried,
especially if they will be sterilized or high-level disinfected using chemical
disinfectants. Water remaining on the items (e.g., surgical instruments)
dilutes the solution and may cause the process to fail.

3
If tap water is contaminated, use boiled or chlorinated water and filter if necessary.

10 - 6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Decontamination and Cleaning

Cleaning Tips x Wear gloves while cleaning instruments and equipment. (Thick
household or utility gloves work well.) If torn or damaged, they should be
discarded; otherwise they should be cleaned and left to dry at the end of
Note: Even when wearing the day for use the following day.
heavy-duty utility gloves, x Wear protective eyewear (plastic visors, face shields, goggles or
care should be taken to glasses) and a plastic apron, if available, while cleaning instruments and
prevent needlesticks or cuts
when washing sharps. equipment to minimize the risk of splashing contaminated fluids into the
eyes and onto the body.

To prevent splashing keep the items being washed under the

Note: Clean noncritical surface of the water.
items such as blood
pressure cuffs and
stethoscopes with a x Instruments should be washed with a soft brush (an old toothbrush work
suitable disinfectant well) in soapy water. Particular attention should be paid to instruments
(Weber and Rutala 1993).
with teeth, joints or screws where organic material can collect. After
cleaning, instruments should be thoroughly rinsed with clean water to
remove soap residue that can interfere with chemical disinfectants used
for high-level disinfection or sterilization.
x Syringes (glass or plastic) when reused should be disassembled only
after decontamination and cleaned with soapy water. They then should be
thoroughly rinsed (three times) with clean water to remove the soap by
expelling the water through the syringe into another container (to prevent
contaminating the rinse water), and then dried.
x Surgical gloves should be washed in soapy water. Both the inside and
outside should be washed and rinsed in clean water until no soap remains.
Note: If an item cannot be Test gloves for holes by inflating them by hand and holding them under
cleaned, it cannot be reused water. (Air bubbles will appear if there are holes.)
and should be discarded.
x Rubber or plastic tubing, such as nasogastic suction tubing for
newborns, should be reused only if it can be thoroughly cleaned, rinsed
and dried.
x Oral or rectal thermometers should never be mixed even after cleaning.
Keep them in separate containers.
x Operative endoscopes (e.g., laparoscopes) must be carefully cleaned
because improper cleaning is a common cause of mechanical problems as
well as transmission of infections to the next patient (Weber and Rutala
2001). Immediately after use (and before disassembly), wipe all surfaces
with a gauze pad soaked with 60–90% alcohol and rinse with cool water.
(This step helps protect the person cleaning by inactivating many
microorganisms including HIV.) Then completely disassemble the
laparoscope and place in warm water containing a nonabrasive soap.
Clean all surfaces with a soft brush. Particular attention should be paid to
areas where blood and tissue can easily collect—the inner channel of the
operating laparoscope, the Falope-Ring® applicator, the trocar and
cannula. After cleaning, laparoscopes should be rinsed thoroughly three

Infection Prevention Guidelines 10 - 7

Decontamination and Cleaning

times with clean water to remove all soap residue. Excess water should
be removed before proceeding with chemical sterilization or high-level
disinfection so as not to dilute the chemical solution.

Savlon should not be used for final processing of laparoscopes

because it is not a high-level disinfectant and, furthermore, may
cloud the lens.

Additional step-by-step instructions on how to decontaminate and clean each

of the following items are provided elsewhere in this manual:

x linens and other items (see Chapter 13)

x rubber gloves (see Appendix C)
x surgical instruments (see Appendix E)
x needles and syringes (see Appendix E)
x laparoscopes (see Appendix H)

Finally, if instruments are to be sterilized, they should be packaged or

individually wrapped after cleaning. (For instructions on packaging and
wrapping instruments for high-pressure steam sterilization or dry heat
sterilization, see Chapter 11 and Appendix G.)

REFERENCES

American Society for Hospital Central Service Personnel (ASHCSP) of the

American Hospital Association. 1986. Training Manual for Central Service
Technicians. Enman C (ed). ASHCSP: Chicago, p 155.
Association of Operating Room Nurses (AORN). 1992. Recommended
Practices: Disinfection. AORN J 56(4): 715–720.
Association of Operating Room Nurses (AORN). 1990. Clinical issues.
AORN J 52: 613–615.
Crutcher JM, SH Lamm and TA Hall. 1991. Procedures to protect healthcare
workers from HIV infection: Category I (healthcare) workers. Am Ind Hyg
Assoc J 52(2): A100–103.
Nyström B. 1981. Disinfection of surgical instruments. J Hosp Infect 2(4):
363–368.
Porter CW. 1987. Prevention of infection in voluntary surgical contraception.
Biomedical Bulletin 6(1): 1–7.
Rutala WA et al. 1998. Levels of microbial contamination on surgical
instruments. Am J Infect Control 26(2): 143–145.

10 - 8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Decontamination and Cleaning

Tietjen LG, W Cronin and N McIntosh. 1992. Decontamination and

cleaning procedures, in Infection Prevention Guidelines for Family
Planning Service Programs. Essential Medical Information Systems, Inc.:
Durant, OK, pp 44–51.
Tietjen LG and N McIntosh. 1989. Infection prevention in family planning
facilities. Outlook 7: 2–8.
Weber DJ and Rutala WA. 2001. Lessons from outbreaks associated with
bronchoscopy. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 22(7): 403–408.
Weber DJ and Rutala WA. 1993. Environmental issues and nosocomial
infections, in Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infection, 2nd ed.
Wenzel (ed). Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, MD, pp 420–450.
World Health Organization (WHO). 1989. Guidelines on Sterilization and
High-Level Disinfection Methods Effective Against Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). AIDS Series 2. WHO: Geneva.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 10 - 9

Decontamination and Cleaning

10 - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 ELEVEN

STERILIZATION1

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the common methods of sterilization are

x What the advantages and disadvantages of these methods are
x How to store sterilized items
x What the advantages and disadvantages of other methods of sterilization are

BACKGROUND

Sterilization destroys all microorganisms, including bacterial

endospores.

Sterilization should be used for instruments, surgical gloves and other items
that come in direct contact with the blood stream or normally sterile tissues
(Spaulding 1939). It can be achieved by high-pressure steam (autoclave), dry
heat (oven), chemical sterilants (glutaraldehydes or formaldehyde solutions)
or physical agents (radiation). Because sterilization is a process, not a single
event, all components must be carried out correctly for sterilization to occur.

Effectiveness To be effective, sterilization requires time, contact, temperature and, with

steam sterilization, high pressure. The effectiveness of any method of
sterilization is also dependent upon four other factors:

1. The type of microorganism present. Some microorganisms are very

difficult to kill. Others die easily.
Note: Although rinsing an
item with alcohol and then 2. The number of microorganisms present. It is much easier to kill one
igniting it with a match organism than many.
(flaming) sometimes is 3. The amount and type of organic material that protects the
suggested as a method of microorganisms. Blood or tissue remaining on poorly cleaned
sterilization, it is not
instruments acts as a shield to microorganisms during the sterilization
effective!
process.
4. The number of cracks and crevices on an instrument that might
harbor microorganisms. Microorganisms collect in, and are protected
by, scratches, cracks and crevices such as the serrated jaws of tissue
forceps.

Finally, without thorough cleaning, which removes any organic matter

remaining on the instruments that could protect microorganisms during the

1
Adapted from: Tietjen, Cronin and McIntosh 1992.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 11 - 1

Sterilization

sterilization process, sterilization cannot be assured, even with longer

sterilization times.

METHODS OF HEAT STERILIZATION

High-pressure, saturated steam using an autoclave, or dry heat using an oven,

are the most common and readily available methods used for sterilization.
Remember: When
instruments and equipment
are sterilized by high- High-pressure steam sterilization is an effective method of sterilization but
pressure steam (autoclaving), is the most difficult to do correctly (Gruendemann and Mangum 2001). It is
it is essential that steam generally the method of choice for sterilizing instruments and other items
reach all surfaces. For used in healthcare facilities. Where electricity is a problem, instruments can
example, steam sterilizing
closed containers will
be sterilized in a nonelectric steam sterilizer using kerosene or other fuel as a
sterilize only the outside of heat source.
the containers!
Dry-heat sterilizers (ovens) are good in humid climates but need a
continuous supply of electricity, making them impractical in many remote
(rural) areas. Furthermore, dry-heat sterilization, which requires use of higher
temperatures, can be used only with glass or metal objects—it will melt other
substances.

Standard Conditions for Heat Sterilization

Steam sterilization (Gravity): Temperature should be 121qC (250qF);
pressure should be 106 kPa (15 lbs/in2); 20 minutes for unwrapped items; 30
minutes for wrapped items. Or at a higher temperature of 132qC (270qF),
pressure should be 30lbs/in2; 15 minutes for wrapped items.
Note: High-speed (flash)
prevacuum sterilizers are Allow all items to dry before removing them from the sterilizer.
operated at higher
Note: Pressure settings (kPa or lbs/in2) may vary slightly depending on the
temperatures (134qC/275qF).
Sterilizing time for
sterilizer used. When possible, follow manufacturers’ recommendations.
unwrapped instruments by Dry heat:
this method is shorter, only
taking 4 minutes. Flash x 170qC (340qF) for 1 hour (total cycle time—placing instruments in
sterilization is usually used oven, heating to 170qC, timing for 1 hour, and then cooling—is from 2–
for individual items. 2.5 hours), or
x 160qC (320qF) for 2 hours (total cycle time is from 3–3.5 hours).
Remember:
x Exposure time begins only after the sterilizer has reached the target
temperature.
x Do not overload the sterilizer. (Leave at least 7.5 cm [3 inches] between
the items and walls of sterilizer.) Overloading alters heat convection and
increases the time required to sterilize.
Source: Perkins 1983.

11 - 2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Sterilization

Sterile instruments and other items should be used immediately unless they:

x were wrapped in a double layer of muslin, paper or other appropriate

material prior to sterilization; or
x can be stored in a dry, sterile container with a tight-fitting lid.

The material used for wrapping instruments and other items must be porous
enough to let steam through but tightly woven enough to protect against dust
particles and microorganisms (see Appendix G for wrapping and packaging
instructions). Wrapped sterile packs should remain sterile until some event
causes the package or container to become contaminated. An event can be a
tear or worn area in the wrapping, the package becoming wet or anything else
that will allow microorganisms to enter the package or container.

Heat Sterilization for Prion diseases, such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), are a group of
Prion Diseases degenerative brain diseases that have received much attention during the past
few years. They occur in animals (dogs, cows and primates) as well as
humans and are rapidly fatal once symptoms develop. In humans, CJD
remains rare with an incidence of less than 1 per million in the general
population (Holman et al 1996). CJD poses a unique infection prevention
problem because prions, which are protein-containing infectious agents, can
survive recommended heat or high-pressure steam sterilization processes. In
addition, chemical disinfectants, including sterilants such as glutaraldehydes
and formaldehyde, are not strong enough to eliminate prion infectivity on
contaminated instruments and other items. Therefore, surgical instruments
and other critical devices contaminated with high-risk tissue (i.e., brain,
spinal cord and eye tissue) from patients with known or suspected CJD
require special treatment (Rutala and Weber 2001).

Recommendations for caring for patients with known or suspected CJD, as

well as handling and processing contaminated instruments and other devices,
include the following:

x Because the risk of transmission of prions from patients or noncritical

items (e.g., dishes or bedpans) to health workers is low, only Standard
Precautions are needed for patients with known or suspected CJD.
x During surgery, put a minimum number of instruments on the operative
field and monitor which instruments were used. This reduces the number
of instruments requiring special handling and processing.
x After surgery:

x Avoid handling contaminated instruments.

x Disposable items and personal protective equipment worn by the
surgical team should be placed in a plastic bag and incinerated.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 11 - 3

Sterilization

x Following surgery, noncritical items such as the operating table,

Mayo stand and other environmental surfaces can be decontaminated
Note: Do not soak by wiping with a cloth soaked with 0.5% chlorine solution.
contaminated instruments
in dilute bleach (0.5%
x Heat-resistant instruments and other devices should first be
chlorine) solution or wash decontaminated by placing them in a gravity displacement sterilizer at
them. 121oC (250oF) for 1 hour, or in a prevacuum sterilizer at 134oC (275oF)
for 18 minutes.2
x After decontamination, clean and sterilize the instruments using the
recommended processes (Chapter 10 and 11).
x Alternatively, after surgery, soak contaminated instruments and other
devices in 1 N sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for 1 hour, then clean and
sterilize them using recommended processes (Abrutyn, Goldman and
Scheckler 1998; Fishman et al 2002).3, 4
x Biopsy tissue and surgical specimens should be placed in formalin for 48
hours, then in formic acid for 1 hour and, finally, back into fresh formalin
for 48 hours (Abrutyn, Goldman and Scheckler 1998).

STERILIZATION BY STEAM

General Principles Steam is an effective sterilant for two reasons. First, saturated steam is an
extremely effective “carrier” of thermal energy. It is many times more
effective in conveying this type of energy to the item than is hot (dry) air. In
a kitchen, potatoes can be cooked in a few minutes in a steam pressure
cooker while cooking may take an hour or more in a hot-air oven, even
though the oven is operated at a much higher temperature. Steam, especially
under pressure, carries thermal energy to the potatoes very quickly, while hot
air does so very slowly. Second, steam is an effective sterilant because any
resistant, protective outer layer of the microorganisms can be softened by the
steam, allowing coagulation (similar to cooking an egg white) of the sensitive
inner portions of the microorganism. Certain types of contaminants, however,
especially greasy or oily materials, can protect microorganisms against the
effects of steam, thus hindering the process of sterilization. This re-
emphasizes the need for thorough cleaning of objects before sterilization.

Requirements Steam sterilization requires four conditions: adequate contact, sufficiently

high temperature, correct time and sufficient moisture. Although all are
necessary for sterilization to take place, sterilization failures in clinics and
hospitals are most often caused by lack of steam contact or failure to attain
adequate temperature. All four conditions are discussed, in order of their
importance in ensuring complete sterilization by steam, in Appendix G. This

2
Devices and instruments that are not heat-resistant or are difficult to clean should be incinerated.
3
WHO recommends that contaminated instruments be steam sterilized while they are still soaking in NaOH. This practice, however, is
not recommended because of the additional risk of sterilizer damage and exposure of health workers to chemical toxicity. A warning
regarding this practice has been posted on the CDC website (http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/cjd/cjd_inf_ctrl_qa.hun).
4
NaOH is caustic and after use must be neutralized before being disposed of by diluting with large amounts of tap water or
addition of an acid, such as hydrochloric acid.

11 - 4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Sterilization

appendix also contains detailed instructions for operating steam sterilizers as

well as instructions for wrapping and packing the items for sterilization.

Advantages x Most commonly used, effective method of sterilization.

x Sterilization cycle time is shorter than with dry heat or chemical
sterilants.

Disadvantages x Requires a continuous source of heat (wood fuel, kerosene or

electricity).
x Requires equipment (steam sterilizer), which must be expertly maintained
to keep it in working condition.
x Requires strict adherence to time, temperature and pressure settings.
x Difficult to produce dry packs because breaks in procedure are common
(e.g., not allowing items to dry before removing, especially in hot, humid
climates).
x Repeated sterilization cycles can cause pitting and dulling of cutting
edges of instruments (i.e., scissors).
x Plastic items cannot withstand high temperatures.

Instructions STEP 1: Decontaminate, clean and dry all instruments and other items to be
(Steam Sterilizer) sterilized.

Note: To help prevent STEP 2: All jointed instruments should be in the opened or unlocked
dulling of sharp points and position, while instruments composed of more than one part or sliding parts
cutting edges, wrap the should be disassembled.
sharp edges and needle
points in gauze before STEP 3: Instruments should not be held tightly together by rubber bands or
sterilizing. Repair any other means that will prevent steam contact with all surfaces.
(sharpen) or replace
instruments as needed. STEP 4: Arrange packs in the chamber to allow free circulation and
penetration of steam to all surfaces.
STEP 5: When using a steam sterilizer, it is best to wrap clean instruments or
other clean items in a double thickness of muslin or newsprint. (Unwrapped
Note: Do not allow to boil instruments must be used immediately after removal from the sterilizer,
dry. Steam should always unless kept in a covered, sterile container.)
be escaping from the
pressure valve.
If using a pressure cooker or kerosene-powered (nonelectric)
gravity displacement steam sterilizer, bring the water to a boil and
let steam escape from the pressure valve; then turn down heat, but
keep steam coming out of the pressure valve.

STEP 6: Sterilize at 121qC (250qF) for 30 minutes for wrapped items, 20

minutes for unwrapped items; time with a clock.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 11 - 5

Sterilization

STEP 7: Wait 20 to 30 minutes (or until the pressure gauge reads zero) to
permit the sterilizer to cool sufficiently. Then open the lid or door to allow
steam to escape. Allow instrument packs to dry completely before removal,
which may take up to 30 minutes. (Wet packs act like a wick drawing in
bacteria, viruses and fungi from the environment.) Wrapped instrument packs
are considered unacceptable if there are water droplets or visible moisture on
the package exterior when they are removed from the steam sterilizer
chamber. If using rigid containers (e.g., drums), close the gaskets.
Note: Do not store trays or STEP 8: To prevent condensation, when removing the packs from the
packs until they reach room chamber, place sterile trays and packs on a surface padded with paper or
temperature. This usually fabric.
takes about an hour.
STEP 9: After sterilizing, items wrapped in cloth or paper are considered
sterile as long as the pack remains clean, dry (including no water stains) and
intact. Unwrapped items must be used immediately or stored in covered,
sterile containers.

Ideally, a steam sterilizer log should be kept, noting time:

x heat begun,
x correct temperature and pressure achieved,
x heat turned down, and
x heat turned off.

Keeping a log can help ensure that the required amount of time will be
observed, even when multiple, new or hurried workers are responsible for
overseeing sterilization.

STERILIZATION BY DRY HEAT

When available, dry heat is a practical way to sterilize needles and other
instruments. A convection oven with an insulated stainless steel chamber and
perforated shelving to allow the circulation of hot air is recommended, but
dry-heat sterilization can be achieved with a simple oven as long as a
thermometer is used to verify the temperature inside the oven.

Effectiveness Dry-heat sterilization is accomplished by thermal (heat) conduction. Initially,

heat is absorbed by the exterior surface of an item and then passed to the next
Remember: Just as with
steam sterilization, thorough
layer. Eventually, the entire object reaches the temperature needed for
cleaning of the object prior to sterilization. Death of microorganisms occurs with dry heat by a process of
dry heat sterilization is slow destruction of protein. Dry-heat sterilization takes longer than steam
critical. If an instrument is sterilization, because the moisture in the steam sterilization process
not properly cleaned, significantly speeds up the penetration of heat and shortens the time needed
sterilization cannot be
ensured, regardless of how to kill microorganisms.
long the instrument is heated.

11 - 6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Sterilization

Advantages x Effective method, as dry heat by conduction reaches all surfaces of

instruments, even for instruments that cannot be disassembled.
x Protective of sharps or instruments with a cutting edge (fewer problems
with dulling of cutting edges).
x Leaves no chemical residue.
x Eliminates “wet pack” problems in humid climates.

Disadvantages x Plastic and rubber items cannot be dry-heat sterilized because

temperatures used (160–170qC) are too high for these materials.
x Dry heat penetrates materials slowly and unevenly.
x Requires oven and continuous source of electricity.

Instructions To ensure correct operation, consult specific operating instructions supplied

(Dry Heat Oven) by the oven’s manufacturer.

Note: When using dry heat STEP 1: Decontaminate, clean and dry all instruments and other items to be
to sterilize instruments sterilized.
wrapped in cloth, be sure
that temperature does not STEP 2: If desired, wrap instruments in aluminum foil or place in a metal
exceed 170(C/340(F. container with a tight-fitting, closed lid. Wrapping helps prevent
recontamination prior to use. Hypodermic or suture needles should be placed
in glass tubes with cotton stoppers.
STEP 3: Place loose (unwrapped) instruments in metal containers or on trays
Note: Use dry heat only for in the oven and heat to desired temperature.
items that can withstand a
temperature of 170qC
STEP 4: After the desired temperature is reached, begin timing. The
(340qF) (Perkins 1983). following temperature/time ratios are recommended (APIC 2002):

170qC (340qF) 60 minutes

160qC (320qF) 120 minutes
150qC (300qF) 150 minutes
Note: Needles and other
instruments with cutting 140qC (285qF) 180 minutes
edges should be sterilized overnight
at lower temperatures
121qC (250qF)
(160qC [320qF]), because
higher temperatures can Depending on the temperature selected, the total cycle time (preheating,
destroy the sharpness of sterilization time and cool down) will range from about 2.5 hours at 170qC to
cutting edges (Perkins 1983).
more than 8 hours at 121qC.
STEP 5: After cooling, remove packs and/or metal containers and store.
Loose items should be removed with sterile forceps/pickups and used
immediately or placed in a sterile container with a tight-fitting lid.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 11 - 7

Sterilization

CHEMICAL STERILIZATION

An alternative to high-pressure steam or dry-heat sterilization is chemical

sterilization (often called “cold sterilization”). If objects need to be sterilized,
Note: Chemical but using high-pressure steam or dry-heat sterilization would damage them or
sterilization of hypodermic equipment is not available (or operational), they can be chemically sterilized.
needles and syringes is not
recommended, because Some high-level disinfectants will kill endospores after prolonged (10–24
chemical residues, which hour) exposure. Common disinfectants that can be used for chemical
may remain even after
repeated rinsing with sterilization include glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde. Sterilization takes
boiled water, may interfere place by soaking for at least 10 hours in 2–4% glutaraldehyde solution or at
with the action of least 24 hours in 8% formaldehyde. Glutaraldehydes, such as Cidex“, are
medications being injected. often in short supply and very expensive, but they are the only practical
sterilants for some instruments, such as laparoscopes, which cannot be
Note: Because boiling and
heated. Both glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde require special handling and
steaming does not reliably leave a residue on treated instruments; therefore, rinsing with sterile water is
inactivate all endospores, essential if the item must be kept sterile. Also, if not rinsed off, this residue
rinsing with boiled water can interfere (cause sticking) with the sliding parts of the laparoscope and
can contaminate sterile cloud the lens.
instruments. It is, however,
the only acceptable
alternative if sterile water Although formaldehyde is less expensive than glutaraldehydes, it is also
is not available. more irritating to the skin, eyes and respiratory tract and is classified as a
potential carcinogen (Rutala 1996). When using either glutaraldehydes or
formaldehyde, wear gloves to avoid skin contact, wear eyewear to protect
Remember: Do not dilute from splashes, limit exposure time and use both chemicals only in well-
formaldehyde with ventilated areas (Clark 1983).
chlorinated water, because
a dangerous gas (bis- As items are unwrapped after chemical sterilization, they should be
chloromethyl-ether) is transported and stored in a covered, sterile container. (Table 12-1 provides
produced.
guidelines for preparing and using glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde
solutions.)

Advantages x Glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde solutions are not readily inactivated

by organic materials.
x Both can be used for items that will not tolerate heat sterilization such as
laparoscopes.
x Formaldehyde solutions can be used for up to 14 days (replace sooner if
cloudy); some glutaraldehydes can be used for up to 28 days. (Check the
manufacturers’ instructions and see also Appendix F).5

5
Although manufacturers provide guidelines for dilution and for how long a solution can be used, many of their claims have not
been validated (Gurevich, Yannelli and Cunha 1990). Chemical strip tests can be used to determine the effectiveness of a solution.
If these are not available or practical, use the solution only for the minimum recommended time and change it if it is diluted by wet
instruments or is visibly cloudy.

11 - 8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Sterilization

Disadvantages x Glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde are chemicals that cause skin

irritation; therefore, all equipment soaked in either solution must be
thoroughly rinsed with sterile water after soaking.
x Because glutaraldehydes work best at room temperature, chemical
sterilization cannot be assured in cold environments (temperatures less
than 20(C/68(F), even with prolonged soaking.
x Glutaraldehydes are expensive.
x Vapors from formaldehyde (classified as a potential carcinogen), and to a
lesser degree glutaraldehydes, are irritating to the skin, eyes and
respiratory tract. Wear gloves and eyewear, limit exposure time and use
both chemicals only in well-ventilated areas.
x Formaldehyde cannot be mixed with chlorine or chlorinated water
because a dangerous gas (bis-chloromethyl-ether) is produced.

Instructions STEP 1: Decontaminate, clean and dry all instruments and other items to be
(Chemical Sterilization) sterilized.
STEP 2: Completely submerge items in a clean container filled with the
chemical solution and place the lid on the container.
STEP 3: Allow items to soak:

x 10 hours in a glutaraldehyde (check specific product instructions), or

x at least 24 hours in 8% formaldehyde.

STEP 4: Remove objects from the solution with sterile forceps; rinse all
Note: Ideally, three surfaces three times in sterile water and air dry.
separate (sequential) rinse
containers should be used. STEP 5: Store objects in a sterile container with a tight-fitting lid if they
will not be used immediately.

MONITORING STERILIZATION PROCEDURES

Sterilization procedures can be monitored routinely using a combination of

biological, chemical and mechanical indicators as parameters.

Biological Indicators Monitoring the sterilization process with reliable biological indicators at
regular intervals is strongly recommended. Measurements should be
performed with a biological indicator that employs spores of established
resistance in a known population. The biological indicator types and
Remember: Different minimum recommended intervals should be:
sterilization processes have
different monitoring
requirements. x Steam sterilizers: Bacillus stearothermophilus, weekly and as needed
x Dry-heat sterilizers: Bacillus subtilis, weekly and as needed

Infection Prevention Guidelines 11 - 9

Sterilization

Chemical Indicators Chemical indicators include indicator tape or labels, which monitor time,
temperature and pressure for steam sterilization, and time and temperature for
dry-heat sterilization. These indicators should be used on the inside and
outside of each package or container.

External indicators are used to verify that items have been exposed to the
correct conditions of the sterilization process and that the specific pack has
been sterilized. Internal indicators are placed inside a pack or container in
the area most difficult for the sterilization agent to reach (i.e., the middle of a
linen pack). This is the indicator that tells if the item has been sterilized.

Chemical indicators, such as heat sensitive tape or glass vials containing

pellets that melt at certain temperatures for a given time, do not guarantee
that sterilization has been achieved. They do, however, indicate whether
mechanical or procedural problems in the sterilization process have occurred.

Mechanical Indicators Mechanical indicators for sterilizers provide a visible record of the time,
temperature and pressure for that sterilization cycle. This is usually a printout
or graph from the sterilizer, or it can be a log of time, temperature and
pressure kept by the person responsible for the sterilization process that day.

STORAGE

All sterile items should be stored in an area and manner whereby the packs or
containers will be protected from dust, dirt, moisture, animals and insects.
This storage area is best located next to or connected to where sterilization
occurs, in a separate enclosed area with limited access that is used just to
store sterile and clean patient care supplies. In smaller facilities, this area
may be just a room off the Central Supply Department or in the operating
unit.

x Keep the storage area clean, dry, dust-free and lint-free.

x Control temperature and humidity (approximate temperature 24qC and
relative humidity <70%) when possible.
x Packs and containers with sterile (or high-level disinfected) items should
be stored 20–25 cm (8–10 inches) off the floor, 45–50 cm (18–20 inches)
from the ceiling and 15–20 cm (6–8 inches) from an outside wall.
x Do not use cardboard boxes for storage. Cardboard boxes shed dust and
debris and may harbor insects.
Note: Sterile packs will not
remain sterile unless x Date and rotate the supplies (first in/first out). This process serves as a
properly stored. reminder, but does not guarantee sterility of the packs.
x Distribute sterile and high-level disinfected items from this area.

Shelf Life The shelf life of an item (i.e., how long items can be considered sterile) after
sterilization is event-related. The item remains sterile until something causes

11 - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Sterilization

the package or container to become contaminated—time elapsed since

sterilization is not the determining factor. An event can be a tear or worn area
in the wrapping, the package becoming wet or anything else that will enable
microorganisms to enter the package or container. These events can occur at
any time.

Therefore the shelf life of sterilization depends on the following factors:

x Quality of the wrapper or container

x Number of times a package is handled before use
x Number of people who have handled the package
x Whether the package is stored on open or closed shelves
x Condition of storage area (e.g., humidity and cleanliness)
x Use of plastic dust covers and method of sealing (AORN 1992)

Most packages are contaminated as a direct result of frequent or improper

handling or storage. To make sure items remain sterile until you need them:

x prevent events that can contaminate sterile packs, and

x protect them by placing them in plastic covers (bags).

Before using any sterile item, look at the package to make sure the wrapper is
intact, the seal unbroken and is clean and dry (as well as having no water
stains), then you can be reasonably sure it is sterile regardless of when it was
sterilized (Gruendemann and Mangum 2001).

In some healthcare facilities where replacement of supplies is limited and the

cloth used for wrapping is of poor quality, time as a limiting factor also
serves as a safety margin. If plastic covers (bags) are unavailable for the
sterilized items, limiting the shelf life to a specific length of time (e.g., 1
month) may be a reasonable decision as long as the pack remains dry and
intact.

OTHER STERILIZATION METHODS

Gas Sterilization The use of formaldehyde gas for killing microorganisms was practiced
before the turn of the century. One of the first uses of formaldehyde gas was
to fumigate rooms, a practice long since shown to be ineffective and
unnecessary (Schmidt 1899). There are, however, automatic, low-
temperature steam formaldehyde sterilizers that are effective and can be used
to process heat-sensitive instruments and plastic items. As mentioned
previously, because formaldehyde vapors are irritating to the skin, eyes and
respiratory tract, the use of formaldehyde in this form should be limited.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 11 - 11

Sterilization

In the United States and several other countries, ethylene oxide (ETO) gas is
used for sterilization of heat- and moisture-sensitive surgical instruments,
such as plastic devices and delicate instruments. Sterilization using ETO,
however, is a more complicated (requires a 2-hour exposure time and a long
aeration period) and expensive process than either steam or dry-heat
sterilization.6 In addition, it requires sophisticated equipment and skilled staff
specially trained for its safe use, making it impractical for use in many
countries (Gruendemann and Mangum 2001).

ETO is hazardous to healthcare workers, patients and the environment.

Because ETO is moderately toxic when inhaled, regular exposure to low
levels (greater than 1 part per million) may produce harmful effects in
humans. Moreover, the gas is irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes,
and residual ETO on instruments can cause skin injuries and inflammatory
reactions in patients. Finally, because ethylene oxide, a toxic product, is
classified as a potential carcinogen as well as a mutagen, disposing of it is
difficult (Gruendemann and Mangum 2001).

Ultraviolet Light Ultraviolet (UV) light has been used to help disinfect the air for more than 50
Sterilization years (Morris 1972). For example, UV irradiation can interrupt transmission
of airborne infections in enclosed indoor environments where living
conditions are poor and people are crowded together. Because UV irradiation
has very limited energy, UV light does not penetrate dust, mucous or water.
Therefore, despite manufacturers= claims, it cannot be used to sterilize water.
Although in theory intense UV light can be both bactericidal and viricidal, in
practice only limited disinfection of instruments can be achieved. This is
because the UV rays can kill only those microorganisms that are struck
directly by UV light beams. For surfaces that cannot be reached by the UV
rays (e.g., inside the barrel of a needle or laparoscope), any microorganisms
present will not be killed (Gruendemann and Mangum 2001).

Other disadvantages of UV:

x It requires a reliable source of electricity.

x It is not effective in areas of high relative humidity.
x UV bulbs require frequent cleaning to remain effective.
x Exposure to UV rays can burn the skin and eyes.

As a consequence, UV irradiation is neither a practical nor effective method

in most situations (Riley and Nardell 1989).

6
Items that are sterilized by ETO need to be aerated (to the outside), so that the residual ETO gas can diffuse out of the packages
and items. This can take long periods of time leading to complete cycle times of 24 hours or more (Steelman 1992).

11 - 12 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Sterilization

Other Chemical x Paracetic acid (peroxyacetic acid). The acid is rapidly effective against
Sterilants all microorganisms, organic matter does not diminish its activity and it
decomposes into safe products. When diluted, it is very unstable and
must be used with a specially designed automatic sterilizer (APIC 2002).
It is usually used for sterilizing different types of endoscopes and other
heat-sensitive instruments.
x Paraformaldehyde. This solid polymer of formaldehyde may be
vaporized by dry heat in an enclosed area to sterilize objects (Taylor,
Barbeito and Gremillion 1969). This technique, called “self-sterilization”
(Tulis 1973), may be well suited for sterilizing endoscopes and other
heat-sensitive instruments.
x Gas plasma sterilization (hydrogen peroxide based). This method can
sterilize items in less than 1 hour and has no harmful by products. It does
not penetrate well, however, and cannot be used on paper or linen. A
specialized sterilizer is required for performing gas plasma sterilization
(Taurasi 1997).

REFERENCES

Abrutyn E, DA Goldman and WE Scheckler (eds). 1998. Saunders Infection

Control Reference Service. WB Saunders Company: Philadelphia, pp 569–570.
American Association of Operating Room Nurses (AORN). 1992.
Recommended practices: Sanitation in the surgical practice setting. AORN J
56(6): 1089–1095.
Association for Practitioners in Infection Control (APIC). 2002. APIC Text of
Infection Control and Epidemiology on CD-ROM. APIC: Washington, DC.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2002. Questions and
answers regarding Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease infection-control practices.
Available at: (http//www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/cjd/cjd_inf_ctrl_qa.htm).
Clark RP. 1983. Formaldehyde in pathology departments. J Clin Pathol
36(8): 839–846.
Fishman M et al. 2002. Handling of surgical instruments in a presymptomatic
familial carrier of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Am J Infect Control. 30(5): 303-
306.
Gruendemann BJ and SS Mangum. 2001. Ultraviolet irradiation and lights, in
Infection Prevention in Surgical Settings. WB Saunders Company:
Philadelphia, pp 32–35.
Gurevich I, B Yannelli and BA Cunha. 1990. The disinfectant dilemma
revisited. Infect Control Hospit Epidemiol 11(2): 96–100.
Holman RC et al. 1996. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in the United State, 1979–
1994: Using national mortality data to access the possible occurrence of
variant cases. Emerg Infect Dis. 2(4): 333-337.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 11 - 13

Sterilization

Morris EJ. 1972. The practical use of ultraviolet radiation for disinfection
purposes. Med Lab Technol 29(1): 41–47.
Perkins JJ. 1983. Principles and Methods of Sterilization in Health
Sciences, 2nd ed. Charles C. Thomas Publisher Ltd.: Springfield, IL, pp
95–166; 286–311.
Riley RL and EA Nardell. 1989. Clearing the air, the theory and application
of ultraviolet air disinfection. Am Rev Respir Dis 139(5): 1286–1294.
Rutala WA and DJ Weber. 2001. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease:
recommendations for disinfection and sterilization. Clinical Infectious
Diseases 32(9): 1348–1356.
Rutala WA. 1996. APIC guidelines for selection and use of disinfectants. Am
J Infect Control 24(4): 313–342.
Schmidt A. 1899. U.S. Patent 630,782: Disinfecting by Means of
Formaldehyde.
Spaulding EH 1939. Studies on chemical sterilization of surgical instruments.
Surg Gyne Obstet 69: 738–744.
Steelman V. 1992. Ethylene oxide: the importance of aeration. AORN
Journal 55(3): 773–787.
Taurasi AR. 1997. Ethylene oxide alternatives
www.cea.purdue.edu/iahcsmm/28LESSON.HTM. Downloaded 13 Jan 98.
Taylor LA, MS Barbeito and GG Gremillion. 1969. Paraformaldehyde for
surface sterilization and decontamination. Applied Microbiol 17(4): 614–618.
Tietjen LG, W Cronin and N McIntosh. 1992. Sterilization, in Infection
Prevention Guidelines for Family Planning Programs. Essential Medical
Information Systems, Inc.: Durant, OK, pp 52–73.
Tulis JJ. 1973. Formaldehyde gas as a sterilant, in Industrial Sterilization:
International Symposium. Briggs Phillips G and WS Miller (eds). Duke
University Press: Durham, NC, pp 209–238.

11 - 14 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWELVE

HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTION1

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the methods of high-level disinfection (HLD) are

x How to perform each method of high-level disinfection
x What the advantages and disadvantages of boiling and steaming are
x What the advantages and disadvantages of chemical high-level
disinfectants are

BACKGROUND

Although sterilization is the safest and most effective method for the final
processing of instruments, often sterilization equipment is either not available
or not suitable (Rutala 1996). In these cases, HLD is the only acceptable
alternative. The HLD process destroys all microorganisms (including
vegetative bacteria, tuberculosis, yeasts and viruses) except some bacterial
endospores.

High-level disinfection can be achieved by boiling in water, steaming (moist

heat) or soaking instruments in chemical disinfectants. To be effective, all
steps in performing each method must be monitored carefully.

EFFECTIVENESS OF MOIST HEAT

Essentially all vegetative forms of bacteria are killed by moist heat at

temperatures of 60–75qC within 10 minutes (Salle 1973). Hepatitis B virus,
which is one of the most difficult viruses to kill, is inactivated in 10 minutes
when heated to 80qC (Kobayashi et al 1984; Russell, Hugo and Ayliffe
1982). In contrast, although many types of spores are killed when boiled at
99.5qC for 15 to 20 minutes (Williams and Zimmerman 1951), Clostridium
tetani spores are quite heat-resistant and can even survive boiling for up to 90
minutes (Spaulding 1939).

The highest temperature that boiling water or low-pressure steam will reach
is 100qC (212qF) at sea level. Because the boiling point of water is 1.1qC
lower for each 1,000 feet in altitude, it is best to boil or steam items to be
high-level disinfected for a minimum of 20 minutes. This provides a margin
of safety for variations in altitudes up to 5,500 meters (18,000 ft), and at the
same time eliminates the risk of infection from some, but not all, endospores.

1
Adapted by: Tietjen, Cronin and McIntosh 1992.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 12 - 1

High-Level Disinfection

Boiling Versus Steaming Boiling and steaming both use moist heat to kill microorganisms. Steaming
has several distinct advantages over boiling for the final processing of
surgical gloves and other items, such as plastic cannulae and syringes. It is
less destructive and, because it uses much less fuel than boiling, it is more
cost-effective. For example, only about 1 liter of water is needed to steam
gloves or instruments, whereas 4–5 liters are required for boiling. Also,
discoloration of instruments from calcium or other heavy metals contained in
some tap water does not occur, because the steam contains only pure water
molecules. Finally, although boiling and steaming gloves are equally easy to
do, drying boiled gloves is not practical because it is difficult to prevent
contamination while they are air drying. With steaming, because they remain
in the closed steamer pan, gloves are less likely to become contaminated.

The major disadvantage of steaming is that if the steamers available locally

are small, they are only practical for use with a small number of items (e.g.,
one set of instruments or 15–20 pairs of surgical gloves) per tray or pan. For
steaming to be effective, the bottom pan must contain enough water to
continue boiling throughout the steaming process. By contrast, large boiling
pots are easier to use for metal instruments and do not have to be monitored
the entire time to be sure that the process is being done correctly.

Both boiling and steaming share some advantages and disadvantages over
chemical high-level disinfection, which is the only other method of HLD.

Advantages x Inexpensive procedures.

x Easily taught to healthcare workers.
x Require no special chemicals or dilutions and leave no chemical
residue.
x Heat sources (boilers or rice cookers) are commonly available.

Disadvantages x Length of processing time must be carefully measured (i.e., start timing
only after steam begins to escape or water has reached a rolling boil).
Once timing starts, no additional items or water can be added.
x Objects cannot be packaged prior to HLD; therefore, there is a greater
chance of contamination if items are to be stored.
x Requires a fuel source that may be unreliable.

HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTION BY BOILING

Boiling in water is an effective, practical way to high-level disinfect

instruments and other items. Although boiling instruments in water for 20
minutes will kill all vegetative forms of bacteria, viruses (including HBV,
HCV and HIV), yeasts and fungi, boiling will not kill all endospores reliably.

12 - 2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 High-Level Disinfection

Instructions for HLD STEP 1: Decontaminate and clean all instruments and other items to be high-
by Boiling level disinfected.
STEP 2: If possible, completely immerse items in the water.2 Adjust the
water level so that there is at least 2.5 cm (1 inch) of water above the
instruments. In addition, make sure all bowls and containers to be boiled are
full of water. For example, empty bowls that turn bottom side up and float to
Remember: A gentle the surface contain air pockets.
rolling boil is sufficient and
will prevent instruments or
STEP 3: Close lid over pan and bring water to a gentle, rolling boil. (Boiling
other items from being too vigorously wastes fuel, rapidly evaporates the water and may damage
bounced around and delicate [or sharp] instruments or other items.)
possibly damaged by
striking other instruments STEP 4: Start timer. In the HLD log, note time on the clock and record the
or the side walls of the time when rolling boil begins.
boiling pot.
STEP 5: Boil all items for 20 minutes.

Boiling Tips

x Always boil for 20 minutes in a pot with a lid.

x Start timing when the water begins to boil.
x Metal instruments should be completely covered with water during
boiling.
x Do not add anything to the pot after timing begins.

STEP 6: After boiling for 20 minutes, remove objects with previously high-
level disinfected forceps. Never leave boiled instruments in water that has
stopped boiling. As the water cools and steam condenses, air and dust
particles are drawn down into the container and may contaminate the
instruments (Perkins 1983).
STEP 7: Use instruments and other items immediately or, with high-level
disinfected forceps or gloves, place objects in a high-level disinfected
container with a tight-fitting cover. Once the instruments are dry, if any
pooled water remains in the bottom of the container, remove the dry items
and place them in another high-level disinfected container that is dry and can
be tightly covered.

Protecting the Life of Lime deposits may form on metal instruments that are frequently boiled. This
Instruments That Are scale formation, caused by lime salts in the water, is difficult to avoid. By
Frequently Boiled following these steps, however, the problem of lime deposits can be
minimized:

2
A study documented that the interior temperature of a plastic cannula floating on the surface of boiling water reaches a
temperature of 96–98qC in less than 1 minute. Therefore, for items that float (e.g., syringes, plastic MVA cannulae or rubber
items), it is not necessary that they be fully covered by the water to achieve HLD if the pot is covered with a lid (IPAS 1993).

Infection Prevention Guidelines 12 - 3

High-Level Disinfection

STEP 1: Boil the water for 10 minutes at the beginning of each day before
use. (This precipitates much of the lime salt in the water on to the walls of the
boiling pot before objects are added.)
STEP 2: Use the same water throughout the day, adding only enough to keep
the surface at least 1 inch above the instruments to be high-level disinfected.
(Frequent draining and replacing the water, and boiling too vigorously,
increase the risk of lime deposits on instruments.)
STEP 3: Drain and clean the boiler or pot at the end of each day to remove
lime deposits.

HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTION BY STEAMING

Steaming surgical gloves has been used as the final step in processing gloves
for many years in Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia. In 1994, a
study by McIntosh et al confirmed the effectiveness of this process.

The steamer used in the study (Figure 12-1) consisted of:

x a bottom pan (approximately 31 cm in diameter) for boiling water;

x one, two or three circular pans with multiple 0.5 cm (diameter) holes in
their bottoms to permit the passage of steam through them and water
back down to the bottom pan; and
x a lid that fits on the top pan.

Figure 12-1. Steamer Used for HLD

Two types of tests were conducted to determine whether surgical gloves and
other items could be high-level disinfected using this process.

In the first set of experiments, a thermocouple was placed inside a glove in

each of the three pans and the rate and extent of the temperature change was
recorded. As shown in Figure 12-2, when 5–15 pairs of surgical gloves were

12 - 4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 High-Level Disinfection

placed in each of the three pans, the temperature reached 96–98qC in less
than 4 minutes in the bottom and middle pans and within 6 minutes in the
upper pan. Thereafter, the temperature remained constant throughout the
remaining 20 minutes.

Figure 12-2. Temperature Rise in Gloves as a Function of Tray Position

In the second set of experiments, batches of new surgical gloves were

contaminated with Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans as well as Bacillus subtilis
(heat-sensitive) and Bacillus stearothermophilus (heat-resistant) endospores.
Next, the gloves were placed in each of the three pans and steamed for 20
minutes. After this, the gloves were removed from the pans and incubated for
24 hours in sterile media and then were plated on blood agar. In all cases (6,
15 and 30 gloves per pan), there was no growth of any microorganisms or B.
subtilis endospores at 24 hours. As expected, however, only a reduction in
the number of B. stearothermophilus (heat-resistant) endospores occurred.

Instructions for HLD by After instruments and other items have been decontaminated and thoroughly
Steaming cleaned, they are ready for HLD by steaming. (See Appendix C for HLD of
surgical gloves by steaming.)

STEP 1: Place instruments, plastic MVA cannulae and other items in one of
the steamer pans with holes in its bottom (Figure 12-1). To make removal
from the pan easier, do not overfill the pan.
STEP 2: Repeat this process until up to three steamer pans have been filled.
Stack the filled steamer pans on top of a bottom pan containing water for
boiling. A second empty pan without holes should be placed on the counter
next to the heat source (see Step 7).
Remember: Be sure there is
sufficient water in the STEP 3: Place a lid on the top pan and bring the water to a full rolling boil.
bottom pan for the entire 20 (When water only simmers, very little steam is formed and the temperature
minutes of steaming.
may not get high enough to kill microorganisms.)
STEP 4: When steam begins to come out between the pans and the lid, start
the timer or note the time on a clock and record the time in the HLD log.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 12 - 5

High-Level Disinfection

STEP 5: Steam items for 20 minutes.

STEP 6: Remove the top steamer pan and put the lid on the pan that was
below it (the pan now on top). Gently shake excess water from the pan just
removed.
STEP 7: Put the pan just removed onto the empty pan (see Step 3). Repeat
until all pans are restacked on this empty pan and the top pan is covered with
the lid. (This step allows the items to cool and dry without becoming
contaminated.)
STEP 8: Allow items to air dry in the steamer pans (1 to 2 hours) before
using.
STEP 9: Using a high-level disinfected forceps, transfer the dry items to a
dry, high-level disinfected container3 with a tight-fitting cover. Instruments
and other items can also be stored in the stacked and covered steamer pans as
long as a bottom pan (no holes) is used.

HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTION USING CHEMICALS

Although a number of disinfectants are commercially available in most

countries, four disinfectants—chlorine, glutaraldehydes, formaldehyde and
peroxide—are routinely used as high-level disinfectants. (Table 12-1
provides guidelines for preparing and using these disinfectants.) These
chemicals can achieve high-level disinfection if the items being disinfected
Note: Chemical HLD of are thoroughly cleaned before immersion. A high-level disinfectant should be
hypodermic needles and selected for use based on the characteristics of the items to be disinfected, the
syringes is not physical area (i.e., is it well ventilated) and the skills of personnel available
recommended, because to do the procedure.
chemical residues, which
may remain even after
repeated rinsing with The major advantages and disadvantages of these high-level disinfectants
boiled water, may interfere are:
with the action of
medications being injected.
x Chlorine solutions are fast acting, very effective against HBV, HCV and
HIV/AIDS, inexpensive and readily available (CDC 1987; WHO 1989).
A major disadvantage is that concentrated chlorine solutions (>0.5%) can
corrode metals; however, stainless steel and plated instruments can be
safely high-level disinfected in 0.1% chlorine solution by soaking in a
plastic container for up to 20 minutes. For HLD, the 0.1% chlorine
solution should be made using boiled water, which has been filtered if
the tap water is cloudy. Prior to soaking, the items should have been
thoroughly cleaned, rinsed and dried.

3
How to prepare a high-level disinfected container: For small containers, boil water in the covered container for 20 minutes, then
pour out the water, which can be used for other purposes, replace the cover and allow container to dry. Alternatively, and for large
containers, fill a plastic container with 0.5% chlorine solution and immerse the cover in chlorine solution as well. Soak both for 20
minutes. (The chlorine solution can then be transferred to another container and reused.) Rinse the cover and the inside of the
container three times with boiled water and allow to air dry.

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 High-Level Disinfection

Problems from discoloration can be decreased if items are rinsed with

boiled water and dried promptly.4 Although chlorine solutions for HLD
Note: Using the lower
may deteriorate if left standing uncovered or stored in a clear
chlorine concentration
(0.1%) is just as effective (transparent) container, fresh solutions for HLD need to be made only if
and will extend the useful the solution is visibly cloudy.
life of the instruments.
Tables 10-1 and 10-2 describe how to make 0.1% chlorine solutions
from commercially available liquid bleach products and dry powders,
respectively.
Note: If stored in closed,
dark bottles that block x Formaldehyde (8%), which is inexpensive and readily available, is an
light, various concentrations effective high-level disinfectant (HLD) but, as mentioned previously, the
of commercial bleach vapors are very irritating and it is classified as a potential carcinogen.
solutions (1:100 to 1:5) do Care must be taken to protect both staff and patients from the fumes
not lose their efficacy as
fast as formerly thought when mixing and using formaldehyde solutions. Do not dilute with
(e.g., 50% to 97% potency chlorinated water as a dangerous gas (bis-chloromethyl-ether) can
at 30 days) with higher be produced. Staff should wear gloves to avoid skin contact, protect
concentrations being more eyes from splashes, limit exposure time and use these solutions only in a
stable (Rutala et al 1998).
well-ventilated area.
x Glutaraldehydes are less irritating than formaldehyde, but staff and
clients still need to be protected from the fumes when mixing and using
these solutions. Staff should wear gloves and protective eyewear to avoid
Remember: Because both
skin contact, protect eyes from splashes, limit exposure time and use only
glutaraldehydes and
formaldehyde (formalin) in a well-ventilated area.
solutions leave a residue, x Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2), which must be diluted to a 6% solution,
instruments must be rinsed
often is available locally and is less expensive than other chemical
thoroughly with boiled
water three times after disinfectants. The 3% H2O2 solutions used as antiseptics, however,
chemical HLD to remove should not be used as a disinfectant. The major disadvantage of peroxide
any residue and prevent is that it is highly corrosive and should not be used to disinfect copper,
skin irritation. aluminum, zinc or brass. Also, because it loses potency rapidly when
exposed to heat and light, it should be stored in a cool, dark place. WHO
does not recommend using H2O2 in hot (tropical) climates because of its
instability in the presence of heat and light (WHO 1989).

Advantages and disadvantages of each of these chemical disinfectants are

summarized in Appendix F.

4
Discoloration of metal items, which occurs when calcium (not sodium) hypochlorite powders are used, often is confused with
corrosion (rusting). Wiping discolored items with a cloth soaked with vinegar (dilute acetic acid) will quickly remove
discoloration.

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High-Level Disinfection

Alcohols and Iodophors Although alcohols and iodophors are inexpensive and readily available, they
are no longer classified as high-level disinfectants. Alcohols do not kill some
viruses and are not sporicidal, and Pseudomonas species have been shown to
multiply in iodophors (Favero 1985; Rutala 1993). These chemicals should
be used only when the high-level disinfectants listed above are not available
or appropriate.

Key Steps in Chemical High-Level Disinfection

x Decontaminate instruments and other items that may have been

contaminated with blood and body fluids, and thoroughly clean and
dry them before placing them in the disinfectant solution.
x Completely immerse all items in the high-level disinfectant.
x Soak for 20 minutes.
x Remove items using high-level disinfected or sterile forceps or
gloves.
x Rinse well with boiled and filtered (if necessary) water three times
and air dry.
x Use promptly or store in a dry, high-level disinfected, covered
container.
Adapted from: Tietjen and McIntosh 1989.

Storage of Disinfectants x Chemical disinfectants should be stored in a cool, dark area.

x Never store chemicals in direct sunlight or in excessive heat (e.g., upper
shelves in a tin-roofed building).

Disposal of Used x Glass containers may be washed with soap, rinsed, dried and reused.
Chemical Containers Alternatively, thoroughly rinse glass containers (at least two times) with
water and dispose of by burying.5
x Plastic containers used for toxic substances such as glutaraldehydes or
formaldehyde should be rinsed (at least three times) with water and
disposed of by burning or burying.

Disposal of Used Carefully pour wastes down a utility sink drain or into a flushable toilet and
Chemicals rinse or flush with water. Liquid wastes can also be poured into a latrine.
Avoid splashing. Rinse the toilet or sink carefully and thoroughly with water
to remove residual wastes.

5
To further prevent them from being misused, put a hole in each container before disposal so that water or other liquids cannot be
carried in it.

12 - 8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

Table 12-1. Preparing and Using Chemical Disinfectants
CHEMICALS FOR STERILIZATION OR HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTION
Disinfectant Effective How to Skin Eye Respiratory Corrosive Leaves Time Needed Time Needed Activated Shelf Lifea
(common Concentration Dilute Irritant Irritant Irritant Residue for HLD for Sterilization
solution or
brand)
Chlorine 0.1% Dilution Yes (with Yes Yes Yesc Yes 20 minutes Do not use Change every 14 days,
procedures prolonged sooner if cloudy.
varyb contact)
Formaldehyde 8% 1 part 35B40% Yes Yes Yes No Yes 20 minutes 24 hours Change every 14 days,
(35B40%) solution to 4 sooner if cloudy.
parts boiled
water
Glutaraldehyde Varies (2–4%) Add activator Yes Yes Yes No Yes 20 minutes at 10 hours for Change every 14–28
(Cidex7) (vapors) 25(Cd Cidex7 days; sooner if cloudy.
Hydrogen 6% 1 part 30% Yes Yes No Yes No 20 minutes Do not use Change daily; sooner
Peroxide (30%) solution to 4 if cloudy.
parts boiled
water
CHEMICALS FOR DISINFECTION (alcohols and iodophors are not high-level disinfectants)
Alcohol (ethyl or 60B90% Use full Yes (can Yes No No No Do not use Do not use If container (bottle)
isopropyl) strength dry skin) kept closed, use until
empty.
Iodophors (10% Approximately 1 part 10% No Yes No Yes Yes Do not use Do not use If container (bottle)
povidone-iodine) 2.5% PVI to 3 parts kept closed, use until
(PVI) water empty.

a
All chemical disinfectants are heat- and light-sensitive and should be stored away from direct sunlight and in a cool place (<40(C).
b
See Tables 10-1 and 10-2 for instructions on preparing chlorine solutions.
c
Only corrosive with prolonged (>20 minutes) contact at concentrations >0.5% if not rinsed immediately with boiled water.
d
Different commercial preparations of Cidex and other glutaraldehydes are effective at lower temperatures (20qC) and for longer activated shelf life. Always check
manufacturers’ instructions.

Adapted from: Rutala 1996.

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High-Level Disinfection

Products That Should Many antiseptic solutions are used incorrectly as disinfectants. Although
Not Be Used as antiseptics (sometimes called “skin disinfectants”) are adequate for cleansing
Disinfectants skin before surgical procedures, they are not appropriate for disinfecting
surgical instruments and gloves. They do not reliably destroy bacteria,
viruses or endospores. For example, Savlon (chlorhexidine gluconate with
or without cetrimide), which is readily available worldwide, is often
mistakenly used as a disinfectant.

Antiseptics that should not be used as disinfectants are:

x Acridine derivatives (e.g., gentian or crystal violet)

x Cetrimide (e.g., Cetavlon®)
x Chlorhexidine gluconate and cetrimide in various concentrations (e.g.,
Savlon)
x Chlorhexidine gluconate (e.g., Hibiscrub®, Hibitane®)
x Chlorinated lime and boric acid (e.g., Eusol®)
x Chloroxylenol in alcohol (e.g., Dettol®)
x Hexachlorophene (e.g., pHisoHex®)
x Mercury compounds

Mercury solutions (such as mercury laurel), although low-level

disinfectants, cause birth defects and are too toxic to use as either
disinfectants or antiseptics (Block 1991). (See Appendix B for details.)

Other products frequently used to disinfect equipment are 1–2% phenol (e.g.,
Phenol®), 5% carbolic acid (Lysol®) and benzalkonium chloride, a
quaternary ammonium compound (Zephiran®). These are low-level
disinfectants and should only be used to decontaminate environmental
surfaces (e.g., floors or walls).

REFERENCES

Block SS (ed). 1991. Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th ed. Lea
& Febiger: Philadelphia.
Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1987. Recommendations for prevention
of HIV transmission in health care settings. MMWR 36(Suppl 2): 1S–18S.
Favero MS. 1985. Sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis in the hospital, in
Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 4th ed. Lennette EH et al (eds). American
Society for Microbiology: Washington, DC, pp 129–137.
IPAS 1993. Boiling IPAS Cannulas to Achieve High-Level Disinfection.
IPAS: Carrboro, NC, Scientific Report Summary.
Kobayashi H et al. 1984. Susceptibility of hepatitis B virus to disinfectants or
heat. J Clin Microbiol 20(2): 214–216.

12 - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 High-Level Disinfection

McIntosh N et al. 1994. Practical Methods for High-Level Disinfection of

Surgical Gloves. Paper presented at American Public Health Association
Annual Meeting. Session no. 2285, Washington, D.C., 31 October–4
November.
Perkins JJ. 1983. Principles and Methods of Sterilization in Health Sciences,
2nd ed. Charles C. Thomas Publisher Ltd.: Springfield, IL.
Russell AD, WB Hugo and GA Ayliffe. 1982. Principles and Practice of
Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization. Blackwell Scientific
Publications: Oxford, England.
Rutala WA et al. 1998. Stability and bactericidal activity of chlorine
solutions. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 19(5): 323–327.
Rutala WA. 1996. APIC guidelines for selection and use of disinfectants. Am
J Infect Control, 24(4): 313–342.
Rutala WA. 1993. Disinfection, sterilization and waste disposal, in
Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections, 2nd ed. Wenzel RP (ed).
Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, MD, pp 460–495.
Salle AJ. 1973. Fundamental Principles of Bacteriology, 7th ed. McGraw-
Hill Book Company: New York.
Spaulding EH. 1939. Studies on chemical sterilization of surgical
instruments. Surg Gyne Obstet 69: 738–744.
Tietjen LG, W Cronin and N McIntosh. 1992. High-level disinfection, in
Infection Prevention Guidelines for Family Planning Programs. Essential
Medical Information Systems, Inc.: Durant, OK, pp 74–84.
Tietjen LG and N McIntosh. 1989. Infection prevention in family planning
facilities. Outlook 7: 2–8.
World Health Organization (WHO). 1989. Guidelines on Sterilization and
High-Level Disinfection Methods Effective Against Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). WHO: Geneva. AIDS Series 2.
Williams OB and CH Zimmerman. 1951. Studies on heat resistance III. J
Bacteriol 61: 63.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 12 - 11

High-Level Disinfection

12 - 12 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 THIRTEEN

PROCESSING LINEN

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Why careful handling and processing of soiled linen are important

x Which personal protective equipment to use and why
x How soiled linen should be collected and transported
x How soiled linen should be sorted, washed and dried
x How clean linen should be stored, transported and distributed

BACKGROUND

Although soiled linen may contain large numbers of microorganisms,

there is little risk to health workers during linen processing. When worker-
related infection has occurred, it often is the result of workers’ not using
gloves or washing their hands during or after collecting, transporting and
sorting soiled items. To reduce the risk of contamination, staff at each
healthcare facility should determine the best way to handle, process and
store linens.

As the types and volume of services that hospitals and primary health
clinics have expanded, so too has the need for clean linen on the wards
and in housekeeping. In addition, surgical units, specialty areas (e.g.,
neonatal ICUs) and other departments such as anesthesiology, radiology
and cardiology, where a variety of invasive medical procedures now are
performed, have increased needs for linen items (caps, masks and gowns).
As a consequence, in many large hospitals the laundering of linen
increasingly is contracted out to companies specializing in this work.
Remember: No additional
precautions (e.g., pre-
Regardless of where the soiled linen is processed, however, the infection
rinsing, labeling, prevention practices that are recommended to safely process linen are the
separating or double same.
bagging) are necessary,
regardless of the patient’s In smaller hospitals and clinics, however, housekeeping and cleaning staff
diagnosis, if Standard
Precautions are used in all
will continue to be responsible for handling and processing soiled linen
situations (Lynch et al and other items. To do this job well, staff performing these tasks should be
1997). appropriately trained and regularly supervised. Without this, accidents will
happen and staff will be at increased risk of exposure to infectious
materials and acquiring work-related infections (Economics Report 1994).

Infection Prevention Guidelines 13 – 1

Processing Linen

DEFINITIONS

x Detergent. Cleaning agent that makes no antimicrobial claims on the

label. Detergents (liquid or powder) are composed of a hydrophilic
(water-seeking) component and a lipophilic (fat-seeking) component
and can be divided into four types: anionic, cationic, amphoteric, and
nonionic detergents.
x Linens. Cloth items used in healthcare facilities by housekeeping staff
(bedding and towels), cleaning staff (cleaning cloths, gowns and caps)
and surgical personnel (caps, masks, scrub suits, surgical gowns,
drapes and wrappers) as well as by staff on specialty units such as
ICUs and other units performing invasive medical procedures (e.g.,
anesthesiology, radiology or cardiology).
x Occupational injury or infection. Injury or infection acquired by
healthcare staff while performing their normal duties.
x Soaps and detergents (terms used interchangeably). Cleaning
products (bar, liquid, leaflet or powder) that lower surface tension,
thereby helping remove dirt, debris and transient microorganisms from
hands. Plain soaps require friction (scrubbing) to mechanically
remove microorganisms, while antiseptic (antimicrobial) soaps also
kill or inhibit growth of most microorganisms.
x Soiled or contaminated linen. Linen from multiple sources within the
hospital or clinic that has been collected and brought to the laundry for
processing. All items, regardless of whether or not they are visibly
dirty or have been used in a surgical procedure, must be washed and
dried. For example, even though the sterile towel drapes contained in a
surgical pack have not been used, they must be laundered before they
can be sterilized (see Chapter 5).
x Sorting. Process of inspecting and removing foreign, and in some
cases dangerous, objects (e.g., sharps or broken glass), from soiled
linen before washing. This step is extremely important because soiled
linen from the operating room or clinic occasionally contains sharps
(e.g., scalpels, sharp-tipped scissors, hypodermic and suture needles
and towel clips).

PROCESSING LINEN

Note: If utility gloves are Processing linen consists of all the steps required to collect, transport and
not available, putting on sort soiled linen as well as to launder (wash, dry and fold or pack), store
two pairs of examination or and distribute it. Safely processing linen from multiple sources is a
reprocessed surgical gloves complex process. The principles and key steps are listed in Table 13-1.
(double gloving) provides
some protection for staff
Staff assigned to collecting, transporting and sorting soiled linen need to
responsible for collecting, be especially careful. They should wear thick utility or heavy-duty
transporting and sorting household gloves to minimize the risk of accidental injury from a
soiled linen and other needlestick or other sharp object, including broken glass (see Chapter 4).
items.

13 – 2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Processing Linen

Staff responsible for washing soiled items should wear utility gloves,
protective eyewear and plastic or rubber aprons.

Table 13-1. Principles and Key Steps in Processing Linen

x Housekeeping and laundry personnel should wear gloves and other personal
protective equipment as indicated when collecting, handling, transporting, sorting
and washing soiled linen.
x When collecting and transporting soiled linen, handle it as little as possible and
with minimum contact to avoid accidental injury and spreading of
microorganisms.
x Consider all cloth items (e.g., surgical drapes, gowns, wrappers) used during a
procedure as infectious. Even if there is no visible contamination, the item must
be laundered.
x Carry soiled linen in covered containers or plastic bags to prevent spills and
splashes, and confine the soiled linen to designated areas (interim storage area)
until transported to the laundry.
x Carefully sort all linen in the laundry area before washing. Do not presort or
wash linen at the point of use.

USE OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Listed in Table 13-2 is the recommended personal protective equipment

(PPE) for use by staff performing the various tasks associated with
processing linens.

Table 13-2. Recommended Personal Protective Equipment for Processing Linen

TYPE OF PPE WHEN TO WEAR
Gloves (preferably household utility x Handling disinfectant solutions
gloves) and closed shoes that protect feet x Collecting and handling soiled linen
from dropped items (sharps) and spilled x Transporting soiled linen
blood and body fluids x Sorting soiled linen
x Hand washing soiled linen
x Loading automatic washers
Plastic or rubber apron and protective x Sorting soiled linen
eyewear x Hand washing soiled linen
x Loading automatic washers

COLLECTING, TRANSPORTING AND SORTING SOILED LINEN

Collecting and After invasive medical or surgical procedures or when changing linen in
Transporting patient rooms:

x Collect used linen in cloth or plastic bags or containers with lids. If

linen is heavily contaminated with blood or body fluids, carefully roll
the contaminated area into the center of the linen and place in a
leakproof bag or container with a lid.
x Cloth bags are adequate for the majority of the patient care linen. They
require the same processing as their contents.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 13 – 3

Processing Linen

x Handle soiled linen as little as possible and do not shake it. This helps
prevent spreading microorganisms to the environment, personnel and
Note: Several studies have other patients.
shown that there is no
difference in the level of
x It is not necessary to double-bag or use additional precautions for used
linen contamination from
linen from patients in isolation.
isolated and nonisolated x Do not sort and wash soiled linens in patient care areas (CDC 1988;
patients (Maki, Alvarado OSHA 1991).
and Hassemer 1986;
Pugliese 1989; Weinstein x Collect and remove soiled linen after each procedure, and daily or as
et al 1989). needed from patient rooms.
x Transport collected soiled linen in closed leakproof bags, containers
with lids or covered carts to the processing area daily or more often as
needed.
x Transport soiled linen and clean linen separately. If there are separate
carts or containers available for soiled and clean linen, they should be
labeled accordingly. If not, thoroughly clean the containers or carts
used to transport soiled linen before using them to transport clean
linen.

Sorting Soiled Linen The processing area for soiled linen must be separate from other areas
such as those used for folding and storing clean linen, patient care areas
and food preparation areas. In addition there should be adequate
ventilation and physical barriers (walls) between the clean and soiled linen
areas.

Safe sorting of linen is extremely important. Sorting must be carefully

performed because soiled linen (large drapes and towel drapes) from the
Remember: Disposable
sharps (suture needles,
operating room or other procedure areas not infrequently contain sharps
scalpel blades and (e.g., scalpels, sharp-tipped scissors, hypodermic and suture needles and
hypodermic needles) must sharp-tipped towel clips). In addition, bedding from patients’ rooms may
be placed in sharps contain soiled dressings and be blood-stained or wet with other body
containers located near the fluids. These items must be handled carefully while wearing protective
point of use.
gloves, protective eyewear and plastic or rubber apron, and should be
disposed of properly. Though infrequent, infections related to sorting have
been attributed to failure of handwashing and proper use of PPE
(McDonald 2002).

Soiled linen may also contain noninfectious items such as dentures,

eyeglasses and hearing aids. These items pose no threat of infection and
require no special handling.

LAUNDERING LINEN

Washing and Drying All linen items (e.g., bed sheets, surgical drapes, masks, gowns) used in
the direct care of a patient must be thoroughly washed before reuse.
Decontamination prior to washing is not necessary, unless linen is heavily
soiled and will be hand washed (repeated soaking of linen in chlorine,

13 – 4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Processing Linen

even dilute solutions, will cause the fabric to deteriorate more quickly).
Staff responsible for hand washing linen should use PPE as described in
Remember: The storage
Table 13-2. In addition, workers should not carry wet, soiled linen close
time for soiled linen before
washing is related to to their bodies even if they are wearing a plastic or rubber apron.
practical issues, such as
available storage space and Hand Washing
aesthetics, not to infection
prevention concerns.
STEP 1: Wash heavily soiled linen separately from nonsoiled linen.
STEP 2: Wash the entire item in water with liquid soap to remove all
soilage, even if not visible:
Remember: Presoak in
soap, water and bleach,
only if linen is heavily x Use warm water if available.
soiled.
x Add bleach (e.g., 30–60 mL, about 2–3 tablespoons, of a 5% chlorine
solution) to aid cleaning and bactericidal action.
x Add sour (a mild acid agent) to prevent yellowing of linen, if
desirable.

STEP 3: Check the item for cleanliness. Rewash if it is dirty or stained.

STEP 4: Rinse the item with clean water.

Machine Washing

STEP 1: Wash heavily soiled linen separately from nonsoiled linen.

STEP 2: Adjust the temperature and time cycle of the machine according
to manufacturer’s instructions and the type of soap or other washing
product being used. Both cold and hot water washing cycles that include
bleach reduce bacterial counts in the linen.

Hot-water washing:1

x Use hot water above 71ºC (160qF) and soap to aid in loosening soil.
x Add bleach and sour as above.
Note: Uniforms and
scrubsuits or gowns worn x Adjust the time cycle of the machine according to the manufacturer’s
by housekeeping or instructions.
cleaning staff can be safely
laundered at home (i.e., STEP 3: When the wash cycle is complete, check the linen for cleanliness.
home laundering does not Rewash if it is dirty or stained. (Heavily soiled linen may require two
increase the risk of
infection to patients or wash cycles.)
staff) (Manangan 2001).

1
Lower temperatures or cold water washing are satisfactory if the cleaning products (type of soap or detergent, amount of
bleach and other additives) are appropriate and used in proper concentrations. Using cold water also saves energy.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 13 – 5

Processing Linen

Drying, Checking For both hand and machine washed linens, the steps are the same.
and Folding Linen
STEP 1: Completely air or machine dry before further processing. Air dry
in direct sunlight, if possible, keeping the fabric off the ground, away from
dust and moisture.
STEP 2: After linen items are totally dry, check for holes and threadbare
areas. If these are present, the item must be discarded or repaired before
reuse or storage. (If there are any holes or many repaired areas, the item
should not be used as a drape. It can be cut into pieces to be used as
cleaning rags.)

Setting standards helps determine when drapes (lap sheets) or

linen wrappers should be made into rags. For example, a drape
should have no more than 5 patches per 1-foot (12 inches)
square area or 20% of the drape covered with patches. Patches
should be avoided because they increase the thickness of the
linen item and decrease steam penetrability if sterilization is
required.

STEP 3: Clean and dry linen should be ironed as needed and folded. For
Note: If surgical drapes are example, if a clean, dry drape is acceptable, the drape can be ironed
to be sterilized, do not iron.
before placing it on a shelf or in a container for storage.
Ironing dries out the
material, making auto-
claving more difficult. If sterile linens are required, prepare and sterilize wrapped packs as
discussed in Chapter 11 and Appendix G. The recommended guidelines
for processing soiled linens are summarized in Table 13-3.

STORING, TRANSPORTING AND DISTRIBUTING CLEAN LINEN

Storing Clean Linen x Keep clean linen in clean, closed storage areas.
x Use physical barriers to separate folding and storage rooms from
soiled areas.
x Keep shelves clean.
x Handle stored linen as little as possible.

Transporting Clean x Clean and soiled linen should be transported separately.

Linen x Containers or carts used to transport soiled linen should be thoroughly
cleaned before used to transport clean linen. If different containers or
carts are used to transport clean and soiled linen, they should be
labeled.
x Clean linen must be wrapped or covered during transport to avoid
contamination.

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 Processing Linen

Distributing Clean x Protect clean linen until it is distributed for use.

Linen x Do not leave extra linen in patients’ rooms.
x Handle clean linen as little as possible.
x Avoid shaking clean linen. It releases dust and lint into the room.
x Clean soiled mattresses before putting clean linen on them.

Table 13-3. Guidelines for Processing Linens and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
ITEM DECONTAMINATION CLEANING HIGH-LEVEL STERILIZATION
DISINFECTION
Protective eyewear Wipe with 0.5% chlorine Wash with liquid soap Not necessary Not necessary
(plastic goggles and solution. Rinse with clean and water. Rinse with
face shields) water. After each clean water, then air or
procedure or when is towel dry.2 After each
visibly soiled. procedure or when
visibly soiled.
Linens (caps, Not necessary. (Laundry Wash with liquid soap Not necessary Not necessary
masks, scrubsuits or staff should wear plastic and water, removing
covergowns) aprons, gloves, and all dirt particles. Rinse
protective foot and with clean water, air
eyewear when handling or machine dry.2 Air-
soiled items.) dried attire can be
ironed before use.
Aprons (heavy Wipe with 0.5% chlorine Wash with liquid soap Not necessary Not necessary
plastic or rubber) solution. Rinse with clean and water. Rinse with
water. Between each clean water, air or
procedure or each time towel dry at the end of
they are taken off. the day or when
visibly soiled.2
Footwear (rubber Wipe with 0.5% chlorine Wash with liquid soap Not necessary Not necessary
shoes or boots) solution. Rinse with clean and water. Rinse with
water. At the end of the clean water, air or
day or when visibly towel dry at the end of
soiled. the day or when
visibly soiled.2
Surgical gowns, Not necessary. (Laundry Wash with liquid soap Not practical Preferred
linen drapes and staff should wear plastic and water, removing
wrappers aprons, gloves and all particles. Rinse
protective foot and with clean water, air
eyewear when handling or machine dry.2
soiled items.)
Paper or disposable Place in plastic bag or
plastic items leakproof, covered waste
container for disposal.
2
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to remove particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with a dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).

Infection Prevention Guidelines 13 – 7

Processing Linen

REFERENCES

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1988. Update: Universal precautions

for prevention of transmission of HIV, HBV, and other bloodborne
pathogens in health setting. MMWR: 37(24): 377.
Economics Report. 1994. In-house laundry/linen reprocessing: Who does
it? Health Facilities Management 7(6): 126.
Lynch P et al. 1997. Barrier precautions: Reducing risks for transmission
of organisms, in Infection Prevention with Limited Resources. ETNA
Communications: Chicago, pp 87–92.
Maki DG, C Alvarado and C Hassemer. 1986. Double-bagging of items
from isolation rooms is unnecessary as an infection control measure: A
comparative study of surface contamination with single- and double-
bagging. Infec Control 7(11): 535–537.
Manangan LP. 2001. Infection control dogma: Top 10 suspects. Infect
Control Hosp Epidemiol 22(4): 243–247.
McDonald LL. 2002. Linen services, in APIC Text of Infection Control
and Epidemiology. APIC: Washington, DC, pp 75-1–75-4.
Pugliese G. 1989. Isolating and double-bagging laundry: Is it really
necessary? Health Facility Management 2(2): 16–20.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), US Department
of Labor. 1991. Occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens: Final
rule. Fed Regist 56(235): 64004–64182.
Weinstein SA et al. 1989. Bacterial surface contamination of patient’s
linen: Isolation precautions versus standard care. Am J Infect Control
17(5): 264–267.

13 – 8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 FOURTEEN

REPROCESSING DISPOSABLE (SINGLE-USE) ITEMS

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the basis for reprocessing disposable (single-use) items is

x What the concerns regarding reprocessing disposable items are
x What appropriate guidelines for reprocessing disposable surgical
gloves are
x What appropriate guidelines for recycling or reprocessing disposable
syringes are

BACKGROUND

In the past, medical devices used in healthcare facilities were divided into
two categories:

1. reusable devices or items intended to be cleaned, inspected and either

high-level disinfected or sterilized for multiple reuses; and
2. disposable devices intended to be used once and then discarded.

The plastics revolution, however, has permanently changed the way

healthcare is delivered by providing less expensive, disposable products
for a multitude of purposes and procedures. Although disposables, such as
single-use needles and syringes, minimize the risk of cross-contamination,
plastics inadvertently also have increased healthcare costs for waste
removal and environmental pollution resulting from incineration
(burning).

Today more than 20 different types of plastics are used to produce

hundreds of disposable medical devices, ranging in cost from a few cents
(syringes) to more than a thousand dollars (electrophysiology catheters
inserted into the heart to measure and correct rhythm disorders). Although
designed for single use (disposable), approximately 30% of US hospitals
currently reuse these catheters (Weinberg 1999). Thus, the issue really is
not whether or not to reprocess, but what constitutes safe and appropriate
reuse of disposable items.

How Safe Is As a general principle, before starting a reuse program it should be

Reprocessing demonstrated that the reprocessing of used, or previously opened but
unused, items is as safe as reprocessing medical devices that are intended
to be reusable (CHA 1996). For simple items such as disposable bedpans,
dishware, Ambu bags, syringes and surgical gloves, reprocessing
procedures are no different for the disposable item than for the reusable

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Reprocessing Disposable (Single-Use) Items

equivalent (e.g., reusable versus disposable surgical gloves). Therefore, if

there are appropriate guidelines and procedures for safely processing the
reusable device or item, reprocessing the disposable will not be less safe
and should result in the same quality product from a reprocessing
perspective. Clearly, however, a reprocessed surgical glove, whether
labeled reusable or disposable, may not be as safe in terms of protection
(inapparent holes or tears) to the wearer, so guidelines for testing and the
proper use of the reprocessed gloves must be in place if gloves are to be
reused (see Chapters 4 and 7).

Benefits of Reprocessing The most obvious benefit of reprocessing is the potential for cost savings,
but for developing countries there is the added benefit of having a more
dependable supply of items (e.g., surgical gloves and syringes) that only
need to be replaced periodically. Other benefits to hospitals and the
community are a reduction in the volume of medical waste, especially
infectious waste, which is the most difficult and expensive to dispose of.
For example, in some countries, the cost of properly transporting and
disposing of waste is so high that nothing is done. As a consequence, all
types of waste are dumped behind hospitals or clinics or partially burned
in open pits. Finally, when a hospital or clinic reuses disposable devices,
there is a saving to the environment in terms of pollution reduction, less
incineration and less use of landfills and dump sites. Currently, American
healthcare facilities send four billion pounds of waste to landfills and
commercial incinerators each year (Dunn 2001)!

DEFINITIONS

x Recycling. Physical and/or chemical process that recovers the basic

material in a product (e.g., paper from newspapers, aluminum from
soft drink cans or plastic from disposable syringes) for reuse as a new
or different product.
x Reprocessing. Decontaminating, disassembling (if necessary), cleaning,
inspecting, testing, packaging, relabeling, and sterilizing or high-level
disinfecting single-use devices (SUDs) after they have been used on a
patient for their intended purpose. Reprocessing also is performed on
SUDs that were removed from the package (or container) but not used
on a patient or whose expiration date has passed.

REPROCESSING DISPOSABLE (SINGLE-USE) ITEMS

The use of disposable (single-use) items has increased steadily in recent

years in nearly all countries, but especially in the US and Europe. Table
14-1 shows the amount of waste produced by disposable items commonly
used in a medium-sized hospital in Germany (Daschner 1993). Most of
these disposables create additional environmental pollution and from an
infection prevention perspective are unnecessary. For example, getting an
infection from dishes used by a patient, even those with an acute
respiratory or gastrointestinal infection, is highly unlikely.

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 Reprocessing Disposable (Single-Use) Items

Table 14-1. Waste Produced by Disposables per Year

DISPOSABLE NUMBERS WASTE
(tons) (%)
Kidney-shaped bowls 251,000 5.6 8
Gloves 2,100,000 19.4 28
Surgical drapes 54,000 6.7 9
Cleaning towels 194,000 7.0 10
Syringes 2,600,000 17.8 25
Dishes 388,000 6.1 9
Other items 7.9 11
Total 70.5 100%

Source: Dashner 1993.

As shown in Table 14-2, many reusable items (e.g., metal kidney basins)
can safely replace disposables and are now beginning to be used even in
the US. Fiscal constraints, budget cutbacks, managed care and data
supporting the safety of reusing items are the driving forces behind the
movement to replace or reuse disposables. In fact, in the US it is estimated
that reprocessing could save $700 million per year if healthcare facilities
took full advantage of the practice of reuse (Hawkins 1999; Selvey 2001).

Table 14-2. Disposables and Their Alternatives

ITEM ALTERNATIVE
Single-use disposable Ambu bags Reusable Ambu bags can be used for up to
8 years (they cost more up front, have
reprocessing cost, but do not become waste
for a long time)
Single-use disposable ventilator circuits Reusable ventilator circuits
Single-use disposable gowns Reusable cloth gowns
Single-use dishware Reusable dishware, both crockery and
cutlery
Disposable diapers (for young and old) Reusable diapers
Single-use disposable pillows Reusable pillows
Single-use disposable bedpans Reusable plastic or steel bedpans
Single-use urinals Reusable plastic or steel urinals
Single-use emesis basins Reusable plastic or steel emesis basins
Single-use wash basins Reusable plastic or steel wash basins
Single-use bowls Reusable plastic or steel bowls
Disposable wash cloths Reusable wash cloths
Disposable pitchers and cups Reusable pitchers and cups

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Reprocessing Disposable (Single-Use) Items

The situation in many developing countries, however, is quite different.

Most disposable medical items have never been available because they are
expensive and difficult to dispose of safely, especially plastic items. The
two exceptions to this are disposable surgical gloves and disposable
(plastic) syringes, which have rapidly replaced reusable products. As
illustrated in Table 14-1, these two items alone create most of a moderate-
sized hospital’s medical waste—over 50% in fact!

Unlike the US, Canada and Western Europe, reprocessing of latex rubber
surgical gloves is a standard practice in many countries because:

x supplies of new disposable gloves often are inadequate and stock outs
not infrequent;
x reprocessing is not difficult and is inexpensive because low-cost labor
is widely available; and
x reprocessed surgical gloves can be used not only in the operating
room, but also as examination gloves, which generally are in short
supply, for semi- and noncritical patient care activities.

REPROCESSING DISPOSABLE SURGICAL GLOVES

The risk in reprocessing is that reused surgical gloves contain more

inapparent holes and tears than new ones. As a consequence, the wearer
has less protection. But, as discussed in Chapter 7, even surgeons wearing
new surgical gloves had a 14% blood-hand contact (Tokars et al 1995).
Moreover in the US, the regulatory standard “acceptable” leak rate for the
best quality latex rubber surgical or examination gloves is up to 4%!
Wearing new gloves, therefore, does not guarantee that hands will be kept
free of contaminating blood or body fluids, even in the absence of
accidental breaks or tears. Moreover, as proposed in Chapter 7, double
gloving with new gloves now is considered appropriate, given the current
risk of exposure to HIV and HCV in many countries. Thus, sterilization
(autoclaving) or steaming (high-level disinfection) of previously
decontaminated and thoroughly cleaned surgical gloves can produce an
acceptable product and, when combined with double gloving, constitutes
an appropriate and cost-effective reuse of a disposable item.

In Appendix C, guidelines and detailed instructions are provided for the

safe reprocessing of surgical gloves.

RECYCLING OR REPROCESSING DISPOSABLE (PLASTIC) SYRINGES AND

HYPODERMIC NEEDLES

In countries with limited resources, the practice of collecting, selling and

reusing syringes and hypodermic needles is a long-standing, logical
response to scarcity and economics. Unfortunately, the individuals who
scavenge landfills and public dumps for them, as well as the patients who

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 Reprocessing Disposable (Single-Use) Items

buy the cheaper “reprocessed” product, are at increased risk of infection

with bloodborne pathogens. To date, attempts to discourage this practice
have been universally unsuccessful.

Most developing country governments are overburdened and underfunded.

As such, solutions to this problem that require functioning national
systems for the management of medical waste and/or increased spending
are unlikely to be implemented in the near future (Mujeeb et al 2003).1
Thus, alternatives that recognize the economic value of used syringes are
more likely to be successful in addressing this serious problem. Potential
options include discarding the needles after decontamination and then
either recycling the plastic syringe or reprocessing it according to
recommended infection prevention practices.

Recycling Disposable Recycling is a new, potential alternative for the safe disposal of plastic
Syringes syringes that is appropriate for use in limited-resource settings. The other
alternatives are incineration, encapsulation and safe burying (Chapter 8).
In many countries, plastic recycling is a major industry. In developing
countries, however, syringe recycling occurs primarily in the plasticware
industry and is unregulated.

Of the alternatives, recycling is clearly more practical. Incineration

produces potentially toxic emissions, including persistent organic
pollutants in the case of low-temperature burning (see below) and is
expensive. Encapsulation and safe burying not only are expensive, but also
they do not reduce the ever-increasing volume of waste. And unlike
recycling, neither one generates funds.

To make syringe recycling (and reprocessing as well) safer for scavengers

and plastic workers, healthcare providers must consistently decontaminate
assembled needles and syringes after use (Appendix D).2 Implementing
“point of use” decontamination also provides an added measure of
protection to health workers, especially housekeeping and maintenance
personnel, from acquiring a life-threatening disease (i.e., reduced risk that
a needlestick will transmit HIV or other bloodborne viral infection).
Furthermore, if the needles and syringes, as well as sharps containers, are
not properly disposed of, the community is at less risk because the needles
and syringes were decontaminated before being discarded.3 Finally, the
volume of waste would be significantly reduced, and the cost of disposal
less, because the decontaminated needles and syringes could be treated as
noninfectious waste. Thus, they could be sold for recycling (if available)
or disposed of in dumps or public landfills.

1
While switching to autodisable syringes prevents reuse of the syringe, in many countries doing this will be expensive and
logistically will take years to accomplish.
2
Even the SoloShot FX¥ autodisable syringe (Chapter 7) can be decontaminated because after use about 0.1 mL of
chlorine solution can be drawn up. This volume is sufficient to completely fill the needle as well as cover the surface of the
plunger and bottom of the syringe.
3
HIV can survive in needles and syringes for more than 4 weeks at room temperature (Abdala et al 1999; Rich et al 1998).

Infection Prevention Guidelines 14 - 5

Reprocessing Disposable (Single-Use) Items

Reprocessing While reprocessing disposable plastic syringes is a practical and

Disposable Syringes economically viable alternative, to be safe it requires three conditions:
(and Needles)
1. A sterile or high-level disinfected needle and syringe is used to give
only a single injection.
2. After use, the assembled needle and syringe is decontaminated and
placed in a sharps container.
3. The syringe, but preferably not the needle, is processed according to
recommended infection prevention practices (thorough cleaning and
either sterilization or high-level disinfection).

The rationale for reprocessing only the syringe, but not the needle, is the
following:

x Contaminated needles are responsible for the injuries and the potential
risk of acquiring a life-threatening disease.
x Needles are difficult to clean and sterilize or high-level disinfect, but
syringes are not.
x Plastic syringes, many of which are made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
contribute heavily to environmental pollution (i.e., converted to
dioxins that are carcinogenic) when burned, even at high temperatures
with scrubbers (NIHE 2002).

In Appendix E, guidelines and detailed instructions are provided for the

safe:

x disposal of both needles and syringes,

x disposal of needles and processing of syringes, or
x processing of both needles and syringes in special situations.

Reprocessing Versus A major concern with reusing needles and syringes is the risk of
Disposal of Needles transmitting HIV, HBV and HCV to patients if, after use, they are not
and Syringes reprocessed correctly, or several injections are given with the same needle
and syringe (Drucker, Alcabes and Marx 2001; Simonsen et al 1999). To
minimize this risk, in recent years disposable (single-use) plastic syringes
and hypodermic needles, or one of the newer autodisable syringes that
cannot be refilled, have been introduced in most countries. Clearly,
wherever economically possible, disposable products should be used and
safely disposed of after decontamination.4

Switching over to disposables, or the new autodisable syringes and

needles, however, creates a new set of logistic and infection prevention

4
While the autodisable syringes currently being used by USAID and UNICEF cannot be reused, their use does not address
the risk to health workers, maintenance personnel and the community from accidental needlestick injuries unless they are
decontaminated prior to disposal.

14 - 6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Reprocessing Disposable (Single-Use) Items

problems. For example, a clinic or hospital using only disposable or

autodisable syringes must ensure that adequate supplies are available at all
times. Without a continuous supply, services will be disrupted
periodically. If a woman comes in for her 3-monthly injection of Depo
Provera“ (injectable contraceptive) only to find the clinic is out of
syringes—this is a very real problem. An even more serious consequence
would be if, rather than stopping services, the same disposable needle and
syringe would then be used on more than one patient (i.e., the exact
problem disposables were intended to solve) because procedures for safely
reprocessing them are no longer in place.

A larger problem is how to safely dispose of used needles and syringes,

both conventional and autodisposable, if resources for incineration,
encapsulation or burying are not available. In many countries, used
needles and syringes can be found lying discarded outside healthcare
facilities and hospitals, or piled high in boxes in storage rooms. These
used needles and syringes constitute an increasing health risk, especially
to adults and children seeking items to sell, use or play with.

In summary, reprocessing disposable syringes constitutes an appropriate

reuse of a disposable (single-use) device and significantly reduces
infectious waste, as does reprocessing surgical gloves. Reprocessing
syringes also limits costs because only new sterile needles need to be
regularly resupplied. Moreover, reprocessing syringes further simplifies
resupply problems because boxes of sterile needles, which are smaller and
considerably less bulky, can be more easily and less expensively
transported. Finally, reprocessing disposable syringes is income-
generating, which for countries with limited resources is an important
advantage.

Reprocessing used needles, however, represents an inappropriate reuse

of disposables and is responsible for infections (Kane et al 1999; Phillips
et al 1971; Simonsen et al 1999). In those situations where it is the only
option available, it is critical that reprocessing be done as safely as
possible using recommended infection prevention practices and processes
(Appendix E).

REFERENCES

Abdala N et al. 1999. Survival of HIV-1 in syringes: Effects of

temperature during storage. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol
20(1): 73–80.
Canadian Healthcare Association (CHA). 1996. The Reuse of Single-Use
Medical Devices: Guidelines for Healthcare Facilities. Association for the
Advancement of Medical Instrumentation: Arlington, VA.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 14 - 7

Reprocessing Disposable (Single-Use) Items

Daschner F. 1993. The hospital and pollution: Role of the hospital

epidemiologist in protecting the environment, in Prevention and Control
of Nosocomial Infections, 2nd ed. Wenzel RP (ed). Williams & Wilkins:
Baltimore, MD, pp 993–1000.
Drucker EM, PG Alcabes and PA Marx. 2001. The injection century:
Consequences of massive unsterile injecting for the emergence of human
pathogens. Lancet 358: 1989–1992.
Dunn D. 2001. Reprocessing single-use devices—the equipment
connection. AORN J 75(6): 1143–1158.
Hawkins D. 1999. Risky recycling: That “disposable” catheter may have
been used before. US News World Report 127(11): 62–64; 66–67.
Kane A et al. 1999. Transmission of hepatitis B, hepatitis C and human
immunodeficiency viruses through unsafe injections in the developing
world: Model-based regional estimates. Bull World Health Organ 77(10):
801–807.
Mujeeb SA et al. 2003. Recycling of injection equipment in Pakistan.
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24(2): 145–146.
Nightingale Institute for Health and the Environment (NIHE). 2002.
Nurses Can Make a Difference. www.nihe.org.
Phillips I et al. 1971. Pseudomonas cepacia (multicorans) septicemia in an
intensive care unit. Lancet 1(7695): 375–377.
Rich JD et al. 1998. Detection of HIV-1 nucleic acid and HIV-1 antibodies
in needles and syringes used for non-intravenous injection. AIDS 12(17):
2345–2350.
Selvey D. 2001. Medical device reprocessing: Is it good for your
organization? Infec Control Today 5: 22–26.
Simonsen L et al. 1999. Unsafe injections in the developing world and
transmission of bloodborne pathogens: A review. Bull World Health
Organ 77(10): 789–800.
Tokars JI et al. 1995. Skins and mucous membrane contacts with blood
during surgical procedures: Risk and prevention. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 16(12): 703–711.
Weinberg N. 1999. Staying healthy blood money—hospitals are reusing
devices they shouldn’t. Forbes (22 March): 123–126.

14 - 8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 FIFTEEN

TRAFFIC FLOW AND ACTIVITY PATTERNS1

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter are:

x Why regulating traffic flow and defining activity patterns in hospitals

and clinics are important
x How to design traffic flow and activity patterns in procedure,
instrument processing and surgical areas
x What the traffic flow requirements are for these different areas

BACKGROUND

Microbial contamination is minimized by reducing the number

of people permitted into an area and by defining the activities
that take place there (Russell, Hugo and Ayliffe 1982).

Regulating the flow of visitors, patients and staff plays a central role in
preventing disease transmission in healthcare facilities. Because the
number of microorganisms in a designated area tends to be related to the
number of people present and their activity, microbial contamination is
expected—and found—to be high in areas such as waiting rooms and
places where soiled surgical instruments and other equipment are initially
processed.

An important objective of infection prevention is to minimize the level of

microbial contamination in areas where patient care and instrument
processing take place. Such areas include:

x Procedure areas where patients are examined and procedures (e.g.,

pelvic examinations, wound care management, blood drawing,
immunizations, IUD insertions and removals, and normal childbirth)
occur.
x Surgical units where major and minor operations are performed. The
surgical unit also includes preoperative and recovery rooms as well as
several other areas.
x Work areas where instruments are processed. These include dirty and
clean areas where soiled instruments, equipment and other items are
first cleaned and either high-level disinfected or sterilized and then
stored.

1
Adapted from: Tietjen, Cronin and McIntosh 1992.

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Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

It is important to direct activity patterns and traffic flow in these areas to

keep contaminated areas separate from areas where procedures take place.
Activities such as waste disposal, instrument processing and cleaning
procedure areas should be carefully planned and organized to minimize
the risk of infection to patients and healthcare workers. Equally important
are designing and implementing traffic flow patterns that prevent soiled
instruments and other items from crossing paths with cleaned, high-level
disinfected or sterilized items.

Traffic flow also has to do with separating people who have, or are likely to
have, communicable diseases from those who are at risk (susceptible). These
people pose a great risk to susceptible patients and healthcare workers
simply by being present in the same room; therefore, they need to be
identified and quickly removed. For example, a child or teenager with a
fever, an itchy rash on the head and body, and a negative history for chicken
pox is best evaluated in the parking lot outside the hospital or clinic. Because
triaging patients who may have a highly infectious disease involves staff
quite different from those responsible for planning how to separate clean and
dirty instruments, it is not addressed in this chapter. (Communicable disease
triaging guidelines are fully described in Chapter 21.)

DEFINITIONS

x At point of use. Equipment, instruments and supply items are at the

place where needed (e.g., sharps containers are placed within an arm’s
reach of where injections are being given).
x Environmental controls. Standards specifying procedures to be
followed for the routine care, cleaning and disinfection of
environmental surfaces, beds, bedrails, bedside equipment and other
frequently touched surfaces.
x Operating room. Area or space where surgical procedures are
performed.
x Surgical unit. Whole surgical area including the lockers and dressing
rooms, preoperative and recovery rooms, peripheral support areas
including storage space for sterile and high-level disinfected items and
other consumable supplies, corridors leading to restricted areas, the
operating room(s), scrub sink areas and the nursing station.

SPACE AND EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS

Healthcare facilities vary in the types of services they provide. For

example, a rural clinic may offer only a few procedures (e.g., IUD
insertion and removal, immunizations, antenatal care and minor surgery
for suturing wounds or other trauma). Larger facilities (including district
and referral hospitals) provide major and minor general surgical
procedures in addition to ambulatory procedures. Regardless of the size of

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 Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

the facility, however, the specific space and equipment requirements to

perform a particular procedure generally do not vary.

In clinics where only minor procedures are performed, a procedure room

with a handwashing sink is required for examining clients and performing
procedures. A separate room with at least one sink for cleaning and an
area for processing instruments and other items is also desirable (Figure
15-1a). Ideally, the processing area should include more than one room
(e.g., a dirty room for receiving dirty instruments and a clean room for
final processing and storage). If only a single room is available (Figure
15-1a), soiled equipment should be received and cleaned in an area of the
room well away from where equipment is high-level disinfected or
sterilized and stored.
Figure 15-1a and b. Floor Plans for Instrument Cleaning, High-Level Disinfecting
and Sterilizing Areas in a Clinic and Larger Facility

a b

Source: SEARO/WHO 1988.

Although the space requirements for performing various minor surgical

procedures may not be different, depending on the classification of the
procedure (semicritical or critical), the instrument processing requirements
(high-level disinfection or sterilization) may be quite different. Inserting or
removing an IUD, for example, is classified as a semicritical procedure
involving intact mucous membranes, and the site (vagina and cervix) is
not normally sterile, nor can it be made so (Spaulding 1968). By contrast,
inserting a laparoscope into the abdomen is classified as a critical
procedure because tissues that are normally sterile are being touched. For
the former, either sterile or high-level disinfected instruments are
acceptable, but for the latter the preferred final processing is sterilization (see

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Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

Chapters 1 and 9).2 Therefore, because of the need for sterile metal
instruments with laparoscopy, an additional separate area for final
processing (high-pressure sterilization by autoclaving) is desirable (Figure
Note: Instruments should 15-1b). This is especially important if the volume of services is high (five
not be processed in the or more procedures per day).
procedure room; nor
should the handwashing The space, equipment and need for well-defined traffic flow and activity
sink be used for instrument
cleaning. patterns become progressively more complex as the type of surgical
procedure changes from general surgery and obstetrics to open heart
surgery. As a guide, the space requirements for the types of surgery
typically performed at district hospitals are roughly the same as for a busy
surgicenter or polyclinic. These include:

x Changing room and scrub area for clinic staff

x Preoperative area where clients are examined and evaluated prior to
surgery
x Operating room
x Recovery area for patient observation after surgery (may be combined
with the preoperative area)
x Processing area for cleaning and sterilizing or high-level disinfecting
instruments and other items
x Space for storing sterile packs and/or high-level disinfected containers
of instruments and other items

MINIMIZING MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION

The recommended infection prevention practices for minimizing microbial

contamination of specific areas in healthcare facilities are briefly
described below.

Procedure Area x Limit traffic to authorized staff and patients at all times.
x Permit only the patient and staff performing and assisting with
procedures in the procedure room (family members should be limited
with obstetrical procedures).
x Patients can wear their own clean clothing.
x Staff should wear attire and personal protective equipment (PPE)
according to procedures performed.
x Have a covered container filled with a 0.5% chlorine solution for
immediate decontamination of instruments and other items once they
are no longer needed.

2
Because laparoscopes are heat-sensitive, they can only be sterilized using chemical sterilants, such as formaldehyde or
glutaraldehydes.

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 Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

x Have a leakproof, covered waste container for disposal of

contaminated waste items (cotton, gauze, dressings) at point of use.
x Have a puncture-resistant container for safe disposal of sharps (e.g., used
suture needles, hypodermic needles and syringes, and disposable scalpel
blades) at point of use.
x Have storage space in procedure rooms for clean, high-level
disinfected and sterile supplies. (Storage shelves should be enclosed to
minimize dust and debris collecting on stored items.)

Surgical Unit The surgical unit is often divided into four designated areas, which are
defined by the activities performed in each—unrestricted area, transition
zone, semirestricted area and restricted area. Environmental controls and
use of surgical attire increase as one moves from unrestricted to restricted
areas. Moreover, staff with respiratory or skin infections and uncovered
open sores should not be allowed in the surgical unit.

Note: Post signs in each Unrestricted Area

area to clearly indicate the
appropriate environmental This area is the entrance from the main corridor and is isolated from other
control and surgical attire areas of the surgical unit. This is the point through which staff, patients
required. and materials enter the surgical unit.

Transition Zone

This area consists primarily of dressing rooms and lockers. It is where

staff put on surgical attire that allows them to move from unrestricted to
semirestricted or restricted areas in the surgical unit. Only authorized staff
should enter this area.

Semirestricted Area

This is the peripheral support area of the surgical unit and includes
preoperative and recovery rooms, storage space for sterile and high-level
disinfected items, and corridors leading to the restricted area. Support
activities (e.g., instrument processing and storage) for the operating room
occur here.

x Limit traffic to authorized staff and patients at all times.

x Have a work area for processing of clean instruments.
x Have storage space for clean and sterile or high-level disinfected
supplies with enclosed shelves to minimize dust and debris collecting
Note: Flipflops or sandals
on stored items.
should not be worn as they x Have doors limiting access to the restricted area of the surgical unit.
provide no protection from
dropped sharps. x Staff who work in this area should wear surgical attire and a cap.

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Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

x Staff should wear clean, closed shoes that will protect their feet from
fluids and dropped items.

Restricted Area

This area consists of the operating room(s) and scrub sink areas.
Note: Never store
instruments and other items x Limit traffic to authorized staff and patients at all times.
in the operating room.
x Keep the door closed at all times, except during movement of staff,
patients, supplies and equipment.
x Scrubbed staff must wear full surgical attire and cover head and facial
hair with a cap and mask.
x Staff should wear clean, closed shoes that will protect their feet from
fluids and dropped items.
x Masks are required when sterile supplies are open and scrubbed staff
are operating.
x Patients entering the surgical unit should wear clean gowns or be
covered with clean linen, and have their hair covered.
x Patients do not need to wear masks during transport (unless they
require airborne precautions).

Operating Room(s)

x Enclose the operating room to minimize dust and eliminate flies;

central air conditioning is preferred. (If windows are the only
ventilation, provide tight-fitting screens.)
x The operating room should be located away from areas of the hospital
or healthcare facility that are heavily traveled by staff and patients.

Before surgical procedures:

x Place a clean, covered container filled with a 0.5% chlorine solution or

other locally available and approved disinfectant for immediate
decontamination of instruments and other items once they are no
longer needed.
x Place a plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container for
contaminated waste items (cotton gauze, old dressings).
x Place a puncture-resistant container for the safe disposal of sharps
(e.g., suture needles, hypodermic needles and syringes, and disposable
scalpel blades) at the point of use but without contaminating the sterile
field.
x Place a leakproof, covered waste container for soiled linen away from
sterile items.

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 Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

x Organize tables, Mayo and ring stands side by side in an area away
from the traffic patterns and at least 45 cm (18 inches) from walls,
cabinets and other nonsterile surfaces.
x Place a clean sheet, a lift sheet and armboard covers on the operating
room bed.
x Check and set up suction, oxygen and anesthesia equipment.
x Place supplies and packages that are ready to open on the tables, not
on the floor.
x Mayo stand and other nonsterile surfaces that are to be used during the
procedure should be covered with a sterile towel or cloth.

During surgical procedures:

x Limit the number of staff entering the operating room only to those
necessary to perform the procedure and to patients (family members as
needed). Make the surgical team self-sufficient so that outside help is
not required.
x Keep the doors closed at all times, except during movement of staff,
patients, supplies and equipment.
x Keep the number of people and their movement to a minimum; the
numbers of microorganisms increase with activity.
x Keep talking to a minimum in the presence of a sterile field.
x Scrubbed staff should wear full surgical attire, including:
Note: Healthcare personnel
do not need to wear cover- x a clean scrub suit covering bare arms (one or two pieces); if a two-
gowns when leaving the piece pantsuit is worn, the top of the scrub suit should be tucked
operating room (Manangan
et al 2001). into the pants;
x a clean surgical cap that covers the head;
x clean, closed shoes that protect the feet from fluids or dropped
items; and
Note: If splashes or spills x sterile (or high-level disinfected) surgical gloves, protective
of blood or amniotic fluid eyewear and a mask covering the mouth, nose and any facial hair.
are expected, wear a
faceshield and plastic or
rubber apron. x Scrubbed staff should keep their arms and hands within the operative
field at all times and touch only sterile items or areas.
x Nonscrubbed staff should wear surgical attire, including:

x long sleeved jackets banded at the wrist and that are closed during
use;
x a clean surgical cap that covers the head;
x clean, closed shoes that protect the feet from fluids or dropped
items; and
x a mask covering the mouth, nose and any facial hair.

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Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

x Nonscrubbed staff should stay at the periphery of the operating room,

keeping their distance from sterile areas. They should not lean or reach
over the operative field.
x Clean accidental spills or contaminated debris in areas outside the
surgical field with a 0.5% chlorine solution as promptly as possible. (A
nonscrubbed staff member wearing utility gloves should do this.)

After surgical procedures, nonscrubbed staff wearing utility gloves should:

x Collect all waste and remove it from the room in closed leakproof
containers.
x Close and remove puncture-resistant containers when they are three
quarters full.
x Remove covered containers with a 0.5% chlorine solution with
instruments and surgical gloves from the room.
x Remove soiled linen in closed leakproof containers.
x Remove waste, soiled linen, soiled instruments and equipment, and
supplies that have been opened but not used, in an enclosed cart or in a
leakproof, covered waste container. (Be sure that these items do not re-
enter the restricted area.)

Work Area According to the size and type of the healthcare facility, the work area for
processing instruments (e.g., the Central Supply Department or CSD) may
be part of or connected to the surgical unit, or it may be an independent
area somewhere away from the surgical unit.

This is the area where instruments, surgical gloves and equipment are
processed, and where staff should be specially trained in handling and
processing and storing instruments, equipment and other clean, sterile or
Remember: Permit only high-level disinfected items. The CSD is considered a semi-restricted area,
authorized personnel to so all the recommendations for traffic patterns and proper attire described
enter this area.
above should be followed.

A CSD consists of four areas, as shown in Figure 15-2. These areas are:

1. the “dirty” receiving/cleanup area,

2. the “clean” work area,
3. the cleaning equipment storage area, and
4. the sterile or high-level disinfected storage area.

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 Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

Figure 15-2. Floor Plan for a Central Supply Department in a Hospital

Following surgery, decontaminate instruments, surgical gloves and other

items by placing them in a plastic container filled with a 0.5% chlorine
solution at the point of use. Cover the container and transport it to the
CSD or designated instrument and equipment processing area.
Alternatively, place soiled instruments in their original sterile wrap and
transport them to the CSD where they can be immediately decontaminated
before further processing.

Separate the “dirty” receiving/cleanup area (1) from the “clean” work area
Note: Develop flow (2) with a physical barrier (wall and door). If this is not possible, use a
patterns to help ensure that
contaminated items never
screen or paint a red line on the floor to designate separation between
come in contact with clean, areas.
disinfected or sterile items.
The function and equipment requirements for the four areas of a typical
CSD are summarized below.

“Dirty” Receiving/Cleanup Area (1)

Remember: Staff in the In this area soiled items are received, disassembled and washed, rinsed
receiving/cleanup area and dried.
should wear plastic aprons,
utility gloves and safety
The “dirty” receiving/cleanup area should have:
goggles or face shields to
protect themselves from
spills and splashes. x a receiving counter;3
x two sinks if possible (one for cleaning and one for rinsing) with a
clean water supply; and
x a clean equipment counter for drying.
3
If it is not possible to decontaminate instruments and other items in procedure or operating rooms, a decontamination
counter is needed for this step.

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Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

“Clean” Work Area (2)

In the clean work area, cleaned items are:

x inspected for flaws or damage;

x packaged (if indicated), and either sterilized or high-level disinfected;
and
x sent for storage as packaged or air dried and placed in a sterile or high-
Note: Staff entering the level disinfected container.
clean work area should
wear clean cover gowns. The clean work area should have:

x a large work table;

x shelves for holding clean and packaged items; and
x a high-pressure steam sterilizer, a dry-heat oven, a steamer or a boiler.

Clean Equipment Storage Area (3)

Store clean equipment in this area. CSD staff also should enter the CSD
through this area. Equip the area with:

x shelves (preferably enclosed) for storing clean equipment, and

x an office or desk for record keeping.

Sterile or High-Level Disinfected Storage Area (4)

Store sterilized packs and covered sterile or high-level disinfected

containers in this area. This area should be separated from the central
Note: Unwrapped objects
must be used immediately. sterile supply area.

x Limit access to the storage area and/or store items in closed cabinets or
shelves. (Enclosed shelves or cabinets are preferred as they protect
packs and containers from dust and debris. Open shelves are
acceptable if the area has limited access, and housekeeping and
ventilation practices are controlled.)
x Keep the storage area clean, dry, dust-free and lint-free by following a
regular housekeeping schedule.
x Packs and containers with sterile or high-level disinfected items should
be stored 20 to 25 cm (8 to 10 inches) off the floor, 45 to 50 cm (18 to
20 inches) from the ceiling and 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 inches) from an
outside wall.
x Do not use cardboard boxes for storage. (Cardboard boxes shed dust
and debris and may harbor insects.)

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 Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

x Date and rotate the supplies (first in, first out). This process serves as a
reminder that the package is susceptible to contamination and
conserves storage space, but it does not guarantee sterility.
x Packs will remain sterile as long as the integrity of the package is
maintained.
x Sterile or high-level disinfected containers remain so until they are
opened.
x Dispense sterile and high-level disinfected articles from this area.

Shelf Life (Belkin x The shelf life of a packaged sterile item is event-related and not time-
1997a; Belkin 1997b) related. An event can compromise the integrity and effectiveness of the
package.
x Events that can compromise or destroy package sterility include
multiple handling, loss of package integrity, moisture penetration and
airborne contamination.
x Sterility is lost when the package has tears in the wrapper, has become
wet, has been dropped on the floor, has dust on it or is not sealed.
x The shelf life of a sterile package will depend on the quality of
packing, conditions during storage and transport, and the amount of
handling prior to use.
x Sealing sterile packs in plastic bags can help prevent damage and
Remember: Touch or contamination.
handle sterile packages as
little as possible.
x Most contaminating events are related to excessive or improper
handling of the packages. The ideal number of times an item should be
handled is three:

1. when removing it from the sterilizer cart and placing on a storage

shelf,
2. when transporting it to the place where it is to be used, and
3. when selecting it to be opened for use.

Factors that can destroy sterility or compromise the efficiency of the

packaging material to act as a bacterial barrier are:

x dust;
x moisture;
x holes, breaks, rupture of seals; and
x opening the package.

Before using any item that has been stored, check the package to
be sure it is not dirty, wet or damaged.

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Traffic Flow and Activity Patterns

Handling and x Keep clean and high-level disinfected or sterile instruments and other
Transporting items separate from soiled equipment and waste items. Do not transport
Instruments and or store these items together.
Other Items x Transport high-level disinfected and sterile instruments and other items
to the procedure or operating room in a closed cart or container with a
cover to prevent contamination.
Note: If supplies are being x Remove supplies from all shipping cartons and boxes before bringing
delivered to the surgical such supplies into the procedure room, the operating room or the clean
area, one person standing work area of the CSD. (Shipping boxes shed dust and harbor insects
outside should pass them that may contaminate these areas.)
through the door to a
person inside the operating x Transport soiled supplies and instruments to the receiving/cleanup area
room. of the CSD in leakproof, covered waste containers.
x Transport contaminated waste to the disposal site in leakproof, covered
waste containers.

(For additional information regarding handling and managing waste items,

see Chapter 8.)

REFERENCES

Belkin NL. 1997a. Textiles of Today: Their Influence on Sterilization and

Shelf-Life, Part I. www.cea.purdue.edu/IAHCSMM/25LESSON.HTM.
Belkin NL. 1997b. Textiles of Today: Their Influence on Sterility and
Shelf-Life, Part II. www.cea.purdue.edu/IAHCSMM/26LESSON.HTM.
Manangan LP et al. 2001. Infection control dogma: Top 10 suspects.
Infect. Control Hosp Epidemiol 22(4): 243–247.
Russell AD, WB Hugo and GA Ayliffe. 1982. Principles and Practice of
Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization. Blackwell Scientific
Publications: Oxford, England.
South East Asia Regional Office (SEARO), World Health Organization
(WHO) 1988. A Manual on Infection Control in Health Facilities.
SEARO: New Delhi, India, pp 39–42.
Spaulding EH. 1968. Chemical disinfection of medical and surgical
materials, in Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation. Lawrence CA et
al (eds). Lea & Febiger: Philadelphia.
Tietjen LG, W Cronin and N McIntosh. 1992. Traffic flow, in Infection
Prevention Guidelines for Family Planning Programs. Essential Medical
Information Systems, Inc.: Durant, OK, pp 85–96.

15 - 12 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 SIXTEEN

HOUSEKEEPING

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Why housekeeping in hospitals and clinics is important

x What the general principles of cleaning are
x How to prepare disinfectant cleaning solutions
x When and how to clean low- and high-risk areas
x How to clean spills of blood or other body fluids
x How to clean housekeeping equipment

BACKGROUND

“Accumulation of dust, soil, and microbial contaminants on

environmental surfaces is both aesthetically displeasing and a
potential source of nosocomial infections. Effective and efficient
cleaning methods and schedules are, therefore, necessary to
maintain a clean and healthy environment in healthcare
settings.” (Chou 2002)

Housekeeping refers to the general cleaning of hospitals and clinics,

including the floors, walls, certain types of equipment, tables and other
surfaces. The purpose of general housekeeping is to:

x reduce the number of microorganisms that may come in contact with

patients, visitors, staff and the community; and
x provide a clean and pleasant atmosphere for patients and staff.

Most areas in hospitals and clinics are low-risk, such as waiting rooms and
administrative offices, and can be cleaned using only soap and water. In
high-risk areas where heavy contamination is expected, such as toilets and
latrines, or for blood or body fluid spills, a disinfectant such as 0.5% chlorine
or 1% phenol should be added to the cleaning solution (SEARO 1988). Using
a disinfectant in addition to soap and water is also recommended in other
high-risk areas such as operating rooms, pre- and postoperative recovery
areas and intensive care units (ICUs).

In addition, patient rooms, especially those items that might be touched

barehanded by patients and staff, should be cleaned using a disinfectant
solution to minimize the risk of infection. For example, McFarland et al
(1989) found that when patients who did not have Clostridium difficile were

Infection Prevention Guidelines 16 - 1

Housekeeping

admitted to a room previously occupied by a patient with C. difficile, the risk

for the new patient increased several fold—even though staff were correctly
using precautions to prevent cross-contamination.1

If the purpose of housekeeping as stated above is to be achieved, it is

important that housekeeping staff be trained to perform their assigned tasks
and are supervised on a regular basis. As part of their training, it is important
that housekeeping staff:

x understand the risk of exposure to contaminated items and surfaces when

performing environmental cleaning procedures; and
x follow recommended policies and guidelines, including the use of
appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).

The general principles for cleaning hospitals and clinics and other healthcare
facilities are summarized in Table 16-1.

Table 16-1. General Principles of Cleaning

x Scrubbing (frictional cleaning) is the best way to physically remove dirt, debris and
microorganisms.
x Cleaning is required prior to any disinfection process because dirt, debris and other
materials can decrease the effectiveness of many chemical disinfectants.
x Cleaning products should be selected on the basis of their use, efficacy, safety and
cost.
x Cleaning should always progress from the least soiled areas to the most soiled areas
and from high to low areas, so that the dirtiest areas and debris that fall on the floor
will be cleaned up last.
x Dry sweeping, mopping and dusting should be avoided to prevent dust, debris and
microorganisms from getting into the air and landing on clean surfaces. Airborne
fungal spores are especially important as they can cause fatal infections in
immunosuppressed patients (Arnow et al 1991).
x Mixing (dilution) instructions should be followed when using disinfectants. (Too
much or too little water may reduce the effectiveness of disinfectants.)
x Cleaning methods and written cleaning schedules should be based on the type of
surface, amount and type of soil present and the purpose of the area.
x Routine cleaning is necessary to maintain a standard of cleanliness. Schedules and
procedures should be consistent and posted.

DEFINITIONS

x Cleaning solution. Any combination of soap (or detergent) and water,

with or without a chemical disinfectant, used to wash or wipe down
environmental surfaces such as floors, chairs, bench tops, walls and
ceilings.
x Disinfectant. Chemical that destroys or inactivates microorganisms.
Disinfectants are classified as low-, intermediate- or high-level

1
C. difficile is an excellent marker for organisms such as enterococci that persist in the environment.

16 - 2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Housekeeping

depending on their ability to kill or immobilize some (low- or

intermediate-level) or all (high-level) microorganisms (but not all
spores). Phenols, chlorine or chlorine-containing compounds and QUATs
are classes of disinfectants frequently used to clean noncritical surfaces
such as floors, walls and furniture.
x Disinfectant cleaning solution. Products that are a combination of a
detergent (soap) and a chemical disinfectant. Not all detergents and
disinfectants are compatible. Several combinations are available
commercially or can be prepared, such as alkaline detergents with
chlorine compounds, alkaline detergents with quaternary ammonium
compounds (QUATs) or other nonionic surfactants, and acid detergents
with iodophors.
x Environmental controls. Standards specifying procedures to be
followed for the routine care, cleaning and disinfection of environmental
surfaces, beds, bedrails, bedside equipment and other frequently touched
surfaces.
x Environmental hygiene. Process of maintaining a clean, healthy and
pleasing patient and work environment.
x Sanitizer. Chemical that reduces the number of bacterial contaminants to
safe levels on inanimate objects based on public health requirements (i.e.,
a chemical that kills 99.999% of the specific test bacteria in 30 seconds
under the conditions of the test).
x Soaps and detergents (terms used interchangeably). Cleaning products
(bar, liquid, leaflet or powder) that lower surface tension, thereby helping
remove dirt, debris and transient microorganisms from hands. Plain
soaps require friction (scrubbing) to mechanically remove
microorganisms; antiseptic (antimicrobial) soaps kill or inhibit the
growth of most microorganisms.
x Sterilants. Chemicals used to destroy all forms of microorganisms,
including endospores. Most sterilants are also high-level disinfectants
when used for a shorter period of time. Sterilants are used only on
inanimate objects (e.g., surgical instruments) that are used in semicritical
and critical areas (e.g., surgery). Sterilants are not meant to be used for
cleaning environmental surfaces.
x Surfactant. Agent that reduces the surface tension of water or the tension
at the interface between water and another liquid; a wetting agent found
in many sterilants and disinfectants.
x Type of detergent: Commercial cleaning product (liquid or powder) that
are composed of a hydrophilic (water-seeking) component and a
lipophilic (fat-seeking) component and can be divided into four types:
anionic, cationic, amphoteric and nonionic detergents.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 16 - 3

Housekeeping

HOW TO SELECT A CLEANING PRODUCT

Different types of cleaning products are available—liquid soaps and

detergents, disinfectants, combinations (detergent and disinfectant) and
sanitizers—and each type has different properties. An ideal cleaning product
should accomplish the following:

x Suspension of fats (suspend fats in water)

x Saponification of fats (make fats water-soluble)
x Surfaction (decrease surface tension of water and allow greater
penetration of the agent into the dirt or soil)
x Dispersion (break up of soil into small particles)
x Protein destruction (break up proteins)
x Softening the water (removal of calcium and magnesium)

When selecting a disinfectant or other cleaning product, consider the

following factors:

x Intended use
x Efficacy
x Acceptability
x Safety
x Cost

In settings where resources are limited, it is important not to waste money on

expensive cleaning products that are unnecessary. Where the volume of
intended use is high, preparing cleaning solutions from bulk products should
be considered. For smaller facilities, it may be necessary to purchase
commercial products for use in cleaning high-risk areas, such as operating
rooms, to ensure that cleaning meets the requirements for the area. What is
important is that the decision as to what product(s) to buy or use is not left to
chance.

HOW TO PREPARE A DISINFECTANT CLEANING SOLUTION

A disinfectant cleaning solution is one that contains both a disinfectant and a

detergent (soap).

Precautions When Although chlorine-containing solutions (sodium hypochlorite) are excellent,

Using Chlorine inexpensive disinfectants, they should not be mixed with cleaning solutions
Solutions containing an acid (e.g., phosphoric acid), ammonia or ammonium chloride
(NH2Cl). Doing this will release chlorine gas and other by-products that can

16 - 4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Housekeeping

result in temporary illness (nausea, tearing, headache or shortness of breath)

to staff breathing fumes in a poorly ventilated area (CDC 1991).

To find out if a cleaning solution contains ammonia, first check the label. If it
does not say there is ammonia, you may be able to detect ammonia when
opening the product by its pungent, burning smell.

If you are exposed to chlorine gas or ammonium chloride or other

unpleasant (noxious) gases with strong odors, leave the room or
area immediately until the room can be completely ventilated.

Instructions STEP 1: Prepare a 0.5% chlorine solution from liquid concentrates (see
Table 10-1 for directions) or from chlorine compounds (see Table 10-2).
Alternative disinfectants that can be used include 1–2% phenols or 5%
carbolic acid (e.g., Lysol7).
STEP 2: Add enough detergent to the 0.5% chlorine solution or other
disinfectant to make a mild, soapy cleaning solution.

CLEANING METHODS

In general, written schedules and procedures for cleaning in each specific

area should be available and posted. Cleaning should start with the least
soiled area and move to the most soiled area and from high to low surfaces.
Common methods of cleaning are briefly described below:

Note: Do not use Wet mopping is the most common and preferred method to clean floors.
disinfectant fogging (e.g.,
fumigation with dilute
formaldehyde (formalin) x Single-bucket (basin) technique: One bucket of cleaning solution is
solutions to reduce used. The solution must be changed when dirty. (The killing power of the
microbial contamination of cleaning product decreases with the increased load of soil and organic
environmental surfaces material present.)
such as walls, ceilings and
floors (CDC 1988). It is not x Double-bucket technique: Two different buckets are used, one
effective, is time-consuming containing a cleaning solution and the other containing rinse water. The
(requires 24 hours) and the mop is always rinsed and wrung out before it is dipped into the cleaning
fumes are toxic (irritating to
mucous membranes of the
solution. The double-bucket technique extends the life of the cleaning
nose and eyes). Scrubbing solution (fewer changes are required), saving both labor and material
with a disinfectant and costs.
cleaning is a safer, quicker
and more effective way to
x Triple-bucket technique: The third bucket is used for wringing out the
reduce microbial mop before rinsing, which extends the life of the rinse water.
contamination on these
surfaces. Flooding followed by wet vacuuming is recommended in the surgical suite,
if possible. This process eliminates mopping, thus minimizing the spread of
microorganisms. This method increases the contact time of disinfectants with
the surface to be cleaned, but it is necessary to leave the floor wet for several

Infection Prevention Guidelines 16 - 5

Housekeeping

minutes. (Flooding is best done at night or at times when foot traffic is

minimal.)

Dusting is most commonly used for cleaning walls, ceilings, doors,

windows, furniture and other environmental surfaces.

x Clean cloths or mops are wetted with cleaning solution contained in a

basin or bucket. The double-bucket system minimizes the contamination
of the cleaning solution.
x Dry dusting should be avoided and dust cloths and mops should never be
shaken to avoid the spread of microorganisms.
x Dusting should be performed in a systematic way, using a starting point
as a reference to ensure that all surfaces have been reached.
x When doing high dusting (ceiling tiles and walls), check for stains that
may indicate possible leaks. (Leaks should be repaired as soon as
possible because moist ceiling tiles provide a reservoir for fungal
growth.)

Dry vacuuming is only recommended for cleaning of carpets.

USE OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Table 16-2 lists the recommended PPE for use by housekeeping staff when
performing the various tasks.

Table 16-2. Recommended Personal Protective Equipment for Housekeeping Tasks

TYPE OF PPE WHEN USED
Gloves (preferably household utility x Handling disinfectant cleaning
gloves) solutions
Shoes that protect the feet from x Cleaning patient care areas
accidentally dropped items and blood and x Cleaning heavily contaminated areas
body fluids x Handling soiled linen
x Handling soiled items and instruments
x Handling or disposing of waste
Plastic or rubber apron, mask and x When spills or splashes are expected
protective eyewear

SCHEDULE AND PROCEDURES FOR SPECIFIC AREAS

Housekeeping schedules should be planned, written and closely followed.

Cleaning schedules should be developed according to the needs of each area.
Note: Environmental
surfaces are rarely
associated with disease x Walls, windows, ceilings and doors, including door handles: Spot
clean when visibly dirty with a damp cloth, detergent and water. In
general, routine damp dusting is adequate for these areas (disinfection is
unnecessary). These surfaces are rarely heavily contaminated with

16 - 6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Housekeeping

microorganisms, as long as the surfaces remain dry and intact (Russell,

Hugo and Ayliffe 1982).
x Chairs, lamps, tables, tabletops, beds, handrails, grab bars, lights,
tops of doors and counters: Wipe daily and whenever visibly soiled
with a damp cloth, containing disinfectant cleaning solution. A
disinfectant should be used when contamination is present, such as for
blood or other body fluid spills as described below.
x Noncritical equipment (e.g., stethoscopes and blood pressure cuffs):
Wipe daily and whenever visibly soiled with a damp cloth, detergent and
water. If the equipment is visibly soiled with blood or other body fluids
or the patient is under contact precautions, it should be cleaned and
disinfected before it is reused.
x Floors: Clean floors frequently (daily and as needed) with a wet mop,
detergent and water. A disinfectant should be used when contamination is
present, such as for blood or other body fluid spills as described below.
x Sinks: Scrub frequently (daily or more often as needed) with a separate
mop, cloth or brush and a disinfectant cleaning solution. Rinse with
water.
x Toilets and latrines: Scrub frequently (daily and more often as needed)
with a separate mop, cloth or brush and a disinfectant cleaning solution.
x Patient rooms: Clean daily and after patient discharge, using the
processes described above. The same cleaning process applies to rooms
of patients who are under isolation precautions. Any cleaning equipment
used in the rooms of patients under isolation precautions should be
cleaned and disinfected before used in another room.
x Procedure rooms: Wipe horizontal surfaces, equipment and furniture
used for the procedures with a disinfectant cleaning solution after each
procedure and whenever visibly soiled. Clean blood or other body fluid
spills as described below.
x Examination rooms: Wipe horizontal surfaces with a disinfectant
cleaning solution after each procedure and whenever visibly soiled.
Linen or paper on the examination table should be changed after each
patient. Clean blood or other body fluid spills as described below.
x Laboratory: Wipe countertops with a disinfectant cleaning solution
after each shift and whenever visibly soiled. Clean blood or other body
fluid spills as described below.
x Curtains: Change and clean curtains according to the routine schedule
and when visibly soiled.
x Carpets: Vacuum carpets daily in patient rooms, or weekly in offices or
conference rooms.
x Soiled linen: Collect soiled linen daily (or more often as needed) in
closed, leakproof containers.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 16 - 7

Housekeeping

x Waste: Collect waste from all areas at least daily (or more frequently as
needed). Avoid overflowing.
x Waste containers: Clean contaminated waste containers after emptying
each time. Clean noncontaminated waste containers when visibly soiled
and at least once a week. Use a disinfectant cleaning solution and scrub
to remove soil and organic material.

SCHEDULE AND PROCEDURES FOR THE OPERATING ROOM

x At the beginning of each day, all flat (horizontal) surfaces (table, chairs,
etc.) should be wiped with a clean, lint-free moist cloth to remove dust
Note: Do not dry mop or
and lint that may have collected overnight.
sweep the operating room. x Total cleaning is not necessary between each case for surgical
(This causes dust, debris procedures.
and microorganisms to
become airborne and x Total cleaning or terminal cleaning (mopping floors and scrubbing all
contaminate clean surfaces from top to bottom) of the operating room should be done at the
surfaces.) end of each day.

Total Cleaning STEP 1: Move covered decontamination buckets to the central supply or
processing room. A clean bucket containing a fresh 0.5% chlorine solution,
or other locally available and approved disinfectant, should be provided at
the beginning of each day and after each case.

Remember: All areas of the STEP 2: Remove covered contaminated waste container and replace it with a
surgical suite, scrub sinks, clean container. Arrange for burning (incineration) or burial as soon as
scrub or utility areas, possible.
hallways and equipment
should be totally cleaned, STEP 3: Close and remove sharps containers when three quarters full.
regardless of whether they
were used during the 24- STEP 4: Remove soiled linen in closed leakproof containers.
hour surgery period.
STEP 5: Soak a cloth in disinfectant cleaning solution and wipe down all
surfaces, including counters, tabletops, sinks, lights, etc. Wash from top to
bottom, so that any debris that falls on the floor will be cleaned up last.
Note: If walls and ceilings
are deteriorating or damp,
cover with clean plastic
x Walls and ceilings. Wipe with a damp cloth, detergent and water as
sheets during procedures. needed for visible soil.
x Chairs, lamps, sinks, tabletops and counters. Wipe with a damp cloth
and disinfectant cleaning solution.
x Operating room lamp. Wipe with a damp cloth and disinfectant
Note: The double- or
triple-bucket method is
cleaning solution.
recommended for the x Operating room table. Wipe with a 0.5% chlorine solution (or other
cleaning of the operating approved disinfectant) to decontaminate. Then clean top, sides, base, legs
room and other areas of the
surgical suite.
and any accessories (e.g., leg stirrups) with a damp cloth and disinfectant
cleaning solution.
x Floors. Clean with a wet mop using a disinfectant cleaning solution.

16 - 8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Housekeeping

x Vents (heating or air conditioning). Wipe with a damp cloth, soap and
water.

Between each case, do the following:

Note: Cleaning the filters in
air conditioners regularly
will help them run more x Spills. Clean spills with a 0.5% chlorine solution or other locally
efficiently and decrease the available and approved disinfectant (see below).
growth of molds.
x Operating room bed. Wipe all surfaces and mattress pads with a
disinfectant cleaning solution.
x Instrument tables (trolley and Mayo stand) and other flat surfaces.
Wipe all flat surfaces that have come in immediate contact with a patient
or body fluids with a disinfectant cleaning solution.
x Center of operating room surrounding the operating room bed. Mop
with a disinfectant cleaning solution (if visibly soiled).
Remember: Because all
patients are considered x Waste. Collect and remove all waste from the operating room in closed
potentially susceptible and leakproof containers.
infectious, Standard
Precautions are used; no x Sharps containers. Close and remove containers from the operating
additional measures are room when they are three quarters full.
necessary if a client is
known to have an infection.
x Containers with a 0.5% chlorine solution for decontamination.
Remove covered containers with instruments from the operating room
and replace them with clean containers with a fresh 0.5% chlorine
solution.
x Soiled linen. Remove soiled linen in leakproof, covered waste
containers.

HOW TO CLEAN SPILLS OF BLOOD AND OTHER BODY FLUIDS

Clean spills of blood, body fluids and other potentially infectious fluids
immediately:

x For small spills. While wearing utility or examination gloves, remove

visible material using a cloth soaked in a 0.5% chlorine solution, then
wipe clean with a disinfectant cleaning solution.
x For large spills. While wearing gloves, flood the area with a 0.5%
chlorine solution, mop up the solution and then clean as usual with
detergent and water.

HOW TO CLEAN SOILED AND CONTAMINATED CLEANING EQUIPMENT

STEP 1: Decontaminate cleaning equipment that has been contaminated with

blood or body fluids by soaking it for 10 minutes in a 0.5% chlorine solution
or other locally available and approved disinfectants.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 16 - 9

Housekeeping

STEP 2: Wash cleaning buckets, cloths, brushes and mops with detergent
and water daily, or sooner if visibly dirty.
STEP 3: Rinse in clean water.
STEP 4: Dry completely before reuse. (Wet cloths and mop heads are
heavily contaminated with microorganisms.)

REFERENCES

Arnow P et al. 1991. Endemic and epidemic aspergillosis associated with in-
hospital replication of Aspergillus organisms. J Infect Dis 164(5): 998–1002.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 1991. Chlorine gas
toxicity from mixture of bleach with other cleaning products. MMWR
40(36): 619–621.
Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1988. Guideline for handwashing and
environmental control, 1985. MMWR 37(24).
Chou T. 2002. Environmental Services, in APIC Text of Infection Control
and Epidemiology. Association for Professionals in Infection Control and
Epidemiology (APIC): Washington, DC, pp 73–81.
McFarland LV et al. 1989. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile
infection. New Engl J Med 320(4): 204–210.
Russell AD, WB Hugo and GA Ayliffe. 1982. Principles and Practice of
Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization. Blackwell Scientific
Publications: Oxford, England.
South East Asia Regional Office (SEARO), World Health Organization.
1988. A Manual on Infection Control in Health Facilities. SEARO: New
Delhi, India, pp 72–88.

16 - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 SEVENTEEN

CLINICAL LABORATORY SERVICES

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the special exposure risks to laboratory staff are

x How exposures or accidental injuries occur
x How laboratories are classified according to exposure risk to staff,
fellow workers and the environment
x What biosafety and infection prevention practices in clinical
laboratories are

BACKGROUND

Any laboratory worker who handles blood or potentially infected body

fluids is at some risk of accidental injury or exposure. But staff working in
clinical laboratories or research units isolating or handling pathogenic
microorganisms (e.g., vaccine development) are at the greatest risk. For
workers in these areas, guidelines for various levels of risk (biosafety
levels) have been developed. These guidelines are very specific and
describe the appropriate containment equipment, facilities and procedures
to be used by staff at all times.1 For less risky areas, such as routine
chemistry, clinical pathology and blood banks, general infection
prevention guidelines and recommendations have been developed.

Prior to the emergence of HIV/AIDS and the re-emergence of multidrug-

resistant tuberculosis in the 1990s, little progress in reducing laboratory-
acquired infections was made (i.e., annual incidence of about 3 per 1000
laboratory workers in the US) (Grist and Emslie 1991). More recently,
however, not only has there been renewed interest in biosafety efforts, but
compliance among health workers may even be increasing. In developing
countries, however, the situation is quite different. For example, in a
recent report by Mujeeb et al (2003), of the 44 clinical laboratories in
Karachi, Pakistan gloves were used in only two (4.5%) laboratories and
disinfectants in seven (16%). Moreover, only seven laboratories (16%)
had access to an incinerator.

The biosafety guidelines described in this chapter are designed for the
prevention of laboratory-acquired infections in general hospital settings.
They are aimed at containing the biohazardous agents and educating
laboratory workers about the occupational risks. The recommendations

1
Detailed information on recommendations for specific bacterial, fungal, parasitic and viral agents can be found on the CDC
website at http://www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/biosfty/bmbl/sections7.htm

Infection Prevention Guidelines 17 - 1

Clinical Laboratory Services

cover safe work practices, laboratory design, the use of appropriate

personal protective equipment (PPE) and waste management. Adherence
to these biosafety guidelines can reduce the risk of exposure and
subsequent laboratory-acquired infections (Harding et al 1995).

DEFINITIONS

x Biosafety level (BSL) guidelines. Combination of primary and

secondary containment and safety guidelines designed for use in
microbiology laboratories and bacteriology research units functioning
at four levels (BSL-1 to BSL-4) of increasing risk:

x BSL-1 is the lowest level of containment and microbiologic safety

guidelines and is entirely based on standard laboratory practices.
These guidelines are recommended for those working with
microorganisms, such as Bacillus subtilis, that are not known to
cause infections in healthy adults.
x BSL-2 is generally applied in bacteriology laboratories working
with agents (e.g., Salmonella species) associated with human
diseases of varying severity. When standard microbiologic
practices are applied, the agents may be handled on open benches,
especially if primary barriers, such as facemasks, gowns and
Note: Gloves should be examination gloves, are used when appropriate. The use of
pulled over the cuffs of biologic safety cabinets (BSCs) and safety centrifuges may be
gowns to protect the wrists. necessary.
x BSL-3 is aimed at containing hazardous microorganisms primarily
transmitted by the airborne route (aerosols and droplets), such as
tuberculosis or varicella (chicken pox). Laboratory staff who work
in these situations must be trained in the use of appropriate
equipment, including suitable ventilation systems and the use of
BSCs.
x BSL-4 is designed for use where agents causing life-threatening or
untreatable diseases that can affect the laboratory worker via the
airborne route are present, such as hemorrhagic fever viruses.
Trained workers using level III BSCs or wearing full-body, air-
supported positive pressure suits must perform all procedures in
these laboratories. In addition, the facility itself must be totally
isolated from other laboratories and have specialized ventilation
and waste management systems.
x Biological safety cabinets (BSCs). Devices that provide protection for
personnel, the agent being processed and the environment. They range
in complexity from level I (general research cabinets for use with low-
to moderate-risk microorganisms) to level III (totally enclosed cabinets
with gas-tight construction that provide maximum protection to
workers and the environment).

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 Clinical Laboratory Services

x Laboratory-acquired infections. Nosocomial infections resulting

from the performance of laboratory activities by staff, regardless of
how they occurred.

TYPES OF EXPOSURE RESULTING IN LABORATORY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS

Infections from pathogenic organisms occur by several means. The most

common are the following:

x Inhalation. Mixing, grinding or blending an infectious agent or

flaming a transfer loop can generate aerosols that can be inhaled by
Note: Sharps should be
handled with care and
unprotected workers.
disposed of immediately x Ingestion. Workers may be exposed through:
after use in sharps
containers located close to
the work area. x unconscious hand-to-mouth actions;
x placing contaminated articles (pencils) or fingers (when biting
fingernails) in the mouth;
x eating, drinking or smoking in the laboratory or failing to use
proper hand hygiene (neglecting to wash hands or to use a
waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub before and after
eating); or
x pipetting (13% of accidental laboratory-acquired infections are
associated with mouth pipetting).

x Puncture wounds. Accidental injury with sharps (suture needles,

scalpel blades and contaminated broken glassware) is the leading
Note: Wearing a simple, cause of laboratory-acquired infections.
plastic facemask or shield x Contamination of skin and mucous membranes. Splashes and
can minimize these risks. sprays of contaminated fluids onto mucous membranes of the mouth,
nasal cavity and conjunctivae of the eyes, and hand-to-face actions can
lead to the transmission of pathogenic organisms.

BIOSAFETY AND RECOMMENDED INFECTION PREVENTION PRACTICES FOR

LABORATORY WORKERS

Laboratory workers in hospitals and clinics handling blood, potentially

contaminated body fluids or specimens containing pathogenic
microorganisms need to be aware of the potential hazards of these
infectious agents and materials and know how to protect themselves,
fellow workers and the environment. Most hospital or clinic laboratories
are defined as BSL-1 or BSL-2 units. As such, prevention of
occupationally-acquired infections in these laboratories consists primarily
of staff conscientiously using the basic practices described for all
healthcare workers, namely, hand hygiene (handwashing or use of an
antiseptic handrub) before and after eating or contact with infectious
materials, and the use of protective gloves, facemasks and gowns as

Infection Prevention Guidelines 17 - 3

Clinical Laboratory Services

appropriate (see Chapters 2–6). Because the infectious agents they may
encounter are classified as low or moderate risk, special containment
practices are not required (i.e., these agents are not a significant risk to the
environment and can be disposed of as any other infectious hospital waste
as described in Chapter 8).

For staff working in bacteriology laboratories or microbiologic research

units (BSL-3 or 4), containment of hazardous agents to protect the
environment is an added requirement for the safe handling of these
infectious agents. As described above, depending on the type of organisms
being handled, BSCs and other PPE (e.g., full-body, air-supported positive
pressure suits) are required and staff must be fully trained in their use.

General Biosafety and x Wear new examination gloves when handling blood, body fluids and/or
Infection Prevention specimens containing pathogenic microorganisms.
Guidelines x No eating, drinking or smoking is permitted in the laboratory.
x Food should not be stored in refrigerators used for clinical or research
specimens.
x No mouth pipetting is permitted; use proper mechanical devices (e.g.,
suction bulbs).
x Do not open centrifuges while still in motion.
x Always cover the end of blood collection tubes with a cloth or paper
towel, or point them away from anyone’s face when opening.
x Decontaminate work surfaces daily or when contaminated, such as
after spills, with a 0.5% chlorine solution.
x Wear protective face shields or masks and goggles if splashes and
sprays of blood, body fluids, or fluids containing infectious agents are
possible.
x Wear heavy-duty or utility gloves when cleaning laboratory glassware.
x Use puncture-resistant, leakproof containers for sharps.
x Place infectious waste materials in plastic bags or containers.

Blood Drawing CDC considers blood drawing (phlebotomy) to be one of the highest-risk
(Phlebotomy) sharps procedures. This is because the most frequently used needles are
large bore (18 to 22 gauge), and a considerable amount of blood is left in
the needle after use.2 In a 1999 report (EPINet), 21% of 1,993 sharps
injuries reported in the US were associated with blood drawing (venous or
arterial blood samples and finger/heelsticks). Over 80% of the needlesticks
occurred when drawing venous blood, using either a vacuum-tube blood
collection needle, disposable needle and syringe or butterfly needle.

When collecting a blood specimen (phlebotomy) be sure to:

2
HIV can survive in needles and syringes for more than 4 weeks at room temperature (Abdala et al 1999; Rich et al 1998).

17 - 4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Clinical Laboratory Services

x Wear examination gloves.

x Have assistance when patients might be uncooperative (children,
mentally impaired, etc.).
x Have assistance for holding children when doing heel sticks.

REFERENCES

Abdala N et al. 1999. Survival of HIV-1 in syringes: Effects of

temperature during storage. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol
20(1): 73–80.
Exposure Prevention Information Network (EPINet) Data Reports. 1999.
Uniform Needlestick and Sharp Object Injury Report 21 Hospitals, 1999.
International Healthcare Worker Safety Center, University of Virginia.
Available on: www.med.virgina.edu/epinet/soi99.html.
Grist NR and JA Emslie. 1991. Infections in British clinical laboratories,
1988–1989. J Clin Pathol 44(8): 667–669.
Harding L et al. (eds). 1995. Laboratory Safety: Principles and Practices,
2nd ed. American Society for Microbiology: Washington, DC.
Mujeeb SA et al. 2003. Infection control practices in clinical laboratories
in Pakistan. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24(2): 141–142.
Rich JD et al. 1998. Detection of HIV-1 nucleic acid and HIV-1 antibodies
in needles and syringes used for non-intravenous injection. AIDS 12(17):
2345–2350.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 17 - 5

Clinical Laboratory Services

17 - 6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 EIGHTEEN

BLOOD BANK AND TRANSFUSION SERVICES

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Why provision of transfusions is unsafe in many settings

x What the special risks to patients receiving transfusions are
x What the indicators for transfusion are
x How complications and the risk of infection from transfusions can be
prevented

BACKGROUND

Blood bank and transfusion services collect, process, store and provide
human blood intended for transfusion, perform pretransfusion testing and,
finally, infusion into a patient. Although these processes may take place in
a single hospital department, often they are performed in two separate
places. For example, in many countries most blood for transfusion is
collected in blood centers, which then process, store and transport it for
use by a hospital’s transfusion service. The transfusion service in turn is
responsible for maintaining an adequate supply of needed blood and blood
products, blood-typing and cross-matching patients, and releasing the
blood for transfusion.

In many respects, the infusion of blood or blood products is equivalent to

the use of any other intravenous therapeutic agent (e.g., antibiotics). There
are, however, additional, specific risks to patients receiving transfusions.
For example, because of the potential risk of patients receiving
transfusions being exposed to serious infections (HBV, HCV or HIV),
guidelines for competently and safely performing various screening and
testing processes and procedures have been developed. These guidelines
are very specific, allow little room for variation in practice and need to be
followed by staff at all times if transfusion services are to be safely
provided.1 As a consequence, in developed countries, blood bank and
transfusion services are highly regulated, and the quality of services is
monitored daily (AABB 2002).

Staff working in blood banks and transfusion services also are at risk of
accidental injury (e.g., needlestick) or exposure to contaminated blood or
blood products. To protect themselves, staff need to know and understand
the importance of handwashing, use of gloves and personal protective

1
Although there are a number of books that deal with transfusion, the Standards for Blood Banks and Transfusion Services,
prepared by the American Association of Blood Banks (AABB 2002), is the only manual that provides uniform codes of
practice for use in the United States.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 18 - 1

Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

equipment such as face shields or masks and plastic aprons, where

appropriate.

In this chapter, the guidelines for the safe provision of blood bank and
transfusion services are summarized from the perspective of:

x screening the blood donor,

x ensuring the safety of the donor,
x testing to make sure the blood or blood product is safe for use,
x protecting the patient receiving the transfusion, and
x ensuring the safety of laboratory and clinical staff.

Adherence to these guidelines can reduce the risk of transfusion-related

complications and hospital-acquired (nosocomial) infections in patients
and exposure to and subsequent laboratory-acquired infections in staff
(Harding et al 1995).

DEFINITIONS

x Blood bank. Facility or hospital unit that performs the collection,

processing, storage and distribution of human blood or blood products.
x Clinically significant antibody. An antibody capable of producing an
adverse reaction to transfused blood or blood product obtained from a
donor (allogenic antibody) or recipient (autologous antibody).
x Closed system for obtaining blood. System in which the blood is not
exposed to air or outside elements during collection and processing,
including separation of components (e.g., platelets) if required prior to
transfusion. It is the safest way to collect, process and store blood.
x Donor-Patient. Person whose blood is collected for possible
transfusion to another person (allogenic transfusion).
x Donor-Recipient. Person whose own blood is collected for possible
transfusion to her/himself (autologous transfusion).
x Lookback system. Process of identifying persons who have received
blood transfusions from donors who are subsequently found to have
infections with HCV, HIV (and often HBV), and notifying them if
appropriate.
x Recipient transfusion reaction. Adverse reaction to infusing blood or
blood products into a patient (recipient). It may occur at any time
during the transfusion but often happens shortly after starting it. The
reaction may be mild or severe and rarely is fatal. Types of reactions
include allergic (from mild itching and hives to serious breathing
problems) and hemolytic (destruction of red cells) reactions as well as
fever, chills, rapid heart rate (tachycardia), hyperventilation, fainting
and, rarely, cardiac arrest. Delayed reactions several days or weeks

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 Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

after the transfusion may occur and may be due to serum sickness
(antigen-antibody reaction).
x Transfusion service. Facility or hospital unit that provides storage,
pretransfusion testing and cross-matching, and infusion of blood or
blood products to intended patients (recipients).
x Unit of blood. Sterile plastic bag in which a fixed volume of blood is
collected in a suitable amount of anticoagulant. (The collection system
should be a closed system, usually consisting of a sterile hypodermic
needle connected by tubing to a collection bag or bottle that has one or
two sterile ports for inserting a sterile blood administration set.)
x Urticarial reaction. Allergic reaction consisting of itching (pruritis),
hives, skin rash and/or similar allergic condition occurring during or
following a transfusion of blood or blood products.

WHY TRANSFUSION SERVICES ARE UNSAFE IN MANY SETTINGS

Transfusing patients with blood and blood products is one the oldest
medical and surgical remedies. In resource-poor countries, it is one of the
few procedures available to practitioners. As a result, it is overused and
provided for a myriad of reasons, many of which are not appropriate.
Moreover, all too often blood is obtained from paid, high-risk donors such
as commercial sex workers and intravenous drug users who are minimally
screened for infectious diseases or other conditions (e.g., anemia) that
normally should disqualify them as donors. For example, it is estimated
that less than half of the world’s blood supply used for transfusions is safe.

In addition, staff working in these units, as well as health workers giving

the transfusions, often have received little training and are not aware of the
risks to their patients and themselves. As a consequence, even if rapid test
kits for infectious disease testing are available, staff working in the blood
bank or transfusion service may not know how to use them or interpret the
results. In addition, a common problem expressed by many transfusion
service staff is that physicians demand release of the blood before testing
is completed even in nonemergency situations—and in some emergency
situations even before cross-matching is done. Because most transfusion
services lack lookback record keeping capability, patients who are
transfused with blood or blood products that are subsequently found to be
seropositive for HBV, HCV or HIV are seldom notified.

PROVISION OF SERVICES

Blood bank and transfusion services involve:

x selecting donors and assuring that they are informed;

x collecting blood from screened donors;
x testing for blood components, antibodies and infectious diseases;

Infection Prevention Guidelines 18 - 3

Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

x storing and transporting blood;

x pretransfusion testing of patient (recipient) blood; and
x transfusing patients.

Donor Selection and To attract volunteer donors and encourage their continued participation,
Informed Consent the place where blood is collected should be kept clean and be as pleasant,
safe and convenient as possible.

Donor Selection

The donor selection process is one of the most important steps in

protecting the safety of the blood supply. The process is intended to
identify medical problems, behaviors (e.g., IV drug use) or events that put
a person at risk of being infected and transmitting a serious disease to the
person receiving the transfusion. To accomplish this, donors should be
questioned about their medical history, be given a limited physical
examination (e.g., pulse and blood pressure checked and heart and lungs
listened to with a stethoscope) and have their hemoglobin or hematocrit
determined. In general, potential donors should be at least 17 years old,
unless there are special circumstances requiring a minor to give blood.
They should be in good health, not severely anemic (Hg > 11 g/dL or Hct
> 33%) and not be infected (carrier or seropositive) for HBV (if not
vaccinated), HCV or HIV/AIDS.2

Informed Consent

Prior to collection of blood, the elements of the donation process should

be explained in simple, easily understandable terms using the patient’s
primary language if possible. The explanation should include information
about the risks of venipuncture (phlebitis or local infection and rarely
bacteremia or septicemia) and potential adverse responses to having 400–
500 mL of blood removed (tachycardia, hyperventilation, feeling light-
headed and occasionally fainting). It also should include mention of the
tests performed to reduce the risk of transmission of infectious diseases,
such as syphilis and serious bloodborne viruses, to patients (recipients). In
addition, the donor should have an opportunity to ask questions about the
procedure and to refuse consent. In particular, the donor should clearly
understand exactly how donors will be notified about any medically
important abnormality found during the predonation evaluation or as a
result of laboratory testing (e.g., a positive rapid test for HIV) and
followup. Appropriate education, counseling and referral should be
offered as well.

2
For the most current Uniform Donor History Questionnaire, check the AABB website (www.aabb.org).

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 Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

Blood Collection The donor as well as the future recipient should be protected by proper
collection of the blood. Careful skin preparation using an aseptic
technique is a critical component of donor and recipient safety. Several
studies suggest that fewer than two or three blood units per thousand will
contain bacteria if aseptic technique is used and blood is collected in a
closed system (Abrutyn, Goldman and Scheckler 1998). To minimize the
risk of contamination:

STEP 1: Make sure all items are available:

x Blood collection set (closed system) consisting of a sterile plastic bag

containing a sufficient amount of anticoagulant for the quantity of
blood to be collected, IV tubing and large-gauge #18 or #19
hypodermic needle)
x Pair of sterile or high-level disinfected surgical gloves
x Clean tourniquet or blood pressure cuff
Note: In 1991, Maki, x Antiseptic solution (e.g., 2% chlorhexidine gluconate, 60–90% alcohol
Ringer and Alvarado or 10% povidone iodine) and sterile or clean gauze squares (2 x 2) or
reported that the infection
rate with chlorhexidine was
cotton swabs
84% lower than with x Surgical tape
povidone-iodine (PVI) or
alcohol for skin antisepsis. x Towel to place under patient’s hand or forearm
x Basin of clean warm water, soap, face cloth and clean dry towel to
wash it.3 (Only needed if patient’s arm is visibly soiled.)
x Plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container for disposal of
contaminated items
x Puncture-resistant sharps containers (within arm’s reach if possible)

STEP 2: Explain procedure to the patient.

STEP 3: Identify the best veins for inserting the IV needle. (Blood should
be drawn from a large, firm vein—usually the antecubital space—that is
free of skin lesions or rashes. Both arms should be checked.)
STEP 4: Put the tourniquet or blood pressure cuff on the upper arm about
9 cm (3–4 inches) above the antecubital space to confirm that the vein is
visible and then release the tourniquet or cuff.
STEP 5: If the venipuncture site is visibly soiled, first wash it with soap
and clean water and dry with a clean cloth.3
STEP 6: Wash hands with soap and clean water and dry with a clean,
dry towel or air dry.3 (Alternatively, if hands are clean, apply 5 mL,

3
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to remove particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with a dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).

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Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

about 1 teaspoonful, of a waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub to

both hands and vigorously rub hands and between fingers until dry.)
STEP 7: Place the donor’s arm on a clean towel and cleanse an area about
3 cm (1.5 inches) in diameter with antiseptic solution. Use a circular
motion outward from the proposed needle insertion site over the vein.

If using polyvidone-iodine or other iodophor, allow it to dry

(about 2 minutes) because PVI only releases free iodine, the
active antiseptic agent, slowly (see Chapter 6).

STEP 8: Do not touch the area after applying the antiseptic solution.
STEP 9: Put the tourniquet or blood pressure cuff on the upper arm again.
STEP 10: Put sterile or high-level disinfected gloves on both hands.
STEP 11: Insert the hypodermic needle into the vein without touching the
skin if possible, release the tourniquet or cuff and then secure the needle
by placing a short piece of tape across the blood collection tubing below
the area cleansed with antiseptic.
Note: If a blood pressure STEP 12: When the required amount of blood has been obtained, remove
cuff is used, collect the
blood under about 40 to 60
the needle without touching the barrel or tip of the needle and place it in a
mm Hg pressure, but if a puncture-resistant sharps container.
tourniquet is used it should STEP 13: Cover the insertion site with a 2 x 2 gauze square, and apply
be applied just tight
enough to keep the vein pressure until the bleeding stops. (The donor can be shown how to apply
full and firm, but not so pressure as it may take several minutes before all bleeding stops.)
tight as to cause discomfort
to the donor.
STEP 14: Check the arm. If the bleeding has stopped, secure the gauze
squares using 1 or 2 short pieces of surgical tape.
STEP 15: Prior to removing gloves, place any blood-contaminated waste
items (cotton or gauze squares) in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered
waste container.
STEP 16: Remove gloves by inverting and place them either in a plastic
bag or waste container.
STEP 17: Wash hands or use an antiseptic handrub as above.
STEP 18: Have the patient remain resting on a bed or in the donor chair
for several minutes.
STEP 19: Provide the donor with something to drink and a piece of bread,
a cookie or a biscuit.
STEP 20: Tell the donor to drink more fluids during the next 4 hours and
avoid alcohol or smoking until more food has been eaten. Also, tell
her/him that if there is bleeding apply pressure and raise the arm over the
head. Finally, if the donor becomes dizzy or sick to the stomach

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(nauseated), tell her/him to sit down, bend forward and rest her/his head
between the knees until the dizziness or nausea passes.4

Once the blood is collected, contamination can be avoided by:

x maintaining appropriate storage conditions,

x testing the blood unit without entering the closed collection system,
and
x infusing or discarding the blood unit within a short period once the
closed system has been opened (AABB 2002).

Blood Component and The tests generally required to be performed on all blood or blood
Infectious Disease Testing products that are intended for transfusion to patients include the following:

x ABO blood group is determined by testing the donor’s red cells with
anti-A and anti-B reagents and by testing the donor’s serum or plasma
A1 and B red cells.
Note: When either test is x Rh type is determined by testing with anti-D reagent. If the initial test
positive, the blood unit with anti-D is negative, the blood should be additionally tested using a
shall be labeled as Rh
POSITIVE. If both tests method designed to detect weak D.
are negative, then it is x Blood from donors with a history of transfusions or pregnancy should
labeled as Rh NEGATIVE. be tested for unexpected antibodies to red cell antibodies using
methods to demonstrate clinically significant antibodies.

In addition, donor blood should be tested for several infectious diseases.

Blood should not be released for transfusion unless the results are negative
for all tests, with the exception of the test for syphilis that has been shown
to be a biologic false positive.5 The recommended tests include:

x syphilis by screening with a standard antibody test such as the rapid

plasma reagent (RPR) test,
x hepatitis B virus by testing for the hepatitis B surface antigen (HbsAg)
and HBV core antigen (anti-HBc),
x hepatitis C virus by testing for anti-HCV, and
x human immunodeficiency virus by testing for type 1(HIV-1) antigen
and antibodies to HIV-1 and HIV-2 antigens.6

4
Rarely, donors may have convulsions or experience irregular or rapid heartbeats—occasionally even cardiac arrest.
5
Persons with untreated syphilis most often have antibodies that can be detected by tests such as the RPR, but false positive
antibodies can also develop, usually lasting for only a few weeks after bacterial or viral infections or after immunization
procedures. In some patients with autoimmune diseases, especially lupus, these false positive antibodies persist indefinitely.
6
A combination test for anti-HIV-1/2 may be used.

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Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

Blood Storage and Blood units must be stored in a refrigerator that can be maintained at
Short Distance temperatures between 1–6oC (34–46oF). There must be a system to
Transport monitor temperatures continuously and record them at least every 4 hours.7
In addition, the refrigerator should have an alarm system that signals by
sound before the blood reaches unacceptable storage temperatures.

Blood units exposed to a temperature above the accepted level for an

unknown period should be discarded. To do this:

x Wear examination or utility gloves and protective eyewear.

Remember: After
removing gloves, wash x Pour contents down a utility sink drain, into a flushable toilet or
hands or use a waterless, latrine.
antiseptic handrub.
x Place empty blood bags and tubing in a plastic bag or leakproof,
covered waste container.
x Dispose of plastic bags or contents of the container according to
hospital or facility waste management guidelines.

Blood units transported short distances (e.g., from the blood bank or
transfusion service to the ward or operating room) require no special
handling. Blood should not, however, be allowed to reach temperatures
outside the acceptable range.

Pretransfusion Testing The purpose of pretransfusion testing is to select blood or blood products
and Cross-matching that will not cause harm to the patient (recipient), and to ensure that the
red cells will survive (not be destroyed too rapidly) when transfused.
When performed properly, pretransfusion tests will confirm the ABO
group of the red cells, Rh status, the presence of clinically significant red
Note: If a discrepancy in cell antibodies in the recipient’s blood and compatibility between selected
ABO group is detected and samples of donor blood with the recipient’s blood (cross-matching).
transfusion is necessary
before the problem can be
solved, only group O red The first step is to test a sample of recipient blood using the same
cells should be used. methods and recommended infection prevention practices used to test
donor blood.8 (Recipient plasma or serum, however, need only be tested
with anti-D reagent, as the test for weak anti-D is not necessary.)

Note: For repeat testing, To avoid the 80% chance of Rh sensitization, Rh-positive blood should
only anti-D reagent needs not be given to a patient who is Rh negative. Occasionally, however, ABO
to be used. compatible Rh-negative blood is not available. In this case, the alternatives
are either to postpone the transfusion until Rh-negative ABO compatible
blood is available or, if circumstances warrant, to give Rh-positive blood.
If the patient is a woman, and depending on her childbearing potential and

7
A thermometer placed inside the refrigerator and checked at regular intervals can be used if an automated system for
monitoring and recording the interior temperature is not available or not working.
8
It is acceptable to take the blood sample for blood typing and cross-match from an existing IV line if the patient has one in
place.

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 Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

the volume of the blood transfused, it may be desirable to give Rh immune

globulin within 24 hours of the transfusion of Rh-positive blood.

The second step is repeat testing of the donor blood to confirm the ABO
Note: A negative red cell group and Rh.
antibody screen does not
guarantee that the
recipient’s serum is free of
The third and final step is to crossmatch the red cells of selected donor(s)
clinically significant against the serum or plasma of the recipient to be sure there are no ABO
antibodies, however, or and clinically significant antibody problems. If antibodies are detected in
that there will be normal the recipient’s blood, the number or type of tests needed to ensure
survival of the red cells compatibility varies from case to case. (Most samples tested, however,
transfused.
have a negative screen for antibodies and are crossmatch-compatible with
all selected donor units of blood.)

If no clinically significant antibodies were detected in the recipient’s

blood, and there is no prior record of antibodies, serologic cross-matching,
which is quicker and less difficult to perform, is acceptable.
Note: If the patient’s ABO
group and Rh status are When blood is urgently needed, the physician must decide whether to
unknown, use O-negative
blood, especially if the
transfuse with uncrossmatched or partially crossmatched blood or to delay
patient is a woman of the transfusion. The risk of transfusing blood without cross-matching is
childbearing age. that a serious reaction may occur, including the rapid breakdown
(hemolysis) of transfused red cells.

TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD OR BLOOD COMPONENTS

Like any other medical treatment, the decision to transfuse a patient

should be based on the need (indications) for transfusion of blood or blood
components in comparison with the risks, potential benefits and
alternatives. In addition, before receiving a transfusion, the patient should
be told the reason(s) for needing a transfusion, clearly understand and
accept the risks and have any questions answered regarding the procedure.
(If the patient is unconscious or incapable of giving consent, when
possible a spouse, relative or adult friend should give consent.)

Indications The main reason for transfusion of whole blood or packed red blood cells
is to increase the oxygen-carrying capacity to meet the tissue demands for
oxygen. The two primary conditions are:

Note: In situations of acute 1. actively bleeding patients (acute blood loss), and
bleeding, the transfusion 2. patients with chronic or symptomatic anemia.
threshold is 30–40% blood
loss for otherwise healthy
adults, provided blood For the former, the objectives of initial treatment are to stop the bleeding
volume is maintained and to restore intravascular volume in order to prevent hypovolemic shock
(ASATF 1996).9 (shock due to decreased fluid in the circulation). Thus, the immediate need

9
If the blood volume is maintained, healthy resting adults are able to tolerate an acute decrease in red cells to a hemoglobin
of 5 g/dL without evidence of lack of tissue oxygenation (Weiskopf et al 1998).

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Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

is to give IV fluids that will help restore the circulation, and then restore
oxygen-carrying capacity.

The generally accepted hemoglobin level for transfusing patients

with acute blood loss is 7 g/dL, with those patients having a
level of 6 g/dL almost always requiring transfusion but those
with a level of 10 g/dL rarely needing it (ASATF 1996).

For chronic anemia, the objective should be to prevent patients from being
symptomatic—weakness, dizziness, breathlessness, heart palpitations or
rapid heart rate (Hebert 1999). Generally this means keeping the
hemoglobin levels between 7 and 9 g/dL.

Transfusing Patients Transfusion with donor whole blood (allogenic transfusion), which
provides red cells to increase oxygen-carrying capacity, has stable
Note: Transfusion of coagulation factors and contains plasma to expand blood volume, is
packed red cells increases seldom done anymore in the US and other developed countries because
oxygen-carrying capacity there are more reactions with whole blood than with blood products. Thus,
with less expansion of
blood volume per unit.
for most cases of active bleeding (acute blood loss), packed red cells
This can be important in (plasma removed) plus volume-expanding IV fluids have become the
patients who are at risk of standard. In countries with limited resources, however, whole blood is still
volume overload (e.g., the standard, except in large hospitals or referral centers. In a typical adult,
newborns and patients with one unit of whole blood or packed red cells will raise the hemoglobin
congestive heart failure).
about 1 g/dL, or the hematocrit about 3%.

Before starting the transfusion:

Note: Patients who have
had blood transfusion STEP 1: Explain the procedure to the patient, determine if s/he has ever
reactions may have greater had a transfusion and record adverse reactions, if any.
fear of transfusion, and
certain types of reactions STEP 2: With another health worker, correctly identify the blood product
may increase the chance of and patient:
recurrence.

x Confirm patient’s name and check armband if available.

x Check compatibility tag attached to blood bag, including date blood is
Note: With the exception out of date and should not be used.
of sterile isotonic (0.9%)
saline, no drugs or x For whole blood, check ABO group and Rh type, which should be on
medications should be the patient’s chart.
added to whole blood
units or blood components. x Double check blood or type of blood product with the physician’s
order.
x Check blood for clots.
x Record baseline pulse and blood pressure.

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STEP 3: Ask the patient to report chills, headaches, itching or rash

Note: If a reaction is immediately.
suspected, stop the
transfusion, flush the line (The detailed steps for starting a peripheral intravenous line with a large-
with sterile isotonic saline
solution and infuse slowly
gauge needle or plastic catheter [#18 or #19] and setting up the blood
to keep the IV line open, administration set are described in Chapter 24.)
and notify the blood bank
or transfusion service and STEP 4: Once the transfusion has begun:
physician.

x take the patient’s pulse and blood pressure every 5 minutes for the first
15 minutes of transfusion, and hourly thereafter.
x Observe the patient for flushing (red face or cheeks), itching, difficulty
breathing, hives (clear fluid filled lesions on the skin) or other rash
when checking vital signs.

STEP 5: When the transfusion is completed, record administration of the

blood or blood product in patient’s chart.

(The detailed steps for removing and disposing of the blood administration
set, IV tubing and needle as well as any blood-contaminated waste items,
are described in Chapter 24.)

PREVENTING COMPLICATIONS AND NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS

The collection, processing, storage and transfusion of blood and blood

products is an essential service that all acute care hospitals and ambulatory
surgical centers must be prepared to provide with high standards of
quality. In addition, the safety of blood donors, patients (transfusion
recipients), health workers and fellow staff requires that blood bank and
transfusion service staff are qualified to perform the required tasks and
follow recommended infection prevention practices consistently.

Preventing complications and nosocomial infections in patients requires that:

x Unnecessary transfusions are not given.

x Potential donors are adequately screened to minimize the risk of
transmitting a serious bloodborne infection (e.g., syphilis, HBV, HCV
and HIV).
x Donor blood is collected aseptically into a closed system to minimize
contamination, and all steps in processing the blood are accomplished
within this closed system.
x Prior to use, the blood or blood products are stored at the correct
temperature and the expiration date has not expired prior to
transfusion.
x All steps are taken to ensure that donor and patient blood are
compatible in terms of ABO grouping and Rh and that unexpected

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Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

clinically significant antibodies in the donor’s or patient’s blood have

been identified.
x Prior to transfusion, all information matching the blood with the
intended recipient has been verified to prevent possible mistakes that
could harm the patient.
x Aseptic technique is used to establish the peripheral IV line for giving
the transfusion.
x During the transfusion, the patient’s vital signs are monitored and s/he
is checked regularly for any adverse reaction.
x If an adverse reaction is thought to have occurred, the transfusion is
stopped immediately, and the patient treated for any complications
(e.g., fainting, convulsions, breathing or heart problems) and her/his
blood is checked for hemolysis.

Protecting Healthcare Health staff working in blood banks and transfusion services are at risk of
Workers exposure to pathogenic organisms in blood in a number of ways. The most
common are:
Note: Wear gloves when
collecting and transfusing x Exposure to blood while collecting the donor specimen, during testing
blood and performing and when infusing the blood.
various tests on blood.
x Accidental injury with sharps (needles, scalpel blades and
contaminated broken glassware), the leading cause of laboratory-
acquired infections.
x Splashes and sprays of blood onto mucous membranes of the mouth,
Note: Sharps should be nasal cavity and conjunctivae of the eyes. (Wearing a clear plastic
handled with care and facemask or shield, or a surgical mask and goggles, can minimize
disposed of immediately these risks.)
after use in puncture-
resistant sharps containers In addition, decontaminate work surfaces with 0.5% chlorine solution
located close to the work
area. daily or when contaminated, such as after blood spills, and place
infectious waste materials in plastic bags or leakproof, covered waste
containers.

MAKING BLOOD BANK AND TRANSFUSION SERVICES BETTER AND SAFER

In countries where resources are limited, blood bank and transfusion

services frequently are not supervised and poorly monitored, screening of
prospective donors is limited, and testing for infectious diseases, even for
syphilis, may not be available. Under these circumstances, complications
(transfusion reactions) and transmission of life-threatening infections to
unsuspecting patients occur all too often. Without the commitment and
full support of ministry of health officials, hospital administrators and
infection prevention committees or working groups to implement basic
blood bank and transfusion service policies and guidelines, improving the
quality and safety of blood transfusions is unlikely.

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 Blood Bank and Transfusion Services

As outlined above, many of the processes and procedures that can improve
the quality of blood bank and transfusion services and make then safer for
patients, health workers and their fellow staff are inexpensive and doable.
Improving performance and compliance with recommended policies and
guidelines can be significantly enhanced if:

x There is consistent support by hospital administrators to improve the

quality of services (e.g., identified deficiencies are corrected,
dangerous practices eliminated and staff are actively encouraged to
seek inexpensive solutions).
x Supervisors regularly provide feedback and reward appropriate
behavior (e.g., better screening of donors, use of aseptic techniques
when collecting specimens, handwashing after removal of gloves).
x Role models, especially physicians and other senior staff and faculty,
actively support recommended policies and guidelines (Lipscomb and
Rosenstock 1997).

REFERENCES

Abrutyn E, DA Goldman and WE Scheckler (eds). 1998. Transfusion

services, in Saunders Infection Control Reference Service. WB Saunders
Company: Philadelphia, pp 583–587.
American Association of Blood Banks (AABB). 2002. Standards For
Blood Banks and Transfusion Services, 21st ed. American Association of
Blood Banks: Bethesda, MD.
American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force (ASATF). 1996.
Practice guidelines for blood component therapy. Anesthesiology 84(3):
732–747.
Harding L et al (eds). 1995. Laboratory Safety: Principles and Practices,
2nd ed. American Society for Microbiology: Washington, DC.
Hebert PC et al. 1999. A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial
of transfusion requirements in critical care. N Engl J Med 340(6): 409–
417.
Lipscomb J and R Rosenstock. 1997. Health care workers: protecting
those who protect our health. Infec Control Hosp Epidemiol 18(6): 397–
399.
Maki DG, M Ringer and CJ Alvarado. 1991. Prospective randomized trial
of povidone-iodine, alcohol and chlorhexidine for prevention of infection
associated with central venous and arterial catheters. Lancet 338(8763):
339–343.
Weiskopf RB et al. 1998. Human cardiovascular and metabolic response
to acute, severe isovolemic anemia. JAMA 279(3): 217–221.

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18 - 14 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 NINETEEN

MANAGEMENT OF AN INFECTION
PREVENTION PROGRAM

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the organizing principles for managing infection prevention

programs are
x Who should be involved in managing the program
x What the purpose of the infection prevention working group is
x What the decision-making process involves
x What types of issues and problems are commonly encountered

BACKGROUND

Successful programs for preventing the spread of infectious diseases by

any route (blood, body fluids, air, droplet or contact) in healthcare
facilities are based on understanding the scope of the problem, prioritizing
activities and effectively using available resources. Because available
resources are invariably limited, careful planning, implementing and
monitoring activities on a regular basis, whether in a small clinic or a busy
district hospital, are all essential.

In many countries, functioning infection surveillance systems are lacking,

laboratory backup to identify the cause of nosocomial (hospital-acquired)
infections is inadequate, and treatment options are limited. Thus, not only
is infection prevention the most cost-effective option, but often it is the
only realistic one available to limit the spread of disease within healthcare
facilities. Unfortunately, it is the hardest of the three elements
(surveillance, control and prevention) to implement because it requires
staff at all levels to take an active role in preventing the spread of
infections to patients, fellow workers and themselves.

Fortunately, most nosocomial infections in healthcare facilities can be

prevented with readily available, relatively inexpensive strategies. And for
some of the most serious infections, namely, AIDS, hepatitis C and
multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, prevention is all we can do. To make this
happen, however, healthcare administrators, clinic managers and staff at
all levels must be totally committed to supporting and using recommended
infection prevention guidelines and practices.

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DEVELOPING SUCCESSFUL PROGRAMS

Helping hospitals and clinics become safer places in which to work or be

cared for is largely about changing behavior. Education is not enough. To
change unsatisfactory performance by staff (e.g., lack of compliance with
handwashing guidelines) requires management reinforcement if the
behavior change is going to be sustained (Lynch et al 1997). It is the
responsibility of administrators and clinic managers, working in
conjunction with key staff serving on operating room safety or infection
prevention committees, to:

x set standards for performance, mentor staff and regularly monitor staff
performance; and
x help staff at all levels “buy in” to using common sense when
performing their assigned duties, as well as using appropriate personal
protective equipment at all times.

In addition, there needs to be:

x Consistent support by hospital administrators and managers of safety

efforts (e.g., identified deficiencies corrected, dangerous practices
eliminated and staff actively encouraged to seek inexpensive, doable
solutions).
x Supervisors who regularly provide feedback and reward appropriate
behavior (e.g., handwashing between patient contacts).
x Role models, especially physicians and other senior staff and faculty,
who actively support recommended infection prevention practices and
demonstrate appropriate behavior (Lipscomb and Rosenstock 1997).

ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES FOR MANAGING INFECTION PREVENTION PROGRAMS

According to Lynch et al (1997), the three organizing principles for

managing programs are:

1. establishing the relative importance of problems using the Spaulding

categories of potential infection risk—critical, semicritical and
noncritical;
2. identifying and analyzing the reasons for poor or incorrect
performance; and
3. costing the issues (i.e., estimating the cost and benefits of activities).

As presented in Chapter 1, the Spaulding categories of potential risk

provide a good basis for determining relative importance and setting
priorities (e.g., the most serious and frequent problems and infections
involve management in the critical area and, therefore, deserve the most
attention and resources). The second principle, correctly identifying why

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 Management of an Infection Prevention Program

performance is not up to standard, usually comes down to three possible

reasons. Staff:

1. do not know how to do the task correctly, or why they need to do it;
2. do not have the correct (adequate) protective equipment; or
3. lack motivation.

In most cases, more than one reason is involved. Understanding how these
reasons contribute to performance deficits increases the potential for
corrective action to be successful. The third and final principle is
estimating the cost-benefit of corrective actions. In many countries, this is
the most difficult of the three to implement because data on which to base
estimates are often lacking.

WHO SHOULD BE INVOLVED IN MANAGING THE PROGRAM

As mentioned above, it is important to identify and bring together key

hospital staff to form an infection prevention working group or committee
if one has not been established. The purpose of the working group is to
guide and support the use of recommended practices and to review and
resolve related problems that may arise. This working group or committee
should include representatives from a variety of patient care areas (e.g.,
surgery, central services, housekeeping, laboratory, purchasing and
administration) and include one or more health professionals. In clinics
where these functions often overlap, however, the group may consist of
only two or three individuals.

Although the risk of infection cannot be completely eliminated, it can be

minimized. Based on an analysis of the problems or issues, the working
group will need to make and implement recommendations that are
consistent with the relative importance, type of corrective action needed
and cost.

Basic guidelines and activities that help managers implement successful

programs include:

x Have written policies and procedures established to handle situations

in which patients or staff are exposed to the risk of infection.
Remember: Include all
staff members in what you x Conduct staff orientation before new policies, recommendations or
are doing, share ideas and procedures are started and provide followup training when
materials with them and be management reinforcement is needed.
ready to listen to their
points of view. x Be sure adequate supplies, equipment and facilities are available
before start-up to ensure compliance.
x Conduct regular reviews to ensure the adequacy of the recommended
changes or practices, to solve any new problems and to address staff
concerns.

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Management of an Infection Prevention Program

Finally, effective and regular communication at all levels is the key to

developing the support needed for a successful program.

MAKING MANAGEMENT DECISIONS

With infection prevention, as with any clinical area, numerous situations

arise where tough decisions have to be made, weighing the advantages of
a certain procedure against the possible risks to the patient or healthcare
worker. These decisions must be practical and consistent and, as much as
possible, should be based on scientific evidence. Throughout this manual,
evidence is presented to help managers make better, more informed
decisions and recommendations regarding frequently encountered
problems, such as:

x Recommendations for improving compliance with hand hygiene

guidelines (Chapter 2).
x Appropriate selection and use of gloves for various healthcare tasks
(Chapter 4).
x Selecting the most appropriate antiseptic agents or chemical
disinfectants, ones that are affordable and usually locally available
(Chapters 6 and 12 and Appendixes B and E).
x Decisions regarding the appropriate reuse of disposable (single-use)
items (Chapter 14).
x Use of personal protective equipment (PPE), especially gloves and
other items (Chapters 4 and 5). (These items should be provided
based on available resources and be made available in areas of the
healthcare facility where they are most needed and will be used.)
x How to design safer surgical operations (Chapter 7).
x How to use safety checklists for making the operating room safer for
patients and staff (Appendix I).
x Recommendations for waste management, a particularly difficult
problem (Chapter 8).
x Guidelines for management of accidental exposure to HBV, HIV and
HCV (Chapter 7).

In making these decisions, managers often must strike a balance between

the importance of the problem and providing acceptable levels of safety
for specific healthcare tasks. Two examples of situations frequently
encountered by hospital managers in most developing countries are
discussed in the following sections.

So-Called “Prophylactic This issue warrants special consideration because it represents an

Use” of Antibiotics inappropriate and costly misuse of valuable resources and also contributes
to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance. For example, many service
providers feel that because clients and patients have poor hygiene and/or

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 Management of an Infection Prevention Program

they are poorly nourished, giving a 5- to 7-day course of antibiotics—

usually a tetracycline—will prevent infections following elective surgery.
Not only have numerous articles documented that this does not work, but
by definition this is not prophylactic antibiotic use.1

This is a management issue in which the education of professional staff

(physicians and nurses) is extremely important and should include:

x Reviewing existing literature documenting that routine use of

postoperative antibiotics in healthy patients undergoing elective
surgery does not prevent infections (Ladipo et al 1991).
x Pointing out that the inappropriate use of antibiotics increases the
prevalence of antibiotic resistance in the community and wastes
precious resources.
x Reminding staff that when recommended infection prevention
practices are conscientiously followed, routine postoperative
antibiotics are not necessary (see Chapter 7).

Myths and The decisions and actions of healthcare staff are largely influenced by
Misconceptions about personal feelings, attitudes and beliefs, and their level of knowledge. For
HIV/AIDS example, with the rapid emergence of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, especially
in sub-Saharan Africa, parts of South Asia and the Caribbean, healthcare
staff have become increasingly concerned about their own safety and about
working in places where they come in contact with people who may be
HIV-infected. This is a particularly difficult issue, especially when the risk
to staff is associated with providing elective surgical procedures for health-
related reasons, such as for family planning (e.g., voluntary sterilization,
IUDs and Norplant implants), as opposed to medical-related services.
These concerns can lead to either:

x adopting unnecessary and often expensive and excessive precautions; or

x taking unnecessary risks in the mistaken belief that for a given
situation, there is little risk or that nothing can be done to minimize the
risk (Flexner 1991; Klouda 1991).

Examples of unnecessary or excessive use of preventive practices include

washing hands after shaking hands with people believed to be HIV-
infected, and wearing examination gloves for any type of contact with
patients known or believed to be HIV-infected. As a consequence,
adequate supplies of valuable equipment (e.g., examination gloves) may
not be available for situations where they are needed, such as for minor
surgical procedures or vaginal exams for women in labor.

1
Prophylactic antibiotic use is the provision of an antibiotic 30–60 minutes prior to starting a surgical procedure and ending
not more than 6–12 hours postoperatively.

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Management of an Infection Prevention Program

In some cases, however, health workers go to the other extreme and

disregard proven protective practices, such as picking up suture needles
with their gloved hand rather than with a forceps or recapping hypodermic
needles. When recommended protective actions are not followed,
healthcare workers place themselves, their patients and their fellow
workers at risk, and the result is a management problem.

As mentioned above, preventing infections primarily involves education

linked to behavior change interventions. Staff not only need to have
correct information regarding risks and know how to avoid risks, but also
they need to have appropriate risk-averting behavior demonstrated. In
addition, personal concerns linked to the risk-taking behavior need to be
addressed. For example, studies have shown that healthcare workers are
often willing to change bad attitudes and work habits when they
understand the reason for and importance of a new safety procedure
(Raven and Haley 1982; Seto et al 1990). Unfortunately, it was also noted
in these same studies that while positive behavioral changes may occur
following training, such compliance often decreases again in a few days or
weeks. Thus, in order to ensure continued compliance, management
reinforcement is needed, as well as a monitoring system that ties results to
overall performance indicators.

STAFF TRAINING

Initially, all levels of healthcare workers (e.g., nurses, physicians,

housekeepers and cleaners) need to know why infection prevention is
important. Key topics to be taught should include:

x The disease transmission cycle, routes of infection and how to break

the cycle (see Chapter 1 and Figures 1-1 and 1-2).
x Use of Standard Precautions when dealing with all patients, not just
those who appear or are known to be infected (Chapter 2).
x Methods of minimizing disease transmission (i.e., hand hygiene,
gloves and other PPE) as well as “hands-on” demonstrations covering,
for example:

x Handwashing and using a waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub

x Cleaning up a blood or body fluid spill
x Giving an injection and disposing of sharps
x Learning to suture with blunt-tipped needles

To have long-term effects, the initial training should be followed up, and
monitoring should be targeted toward identifying and solving specific
problems related to introducing the new process or procedure. General
reminders regarding the importance of maintaining an infection-free
environment for safer delivery of services also should be repeatedly
emphasized.

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 Management of an Infection Prevention Program

MONITORING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING

Regular monitoring of infection prevention practices and processes is

important, not only to assess their effectiveness but also to determine the
topics about which staff may need more training or review. To monitor
effectiveness:

x Spot check how staff are performing any new procedures.

x Assess whether recommended practices are being followed.
x Note whether the necessary equipment and supplies are available and
being used properly.

Based on the findings, future topics for training can be identified. Table
19-1 is a sample checklist that managers can use to see whether
recommended infection prevention practices are being followed.

Table 19-1. Checklist to Assess Whether Infection Prevention Guidelines Are Being Followed
Health facility: hospital: clinic: other: Date:
Type of health worker:: Evaluator:
(e.g., matron, sister, midwife, nursing assistant, etc.)
OBSERVATION RESPONSE (Circle one)
[N/A = Not applicable]
OBSERVATION DURING FAMILY PLANNING PROCEDURES
1. x High-level disinfected or examination gloves are worn for each vaginal YES NO N/A
examination
x Sterile (or high-level disinfected) gloves are used for voluntary YES NO N/A
sterilization or Norplant implants insertion
x High-level disinfected or examination gloves are worn for IUD YES NO N/A
insertion
2. Hands are thoroughly washed immediately:
x Before putting on gloves YES NO N/A
x After handling objects which might be contaminated YES NO N/A
x After contact with blood or mucous membranes YES NO N/A
x After removing gloves YES NO N/A
3. Waste is disposed of by burning or burying YES NO N/A

OBSERVATION OF SINGLE-USE NEEDLES, SCALPEL BLADES AND

OTHER SHARP OBJECTS
1. Needles, scalpel blades and other sharp objects are disposed of immediately YES NO N/A
after use
2. Needles, scalpel blades and other sharp objects are disposed of in a puncture- YES NO N/A
resistant container
Any other comments or observations?
Any problems with implementation?

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Management of an Infection Prevention Program

OBSERVATION RESPONSE (Circle one)

[N/A = Not applicable]
DECONTAMINATION AND CLEANING
1. Waste items are disposed of according to guidelines YES NO N/A
2. Blood spills are flooded with disinfectant and then wiped up YES NO N/A
3. Instruments are decontaminated in a 0.5% chlorine solution immediately YES NO N/A
after use
4. Instruments are thoroughly cleaned and rinsed before sterilization or HLD YES NO N/A
STERILIZATION
5. What method of sterilization is used?
x High-pressure steam (if YES, go to #6) YES NO N/A
x Dry heat (if YES, go to #7) YES NO N/A
6. When steam sterilizing, is the high-pressure steamer operating:
x at 121"C (250"F) YES NO N/A
x at a pressure of 106 kPa, 15 lb/in2 (1 atmosphere) YES NO N/A
x for at least 20 minutes for unwrapped items; 30 minutes for wrapped YES NO N/A
items
7. When using dry heat, are the instruments kept:
x at 170"C (340"F) or 160"C (320"F) for sharps, YES NO N/A
x at the required temperature (170") for at least 1 hour, or YES NO N/A
x at 160"C for 2 hours YES NO N/A
HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTION
8. What method of high-level disinfection is used?
x Boiling (if YES, go to #9) YES NO N/A
x Steaming (if YES, go to #10) YES NO N/A
x Chemical disinfectants (if YES, go to #11) YES NO N/A
9. When boiling, are the instruments:
x boiled for at least 20 minutes once boiling begins, and YES NO N/A
x nothing is added after timing begins YES NO N/A
10. When steaming, are the instruments:
x steamed for at least 20 minutes once boiling begins, and YES NO N/A
x nothing is added after timing begins YES NO N/A
11. When chemical high-level disinfectants are used:
x is an appropriate chemical used YES NO N/A
x are items completely submerged YES NO N/A
x are instruments soaked for at least 20 minutes YES NO N/A
x are instruments rinsed with sterile/boiled water YES NO N/A
Any other comments or observations?
Any problems with implementation?

MONITORING INFECTION PREVENTION PRACTICES

Keeping records of infections that occur in hospitals and clinics is a time-

honored way of monitoring the effectiveness of infection prevention
practices. In particular, keeping records on postoperative infections can
help to identify breaks in recommended infection prevention practices. For
example, when a series of similar infections occurs over a short time
period, “trouble-shooting” should be done to identify the possible

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 Management of an Infection Prevention Program

cause(s). Assume a number of surgical wound infections occur in patients

undergoing elective cesarean section. Trouble-shooting questions to
consider include:

x Are recommended infection prevention practices being followed in the

operating rooms? On the wards? (Chapter 7)
x Is the operative site (incision area) being cleaned preoperatively,
especially if client hygiene is poor? (Chapter 6)
x Is an approved antiseptic at the correct concentration being used to
prepare the operative site? (Chapter 6)
x Do any members of the surgical team have long fingernails? Wear
colored nail polish? (Chapter 3)
x Are reused disposable surgical gloves being used? (Chapter 14)
x Are the infections linked to any particular surgical team? Or person?
(Chapters 3 and 7)
x Are instruments and equipment being thoroughly cleaned prior to
sterilization or high-level disinfection? (Chapters 11 and 12)
x Is the sterilizer (autoclave) working correctly? (Chapter 11)
x Is sterilization or high-level disinfection being timed correctly?
(Chapters 11 and 12)

If the answer to any of these questions is “no,” further information about

the identified area(s) should be collected and the problem identified before
deciding whether training, better equipment or management reinforcement
is the corrective action needed. (This topic and the rationale and methods
for investigating outbreaks are discussed further in Chapter 28.)

REFERENCES

Flexner C. 1991. Management of occupational exposures to HIV: An

update. AIDS Med Report 4(2): 13–24.
Klouda A. 1991. Personal reference. International Planned Parenthood
Federation. AIDS Prevention Unit: London.
Ladipo OA et al. 1991. Prevention of IUD-related pelvic infection: The
efficacy of prophylactic doxycycline at IUD insertion. Adv Contracept
7(1): 43–54.
Lipscomb J and L Rosenstock. 1997. Health care workers: Protecting
those who protect our health. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 18(6):
397–399.
Lynch P et al. 1997. Infection Prevention with Limited Resources. ETNA
Communications: Chicago, pp 2–9.

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Management of an Infection Prevention Program

Raven BH and RW Haley. 1982. Social influence and compliance of

hospital nurses with infection control policies, in Social Psychology and
Behavioral Medicine. Eiser RJ (ed). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New York,
pp 413–438.
Seto WH et al. 1990. Brief report: The utilization of influencing tactics for
the implementation of infection control policies. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 11(3): 144–150.

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 TWENTY

PREVENTING NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the most common types of nosocomial infections are

x What impact nosocomial infections have on healthcare
x How nosocomial infections increase the cost of healthcare
x Why preventing nosocomial infections is important

BACKGROUND

“Nosocomial infections are widespread. They are important

contributors to morbidity and mortality. They will become
even more important as a public health problem with
increasing economic and human impact because of:

x Increasing numbers and crowding of people.

x More frequent impaired immunity (age, illness and
treatments).
x New microorganisms.
x Increasing bacterial resistance to antibiotics.” (Ducel 1995)

Nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections are an important focus of

infection prevention in all countries, but in developing countries they are a
major cause of preventable disease and death. The most important are:

x urinary tract infections, pneumonia and diarrhea;

x infections following surgery or invasive medical procedures; and
x maternal and newborn infections.

The organisms causing most nosocomial infections usually come from the
patient’s own body (endogenous flora). They also can come from contact
with staff (cross-contamination), contaminated instruments and needles,
and the environment (exogenous flora). Because patients are highly mobile
and hospital stays are becoming shorter, patients often are discharged
before the infection becomes apparent (are symptomatic). In fact, a large
portion of nosocomial infections in hospitalized patients—and all from
ambulatory care facilities—become apparent only after the patients are
discharged. As a consequence, it is often difficult to determine whether the
source of the organism causing the infection is endogenous or exogenous.

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Preventing Nosocomial Infections

Rates of nosocomial infections are markedly higher in many developing

countries, especially for infections that are largely preventable (e.g., those
following surgical procedures such as cesarean section). In these countries,
nosocomial infection rates are high because of a lack of supervision, poor
infection prevention practices, inappropriate use of limited resources and
overcrowding of hospitals. Key contributing factors are:

x inadequate standards and practices for operating blood transfusion

services (Chapter 18);
x increasing use of invasive medical devices (e.g., mechanical
ventilators, urinary catheters and central intravenous lines) without
proper training or laboratory support (Chapters 17, 24 and 27);
x use of contaminated intravenous fluids, especially in hospitals making
their own IV solutions (Chapter 24);
x antibiotic resistance due to overuse of broad spectrum antibiotics; and
x unsafe and frequently unnecessary injections (Chapters 7 and 24).

The latter is most important. For example, after reviewing a number of

studies, Simonsen et al (1999) concluded that more than 50% of injections in
developing countries are unsafe (i.e., the needle, syringe or both are reused)
and many injections are unnecessary (e.g., routine injections of vitamin B-12
or antibiotics). A major consequence of this is that an estimated 80,000 to
160,000 new HIV infections occur annually in sub-Saharan Africa, and even
more cases of HBV and HCV occur worldwide each year as a result of
unsafe injections (Kane et al 1999).

Understanding The role of Transmission-Based Precautions in minimizing the risk of

Nosocomial Infections nosocomial infections is detailed in Chapter 21. In subsequent chapters,
information is presented regarding the epidemiology, microbiology, risk
factors and practical measures for preventing nosocomial infections involving
the urinary, gastrointestinal and respiratory systems (Chapters 22, 26 and 27)
as well those following surgery (Chapter 23), the use of intravascular devices
(Chapter 24) and maternal and newborn infections (Chapter 25). Also
included is information on how to:

x manage food and water sources in hospitals and clinics in order to

prevent food- and waterborne outbreaks; and
x assure a continuous source of clean and safe water for drinking and
medical use (e.g., handwashing and instrument cleaning) (Chapter 26).

Finally, in Chapter 28, guidelines for monitoring (surveillance) of

infection prevention practices and investigating outbreaks and exposures
are briefly covered.

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 Preventing Nosocomial Infections

DEFINITIONS

x Contaminated. State of having been actually or potentially in contact

with microorganisms. As used in healthcare, the term generally refers
to the presence of microorganisms that could be capable of producing
disease or infection.
x Laboratory-acquired infection. Nosocomial infection resulting from
performance of laboratory activities by staff, regardless of how it occurred.
x Nosocomial or hospital-acquired infection (terms used
interchangeably). Infection that is neither present nor incubating at the
time the patient came to the hospital. (Nosocomial refers to the
association between care and the subsequent onset of infection. It is a
time-related criterion that does not imply a cause and effect relationship.)
x Occupational injury or infection. Injury or infection acquired by
healthcare staff while performing their normal duties.

FREQUENCY AND TYPE OF NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS

Nosocomial infections are a significant problem throughout the world and

are increasing (Alvarado 2000). For example, nosocomial infection rates
range from as low as 1% in a few countries in Europe and the Americas to
more then 40% in parts of Asia, Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa
(Lynch et al 1997). In 1987, a prevalence survey involving 55 hospitals in
14 developing countries in four WHO Regions (Europe, Eastern
Mediterranean, South-East Asia and Western Pacific) found an average of
8.7% of all hospital patients had nosocomial infections. Thus at any time,
over 1.4 million patients worldwide will have infectious complications
acquired in the hospital (Tikhomirov 1987). In this survey the highest
frequencies were reported from hospitals in the Eastern Mediterranean and
South-East Asia Regions, 11.8% and 10% respectively (Mayon-White et
al 1988). These rates most likely do not reflect the current situation
because at that time the HIV/AIDS pandemic was just beginning.
Moreover, the survey did not include any countries in Africa where
nosocomial infection rates are much higher. They do, however, provide
some guidance as to which types of nosocomial infections occur most
frequently in developing countries. Surgical site infections, urinary tract
infections and lower respiratory (pneumonia) infections were the leading
types reported. This sequence differs somewhat from what is reported in
the US, for example, where urinary and respiratory tract infections are the
most common followed by surgical site infections (Emori and Gaynes
1993).

The WHO study and others also found that the highest prevalence of
nosocomial infections occurs in intensive care units and acute care
surgical and orthopedic wards. Not surprisingly, infection rates are higher
among patients with increased susceptibility because of old age and the
severity of the underlying disease. To this list should now be added those

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Preventing Nosocomial Infections

hospitalized patients with decreased immunity due to AIDS and/or

multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.

IMPACT OF NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS

Nosocomial infections add to functional disability, emotional stress and

may, in some cases, lead to disabling conditions that reduce the quality of
life. In addition, nosocomial infections have now become one of the
leading causes of death (Ponce-de-Leon 1991). The impact of nosocomial
infections takes on even more significance in resource-poor countries,
especially those affected most by HIV/AIDS, because recent findings
strongly suggest that unsafe medical care may be an important factor in
transmitting HIV (Gisselquist et al 2002).

During the past 10–20 years little progress has been made in addressing
the basic problems responsible for the increasing rates of nosocomial
infections in many countries, and in some countries, conditions are
actually worsening. Nosocomial infections increase the cost of healthcare
in the countries least able to afford them through increased:

x length of hospitalization;
x treatment with expensive medications (e.g., antiretroviral drugs for
HIV/AIDS and antibiotics); and
x use of other services (e.g., laboratory tests, X-rays and transfusions).

As a consequence, in resource poor countries, efforts to prevent nosocomial

infections must assume even greater importance if progress is to be made in
improving the quality of patient care in hospitals and other healthcare facilities.

PREVENTING NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS

Most of these infections can be prevented with readily available, relatively

inexpensive strategies by:

x adhering to recommended infection prevention practices, especially

hand hygiene and wearing gloves;
x paying attention to well-established processes for decontamination and
cleaning of soiled instruments and other items, followed by either
sterilization or high-level disinfection; and
x improving safety in operating rooms and other high-risk areas where
the most serious and frequent injuries and exposures to infectious agents
occur.

Unfortunately, not all nosocomial infections are preventable. For example,

some reflect the influence of advanced age, chronic diseases such as
uncontrolled diabetes, end-stage kidney disease or advanced pulmonary
emphysema, severe malnutrition, treatment with certain drugs (e.g.,

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 Preventing Nosocomial Infections

antimicrobials, corticosteroids and other agents that decrease immunity),

the increasing impact of AIDS (e.g., opportunistic infections) and
irradiation.

REFERENCES

Alvarado CJ. 2000. The Science of Hand Hygiene: A Self-Study

Monograph. University of Wisconsin Medical School and Sci-Health
Communications. March.
Ducel G. 1995. Les nouveaux risques infectieux. Futuribles: 203: 5–32.
Emori TG and RP Gaynes. 1993. An overview of nosocomial infections,
including the role of the clinical laboratory. Clin Microbiol Rev 6(4): 428–442.
Gisselquist D et al 2002. HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa not explained
by sexual or vertical transmission. Int J STD AIDS 13(10): 657–666.
Lynch P et al. 1997. Infection Prevention with Limited Resources. ETNA
Communications: Chicago.
Kane A et al. 1999. Transmission of hepatitis B, hepatitis C and human
immunodeficiency viruses through unsafe injections in the developing world:
Model-based regional estimates. Bull World Health Organ 77(10): 801–807.
Mayon-White RT et al. 1988. An international survey of the prevalence of
hospital-acquired infection. J Hosp Infect 11(Suppl A): 43–48.
Ponce-de-Leon S. 1991. The needs of developing countries and the
resources required. J Hosp Infect 18 (Suppl A): 376–381.
Simonsen L et al. 1999. Unsafe injections in the developing world and
transmission of bloodborne pathogens: A review. Bull World Health
Organ 77(10): 789–800.
Tikhomirov E. 1987. WHO programme for the control of hospital
infections. Chemiotherapia 6(3): 148–151.

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20 - 6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWENTY-ONE

ISOLATION PRECAUTION GUIDELINES FOR HOSPITALS

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the reasons for the Transmission-Based Precautions are

x What Transmission-Based Precautions are designed to do
x What preventive processes and practices are recommended for each
route of infection transmission
x How to effectively use Transmission-Based Precautions

BACKGROUND

Although the spread of infectious diseases in hospitals has been

recognized for many years, understanding how to prevent nosocomial
(hospital-acquired) infections and implementing policies and practices that
are successful have been more difficult. The transmission of nosocomial
infections requires three elements: a source of infecting microorganisms, a
susceptible host and a mode of transmission.

The human source of nosocomial infections may be patients, hospital

personnel or, less often, visitors. These people may have infectious
diseases, be in the incubation period (no symptoms), or may be chronic
carriers. Other sources of infecting microorganisms are inanimate objects
that become contaminated (e.g., examination tables or medical
instruments) and the environment, including air and water.

Susceptible hosts are those patients, hospital personnel and, less often,
visitors who may become infected. Resistance among people to infecting
microorganisms varies; for example, some are immune, others get infected
and become asymptomatic carriers; and still others get infected and
develop a clinical disease. Factors such as age, underlying diseases,
treatment with certain drugs (e.g., antimicrobials, corticosteroids and other
agents that decrease immunity) and irradiation play a role in this process.

The three main routes of infection transmission in hospitals are airborne,

droplet and contact. An infecting microorganism, however, can be
transmitted by more than one route. For example, varicella (chicken pox)
is transmitted both by the airborne and contact route at different stages of
the disease.

In previous sections (Chapters 1 and 2), the rationale and fundamentals of

the new hospital-based isolation precautions have been laid out. The
purpose of this chapter is to further explain how Transmission-Based
Precautions are used in the hospital to minimize the risk of clients,

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Isolation Precaution Guidelines for Hospitals

patients, visitors and staff becoming infected (i.e., developing a

nosocomial infection) while dealing with the healthcare system.

DEFINITIONS

x Airborne transmission. Transfer of particles 5 µm or less in size into

the air, either as airborne droplets or dust particles containing the
infectious microorganism; can be produced by coughing, sneezing,
talking or procedures such as bronchoscopy or suctioning; can remain
in the air for up to several hours; and can be spread widely within a
room or over longer distances. Special air handling and ventilation are
needed to prevent airborne transmission.
x Cohorting. Practice of placing patients with the same active infectious
disease (e.g., chicken pox)—but no other infection—in the same room
or ward.
x Colonization. Pathogenic (illness- or disease-causing) organisms are
present in a person (i.e., they can be detected by cultures or other tests)
but are not causing symptoms or clinical findings (i.e., no cellular
changes or damage). Coming in contact with and acquiring new
organisms, while increasing the risk of infection, usually does not lead
to infection because the body’s natural defense mechanism (the
immune system) is able to tolerate and/or destroy them. Thus, when
organisms are transmitted from one person to another, colonization
rather than infection is generally the result. Colonized persons,
however, can be a major source of transfer of pathogens to other
persons (cross-contamination) especially if the organisms persist in the
person (chronic carrier), such as with HIV, HBV and HCV.
x Contact transmission. Infectious agent (bacteria, virus or parasite)
transmitted directly or indirectly from one infected or colonized person
to a susceptible host (patient), often on the contaminated hands of a
health worker.
x Droplet transmission. Contact of the mucous membranes of the nose,
mouth or conjunctivae of the eye with infectious particles larger than 5
µm in size that can be produced by coughing, sneezing, talking or
procedures such as bronchoscopy or suctioning. Droplet transmission
requires close contact between the source and the susceptible person
because particles remain airborne briefly and travel only about 1 meter
(3 feet) or less.
x Nosocomial or hospital-acquired infection (terms used
interchangeably). Infection that is neither present nor incubating at
the time the patient came to the hospital. (Nosocomial refers to the
association between care and the subsequent onset of infection. It is a
time-related criterion that does not imply a cause and effect
relationship.)

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 Isolation Precaution Guidelines for Hospitals

TRANSMISSION-BASED PRECAUTIONS

The isolation guidelines issued by CDC in 1996 involve a two-level approach:

Note: Protective isolation Standard Precautions, which apply to all clients and patients attending
of immunocompromised healthcare facilities, and Transmission-Based Precautions, which apply
patients, such as those with primarily to hospitalized patients (Garner and HICPAC 1996). As briefly
AIDS, is not an effective presented in Chapter 1, this system replaces the cumbersome disease-specific
way to reduce the risk of
cross-infection (Manangan
isolation precautions with three sets of Transmission-Based Precautions (air,
et al 2001). droplet or contact).

In all situations, whether used alone or in combination,

Transmission-Based Precautions must be used in conjunction with
the Standard Precautions (Garner and HICPAC 1996).

Airborne Precautions These precautions are designed to reduce the nosocomial transmission of
particles 5 µm or less in size that can remain in the air for several hours and be
widely dispersed (Table 21-1). Microorganisms spread wholly or partly by the
airborne route include tuberculosis (TB), chicken pox (varicella virus) and
measles (rubeola virus). Airborne precautions are recommended for patients
with either known or suspected infections with these agents. For example, an
HIV-infected person with a cough, night sweats or fever, and clinical or X-ray
findings in the lungs should go on airborne precautions until TB is ruled out.

Table 21-1. Airborne Precautions

Used in addition to Standard Precautions for a patient known or suspected to be infected
with microorganisms transmitted by the airborne route.
PATIENT PLACEMENT
x Private room.
x Door closed.
x Room air is exhausted to the outside (negative air pressure)
using fan or other filtration system.
x If private room not available, place patient in room with patient
having active infection with the same disease, but with no other
infection (cohorting).
x Check all visitors for susceptibility before allowing them to visit.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
x Wear surgical mask.
x If TB known or suspected, wear particulate respirator (if available).
x If chicken pox or measles:
- Immune persons—no mask required.
- Susceptible persons—do not enter room.
x Remove mask after leaving the room and place in a plastic bag
or waste container with tight-fitting lid.
PATIENT TRANSPORT
x Limit transport of patient to essential purposes only.
x During transport, patient must wear surgical mask.
x Notify area receiving patient.
Adapted from: ETNA Communications 2000.

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Isolation Precaution Guidelines for Hospitals

Where TB is prevalent, it is important to have a mechanism to quickly assess

(triage) patients with suspected TB because delayed diagnosis, resulting in
lack of isolation, has been shown to be an important factor in hospital-based
transmission to other patients. In this situation, airborne precautions are the last
defense in reducing the risk of TB transmission.

Droplet Precautions These precautions reduce the risks for nosocomial transmission of
pathogens spread wholly or partly by droplets larger than 5 µm in size
(e.g., H. influenzae and N. meningitides meningitis; M. pneumoniae, flu,
mumps and rubella viruses). Other conditions include diphtheria, pertussis
(whooping cough), pneumonic plague and strep pharyngitis (scarlet fever
in infants and young children).

Droplet precautions are simpler than airborne precautions because the

particles remain in the air only for a short time and travel only a few feet;
therefore, contact with the source must be close for a susceptible host to
become infected (Table 21-2).

Table 21-2. Droplet Precautions

Use in addition to Standard Precautions for a patient known or suspected to be infected
with microorganisms transmitted by large-particle droplets (larger than 5 µm).
PATIENT PLACEMENT
x Private room; door may be left open.
x If private room not available, place patient in room with patient
having active infection with the same disease, but with no other
infection (cohorting).
x If neither option is available, maintain separation of at least 1
meter (3 feet) between patients.

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

x Wear mask if within 1 meter (3 feet) of patient.

PATIENT TRANSPORT
x Limit transport of patient to essential purposes only.
x During transport, patient must wear surgical mask.
x Notify area receiving patient.

Adapted from: ETNA Communications 2000.

Contact Precautions These precautions reduce the risk of transmission of organisms from an
infected or colonized patient through direct or indirect contact (Table 21-
3). They are indicated for patients infected or colonized with enteric
pathogens (hepatitis A or echo viruses), herpes simplex and hemorrhagic
fever viruses and multidrug (antibiotic)-resistant bacteria. Interestingly,
chicken pox is spread both by the airborne and contact routes at different
stages of the illness. Among infants there are a number of viruses

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transmitted by direct contact. In addition, Contact Precautions should be

implemented for patients with wet or draining infections that may be
contagious (e.g., draining abscesses, herpes zoster, impetigo, conjunctivitis,
scabies, lice and wound infections).

Table 21-3. Contact Precautions

Use in addition to Standard Precautions for a patient known or suspected to be infected
or colonized with microorganisms transmitted by direct contact with the patient or
indirect contact with environmental surfaces or patient care items.
PATIENT PLACEMENT
x Private room; door may be left open.
x If private room not available, place patient in room with patient
having active infection with the same microorganism, but with
no other infection (cohorting).

GLOVING
x Wear clean, nonsterile examination gloves (or reprocessed
surgical gloves) when entering room.
x Change gloves after contact with infectious material (e.g.,
feces or wound drainage).
x Remove gloves before leaving patient room.

HANDWASHING
x Wash hands with antibacterial agent, or use a waterless,
alcohol-based antiseptic handrub, after removing gloves.
x Do not touch potentially contaminated surfaces or items before
leaving the room.

GOWNS AND PROTECTIVE APPAREL

x Wear clean, nonsterile gown when entering patient room if
patient contact is anticipated or patient is incontinent, has
diarrhea, an ileostomy, colostomy or wound drainage not
contained by a dressing.
x Remove gown before leaving room. Do not allow clothing to
touch potentially contaminated surfaces or items before leaving
the room.

PATIENT TRANSPORT
x Limit transport of patient to essential purposes only.
x During transport, ensure precautions are maintained to
minimize risk of transmission of organisms.

PATIENT CARE EQUIPMENT

x Reserve noncritical patient care equipment for use with a
single patient if possible.
x Clean and disinfect any equipment shared among infected and
noninfected patients after each use.

Adapted from: ETNA Communications 2000.

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Isolation Precaution Guidelines for Hospitals

Empiric Use of If there is any question of an infectious process in a patient without a

Transmission-Based known diagnosis, implementing Transmission-Based Precautions should
Precautions be considered based on the patient’s signs and symptoms (empiric basis)
until a definitive diagnosis is made. Moreover, where healthcare
resources, including laboratory testing, are limited, diagnosis-based
isolation precautions are not helpful in practice. In these circumstances,
the isolation system needs to be completely based on the clinical findings
(signs and symptoms).

Examples of the “empiric use” of these precautions are illustrated in Table

21-4.

Table 21-4. Empiric Use of Transmission-Based Precautions (by signs and

symptoms)
AIRBORNE DROPLET CONTACT
x Cough, fever and x Severe, persistent x Acute diarrhea in an
upper lobe chest cough during periods incontinent or
findings (dullness and when pertussis is diapered patient
decreased breath present in community x Diarrhea in adult with
sounds) x Meningitis (fever, history of recent
x Cough, fever and chest vomiting and stiff antibiotic use
findings in any area in neck) x Bronchitis and croup
HIV-infected person or x Hemorrhagic rash with in infants and young
at high risk for HIV fever children
x Rashes (vesicule or x Generalized rash of x History of infection
pustule) unknown cause with multiresistant
organisms (except TB)
x Abscess or draining
wound that cannot be
covered

A complete listing of the clinical syndromes or conditions warranting the

empiric use of Transmission-Based Precautions is presented in Table 21-5.

The use of these precautions, including their empiric use in selected

circumstances, is designed to reduce the risk of airborne-, droplet- and
contact-transmitted infections between hospitalized patients and healthcare
staff. To assist health workers in correctly implementing the appropriate
precautions, Table 21-6 provides a summary of the types of isolation
precautions and the illnesses for which each type of precaution is
recommended. In addition, Appendix I provides a complete listing of the
types and duration of the isolation precautions needed for the vast majority
of infectious diseases.

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Table 21-5. Clinical Syndromes or Conditions to Be Considered for “Empiric Use” of Transmission-Based
Precautions
CLINICAL SYNDROME OR CONDITIONa POTENTIAL EMPIRIC
PATHOGENSb PRECAUTIONS
Diarrhea
Acute diarrhea with a likely infectious cause in an incontinent or Enteric pathogensc Contact
diapered patient
Diarrhea in an adult with a history of recent antibiotic use Clostridium difficile Contact
Meningitis Neisseria meningitidis Droplet
Rash or exanthems, generalized, etiology unknown
Petechial/ecchymotic with fever Neisseria meningitidis Droplet
Vesicular Varicella (chicken pox) Airborne and Contact
Maculopapular with coryza and fever Rubeola (measles) Airborne
Respiratory infections
Cough/fever/upper lobe pulmonary infiltrate in an HIV-negative Mycobacterium Airborne
patient or a patient at low risk for HIV infection tuberculosis
Cough/fever/pulmonary infiltrate in any lung location in an HIV- Mycobacterium Airborne
infected patient or a patient at high risk for HIV infection tuberculosis
Paroxysmal or severe persistent cough during periods of Bordetella pertussis Droplet
pertussis activity
Respiratory infections, particularly bronchiolitis and croup, in Respiratory syncytial or Contact
infants and young children parainfluenza virus
Risk of multidrug-resistant microorganisms
History of infection or colonization with multidrug-resistant Resistant bacteriad Contact
organismsd
Skin, wound or urinary tract infection in a patient with a recent Resistant bacteriad Contact
hospital or nursing home stay in a facility where multidrug-
resistant organisms are prevalent
Skin or wound infection Staphylococcus aureus, Contact
group A streptococcus
a
Patients with the syndromes or conditions listed below may present with atypical signs or symptoms (e.g., pertussis in
neonates and adults may not have paroxysmal or severe cough). The clinician’s index of suspicion should be guided by the
prevalence of specific conditions in the community, as well as clinical judgment.
b
The organisms listed under the column “Potential Pathogens” are not intended to represent the complete, or even most
likely, diagnoses, but rather possible etiologic agents that require additional precautions beyond Standard Precautions until
they can be ruled out.
c
These pathogens include enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella, hepatitis A and rotavirus.
d
Resistant bacteria judged by the infection control program, based on current state, regional or national recommendations, to
be of special clinical or epidemiological significance.

Adapted from: Garner and HICPAC 1996.

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Table 21-6. Summary of Types of Precautions and Patients Requiring the Precautions
Standard Precautions
Use Standard Precautions for the care of all patients.
Airborne Precautions
In addition to Standard Precautions, use Airborne Precautions for patients known or suspected to have serious illnesses transmitted
by airborne droplet nuclei. Examples of such illnesses include:
Measles
Varicella (including disseminated zoster)a
Tuberculosisb
Droplet Precautions
In addition to Standard Precautions, use Droplet Precautions for patients known or suspected to have serious illnesses transmitted by
large particle droplets. Examples of such illnesses include:
Invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease, including meningitis, pneumonia, epiglottitis and sepsis
Invasive Neisseria meningitidis disease, including meningitis, pneumonia and sepsis
Other serious bacterial respiratory infections spread by droplet transmission, including:
Diphtheria (pharyngeal)
Mycoplasma pneumonia
Pertussis
Pneumonic plague
Streptococcal (group A) pharyngitis, pneumonia, or scarlet fever in infants and young children
Serious viral infections spread by droplet transmission, including:
Adenovirusa
Influenza
Mumps
Parvovirus B19
Rubella
Contact Precautions
In addition to Standard Precautions, use Contact Precautions for patients known or suspected to have serious illnesses easily
transmitted by direct patient contact or by contact with items in the patient's environment. Examples of such illnesses include:
Gastrointestinal, respiratory, skin or wound infections or colonization with multidrug-resistant bacteria judged by the infection
control program, based on current state, regional or national recommendations, to be of special clinical and epidemiologic
significance.
Enteric infections with a low infectious dose or prolonged environmental survival, including:
Clostridium difficile
For diapered or incontinent patients: enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella, hepatitis A or rotavirus
Respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus or enteroviral infections in infants and young children
Skin infections that are highly contagious or that may occur on dry skin, including:
Diphtheria (cutaneous)
Herpes simplex virus (neonatal or mucocutaneous)
Impetigo
Major (noncontained) abscesses, cellulitis or decubiti
Pediculosis
Scabies
Staphylococcal furunculosis in infants and young children
Zoster (disseminated or in the immunocompromised host)a
Viral/hemorrhagic conjunctivitis
Viral hemorrhagic infections (Ebola, Lassa, or Marburg)*

* See Appendix I for a complete listing of infections requiring precautions, including appropriate footnotes.
a
Certain infections require more than one type of precaution.
b
See CDC “Guidelines for Preventing the Transmission of Tuberculosis in Health-Care Facilities.”

Adapted from: Garner and HICPAC 1996.

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REFERENCES

ETNA Communications. 2000. Infection Control Signs, Available on:

www.etnacomm.com
Garner JS and The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory
Committee (HICPAC). 1996. Guideline for isolation precautions in
hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17(1): 53–80 and Am J Infect
Control 24(1): 24–52.
Manangan LP et al. 2001. Infection control dogma: Top 10 suspects. Infect
Control Hosp Epidemiol 22(4): 243–247.

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21 - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWENTY-TWO

PREVENTING URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Why urinary tract infections are the most common type of nosocomial
infections
x Why catheterization of the urinary system frequently leads to infection
x How to perform insertion, removal and replacement of an indwelling
catheter
x How to minimize the risk of infection with an indwelling catheter

BACKGROUND

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the most common type of nosocomial
(hospital-acquired) infections, accounting for 40% of all infections in
hospitals per year (Burke and Zavasky 1999). In addition, several studies
have reported that about 80% of nosocomial UTIs occur following
instrumentation, primarily catheterization (Asher, Oliver and Fry 1986).
Because nearly 10% of all hospitalized patients are catheterized,
preventing UTIs is a major factor in decreasing nosocomial infections.

Organisms attacking any portion of the urinary system cause urinary tract
infections: the kidneys (pyelonephritis), bladder (cystitis), prostate
(prostatitis), urethra (urethritis) or urine (bacteriuria). Once bacteria infect
any site, all other areas are at risk. The diagnosis of lower UTIs (cystitis
and urethritis) is usually made on the basis of signs and symptoms and
then confirmed by culture. Most episodes of short-term catheter-associated
bacteriuria (greater than 105 organisms per mL of urine), however, are
without symptoms. If present, symptoms usually consist of slight fever,
burning, urgency and pain on urination. Similar symptoms or findings may
occur in long-term catheterized patients, but these patients may also
experience obstruction, urinary tract stones, renal failure and (rarely)
bladder cancer (Warren 2000).

In upper UTIs (pyelonephritis), flank pain, fever, blood in the urine

(hematuria) and other physical findings may be present. In frail, elderly
patients, however, the typical signs and symptoms of a UTI may be
absent. Moreover, bacteriuria, whether from an upper or lower UTI, is the
most common cause of nosocomial gram-negative sepsis and has been
linked to increased mortality (Platt et al 1982).

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Preventing Urinary Tract Infections

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND MICROBIOLOGY

In several prospective studies, rates of catheter-associated UTIs ranging

from 9% to 23% have been reported (Johnson et al 1990). The wide range
of rates may stem, in part, from recent improvements in care and
technology (closed collection systems and better preventive care), as the
highest rates were observed in studies prior to 1980. There is a greater risk
of UTI with increased duration of catheterization. For example, about 50%
of patients catheterized longer than 7–10 days typically develop an
infection, but this increases to over 90% in patients catheterized more than
30 days (Garibaldi et al 1980). Moreover, if urine is allowed to drain into
an open collection bag or container, all patients will develop bacteriuria
within 4 days (with or without symptoms). Thus, the incidence of
nosocomial UTIs depends, to a large extent, on the duration of
catheterization and the type of drainage system (closed versus open).

Microbiology Most nosocomial UTIs are caused by gram-negative coliform bacteria,

particularly Escherichia coli, pseudomonas species, and organisms from
the enterobacter group. Collectively they account for more than 80% of
culture-positive UTIs (Haley et al 1985). While the most common
organism is E. coli, infections with fungi, such as the candida species,
have increased with the advent of HIV/AIDS and widespread use of broad
spectrum antibiotics.

RISK FACTORS

Risk factors for nosocomial UTIs associated with catheterization can be

broken down into those that are not alterable and those that are. Factors
that are not alterable include: female gender, postpartum status, older age,
severe underlying illness and high blood creatinine level. Factors that can
be altered to reduce the risk of infection include: the wrong reason for
catheterization, contamination during insertion, errors in catheter care and
use of antibiotics.

Factors that can lead to bacteriuria and UTIs include:

x passage of organisms from the urine bag to the bladder (retrograde

contamination) that occurs in 15–20% of patients with indwelling
catheters (i.e., those left in place for several days or weeks); and
x ability of some organisms to grow on the outside or inside of the
tubing and even in the urine itself.

Although these factors may not be alterable, preventing contamination of

the collection bag, the bladder-to-bag tubing, the emptying tube on the bag
or the mucosa lining the urethra can minimize the risk of infection.

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REDUCING THE RISK OF NOSOCOMIAL URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS

Except for the end of the urethra or penis, the urinary system is normally
sterile. The ability to completely empty the bladder is one of the most
important ways the body has to keep the urine sterile and prevent UTIs. If
the bladder empties completely during the voiding process, bacteria do not
have the chance to infect tissue or grow and multiply in the bladder.
Therefore, the normal defenses against a UTI are an unobstructed urethra,
the voiding process and normal bladder mucosa. The insertion of a
catheter, however, bypasses these defenses, introduces microorganisms
from the end of the urethra or penis, and provides a pathway for organisms
to reach the bladder.

Organisms may reach the bladder in two ways: through the inside of a
catheter (i.e., the backward flow of urine) or by traveling up the space
between the outer surface of the catheter and the urethral mucosa.
Therefore, once the catheter is inserted, any back-and-forth movement of
the catheter (e.g., raising the collection bag above the level of the bladder),
or allowing urine to be collected in an open drainage system (bag or
container) should be avoided because each of these activities potentially
enables organisms to enter the bladder. The first way (backward flow of
urine in the catheter) is the more common infection in men. The second
(organisms migrating into the bladder along the outside of the catheter) is
more common in women in part because of their shorter urethra. As a
consequence, women are more likely to develop a UTI from organisms
located in the vagina (Garibaldi et al 1980).

Placement of an indwelling catheter should be performed only when other

methods of emptying the bladder are not effective, and it is particularly
important to limit the duration as much as possible. The accepted
indications for catheterization are:

x For short-term (days) management of incontinence (the inability to

control urination) or retention (the inability to pass urine) not helped
by other methods
x To measure urine output over several days in critically ill patients
x To instill medications
x For treatment of urinary outlet obstruction (blockage of the tube
leading from the bladder to the outside, the urethra)
x For postoperative management of surgical patients with impaired
bladder function (the most common routine use)

Other methods for management of urinary tract problems include:

intermittent catheterization using a reusable “red rubber” straight catheter,
condom catheters for male patients, adult diaper pads, bladder retraining
and the use of drugs to stimulate urination.

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Preventing Urinary Tract Infections

Loss of control (incontinence) or inability to void (retention) may be

Note: Indwelling catheters
should not be used for the managed better by straight (in and out) catheterization several times daily
long-term management of rather than by putting in an indwelling catheter. In addition, some patients
incontinence. can be trained to catheterize themselves for long-term care and can clean
and high-level disinfect their own catheter by steaming it in a rice cooker
or boiling it in a pot.

Procedures for Before inserting a catheter, check to be sure that it is being inserted for the
Insertion, Removal, right reason. For example, if a catheter is being inserted because of urinary
and/or Replacement of retention, ask the patient if s/he has voided, the time of voiding and
Urinary Catheters measure the height of the bladder. Also, before removing a catheter, check
to be sure the doctor’s orders are correct to avoid an error.

Insertion Procedure

STEP 1: Make sure that all of the following items are available:

x Sterile indwelling urinary catheter with a closed continuous drainage

system, or a high-level disinfected or sterile straight catheter and a
clean urine collection container
x High-level disinfected or sterile syringe filled with boiled or sterile
water for blowing up the balloon of an indwelling catheter
x Pair of sterile or high-level disinfected surgical gloves
Note: If using povidone-
odine, allow it to dry about x Antiseptic solution (2% chlorhexidene gluconate or 10% povidone-
2 minutes because it only iodine)
releases free iodine, the
active antiseptic agent,
x Sponge forceps with gauze squares (2 x 2) or large cotton applicators
slowly (Chapter 6). x Single-use packet of lubricant
x Light source (flashlight or lamp) if needed
x Basin of clean warm water, soap, a face cloth and a clean dry towel1
x Plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container for disposal of
contaminated items

STEP 2: Prior to starting the procedure:

Note: If the patient is

x Have women separate their labia and gently wash the urethral area and
unable to wash her/himself,
inner labia.
then a pair of clean x Have men retract their foreskin and gently wash the head of the penis
examination gloves will be and foreskin.
needed.

STEP 3: Wash hands with soap and clean water and dry with a clean dry
towel or air dry. (Alternatively, if hands are not visibly soiled, apply 5 mL,

1
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to remove particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with a dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).

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 Preventing Urinary Tract Infections

about 1 teaspoonful, of a waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub to

both hands and vigorously rub the hands and between the fingers until
dry.)
STEP 4: Put sterile or high-level disinfected gloves on both hands.
STEP 5: Use as small a catheter as consistent with good drainage.2
STEP 6: For health workers who are right-handed (dominant hand), stand
on the patient’s right side (and on the left side if left-handed).
STEP 7: For women, separate and hold the labia apart with the
nondominant hand and prep the urethral area two times with an antiseptic
solution using either cotton applicators or a sponge forceps with gauze
squares (Figure 22-1a).
STEP 8: For men, push back the foreskin and hold the head of the penis
with the nondominant hand; then prep the head of the penis and urethral
opening two times with an antiseptic solution, using cotton applicators or a
sponge forceps with gauze squares (Figure 22-1b).

Figure 22-1a and 1b. Catheterization Technique in Women and Men

a b
Note: With indwelling
catheters, do not STEP 9: If inserting a straight catheter, grasp the catheter about 5 cm (2
disconnect the catheter
from the drainage tube. inches) from the catheter tip with the dominant hand and place the other
end in the urine collection container.
STEP 10: For women, gently insert the catheter as shown in Figure 22-
1a about 5–8 cm (2–3 inches) or until urine flows. For children insert only
about 3 cm (1.5 inches).

2
No. 8–10 French is generally used for children and 14–16 for women. No. 16–18 is used for men unless a larger size is
specified.

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Preventing Urinary Tract Infections

STEP 11: For men, gently insert the catheter as shown in Figure 22-1b
Note: Do not force catheter about 18–22 cm (7–9 inches) or until urine flows. For children insert only
if resistance occurs. about 5–8 cm (2–3 inches).
STEP 12: If inserting an indwelling catheter, push another 5 cm (2
inches) after urine appears and connect the catheter to the urine collection
tubing if not using a closed system.
STEP 13: For an indwelling catheter, inflate the balloon, pull out gently
to feel resistance and secure the indwelling catheter properly to the thigh
(for women) or lower abdomen (for men).
STEP 14: For straight (in and out) catheterization, allow the urine to
Note: If the catheter is slowly drain into the collection container and then gently remove the
accidentally inserted into catheter.
the vagina, do not remove
it. Reprep the urethral area STEP 15: Place soiled items, including the straight catheter if it is to be
with antiseptic solution and disposed of, in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container.
inset a new catheter into
the urethra; then remove STEP 16: Alternatively, if a straight catheter is to be reused, place it in
the one in the vagina. 0.5% chlorine solution and soak it for 10 minutes for decontamination.
STEP 17: Remove gloves by inverting and place them either in a plastic
bag or waste container.
STEP 18: Wash hands or use an antiseptic handrub as above.

Removal and/or Replacement

STEP 1: Make sure all items are available (as in Step 1 above if replacing
an indwelling catheter):

x Pair of examination gloves (if replacing the catheter a pair of sterile or

high-level disinfected gloves will be needed as well)
x Empty, high-level disinfected or sterile syringe for removing the fluid
from the catheter balloon
x Sponge forceps with gauze squares (2 x 2) or large cotton applicators
x Plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container for disposal of
contaminated items

STEP 2: Have the patient wash the urethral area (women) or the head of
the penis (men), or do it for them wearing a pair of clean examination
gloves.
STEP 3: Wash hands or use an antiseptic handrub.
STEP 4: Put clean examination gloves on both hands.
STEP 5: With the empty syringe, remove the water from the catheter
balloon.
STEP 6: For women, separate and hold the labia apart with the
nondominant hand; then prep the urethral area two times with an antiseptic

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 Preventing Urinary Tract Infections

solution using either cotton applicators or a sponge forceps with gauze

squares and gently remove the catheter.
STEP 7: For men, push back the foreskin and hold the head of the penis
with the nondominant hand; then prep the head of the penis and the area
around the catheter two times with an antiseptic solution, using cotton
applicators or sponge forceps with gauze squares and gently remove the
catheter.
STEP 8: If you are just removing the catheter, then follow Steps 15, 17
and 18 of the Insertion Procedure.
STEP 9: If you are replacing the indwelling catheter, follow Steps 4
through 18 of the Insertion Procedure.

TIPS FOR PREVENTING INFECTIONS IN CATHETERIZED PATIENTS

x Remove the catheter as soon as possible.

x The catheter collection system should remain closed and not be opened
unless absolutely necessary for diagnostic or therapeutic reasons.
x Caution the patient against pulling on the catheter.
x Urine flow through the catheter should be checked several times a day
to ensure that the catheter is not blocked.
x Avoid raising the collection bag above the level of the bladder.
x If it becomes necessary to raise the bag above the level of the patient’s
bladder during transfer of the patient to a bed or stretcher, clamp the
tubing.
x Before the patient stands up, drain all urine from the tubing into the
bag.
x The urine drainage (collection) bags should be emptied aseptically;
touching the tip of the emptying tube to the side of the collection bag
or permitting the tip to touch the urine in the vessel should be avoided.
Remember: Whenever a Replace bags with new or clean containers when needed.
patient has a indwelling
catheter in place, infection,
x If the drainage tubing becomes disconnected, do not touch the ends of
including gram-negative the catheter or tubing. Wipe the ends of the catheter and tubing with an
septicemia, can occur, so antiseptic solution before reconnecting them.
check for signs of
infection—back or flank
x Wash the head of the penis and urethral opening (men) or the tissue
pain, cloudy urine or fever. around the urethral opening (women) after a bowel movement or if the
patient is incontinent.
x If frequent irrigation is required, the catheter should be changed.

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Preventing Urinary Tract Infections

What Does Not Work x Continuous irrigation of the bladder with antibiotics does not prevent
bacteriuria and is associated with increased risk of resistant organisms
Note: There is no evidence (Warren et al 1978).
that daily perineal care
(soap and water washing) x While providing systemic antibiotics for brief periods (less than 5
reduces the risk of catheter- days) may reduce the frequency of bacteriuria, it is not clear if it is
associated UTIs (Manangan worth the risk of drug reactions and the increased risk of resistant
et al 2001). organisms (Burke, Larsen and Stevens 1986).
x Applying antiseptics (e.g., an iodophor such as Betadine£) or topical
antibiotics to the perineal area (the urethral area for women and the
head of the penis in men) does not reduce the risk of catheter-
associated UTIs.

REUSING DISPOSABLE CATHETER MATERIALS

Note: After decontamination In situations where resources are limited, the reuse of disposable straight
and cleaning, the catheter and indwelling catheters and drainage tubing is acceptable if the
(straight and indwelling) recommended infection prevention practices are followed for
should be carefully decontamination, cleaning and high-level disinfection (i.e., by boiling or
checked for cracks or tears
and to be sure the balloon steaming) and air drying the devices in a high-level disinfected container
is not leaking. (see Chapter 9).3

The use of chemical disinfectants (e.g., glutaraldehydes) is not

Note: If chemical recommended for high-level disinfection (HLD). Making sure that all the
disinfectants are used, the
disinfectant has been removed is difficult and time-consuming.
catheters and the tubing
must be thoroughly rinsed
at least three times with Drainage (collection) bags should be decontaminated and thoroughly
sterile or boiled water and cleaned and air dried before reuse. HLD is not necessary as long as care is
care must be taken while taken to be sure that urine does not flow into the collection tubing (i.e.,
rinsing not to contaminate
keep the level of the bag lower than the bladder and clamp off the tubing
the items.
when moving the patient).

REFERENCES

Asher EF, BG Oliver and DE Fry. 1986. Urinary tract infections in the
surgical patient. Am Surg 54(7): 466–469.
Burke JP and D Zavasky. 1999. Nosocomial urinary tract infections, in
Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control, 2nd ed. Mayhall CG (ed).
Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins: Philadelphia, pp 173–187.
Burke JP, RA Larsen and LE Stevens. 1986. Nosocomial bacteriuria—
estimating the potential for prevention by closed sterile drainage systems.
Infect Control 7(Suppl 2): 96–99.

3
To speed up drying out the inside of catheters and collection tubing, allow them to drain thoroughly before placing in the
storage container. To do this, put high-level disinfected gloves on both hands and then carefully remove the item from the
steamer or boiler with high-level disinfected forceps. While holding one end of the catheter with a gloved hand, allow the
other end to hang down and shake it gently. When doing this, be careful that the catheter or tubing does not touch anything.

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Garibaldi RA et al. 1980. Meatal colonization and catheter-associated

bacteriuria. N Engl J Med 303(6): 316–318.
Haley RW et al. 1985. The nationwide nosocomial infection rate: A new
need for vital statistics in U.S. hospitals. Am J Epidemiol 121(2): 182–295.
Johnson JR et al. 1990. Prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract
infections with a silver oxide-coated urinary catheter: Clinical and
microbiological correlates. J Infect Dis 162(5): 1145–1150.
Manangan LP et al. 2001. Infection control dogma: top 10 suspects. Infect
Control Hosp Epidemiol 22(4): 243–247.
Platt R et al. 1982. Mortality associated with nosocomial urinary tract
infection. N Engl J Med 307(11): 637–642.
Warren JW. 2000. Nosocomial urinary tract infections, in Principles and
Practices of Infectious Diseases, 5th ed. Mandell JE et al (eds). Churchill
Livingstone, Inc.: Philadelphia, pp 328–339.
Warren JW et al. 1978. Antibiotic irrigation and catheter-associated
urinary tract infections. N Engl J Med 299(11): 570–573.

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22 - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWENTY-THREE

PREVENTING SURGICAL SITE INFECTIONS

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the factors that affect the risk of nosocomial surgical site
infections are
x How to reduce the risk of nosocomial surgical site infections
x What the rationale for antibiotic prophylaxis is
x When the use of prophylactic antibiotics is indicated
x What the recommendations for prevention of bacterial endocarditis are

BACKGROUND

Before the work of Joseph Lister and others in the 1860s, surgical patients
commonly developed postoperative fever followed by purulent drainage
from their incisions, sepsis and often death. The introduction of the
principles of antisepsis by Lister and the acceptance of Pasteur’s germ
theory in the late nineteenth century led to a marked decrease in wound
infection rates. These discoveries also radically changed surgery from an
activity associated with infection and death to one of preventing suffering
and prolonging life. In the twentieth century, the two key factors that have
enabled surgical advances, such as open heart surgery and kidney
transplants, to become routinely possible and safe are improved anesthesia
and scientifically sound infection prevention practices.

Despite improvements in operating room practices, instrument sterilization

methods, better surgical technique and the best efforts of infection
prevention practitioners, surgical site infections (SSIs) remain a major
cause of nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections—and rates are
increasing globally (Alvarado 2000). Moreover, in countries where
resources are limited, even basic life-saving operations, such as
appendectomies and cesarean sections, are associated with high infection
rates and mortality. In these countries, therefore, it makes sense to focus
on preventing SSIs in those procedures most frequently performed and/or
those having the highest SSI rates.

To reduce the risk of nosocomial SSIs in developing countries, a

systematic but realistic approach must be applied with awareness that this
risk is influenced by characteristics of the patient, the operation, the
healthcare staff and the hospital. In theory, reducing risk is relatively
simple and inexpensive, especially when compared to the cost of the
infections themselves, but in practice it requires commitment at all levels
of the healthcare system. And, as noted in Chapter 20, neither the basic

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problems responsible for the high nosocomial rates (i.e., lack of training,
supervision, infrastructure and resources) nor the recommended solutions
have changed over the past 10–20 years in most developing countries.

DEFINITIONS

x Organ/Space SSI. Any part of the body other than the incised body
wall parts that were opened or handled during an operation.
x Surgical site infections (SSI). Either an incisional or organ/space
infection occurring within 30 days after an operation or within 1 year
if an implant is present. As shown in Figure 23-1, incisional SSIs are
further divided into superficial incisional (only involves skin and
subcutaneous tissue)1 and deep incisional (involves deeper soft tissue,
including fascia and muscle layers).2

Figure 23-1. Cross-Section of Abdominal Wall Showing CDC Classifications of

Surgical Site Infection

Adapted from: Horan et al 1992.

1
Does not include stitch abscess, infection of episiotomy or newborn circumcision, or infected burn wound. Specific criteria
are used for identifying these infections and reporting them.
2
For confirmation of all SSIs, clinical findings (signs or symptoms of infections) and/or laboratory test results (organism
isolated from aseptically obtained culture) are required.

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 Preventing Surgical Site Infections

The surgical wound classification system includes four categories:

x Class I—clean. Uninfected operative wound with no inflammation

and in which the respiratory, gastrointestinal (GI), genital and urinary
tracts were not entered. Clean wounds are closed at surgery and, if
necessary, drained with closed drainage.
x Class II—clean-contaminated. Wound in which the respiratory, GI,
genital or urinary tract(s) were entered under controlled conditions but
without unusual contamination or spillage of contents.
x Class III—contaminated. Open, fresh accidental wound or an
operation with a major break(s) in aseptic technique (e.g., open cardiac
massage) or gross spillage from the GI tract. Also included are
incisions in which acute, nonpurulent inflammation is found.
x Class IV—dirty or infected. Old wounds with dead tissue and those
that involve existing clinical infection or a perforated bowel,
suggesting that the pathogens causing the postoperative infection were
present in the wound before the surgery.

EPIDEMIOLGY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Among surgical patients, SSIs are the most common nosocomial infection,
accounting for about a third of all such infections. In most studies about
two thirds of these can be classified as superficial incisional, while the
remaining involve either organs or spaces entered during surgery or are
deep incisional SSIs. On average, having an SSI increases a patient’s
hospital stay by 7–10 days, with organ/space and deep incisional SSIs
accounting for the longest stays and highest costs.

Organisms associated with SSIs vary with the type of procedure and the
anatomic location of the operation. Staphylcoccus aureus (coagulase-
negative staphylococci), enterococcus species and Escherichia coli are the
three most frequently isolated pathogens. An increasing number of SSIs
are caused by antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, and the incidence of
fungal SSIs has risen significantly in the last decade in part because of the
dramatic increase in the number of HIV/AIDS patients. For most SSIs, the
source of the pathogen(s) comes from the patient’s skin, mucous
membranes or bowel and rarely from another infected site in the body
(endogenous sources). Exogenous sources of SSI pathogens are
occasionally responsible. These include:

x organisms from members of the surgical team (e.g., hands, nose or

other body parts);
x contaminated surfaces in the operating room, even the air; and
x contaminated instruments, surgical gloves or other items used in the
surgery.

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Preventing Surgical Site Infections

Exogenous organisms are primarily aerobic staphylococci or streptococci

species (with the exception of tetanus endospores). Although fungi are
widely present in the environment, they rarely cause SSIs.

The mechanisms by which microorganisms infect tissue and produce

disease are complex and incompletely understood. For example, some
pathogens may contain or produce toxins and other substances that
increase their ability to invade a patient’s tissue, produce damage or
survive in the tissue.

PATHOGENESIS

By the end of an operation, bacteria and other microorganisms

contaminate all surgical wounds, but only a small number of patients
actually develop a clinical infection (Fry 2003). Infection does not
develop in most patients because their defense mechanisms effectively
eliminate the contaminating organisms at the surgical site. Whether a
potential infection occurs depends on several factors, with the most
important being:

x number of bacteria entering the wound;

x type and virulence (ability to cause infection) of the bacteria;
x host defense mechanisms (e.g., effectiveness of inflammatory response
and status of the immune system); and
x external factors, such as being in the hospital several days before
surgery or the operation lasting more than 4 hours.

Two factors that can help minimize the number of organisms entering the
wound are the skill and experience of the surgeon and use of good surgical
technique. Both are important because if a surgical site is contaminated
with more than 105 (100,000) organisms per gram of tissue, the risk of SSI
is markedly increased (Krizek and Robson 1975). The dose required for
infection can be even lower, however, if foreign material is present at the
site (e.g., only 102 or about 100 staphylococci are enough if silk suture is
used for closure or to control bleeding) (James and MacLeod 1961).

While the type and virulence of the bacteria cannot be controlled, the other
factors can to a large extent. For example, tissue injury caused by making
the wound incision triggers a chain of events, called the inflammatory
response, that take place even before bacterial contamination occurs. The
effectiveness of the inflammatory response to mobilize patient defense
mechanisms (e.g., activation of various types of white blood cells that
contain and destroy the bacteria before infection can occur) depends to
large extent on the patient’s general health, age, obesity, smoking, some
chronic diseases and the status of the immune system.

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RISK FACTORS

Table 23-1 lists the most widely accepted patient and operative
characteristics that may increase the risk of an SSI. What is interesting
about this list is how short it is. Of the many possible human conditions
and surgical practices, it is surprising how few have been proven to
independently influence the risk of infection. In part this is due to the
complex nature of SSIs and to the great difficulty in designing and
conducting studies that accurately isolate the effect of a single factor.

Table 23-1. Patient and Operation Characteristics That May Influence the Risk of
Developing a Surgical Site Infection
PATIENT
Nutritional status, poor
Diabetes, uncontrolled
Smoking or use of other tobacco products
Obesity
Coexistent infections at a remote body site
Colonization with microorganisms
Altered immune response (HIV/AIDS and chronic corticosteroid use)
Length of preoperative stay
OPERATION
Preoperative shaving
Preoperative skin prep
Duration of operation
Antimicrobial prophylaxis
Operating room ventilation
Instrument processing (cleaning, HLD or sterilization)
Foreign material in the surgical site
Surgical drains
Surgical technique
x Poor hemostasis
x Failure to obliterate dead space
x Tissue trauma

Adapted from: SHEA, APIC, CDC and SIS 1990.

Patient Factors x Obesity increases risk substantially when the subcutaneous abdominal
fat layer exceeds 3 cm (1.5 inches) (Nyström et al 1987). The risk is
increased by the need for a larger incision, decreased circulation to the
fat tissue or the technical difficulty of operating through a large fat layer.
x Infection at another site may increase the risk of spreading infection
through the bloodstream.
x Immunocompromised patients (e.g., those with HIV/AIDS, those
with chronic corticosteroid use such as occurs with asthma and heavy

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Preventing Surgical Site Infections

smokers or users of other tobacco products) are at significantly greater

risk of SSIs.
x Malnutrition may or may not be a contributing factor. Unfortunately,
most studies have not been conducted in developing countries where
severe malnutrition is more common.
x Age, race, socioeconomic status and chronic diseases, such as
diabetes and malignancy, are difficult to assess because they are
frequently associated with other factors that independently contribute
to risk. For example, age over 70 may be accompanied by decreased
defense mechanisms, poor nutrition and anemia.

When possible, the effects of conditions that might complicate surgical

recovery should be corrected or stabilized preoperatively. For example:

x Although diabetes and high blood pressure are not independent risk
factors, they should be under control before elective surgery.
x Smoking or use of other tobacco products should be stopped at least 30
days before elective surgery if possible.
x Patients with infections remote to the surgical site should be treated if
possible or their surgery postponed.
x Women using combined (estrogen- and progestogen-containing)
contraceptives (oral or injectable) should be switched to a
nonhormonal method at least 30 days before major elective surgery to
minimize the risk of deep vein thrombophlebitis and nonfatal
pulmonary embolism (Blumenthal and McIntosh 1996).

REDUCING THE RISK OF SURGICAL SITE INFECTIONS

In 1999, CDC issued guidelines for reducing the risk of SSIs based on
existing scientific data, theoretical rationale and applicability. A copy of
these recommendations, including the strength of the scientific
information (Category I or II) on which they are based, is presented in
Appendix J. Because these recommendations are intended to be used in
US healthcare facilities, administrators and health professional staff in
developing countries will need to carefully review, accept or modify them
according to what is possible, practical and doable within their resource
setting. While the vast majority of these recommendations are applicable
and doable even in limited resource settings, some are not. For example,
recommendations regarding Intraoperative Operating Room Ventilation
(Section 2a) that require positive-pressure ventilation, provision of 15 air
exchanges per hour and filtration of all air (fresh or recirculated)—all
Category 1B recommendations—may not be financially possible. Other
recommendations that may need to be modified, depending on available
resources and the nature of the surgical procedure, include instrument
sterilization recommendations (Section 2d) and the use of sterile surgical
attire and drapes that are fluid-resistant (Section 2e).

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 Preventing Surgical Site Infections

In addition, some factors that may affect the risk of infection have either
not been studied or the results of existing studies are inconclusive (e.g.,
members of the surgical team wearing nail polish). As a consequence, for
these factors either no recommendation is provided in the guidelines or
they are not dealt with at all. A few of the most notable omissions include
whether or not to:

x limit traffic flow (i.e., the number of people in the operating room)
during surgery;
x wear soiled surgical clothing from case to case;
x perform more than one operation in the same room, including the use
of shared personnel;
x cover a clean incision closed at surgery beyond 48 hours; or
x advise the patient to bathe or shower after surgery without a dressing.

For most of these, standard practice would advise against doing them.
With regard to care of the incision, it is generally believed that
postoperative care has only minimal effect on the risk of SSIs. This belief
Note: Putting topical is based on the assumption that wounds begin to heal immediately and
antibiotic ointments on
closed skin incisions does
after 48 hours do not to require a dressing or will not become infected by
not decrease the risk of showering or bathing. This assumption, however, may not be valid,
SSIs. (Fry 2003). especially in limited-resource settings where hygiene is poor and the
quality of tap water is questionable or frankly contaminated. For example,
a 1991 report by Lowry et al documented that an outbreak of
Legionnaire’s disease was related to contaminated tap water used for
washing around surgical wounds. Thus, where the likelihood of wound
contamination is high and the quality of tap water poor, it is probably
advisable to keep the incision clean, dry and covered. Bathing or
Note: Healthy tissue showering should be avoided until the incision is nearly healed (5–7 days).
growth is damaged when
the dry gauze is removed; Recommendations for postoperative care are quite different for a surgical
therefore, moisten the dry incision that is either:
gauze with sterile normal
saline before removing it.
x left open at the skin level for a few days (usually 4–5 days) before it is
closed (delayed primary closure); or
x left open to heal by secondary intention (i.e., healing from the base
upwards until reaching the surface).
Remember: Wash hands,
or use an antiseptic handrub, In both situations, the incision initially should be packed and covered with
before putting on gloves a sterile, moist gauze dressing and changed regularly.
and after taking them off to
avoid exposure to blood
and other potentially x If gauze dressings moistened with sterile normal saline are used, the
infected body fluids and to dressing should be changed using aseptic technique (sterile or high-
decrease the risk of cross-
contamination. level disinfected gloves) every 8 hours to prevent the gauze from
drying out.

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Preventing Surgical Site Infections

x If sterile gauze filled with petroleum jelly or other moistening agents is

used to pack and cover the incision, it can be changed less often (24–
48 hours), depending on the type of wound and the manufacturer’s
directions.

Unless the dressing and surrounding area can be kept dry, the patient
should not bathe or shower while the incision is packed and covered with
a dressing (or at least until granulation tissue is present in a wound healing
by secondary intention).

Other Factors x Prolonged preoperative hospitalization exposes patients to hospital

flora, including multidrug-resistant organisms. Completing presurgical
evaluations and correcting underlying conditions before admission to a
hospital decreases this risk. Also, performing elective surgery, where
feasible, in ambulatory surgery centers rather than acute care hospitals
decreases the risk of exposure to hospital flora.
x Preoperative hair removal should be avoided if it is unnecessary. If
hair must be removed, clip it with scissors just before the surgery.
Shaving is a proven risk factor for SSIs (Cruse and Foord 1980).
x Wide prepping of the proposed incision site with antiseptic solution
preoperatively helps keep microorganisms from migrating into the
wound (breakthrough) if the site towels or drapes become wet during
surgery (Chapter 5).
x Good surgical technique minimizes tissue trauma, controls bleeding,
eliminates dead space, removes dead tissue and foreign bodies, uses
minimal suture and maintains adequate blood supply and oxygenation.
Specifically, it is important to:

x handle soft tissue gently to avoid crushing that can result in tissue
death (necrosis);
x use electrocautery sparingly to control bleeding because it leaves
behind dead tissue that is more likely to become infected;
x use absorbable suture whenever possible because permanent
suture, especially silk suture, reduces the number of bacteria
necessary to cause infection (James and MacLeod 1961); and
x use closed suction drains that exit through a separate stab wound to
help prevent accumulation of tissue fluid in the dependent portion
of the wound. Preventing this is especially important in obese
patients and may reduce SSIs (Fry 2003). (Passive drains, such a
Penrose drain, exiting through the bottom of the incision should
not be used.)
x Increased length of surgical procedures is associated with increased
risk of SSIs. It is estimated that the infection rate nearly doubles with
each hour of surgery (Cruse and Foord 1980.)
x Prompt discharge postoperatively, provided patients are able to
return to homecare, reduces the risk of infection as well.

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 Preventing Surgical Site Infections

These factors, coupled with the experience and skill of the surgeon and
assistant, are known to reduce the risk of SSIs.

ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS IN SURGERY

The use of antibiotics preoperatively can reduce the rate of infection,

particularly wound infections, after certain operations. The benefit,
however, must be weighed against the risks of toxic and allergic reactions,
the emergence of resistant bacteria, drug interactions, superinfection and
cost (Nichols 2001). For example, it is estimated that 5% of patients
receiving an antibiotic will have a serious reaction to the drug. In general,
antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended only for procedures with high
infection rates and those in which the consequences of infection are
especially serious. The recommendations for when to consider
prophylactic antibiotics in general surgical, gynecologic and obstetric
patients are outlined in Table 23-2.

Guidelines for Choosing Ideally the prophylactic drug(s) should be directed against the most likely
a Prophylactic infecting organisms, but need not kill or inactivate all pathogens. For most
Antibiotic procedures, an inexpensive, first- or second-generation cephalosporin,
such as cefazolin (Ancef®), which has a moderately long half-life and is
active against staphylococci and streptococci, has been effective when
given intravenously (IV) 30 minutes before surgery. Exceptions are for an
appendectomy, where cefoxitin (Mefoxin®) or cefotetan (Cefotan®) is
preferred because they are more active than cefazolin against bowel
anaerobic organisms.

Where methicillin-resistant staphylococci are important postoperative

pathogens, vancomycin (Vancocin®) can be used, but routine use for
prophylaxis should be avoided because it may promote the emergence of
resistant organisms. Also, third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins
(e.g., ceotaxime or cefepime) should not be used for routine surgical
prophylaxis because:

x they are expensive, some are less active than cefazolin against
staphylococci;
x their spectrum of activity includes organisms rarely encountered in
elective surgery; and
x their widespread use may promote the emergence of resistance.

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Preventing Surgical Site Infections

Table 23-2. Prevention of Wound Infection and Sepsis in Surgical Patients

NATURE OF RECOMMENDED ADULT DOSAGE BEFORE

LIKELY PATHOGENS
OPERATION DRUGS SURGERY

Gastrointestinal
Colorectal Enteric gram-negative Oral: neomycin plus
bacilli, anaerobes, erythromycin base1
enterococci IV: cefoxitin or 1–2 grams IV
cefotetan 1–2 grams IV
OR cefazolin plus 1–2 grams IV
metronidazole 0.5 grams IV

Appendectomy Enteric gram-negative cefoxitin or 1–2 grams IV

bacilli, anaerobes, cefotetan 1–2 grams IV
enterococci

Genitourinary Enteric gram-negative High risk2 only:

bacilli, enterococci ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO or 400 mg IV

Gynecologic and Obstetric

Vaginal or abdominal Enteric gram-negative, cefazolin or 1–2 grams IV
hysterectomy anaerobes, group B strep, cefotetan or 1–2 grams IV
enterococci cefoxitin 1 gram IV

Cesarean section same as for hysterectomy High risk3 only: cefazolin 1 gram IV after cord clamping

Abortion same as for hysterectomy First trimester, high risk4: 2 million units IV
aqueous penicillin G 300 mg PO5
OR doxycycline 1 gram IV
Second trimester:
cefazolin

Contaminated Surgery6
Ruptured viscus Enteric gram-negative cefoxitin or 1–2 grams IV q6h
bacilli, anaerobes, cefotetan plus or minus 1–2 grams IV q12h
enterococci gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg IV q8h
OR clindamycin plus 600 mg IV q6h
gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg IV q8h

Traumatic wound S. aureus, group A strep, cefazolin7 1–2 grams IV q8h

clostridia
1
After appropriate diet and enemas, one gram of each at 1 pm, 2 pm and 11 pm the day before an 8 am operation.
2
Urine culture positive or unavailable, preoperative catheter, transrectal prostatic biopsy.
3
Active labor or premature rupture of membranes.
4
Patients with previous pelvic inflammatory disease, previous gonorrhea or multiple sex partners.
5
Divided into 100 mg 1 hour before the abortion and 200 mg one half hour after.
6
For contaminated or “dirty” surgery, therapy should usually be continued for about 5 days. Ruptured viscus in
postoperative setting (dehiscence) requires antibacterials to include coverage of nosocomial pathogens.
7
For bite wounds in which likely pathogens may also include oral anaerobic organisms, such as Eikenella corrodens
(human) or Pasteruella multocida (dog and cat), use ampicillin/sulbactam (Unsayn®). This antibiotic can also be used for
penetrating intracranial wounds, including gunshot injuries.

Adapted with special permission from: The Medical Letter 2001.

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 Preventing Surgical Site Infections

Number of Doses In most instances, a single intravenous (IV) dose of an antibiotic

completed 30 minutes or less before the skin incision provides adequate
tissue levels throughout the operation. (If vancomycin is used, at least 1
hour is required.) Clearly the concept of “on call” infusion of prophylactic
antibiotics is not acceptable because delays in starting the operation can
occur, resulting in ineffective tissue levels when the surgery actually does
start. If surgery is prolonged (more than 4 hours), major blood loss occurs
or an antibiotic with a short half-life such as cefoxitin is used, one or more
additional doses should be given during the procedure.

PREVENTION OF BACTERIAL ENDOCARDITIS

The risk of endocarditis is considered high in patients with previous

endocarditis, prosthetic heart valves, complex congenital heart disease
such as tetralogy of Fallot or surgically constructed pulmonary shunts or
tubing (conduits). Virdans streptococci are the most common cause of
endocarditis after dental or upper respiratory procedures, while
enterococci are most frequently found following GI or genitourinary
procedures.

Although the effectiveness of antimicrobial prophylaxis in preventing

endocarditis has never been established by controlled clinical trials in
humans (Level 1 evidence), many physicians believe their use before
procedures that may cause brief periods of bacteremia is protective. The
drugs and dosages in Table 23-3 are based on those recommended by the
American Heart Association (Dajani et al 1997).

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Preventing Surgical Site Infections

Table 23-3. Endocarditis Prophylaxis

DOSAGE FOR ADULTS DOSAGE FOR CHILDREN*
DENTAL AND UPPER RESPIRATORY PROCEDURES
Oral
Amoxicillin (Amoxi“) 2 grams 1 hour before procedure 50 mg/kg 1 hour before procedure
Penicillin allergy:
Clindamycin (Cleocin“) 600 mg 1 hour before procedure 20 mg/kg 1 hour before procedure
OR
Azithromycin (Zithromax“) 500 mg 1 hour before procedure 15 mg/kg 1 hour before procedure
Parenteral (for patients unable to
take oral drugs)
Ampicillin (Omnipen“) 2 grams IM or IV within 30 minutes 50 mg/kg IM or IV within 30 minutes
before procedure before procedure
Penicillin allergy:
Clindamycin 600 mg IV within 30 minutes before 20 mg/kg IV within 30 minutes before
procedure procedure
GASTROINTESTINAL AND GENITOURINARY PROCEDURES
Oral
Amoxicillin 2 grams 1 hour before procedure 50 mg/kg 1 hour before procedure
Parenteral
Ampicillin1 2 grams IM or IV within 30 minutes 50 mg/kg IM or IV within 30 minutes
before procedure before procedure
Penicillin allergy:
Vancomycin (Vancocin“) 1 gram IV infused slowly over 1 hour 20 mg/kg IV infused slowly over 1 hour
beginning 1 hour before procedure beginning 1 hour before procedure
r Gentamicin2 (Garamycin“) 1.5 mg/kg (120 mg max.) IM or IV 1.5 mg/kg IM or IV within 30 minutes
within 30 minutes before procedure before procedure
*
Should not exceed adult dosage.
1
High-risk patients given parenteral ampicillin before the procedure should receive a dose of ampicillin 1 gram IM or IV or a
dose of amoxicillin 1 gram orally 6 hours afterwards.
2
Gentamicin should be added for patients with a high risk of endocarditis.

Adapted with special permission from: The Medical Letter 2001, citing recommendations by Dajani et al 1997.

REFERENCES

Alvarado CJ. 2000. The Science of Hand Hygiene: A Self-Study

Monograph. University of Wisconsin Medical School and Sci-Health
Communications. March.
Blumenthal P and N McIntosh. 1996. Combined (estrogen and progestin)
contraceptives, in PocketGuide for Family Planning Service Providers,
2nd ed. JHPIEGO Corporation: Baltimore, MD, pp 86–114.
Cruse PJE and R Foord. 1980. The epidemiology of wound infection: A 10
year prospective study of 62,939 wounds. Surg Clin North Am 60(1): 27–40.

23 - 12 Infection Prevention Guidelines

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Dajani AS et al. 1997. Prevention of bacterial endocarditis:

Recommendations of the American Heart Association. JAMA 277(22):
1794–1801.
Fry DE. 2003. Surgical site infection: Pathogenesis and prevention.
Medscape (February 19). Available at: www://medscape.com/viewprogram
/2220_pnt.
Horan TC et al. 1992. CDC definitions of nosocomial surgical site
infections, 1992: A modification of CDC definitions of surgical wound
infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 13(10): 606–608.
James RC and CJ MacLeod. 1961. Induction of staphylococcal infections
in mice with small inocula introduced on sutures. Br J Exp Pathol 42:
266–272.
Krizek TJ and MC Robson. 1975. Evolution of quantitative bacteriology
in wound management. Am J Surg 130(5): 579–584.
Lowry PW et al. 1991. A cluster of legionella sternal-wound infections
due to postoperative topical exposure to contaminated tap water. N Engl J
Med 324(2): 109–113.
The Medical Letter. 2001. Antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery. The
Medical Letter 43: 1116–1117.
Nichols RL. 2001. Preventing surgical site infections: A surgeon’s
perspective. Emerg Infect Dis 7(2): 220–224.
Nyström P et al. 1987. Incisional infection after colorectal surgery in
obese patients. Acta Chir Scand 153(3): 225–227.
SHEA, APIC, CDC and SIS. 1990. Consensus paper on the surveillance of
surgical wound infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 18(5): 599–605.

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23 - 14 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWENTY-FOUR

PREVENTING INFECTIONS RELATED TO USE OF

INTRAVASCULAR DEVICES

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Why intravascular devices are an important cause of systemic

bloodstream infections
x How to minimize the risk of nosocomial infections related to
intravascular devices
x How to insert, care for and remove intravenous lines
x How to set up and administer blood or blood products

BACKGROUND

The use of intravascular devices, both venous and arterial, to deliver

sterile fluids, medications and nutritional products, as well as for central
monitoring of blood pressure and other hemodynamic functions, has
dramatically increased during the past decade. It is estimated that about
50% of all patients admitted to hospitals will receive intravenous therapy,
creating a large population at risk for local and systemic blood stream
infections.

Because catheters inserted into the venous or arterial bloodstream bypass

the normal skin defense mechanism, these devices provide a way for
microorganisms to enter the bloodstream from:

x the device at the time of insertion,

x subsequent contamination of the device or attachments (e.g., tubing
connected to the blood monitoring apparatus or the fluids being
administered), or
x pathogens on the skin surrounding the insertion site.

The risk of infection associated with the use of intravascular devices can
be reduced by following recommended infection prevention practices
related to their insertion (e.g., the use of aseptic technique) and by better
management of the device once it is in place. In many countries, poor
infection prevention practices, such as infrequent handwashing or use of
antiseptic handrub, and the improper use of gloves often result in
increased rates of local and systemic infections. Moreover, when
intravascular devices (e.g., central venous catheters) are introduced in
hospitals where laboratory services to provide identification and
antimicrobial susceptibility testing are lacking or inadequate, the treatment

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Preventing Infections Related to Use of Intravascular Devices

of life-threatening bloodstream infections stemming from these devices is

often unsuccessful or results in the emergence of resistant organisms.

This chapter provides guidelines for the preparation, insertion and

maintenance of common intravascular devices (i.e., peripheral venous
lines for the administration of fluids, electrolytes and blood or blood
products).1

DEFINITIONS

x Exit site infection (microbiologic diagnosis). Clinical infection in

which culture of the discharge (pus or fluid) at the exit site yields a
microorganism, with or without microbiologic evidence of
bloodstream infection.
x Phlebitis. Area of swelling, redness, warmth and tenderness of the
skin around the site where the intravascular catheter comes out of the
skin (the exit site). If phlebitis is associated with other signs of
infection, such as fever and pus coming from the exit site, it is
classified as a clinical exit site infection.
x Pocket infection. Infected fluid isolated from the area around a totally
implanted intravascular device, with or without microbiologic
evidence of bloodstream infection.
x Tunnel infection. Tenderness, redness and swelling for more than 2
cm (about 1 inch) along the tract of an intravascular catheter, with or
without microbiologic evidence of local or bloodstream infection.

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Peripheral venous catheters, if inserted using recommended infection

prevention practices, are rarely (less than 1%) associated with systemic
(bloodstream) infections (Table 24-1). If they are not properly maintained,
however, these devices can cause local reactions (e.g., phlebitis) that
potentially increase the risk of subsequent infection. By contrast,
nontunneled central venous pressure catheters (CVCs) account for nearly
90% of all catheter-related bloodstream infections, with the remaining due
to use of the other devices (Maki 1992). Because nosocomial bloodstream
infections have a relatively high morbidity compared to other types of
nosocomial infections, in the range of 10–20% (CDC and HICPAC 1996),
it is extremely important that where possible, midline catheters, which
have lower rates of phlebitis and infection, be used rather than
nontunneled CVCs (Garner and HICPAC 1996).

1
Insertion and maintenance of other devices (e.g., peripheral artery catheters and nontunneled or tunneled central venous
lines) require personnel with special training to minimize the risk of catheter-related complications (e.g., pneumothorax) or
infections (CDC and HICPAC 1996). If IV teams are not available, insertion and removal should be the responsibility of a few
well-trained staff members using aseptic techniques. Even for insertion of peripheral venous catheters, students or unskilled or
inexperienced staff should be directly supervised, and the number of attempts should be limited for patient safety and comfort.

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Table 24-1. Types of Intravascular Devices and Comments on Their Use

Peripheral venous Usually inserted into the veins of the forearm or the hand;
catheter most commonly used short-term intravascular device; rarely
associated with bloodstream infection
Peripheral arterial For short-term use; commonly used to monitor hemodynamic
catheter status and to determine blood gas levels of critically ill
patients; risk of bloodstream infection may approach that of
CVCs1
Midline catheter Peripheral catheter (size 7.6–20.3 cm or 3–8 inches) is inserted
via the antecubital fossa (forearm) into the proximal basilic or
cephalic veins, but it does not enter central veins; is associated
with lower rates of phlebitis and infection than CVCs
Nontunneled CVC Most commonly used CVC; accounts for an estimated 90%
of all catheter-related bloodstream infections; increased risk
of infection with internal jugular vein site of insertion
Pulmonary artery Inserted through a Teflon introducer and typically remains in
catheter place for an average duration of only 3 days; most catheters
are heparin-bonded to reduce catheter thrombosis and
microbial adherence to the catheter
Pressure-monitoring Used in conjunction with arterial catheter; associated with
system both epidemic and endemic nosocomial bloodstream
infections; source is often the fluid column in the tubing
between the patient’s intravascular catheter and the pressure-
monitoring apparatus, contaminated infusate, or
contaminated nondisposable transducers
Peripherally inserted Provides an alternative to subclavian or jugular vein
central catheter catheterization; is inserted via a peripheral vein into the
superior vena cava, usually by way of cephalic and basilar
veins; is easier to maintain and is associated with fewer
mechanical complications (e.g., hemothorax) than are
nontunneled CVCs
Tunneled CVC Surgically implanted CVC with tunneled portion exiting the
skin and a Dacron cuff just inside the exit site; the cuff
inhibits migration of organisms into the catheter tract by
stimulating growth of the surrounding tissue, thus sealing the
catheter tract; used to provide long-term vascular access to
patients
Totally implantable A subcutaneous port or reservoir with self-sealing septum is
device tunneled beneath the skin and is accessed by a needle
through intact skin; low rates of infection
1
CVC: central venous catheter

Adapted from: Mermel et al 2001.

Most infections are caused by contamination of the catheter with

organisms from the patient’s skin or the health worker’s hands during
insertion, with the catheter providing a direct path to the bloodstream.
Once the catheter is inserted, pathogens can be transferred into the
bloodstream in four ways:

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1. by traveling along the catheter-tissue interface,

2. through contamination of the hub,
3. through contaminated infusion fluid, and
4. through the bloodstream from another site of infection.

Microbiology Both gram-negative bacteria and staphylococci are primary causes of

catheter-related infection; however, with the advent of the HIV/AIDS
epidemic, infections with fungi are increasingly being reported (Jarvis and
Hughes 1993). Some microorganisms, especially coagulase-negative
Staphylococcus aureus and pseudomonas and acinetobacter species,
adhere to the fibrin film that forms on the inside wall of catheters within
days after insertion. As a consequence, infection with these organisms is
quite common, especially if the infection occurs within 10 days of
insertion (Raad et al 1993). For devices left in place longer than 30 days
(e.g., tunneled CVCs), bloodstream infections are more likely due to the
contamination of the hub of the catheter, especially if frequent handling of
the hub occurs (Schaberg, Culver and Gaynes 1991).

RISK FACTORS

A number of factors increase the risk of infection from intravascular

devices. For example, infection rates are higher among patients in large
hospitals who may be especially ill, those with burns or surgical wounds
or those who are malnourished or immunocompromised (e.g., by
HIV/AIDS or chronic corticosteroid treatment). In addition, the rates are
higher for certain devices (e.g., nontunneled CVCs), the type of fluid
being infused (parenteral nutritional products are most risky) and the
length of time the catheter is left in place (Jarvis et al 1991; Maki and
Mermel 1998; Mayhall 1992).

Contaminated equipment and solutions also provide microorganisms with

a way to get into the bloodstream. The following device-related factors
increase the risk of infection:

x Before insertion:

x Cracks in infusion bottles

x Punctures in plastic containers
x Contaminated infusion fluid or additives
x Leaky IV administration sets with multiple connections
x Unsterile preparation of intravenous infusion fluid

x During use:

x Multiple changes of IV fluid containers while using the same IV

administration set

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x Multiple injections and irrigations of the system

x Central venous pressure measurement apparatus

Person-to-person contact also increases the risk of infection associated

with intravascular devices. These include:

x Cross-contamination with other infected areas of the patient’s body

either by the patient or on the hands of the health worker.
x Cross-contamination from another patient via the hands of the health
worker.
x Cross-contamination from the patient when the health worker comes in
contact with the patient’s blood during insertion, care of the insertion
site or removal of the catheter.
x Poor insertion or dressing change technique.

REDUCING THE RISK OF NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS

All Types of Hand Hygiene and Gloves

Intravascular Devices
x Wash hands before touching any of the IV set components. (If hands
are visibly clean, you can disinfect them with an antiseptic handrub
made from 60–90% ethyl or isopropyl alcohol and an emollient, such
as glycerin.)
x Clean examination gloves or reprocessed high-level disinfected
surgical gloves should be put on just before touching the insertion site
or the hub of the needle or catheter.
x Wash hands or use a waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub after
removing gloves.

Site Care and Dressings

x If the site for inserting the catheter is visibly dirty, wash it with soap
and clean water and dry it before applying the skin antiseptic.
Note: PVI releases free x If using povidone-iodine (PVI) as the antiseptic agent, allow it to dry
iodine (the active antiseptic after applying or wait at least 2 minutes before insertion.
agent) slowly.
x Applying antimicrobial ointment around the insertion site does not
reduce the risk of infection (APIC 2002).
x Transparent, adherent dressings allow inspection of the site, act as tape
to hold the catheter or needle, and may be more comfortable, but they
are expensive and there is no evidence, based on randomized
controlled trials, that they reduce the risk of infection compared to
sterile or clean gauze and surgical tape.
x Dressings can be left in place for up to 72 hours if they are kept dry.
(They should be changed immediately if they get wet, soiled or loose.)

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x Gauze and tape dressings need to be changed if an inspection of the

site is necessary.
x The catheter or needle site should be gently palpated daily for
tenderness.
x The insertion site should be inspected if the patient develops
tenderness or fever without an obvious cause (CDC and HICPAC
1996).

Peripheral Catheters Site Selection and Rotation

(Venous and Arterial)
x For adults, hand veins are preferred over arm veins, and arm veins
over leg and foot veins. (Needles and catheters inserted in leg and foot
veins are more likely to cause inflammation at the insertion site or
phlebitis.)
x Rotating sites at 72–96 hours will reduce phlebitis and local infection.
(Teflon or polyurethane catheters are preferred over steel needles
because they are less apt to perforate the vein with movement.)
x If only short-term (less than 48 hours) IV infusion is planned, straight
or butterfly needles are less irritating than plastic catheters and have
lower rates of infection.
x Because straight and butterfly needles frequently infiltrate, they should
not be used with solutions that could cause tissue necrosis.
x Inline filters, except for administering blood or blood products, are not
recommended; they are more expensive, less effective and more prone
to cause infusion problems than if the solutions are filtered in the
pharmacy after preparation (CDC and HICPAC 1996).

Central Venous Site Care and Dressings

Catheters

Note: In 1994, Raad et al

x If the site for inserting the catheter is visibly dirty, wash it with soap
reported lower rates of and clean water and dry it before applying the skin antiseptic.
blood stream infections x Use 2% chlorhexidine gluconate, 10% PVI or 60–90% alcohol for skin
when full barrier prep. (In 1991 Maki, Ringer and Alvarado reported that the infection
precautions were used
compared to insertions by rate with chlorhexidine was 84% lower than with PVI or alcohol.)
staff using only sterile x Insertion should be done using full barrier precautions (sterile or high-
gloves and a small drape
level disinfected gloves, gown, mask and site drape) in a procedure
with a hole in the center.
area, not at the bedside.

Changing Fluids x Change infusion bottles or plastic bags with parenteral solutions every
and Infusion 24 hours.
(Administration) Sets x Change infusion bottles or plastic bags with lipid emulsion given alone
within 12 hours (CDC and HICPAC 1996).

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x Infusion (administration) sets (including piggybacks) should be

changed whenever they are damaged and at 72 hours routinely. (If the
tubing becomes disconnected, wipe the hub of the needle or plastic
catheter with 60–90% alcohol and connect it to a new infusion set.)
x Tubing used to administer blood, blood products or lipid emulsions
should be replaced within 24 hours (CDC and HICPAC 1996).

INSERTION, MAINTENANCE AND REMOVAL OF PERIPHERAL VENOUS LINES

Insertion Procedure STEP 1: Make sure all items are available:

for Establishing an
Intravenous (IV) Line x IV solution bag or bottle
x Straight or butterfly needle or plastic catheter (steel needle inserter
covered with soft plastic tubing that is left in place after the needle is
withdrawn)
x Infusion (administration) set—infants and children require drip rate
(drips per mL) and volume control devices
x Antiseptic solution (e.g., 2% chlorhexidine, 60–90% alcohol or 10%
povidone-iodine) and sterile or clean gauze squares (2 x 2 or cotton
swabs)
x Surgical tape or transparent dressing
x Clean tourniquet
x Clean or new arm board
x Towel to place under patient’s hand or forearm
x IV pole
x Clean pair of examination gloves (If examination gloves are not
available, reprocessed high-level disinfected surgical gloves can be
used.)
x Basin of clean warm water, soap, face cloth and clean dry towel
x Plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container for disposal of
Note: Use distal veins contaminated items
(farthest from the wrist or
elbow) first and avoid
placing the IV line over the
STEP 2: Explain the procedure to the patient.
wrist or in the patient’s STEP 3: Prior to starting the procedure, identify the best vein(s) for
dominant hand (the one
inserting IV needle or plastic catheter.
s/he writes with).
STEP 4: If the venipuncture site is visibly soiled, first wash it with soap
and clean water and dry with a clean cloth.1

1
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to remove particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with a dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).

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STEP 5: Wash hands with soap and clean water and dry with a clean, dry
towel or air dry. (Alternatively, if hands are not visibly soiled, apply 5 mL,
about 1 teaspoonful, of an antiseptic handrub to both hands and vigorously
rub hands and between fingers until dry.)
STEP 6: Check the IV solution (bottle or plastic bag) to be sure it is
correct and the right additives, such as potassium, have been added.
STEP 7: Open the infusion set and assemble parts, if necessary using
aseptic technique (e.g., don’t touch ends of tubing).
STEP 8: Insert infusion set into solution bottle or bag:

x Remove protective cover from solution bottle or bag without touching

the opening.
x Remove protective cap covering insertion spike without touching the
spike and insert spike into stopper of IV bottle or opening of IV bag.

STEP 9: Fill infusion tubing:

x Compress drip chamber and release.

x Remove protective cover of IV tubing and release roller clamp to
allow fluid to fill the tubing, close the roller clamp and replace the
protective cover. (Check to be sure tubing is clear of air bubbles.)

STEP 10: With forearm and hand hanging down, place tourniquet 10–12
cm (5–6 inches) above the insertion site. (Ask patient to open and close
fist and/or tap lightly over the vein to make it easier to see or feel.)
STEP 11: With tourniquet in place and vein filled, place hand and arm on
the clean towel on bed or on arm board.
STEP 12: Put clean examination gloves on both hands.
STEP 13: Cleanse insertion site with antiseptic solution using a circular
motion outward from the insertion site. (If using povidone-iodine, allow it
to dry, about 2 minutes, because it only releases free iodine, the active
antiseptic agent, slowly).
STEP 14: Attach straight or butterfly needle or plastic catheter to a
syringe if blood is to be taken for testing. If not, the needle or butterfly
should be attached to sterile end of the IV tubing.
Note: Do not insert
unattached needle or STEP 15: Fix the vein by placing the thumb over the vein and gently
catheter into a vein and pulling against the direction of insertion.
allow blood to drip out on
the patient’s hand, forearm, STEP 16: Insert needle or catheter with the bevel up using the dominant
the bed or floor! hand. Look for blood return in the tubing and carefully advance the needle
or butterfly until the hub rests at the venipuncture site. (With catheters,
after getting blood return, advance the needle about 1 cm (½ inch),
withdraw the inner insertion needle and then advance the plastic catheter
to the hub.)

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STEP 17: While stabilizing the needle or catheter, release the tourniquet
and roller clamp to permit a rate of flow sufficient to keep the IV line
open.
Note: The tourniquet STEP 18: Secure the needle or catheter by placing a narrow piece of tape
should be washed with (1 cm or ½ inch) under the hub with the adhesive side up and cross tape it
soap and water, rinsed and over the hub. Then place a second piece of narrow tape directly across the
dried whenever visibly
soiled and wiped with
hub of the needle or catheter.
0.5% chlorine solution or STEP 19: Place a sterile gauze square (2 x 2) over the venipuncture site
60–90% alcohol between and secure with two pieces of tape. (Alternatively, place a transparent
patients.
dressing over the venipuncture site.)
STEP 20: Prior to removing gloves, place any blood-contaminated waste
items (cotton or gauze squares) in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered
waste container.
STEP 21: Remove gloves by inverting and place them either in a plastic
bag or waste container.
STEP 22: Wash hands or use antiseptic handrub as above.

Note: Carefully write the STEP 23: Secure the wrist or forearm to the arm board by applying two
date and time of placement strips of tape directly across wrist or forearm. (To minimize discomfort
of the IV line and needle when removing the arm board, attach a shorter piece of tape to the longer
size on the dressing. piece—adhesive side to adhesive side—that will cover the wrist or arm.)
STEP 24: Adjust the flow rate to the correct number of drips per minute.

Maintenance of STEP 1: Observe patient hourly to determine her/his response to the fluid
IV Line therapy and check that:

x IV line is open and running (if a straight or butterfly needle is being

used, check for infiltration);
x correct amount of fluid is being infused; and
x proper flow rate (drops per minute) is maintained.

Note: If only short-term

STEP 2: Check every 8 hours for phlebitis or evidence of infection.
(less than 48 hours) IV STEP 3: Rotate the infusion site at 72–96 hours, when practical, to reduce
infusion is planned, the risk of phlebitis and local infection.
straight or butterfly needles
are less irritating than STEP 4: The infusion (administration) sets (including the piggybacks)
plastic catheters and have should be changed whenever they are damaged and at 72 hours routinely.
lower rates of infection.
STEP 5: If the tubing becomes disconnected, wipe the hub of the needle
or the plastic catheter with 60–90% alcohol and connect to a new infusion
set.

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Changing IV Solutions STEP 1: Prepare to change the solution when about 50 mL remains in the
bottle or bag.
STEP 2: Check to be sure the drip chamber is half full.
STEP 3: Wash hands or use antiseptic handrub as above.
STEP 4: Prepare the new solution. If using a plastic bag, remove the
protective cover from the entry site. If using a glass bottle, remove the
metal cap, metal disk and rubber disk. Do not touch the entry site on the
bag or bottle.
STEP 5: Move the roller clamp to stop the flow.
STEP 6: Remove the old solution from the IV pole.
STEP 7: Remove the spike from the old IV solution bag or bottle, and
without touching the tip, insert the spike into the new IV solution bag or
bottle.
STEP 8: Hang the new bag or bottle and discard the empty bag or bottle
according to hospital policy.
STEP 9: Check for air in the tubing.
STEP 10: Make sure the drip chamber is half full.
STEP 11: Regulate the flow to the prescribed rate.
STEP 12: Observe the patient hourly to determine her/his response to the
fluid therapy and check that:

x the IV line is open and running (if a straight or butterfly needle is used,
check for infiltration);
x the correct amount of fluid is being infused; and
x the proper flow rate (drops per minute) is maintained.

STEP 13: Check every 8 hours for phlebitis or evidence of infection.

Changing IV Tubing STEP 1: Determine that a new infusion set is needed if:

x there is a puncture of the infusion tubing;

x the tubing becomes contaminated;
x the tubing becomes blocked (e.g., after an infusion of packed red blood
cells, whole blood or albumin); or
x the date on the dressing indicates the tubing has been in place 24 hours
if used to administer blood, blood products or lipid emulsions, or 96
hours for other fluids.

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STEP 2: Make sure the following items are available:

x Plastic bag or a leakproof, covered waste container for disposing of

contaminated items
x Infusion tubing

STEP 3: If a new IV dressing must be applied, additional items are:

x Sterile or clean gauze squares (2 x 2) and surgical tape or sterile, wide

(1 inch) bandaid
x Antiseptic solution (2% chlorhexidene gluconate, 60–90% alcohol or
10% povidone-iodine)
x Alcohol swabs
x Clean pair of examination gloves (If examination gloves are not
available, reprocessed high-level disinfected surgical gloves can be
used.)

STEP 4: Wash hands or use antiseptic handrub as above.

STEP 5: Open a new infusion set and assemble it if necessary.
STEP 6: Partially open a sterile gauze square package and place it on the
bed near the IV puncture site.
STEP 7: Move the roller clamp to the “off” position on the old infusion
tubing, remove the insertion spike from the IV fluid bag or bottle and hang
the end of the old IV tubing over the IV pole.
STEP 8: Quickly remove the protective cap on the insertion spike of the
new infusion tubing and insert it into the entry site of the IV infusion
bottle or bag.
STEP 9: Compress and release the drip chamber to fill half full.
STEP 10: Open the roller clamp, remove the protective cap from the
needle adapter, allow the tubing to completely fill, move the roller clamp
to the “off” position and replace the protective cap without touching the
tip.
STEP 11: Put clean examination gloves on both hands.
STEP 12: If the needle or catheter hub is not visible, carefully remove the
IV dressing and place it in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste
container.
STEP 13: Stabilize the hub of the IV needle or plastic catheter, gently
twist and pull out the old tubing, quickly remove the protective cap from
the needle adapter of the new tubing, and insert the tubing into the hub of
the needle or plastic catheter.
STEP 14: Open the roller clamp on the new tubing and adjust the rate of
flow as ordered.

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STEP 15: Discard the old tubing in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered
waste container.
STEP 16: If necessary, apply a new dressing by placing a gauze square (2
x 2) over the venipuncture site and secure it with two pieces of tape.
(Alternatively, place a transparent dressing over the venipuncture site.)
STEP 17: Remove gloves by inverting and place them either in a plastic
bag or waste container.
STEP 18: Wash hands or use antiseptic handrub as above.

IV Removal Procedure STEP 1: Make sure all items are available:

x Clean pair of examination gloves (If examination gloves are not

available, reprocessed high-level disinfected surgical gloves can be
used.)
x Antiseptic solution (2% chlorhexidene gluconate, 60–90% alcohol or
10% povidone-iodine)
x Gauze squares (2 x 2) and surgical tape or a sterile, wide (1 inch)
bandaid
x Puncture-resistant sharps container within arm’s reach if a straight or
butterfly needle was used
x Plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container for disposing of the
contaminated items

STEP 2: Wash hands or use antiseptic handrub as above.

STEP 3: Stop the infusion by closing the roller clamp.
STEP 4: Put clean examination gloves on both hands.
STEP 5: Remove the arm board and dressing and discard it in a plastic
bag or leakproof, covered waste container.
STEP 6: Check the patient’s hand or wrist for phlebitis or evidence of an
infection.
STEP 7: Carefully remove the needle or the plastic catheter with one hand
and with the other hand cover the insertion site with a sterile gauze square
(2 x 2).
STEP 8: Press firmly for about a minute, or alternatively place two pieces
of narrow tape, about 1 cm or ½ inch wide, directly across the gauze
square.
STEP 9: Alternatively, after pressing on the gauze square, remove it and
cover the insertion site with a sterile bandaid.
STEP 10: Prior to removing gloves, discard the needle or plastic catheter
in a sharps container and place the IV tubing and any blood-contaminated
waste items (cotton or gauze squares) in a plastic bag or leakproof,
covered waste container.

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STEP 11: Remove gloves by inverting and place them either in a plastic
bag or a leakproof, covered waste container.
STEP 12: Wash hands or use antiseptic handrub as above.

ADMINISTERING BLOOD OR BLOOD PRODUCTS

Transfusion Procedure STEP 1: Make sure all items for starting an IV (Step 1 above), are
available.
STEP 2: Additional items needed include:

x A #18 or #19 straight or butterfly needle or a plastic catheter

Note: Sterile saline
solution prevents red blood x An infusion (administration) set that has an inline filter, and the tubing
cells from breaking also should be Y-type
(hemolysis) and is used to
keep the IV line open
x A 250 or 500 mL sterile, isotonic (0.9%) saline solution bottle or bag
before starting blood or
blood products, between STEP 3: Explain the procedure to the patient; determine if s/he has ever
units of blood or blood had a transfusion and note reactions, if any.
products, and after
completing the transfusion STEP 4: Ask the patient to report chills, headaches, itching or rash
to flush the inline filter and immediately.
infusion tubing.
STEP 5: Establish an IV line with a large-gauge (#18 or #19 straight or
butterfly needle or plastic catheter) as detailed in Insertion Procedure for
Establishing an IV line (Steps 3 through 21 above).
Note: Patients who have
had blood transfusion STEP 6: Keep the IV line open with a sterile 0.9% (isotonic) saline
reactions may have greater solution.
fear of transfusion, and
may be at increased risk of STEP 7: With another health worker, correctly identify the blood product
recurrence. and make sure you have the correct patient:

x Confirm the patient’s name and check her/his armband if available.

x Check the compatibility tag attached to the blood bag, including the
expiration date of the blood (after which it should not be used).
x For whole blood, check the ABO group and Rh type, which should be
on the patient’s chart.
x Double-check the blood or type of blood product with the physician’s
order.
x Check the blood for clots.
x Record the baseline pulse and blood pressure.

STEP 8: Remove the protective cover from the blood or blood products
bag or the bottle without touching the opening.

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STEP 9: If using a Y-type infusion set, remove the protective cap

covering the second insertion spike without touching the spike and insert it
into the blood bag or bottle. (If using a single tubing infusion set, carefully
remove the insertion spike from the saline bag or bottle, and without
touching the spike, insert it into the blood bag or bottle.)
STEP 10: Begin the transfusion:
Note: If a reaction is
suspected, stop the x Fill the inline filter.
transfusion, flush the line
with isotonic saline and
x Adjust the rate to 2 mL per minute.
infuse slowly to keep the
IV line open and notify the STEP 11: Immerse both gloved hands in a 0.5% chlorine solution, remove
blood bank or transfusion
service and physician. gloves by inverting and place them in the plastic bag or a leakproof,
covered waste container.
STEP 12: Wash hands or use antiseptic handrub as above.
STEP 13: Monitor the patient’s vital signs:

x Take the pulse and blood pressure every 5 minutes for the first 15
minutes of the transfusion and hourly thereafter.
x Observe the patient for flushing (red face or cheeks), itching, difficulty
breathing, hives (clear fluid-filled lesions on the skin) or any other rash
when checking the vital signs.

STEP 14: Record the administration of the blood or blood product in the
patient’s chart.
STEP 15: When the transfusion is completed, exchange a new IV
solution bottle or bag for the empty blood bag or bottle and return it to the
blood bank.
STEP 16: If no further infusions are ordered:

x Remove the needle or plastic catheter and infusion set as detailed in IV

Removal Procedure (Steps 1 through 9 above).
x Return the blood bag or bottle and tubing to the blood bank.

STEP 17: Prior to removing gloves, discard the needle or plastic catheter
in a sharps container and place the blood administration kit, IV tubing and
any blood-contaminated waste items (cotton or gauze squares) in a plastic
bag or leakproof, covered waste container.
STEP 18: Remove gloves by inverting and place them either in a plastic
bag or waste container.
STEP 19: Wash hands or use antiseptic handrub as above.

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REFERENCES

Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology

(APIC). 2002. Intravascular device infections, in APIC Text of Infection
Control and Epidemiology, revised ed. APIC: Washington, DC, pp 30-1–30-8.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Hospital Infection
Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). 1996. Guidelines for
prevention of intravascular device-related infections. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 17(7): 438–473. (Authors: Pearson ML and HICPAC).

Garner JS and The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory

Committee (HICPAC). 1996. Guideline for isolation precautions in
hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17(1): 53–80 and Am J Infect
Control 24(1): 24–52.
Jarvis WR and JM Hughes. 1993. Nosocomial gastrointestinal infections,
in Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections, 2nd ed. Williams &
Wilkins: Baltimore, MD, pp 708–745.
Jarvis WR et al. 1991. Nosocomial infection rates in adult and pediatric
intensive care units in the United States. Am J Med 91(Suppl 3B): 185S–
191S.
Maki DG and LA Mermel. 1998. Infections due to infusion therapy, in
Hospital Infections. JV Bennett and PS Brachman (eds.). Lippincott-
Raven: Philadelphia, pp 698–724.
Maki DG. 1992. Infections due to infusion therapy, in Hospital Infections,
3rd ed. JV Bennett and PS Brachman (eds). Little, Brown and Company:
Boston, pp 849–898.
Maki DG, M Ringer and CJ Alvarado. 1991. Prospective, randomized trial
of povidone-iodine, alcohol and chlorhexidine for prevention of infection
associated with central venous and arterial catheters. Lancet 338(8763):
339–343.
Mayhall CG. 1992. Diagnosis and management of infections of
implantable devices used for prolonged venous access. Curr Clin Top
Infect Dis 12: 83–110.
Mermel LA et al. 2001. Guidelines for the management of intravascular
catheter-related infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22(4): 222–242.
Raad I et al. 1994. Prevention of central venous catheter-related infections
by using maximal sterile barrier precautions during insertion. Infect Control
Hosp Epidemiol 15(4 pt 1): 231–238.
Raad I et al. 1993. Ultrastructural analysis of indwelling vascular
catheters: A quantitative relationship between luminal colonization and
duration of placement. J Infect Dis 168(2): 400–407.
Schaberg DR, DH Culver and RP Gaynes. 1991. Major trends in the microbial
etiology of nosocomial infection. Am J Med 91(Suppl 3B): 72s–75s.

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24 - 16 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWENTY-FIVE

PREVENTING MATERNAL AND NEWBORN INFECTIONS

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the special features of maternal and newborn infections are

x Why maternal and newborn infections are more common in
developing countries
x How prevention can decrease the risk of many fetal and newborn
infectious diseases
x How to decrease the risk of maternal and newborn infections following
labor and delivery

BACKGROUND

In no other area of primary healthcare is the disparity

between developed and developing country morbidity and
mortality greater than for pregnant women and their
newborns. For example, in some of the poorest countries,
maternal mortality rates are a hundred times higher than
those in Western Europe and the United States.

In developed countries, most pregnant women are healthy and well

nourished. They deliver their babies in a hospital or birthing center, and
only a few are subjected to the wide variety of invasive and diagnostic
procedures experienced by most other hospitalized patients. Even for those
having cesarean sections, the surgery is short (i.e., usually less than an
hour) and usually uncomplicated. Urinary catheterization, if required, is
brief (1–2 days) and rarely is assisted ventilation required postoperatively.
Thus, the risk of nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infection, or infection
with a multidrug-resistant organism following delivery, even after
cesarean section, is low compared with other types of hospitalized
patients. In fact, were it not for the nearly five-fold increase in cesarean
section rates from 5.5% in 1978 to 30% during the early 1990s, maternal
morbidity and mortality would be even lower.1 Finally, because most
women in developed countries start attending prenatal clinics early (i.e.,
first trimester) and are fully immunized, the risk of serious infection to the
fetus and newborn is low as well.

The situation in countries with limited resources, however, is radically

different in nearly every aspect. In these countries, anywhere from 50–80%

1
Mortality from cesarean section still remains at least two to four times higher than that following vaginal delivery (Petitti et
al 1982).

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Preventing Maternal and Newborn Infections

of pregnant women give birth at home—usually alone or with a family

member—and most have received only limited antenatal care. They are
poorly nourished and anemic. If a complication occurs in labor requiring
cesarean section, they usually arrive at the hospital too late, when they are
near death. Moreover, even if they survive the surgery the rate of
postoperative infection is high (15–60%), and wound infections, the most
serious complication, are very common. Added to this in recent years is
the fact that in some countries up to 30% of pregnant women are
seropositive for HIV. This, coupled with the resurgence of tuberculosis,
especially drug-resistant strains, further complicates the situation. As a
consequence, pregnant women in developing countries are at much higher
risk for acquiring a nosocomial infection following delivery than their
counterparts in developed countries.

Newborns do not fare well either! Other than maternal tetanus toxoid
immunization during pregnancy, and treatment to prevent congenital
syphilis, few other preventive measures to protect the fetus and newborn
are routinely available. For example, with the exception of prenatal HIV
testing and antiretroviral treatment in a few countries, screening and
treatment for other infectious diseases (e.g., gonorrhea and chlamydia) are
not available because of the cost and lack of laboratory capability.
Moreover, in Africa and parts of Asia, malaria is a major problem that can
adversely affect pregnancy outcome. Thus, in countries where healthcare
resources are limited, little progress has been made over the past decade in
preventing fetal and newborn diseases, and improving the quality and
availability of newborn services in hospitals has been slow as well.

DEFINITIONS
x Endometritis. Acute postpartum infection of the lining (endometrium)
of the uterus with extension into the smooth muscle wall
(myometrium). Clinical features include fever, usually developing on
the first or second postpartum day, uterine tenderness, lower
abdominal pain, foul-smelling vaginal discharge (lochia) and signs of
peritonitis in women who have had a cesarean section.
x Episiotomy. Surgical cut made in the perineum (usually at the 6
o’clock position) just prior to delivery. The purpose is to facilitate
delivery of the presenting part and minimize the risk of injury to the
perineal area. Episiotomies, however, are associated with increased
bleeding, may lead to increased tearing (3rd or 4th degree perineal
laceration), can become infected and, most importantly, usually are not
necessary.
x Intra-amniotic infection syndrome (IAIS), also referred to as
amnionitis or chorioamnionitis. Acute detectable infection in the
uterus and its contents (fetus, placenta and amniotic fluid) during
pregnancy. It occurs in a small percentage (<5%) of term pregnancies,
but in up to 25% of women with preterm labor (before 37 weeks
gestation). It is usually related to colonization of the uterine cavity

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with organisms present in the cervix and vagina after prolonged

ruptured membranes and labor. In cases of IAIS associated with
serious, and often fatal, newborn infection and postpartum
endometritis, the most common organisms isolated from amniotic fluid
are group B streptococci and E. coli.
x Invasive group B streptococcal sepsis. Newborn infection characterized
by bacteremia, pneumonia, meningitis and death in up to 25% of
infants with the infection. It occurs most commonly following IAIS.
Other sites of infection include newborn skin infections (cellulitis) and
infections in bones (osteomyelitis).
x Nosocomial infection in newborns. Infection occurring after birth but
excluding those infections known to have been transmitted across the
placenta such as congenital syphilis, cytomegalovirus, rubella,
varicella (chicken pox) and the protozoan parasite, Toxoplasmosis
gondii.

x Nosocomial infection in obstetrical patients. Infection that is neither

present nor incubating at the time the patient is admitted to the
hospital. Most urinary tract infections and endometritis are nosocomial
even though the causative organism may be endogenous (i.e., present
in the maternal lower genital tract prior to delivery).
x Septic pelvic thrombophlebitis. Thrombosis (blockage) of the deep
pelvic veins due to inflammation and blood clots. It is uncommon
(approximately 1 in 2000 deliveries). Predisposing factors include
cesarean section after long labor (>24 hours), premature rupture of
membranes, difficult delivery (forceps or vacuum extraction), anemia
and malnutrition.

EPIDEMIOLOGY

Maternal Infections In developing countries, postpartum infection remains second only to

postpartum hemorrhage as a cause of maternal deaths and is the leading
cause of serious maternal complications of childbirth. This is still the case
despite the fact that more than 150 years have elapsed since Semmelweis
and Holmes independently determined not only that childbed fever,
puerperal sepsis, was spread from woman to woman on the hands of
physicians, but also that outbreaks of this deadly disease could be
prevented by:

x rigorously enforcing handwashing with chlorinated lime before

delivery, and
x boiling all instruments and utensils after use when treating an infected
postpartum woman.

Employing these preventive efforts, Holmes reported a dramatic decrease

in maternal mortality from 16% to 1% (Holmes 1843).

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In many countries, acute endometritis (puerperal sepsis) is still the most

common postpartum infection. Rates of infection range from a low of 1–
3% following vaginal deliveries in hospitals with high quality services and
excellent infection prevention practices, to as high as 85% following high-
risk cesarean sections in poorly nourished, exhausted patients who have
their operation in large teaching hospitals that have limited healthcare
resources (Hemsell 1991).

Cesarean section is the most important factor contributing to both the

frequency and severity of postpartum endometritis (Gibbs 1980). For
example, patients who have cesarean sections are at least 10 times more
likely to become infected than patients who deliver vaginally (Minkoff
and Schwarz 1980). Moreover, patients undergoing their first (primary)
cesarean section are at an even greater risk for an infection or other
complications compared to patients having an elective, repeat section.

The distribution and type of nosocomial infections following cesarean

section in the US are shown in Table 25-1. While organ/space surgical
site infections such as endometritis account for over half, the most serious
and costly are wound infections (nearly 20%). For example, patients with
wound infections typically spend 7 days longer in the hospital than those
without infection and 4 days longer than patients with endometritis.
Wound infections are primarily the result of direct contamination of the
incisional area with organisms in the endometrial cavity at the time of
surgery. Predisposing factors for wound infection are women who:

x have bacterial vaginosis (Gardnerella vaginalis) isolated from the

endometrium,
x have a cesarean section during the second stage of labor, or
x had infection of the fetal membranes (chorioamnionitis) diagnosed
prior to delivery (Mead 1993).

Table 25-1. Distribution of Nosocomial Infections in Cesarean Section

Incisional Organ/Space Urinary Primary
Surgical Site Surgical Site Tract Pneumonia Bloodstream Other
Infection Infection1 Infection Infection
19% 55% 12% 3% 2% 9%
1
Primarily endometritis; may also include infections such as intra-abdominal abscess.

Adapted from: Horan et al 1993.

Other obstetrical infections are less frequent, ranging from less than 1% to
15%. In decreasing order of frequency these include:

x Nosocomial urinary tract infections (about 12% and largely in women

who had a cesarean section)

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 Preventing Maternal and Newborn Infections

x Episiotomy infections (<5%, usually simple and uncomplicated)

x Nosocomial pneumonia (3% and almost always in post cesarean
section patients)
x Septicemia (2% and largely in post cesarean section patients)
x Breast infection (mastitis) in postpartum nursing women (<3%)

Maternal nosocomial infection rates in most developing countries,

however, are considerably higher.

Fetal and Newborn Fetal and newborn infections are classified based on whether they were
Infections acquired in utero (transplacentally), during passage through the birth canal
(vertical transmission) or in the neonatal period (i.e., during the first 28
days following birth).

In utero infections include those caused by:

x viruses—cytomegalovirus, rubella, varicella (chicken pox/zoster), HIV

and parovirus;
x protozoa—toxoplasmosis gondii; and
x bacteria—congenital syphilis.

Intrapartum (mother to newborn) and immediate postpartum newborn

infections include those caused by:

x viruses—hepatitis B, hepatitis C, HIV, herpes simplex virus (HSV),

human papillomavirus (HPV) and parovirus; and
x bacteria—E. coli, group B streptococci, yeast (candida species);
conjunctivitis due to chlamydia, gonorrhea or Listeria monocytogenes,
and a number of infections due to gram-negative anaerobic bacilli.

In addition, a number of other organisms that can colonize and sometimes

infect newborns during the first month of life include:

x viruses—cytomegalovirus, enterovirus, respiratory syncytial virus and

rhinovirus;
x protozoa—malaria in many tropical countries; and
x bacteria—tuberculosis and tetanus.

Strictly speaking, only newborn infections acquired during passage

through the birth canal or in the neonatal period are considered
nosocomial. Determining whether an infection is nosocomial or was
present or incubating prior to admission to the hospital is extremely
difficult—and often not useful. For example, a common definition of
nosocomial intra-amniotic infection syndrome (IAIS) is one that occurs

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following either an invasive action (e.g., vaginal examination or

intrauterine fetal monitoring) or an attempt to induce labor more than 24
hours previously. Using this definition, less than 1% of IAISs would be
considered nosocomial in most hospitals (Mead 1993)!

MICROBIOLOGY

Causes of Maternal Most postpartum infections are caused by endogenous flora—

Infections microorganisms that are normally present in the genital tract but usually
cause no disease until labor, delivery or postpartum. Nearly 30 bacteria
have been identified as being present in the lower genital tract (vulva,
vagina and cervix) at any time (Faro 1990). While some of these, including
several fungi, are considered nonpathogenic under most circumstances at
least 20, including E. coli, S. aureus, Proteus mirabilis and Klebsiella
pneumoniae, are pathogenic.

The organisms most commonly isolated from women with endometritis

are listed in Table 25-2. Because endometrial and urine cultures may be
misleading due to the contaminating vaginal and cervical flora, not
surprisingly postpartum women with clinical evidence of endometritis or
urinary tract infections are cultured less frequently than patients with other
types of infections (Mead 1993).

Table 25-2. Commonly Isolated Organisms in Women with Endometritis

AEROBES
Gram-positive cocci
Group B streptococcus
Group A streptococcus
Enterococcus
Streptococcus sp. (other)
Staphylococcus sp.
Gram-negative
Escherichia coli
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Proteus mirabilis
ANAEROBES
Gram-positive cocci
Peptococcus sp.
Peptostreptococcus sp.
Gram-positive bacilli
Clostridium sp.
Gram-negative bacilli
Prevotella bivia
Bacteroides fragilis
Bacteroides sp. (other)

Adapted from: Cox and Gilstrap 1989.

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Colonization and Most infants are delivered from a sterile environment inside the uterus. During
Infection in Newborns and after birth, however, they are rapidly exposed to numerous
microorganisms that colonize their skin, nasopharynx and gastrointestinal
tract. Sick newborns, subjected to multiple invasive procedures (e.g.,
endotracheal tubes or umbilical artery catheters), may be colonized at multiple
sites with numerous other organisms, particularly gram-negative bacteria.

The skin of the newborn is a major initial site of bacterial colonization,

particularly for Staphylococcus aureus, which is most often acquired from
within the nursery rather than from the mother. Any break or cut in the
skin provides an opportunity for infection to develop with this pathogenic
organism. In addition, at birth the newborn has at least one open surgical
wound (the umbilicus) that is highly susceptible to infection. A
circumcision, if performed, is another, and if a fetal scalp electrode was
used during labor, then the newborn has a third site as well. Therefore, to
minimize the risk of infection in the newborn period, all sites must be
cared for using aseptic technique.

Although severe infection in a full term infant is uncommon, when it

occurs it often is secondary to group B streptococci, E. coli, L.
monocytogenes, Citrobacter diversus, salmonella, chlamydia, herpes
simplex virus (HSV) or enteroviruses. All of these organisms can be
transmitted to other infants in the nursery on the hands of hospital staff
unless Standard Precautions are strictly followed, especially those for
handwashing (or use of antiseptic handrub) and gloves.

PREVENTING FETAL AND NEWBORN INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Prevention has long been the only viable alternative in the fight against
most of the devastating fetal and newborn infectious diseases such as
congenital rubella, cytomegalovirus, varicella (chicken pox), syphilis,
toxoplasmosis and tetanus. And, over the past 50 years, preventive efforts
have successfully reduced the risk of serious fetal and newborn infections
in developed countries. This success has been accomplished through:

x maternal immunization (tetanus, rubella, varicella and hepatitis B);

x antenatal treatment of maternal syphilis, gonorrhea and chlamydia;
x prophylactic use of postnatal eye drops to prevent chlamydial,
gonorrheal and yeast (candida) eye infections (conjunctivitis);
x prophylactic treatment of pregnant women at risk of group B
streptococcal disease; and most recently
x maternal (antenatal and intrapartum) and newborn (postnatal)
treatment with antiretroviral (ARV) drugs to prevent HIV.

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In countries with limited healthcare resources, however, little progress has

been made in preventing these fetal and newborn infectious diseases with
the exception of neonatal tetanus and syphilis.

In Appendix K, specific information regarding prevention of the most

important fetal and newborn infectious diseases is presented. In addition,
infection prevention guidelines are provided that are designed to minimize
the risk of transmission to other newborns, postpartum mothers and
susceptible health workers and other staff.

REDUCING THE RISK OF MATERNAL AND NEWBORN INFECTIONS

In this section, guidelines are provided for reducing the risk of maternal
and newborn infections during and following either vaginal or cesarean
delivery. Basic information also is included on managing outbreaks in
newborn nurseries and neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Simple,
preventive practices that can be used in all settings and by all healthcare
workers are described.

Because of the increasing risk of exposure to HIV and other bloodborne

viruses during labor, delivery and resuscitation of the baby, if required, health
workers also should be protected. The conscientious use of Standard
Precautions, especially handwashing and use of gloves, face shields and
plastic or rubber aprons, can minimize these risks; therefore, the appropriate
use of personal protective equipment is emphasized throughout this chapter.

Minimizing the Risk of Babies are born in a variety of settings around the world, especially when
Infection during Labor the birth is a normal delivery. Although vaginal delivery does not require
and Vaginal Delivery the aseptic conditions of an operating room, a few simple practices can
make the procedure safer for the mother, the infant and the healthcare
provider. For example, using the Athree cleans@ approach—keeping the
hands, perineal area and umbilical area clean during and following
childbirth—and having clean delivery kits help improve the safety of home
births for both mother and newborn.

Vaginal deliveries are associated with a number of factors that increase a

woman’s risk of endometritis or urinary tract infection. These include:

x prolonged ruptured membranes (>24 hours),

x trauma to the birth canal (vaginal or perineal lacerations and urethral
tears),
x manual removal of the placenta due to retained placenta or placental
fragments,
x episiotomy, and
x midforceps delivery (Hemsell 1991; Newton, Prihoda and Gibbs 1990).

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Each of these provides a means for microorganisms to enter, or to be placed

inside, the uterus (uterine cavity). While the first three factors can happen
regardless of where the birth occurs (at home or in the hospital), the last two
are related solely to deliveries occurring in hospital maternity units.
Moreover, when babies are born in a hospital or healthcare facility, another
factor that increases the risk of maternal infection is vaginal examinations,
especially those performed by medical and midwifery students. For
example, in one study it was found that the risk of endometritis was 27% if
seven or fewer vaginal examinations were performed but rose to 71% when
more than seven were performed (Iffy et al 1984).

To minimize this risk:

x Use a clean pair of examination gloves, or high-level disinfected

surgical gloves that have been reprocessed, for each examination.
(Sterile gloves are not necessary for vaginal examinations.)
x Avoid pushing the tip of the examining finger up against the opening
to the cervix (cervical os) until active labor occurs or until the decision
has been made to induce labor.
x Carefully limit cases for student training to those patients in active and
progressive labor.

Vaginal Delivery Steps that can be taken to decrease the risk of maternal infection before
(Maternity Unit of and during delivery include:
Birthing Center)
STEP 1: Make sure the following items are available:

x Two pairs of high-level disinfected or sterile surgical gloves

x Pair of high-level disinfected or sterile “fingerless” surgical gloves
(Chapter 7)
x Pair of clean examination gloves for washing the perineum
x Basin of clean warm water, soap, a face cloth and clean dry towel2
x Plastic or rubber apron and face shield (or a mask and goggles)
x Waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub or antiseptic solution
(e.g., 2% chlorhexidine gluconate or 10% povidone-iodine)
x High-level disinfected or sterile blunt scissors (Mayo)
x High-level disinfected or sterile cord clamp or cloth to tie off the cord
x Injectable oxytocin (with or without methergine) or oral misoprostol

2
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to removes particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).

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Preventing Maternal and Newborn Infections

x High-level disinfected or sterile urinary catheter (straight, rubber or

metal) and clean basin to collect urine (optional)
x Package of gauze squares
x Clean basin for the placenta
x Clean drape or cloth for wrapping the baby
x Clean perineal pads
x Light source (a flashlight or lamp) if needed
x Puncture-resistant sharps container (within arm’s reach if possible)
x Plastic bucket with a tight fitting lid, filled with 0.5% chlorine solution
for decontamination
x Plastic bag or a leakproof, covered waste container for disposal of
contaminated waste items

If episiotomy is required, the following will be needed as well:

x High-level disinfected or sterile needle holder

x High-level disinfected or sterile tissue forceps
x #O chromic suture on, or with, a curved, minimally blunt (preferred)
or cutting suture needle
x Local anesthetic (without epinephrine)

Prior to Delivery

STEP 2: Once the patient is positioned for delivery, put examination

gloves on both hands and wash the perineal area (vulva, perineum, and
anal region) with soap and clean water3:

x Use a downward and backward motion when washing the perineal area
so that fecal organisms will not be introduced into the vagina.
x Clean the anal area last and place the washcloth or towel in a plastic
container.

Shaving perineal (pubic) hair increases the risk of infection

associated with delivery (Landry and Kilpatrick 1997).

STEP 3: Immerse both gloved hands in a 0.5% chlorine solution, remove

gloves by inverting, and place them in the plastic bag or leakproof,
covered waste container.

3
Use of antiseptic solutions for cleaning the perineal area has not been shown to decrease postpartum infections in mother or
baby (AAP and ACOG 1997).

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STEP 4: Thoroughly wash hands, especially between the fingers, and

forearms up to the elbows with soap and clean water and dry with a clean,
dry towel or air dry.
STEP 5: Apply 5 mL (about 1 teaspoonful) of the antiseptic handrub to
Note: If reprocessed high- hand and forearms and rub until dry; repeat application and rubbing 2
level disinfected or sterile more times for a total of at least 2 minutes, using a total of about 15 mL (3
surgical gloves are used, teaspoonfuls) of the handrub. (If handrub is not available, apply an
double gloving is
recommended to reduce the antiseptic solution to hands and forearms, rinse with clean water and dry
risk of exposure to blood or hands.)
other body fluids.
STEP 6: Put high-level disinfected or sterile surgical gloves on both
hands.
STEP 7: Wear protective equipment including a plastic or rubber apron
Note: Shoe covers, unless and face shield (or a mask and goggles) because splashing of blood and
they are resistant to fluids, blood-tinged amniotic fluid can be expected.
are not helpful.
During Delivery

x If resuscitation of the infant is required, use mechanical suction if

available. (If mouth suction of the airway cannot be avoided, place a
trap in the line.)
x If manual removal of the placenta is required, fingerless surgical
gloves should be used to avoid contaminating the forearm with blood.
To use fingerless gloves:

x First, remove the surgical glove from one or both hands using the
technique described in Chapter 4.
x Next, put on a fingerless high-level disinfected or sterile surgical
glove(s) and pull up onto the forearm(s) using the technique
described in Chapter 7.
x Finally, put a new high-level disinfected or sterile surgical glove
on one or both hands.

After Delivery

STEP 8: Before removing gloves, put the placenta in the clean basin and
place all waste items (e.g., blood-stained gauze) in the plastic bag or
leakproof, covered waste container.
STEP 9: If an episiotomy was done or there were vaginal or perineal tears
requiring surgical repair:

x Place sharps (suture needles) in the puncture-resistant sharps

container.
x If disposing of hypodermic needle and syringe, hold the needle under
the surface of a 0.5% chlorine solution, fill the syringe and push out
(flush) three times; then put in a puncture-resistant sharps container.

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Alternatively, if reusing syringe (and needle), fill syringe with needle

attached with 0.5% chlorine solution and soak for 10 minutes for
decontamination.

STEP 10: Immerse both gloved hands in a 0.5% chlorine solution; remove
gloves by inverting, and place in the plastic bag or leakproof, covered
waste container if discarding them. If reusing them, place them in a 0.5 %
chlorine solution for 10 minutes for decontamination.
STEP 11: Wash hands or use an antiseptic handrub.

Minimizing the Risk Cesarean sections should be performed using the same standards as for any
of Infection During general surgical procedure as described in Chapter 7. Certain features that
Cesarean Section make this operation different are:

x The surgeon and assistant should wear a face shield (or mask and
goggles) and a plastic or rubber apron over their scrub suits because
splashing of blood and blood-tinged amniotic fluid can be expected.
x Double gloving is recommended, especially if reprocessed sterile or
high-level surgical gloves are used.
x A first or second-generation cephalosporin should be given
intravenously after the cord is clamped if the section is high risk (i.e.,
prolonged ruptured membranes or labor of any duration). (See Table
23-2 for details.)4
x The health worker receiving the infant should wash her/his hands and
put on clean examination gloves (or reprocessed high-level disinfected
surgical gloves) before handling the baby.
x The baby should be placed on a clean towel after being passed off to
the health worker caring for the infant.
x Change surgical gloves before manually removing the placenta. (If
available, use elbow-length surgical gloves or a combination of
fingerless gloves and a new pair of surgical gloves as described in
Chapter 7 and above.)
x With prolonged ruptured membranes or with documented intra-
amniotic infection syndrome (chorioamnionitis):

x Avoid spillage of amniotic fluid into the abdominal cavity.

x Place folded, moistened sterile laparotomy pads or towels on either
side of the uterus (paracolic gutters) to catch as much contaminated
amniotic fluid as possible.
x If large amounts of meconium or amniotic fluid spill into the
abdominal cavity, remove the laparotomy pads or towels in the

4
Several well-designed studies have demonstrated that intravenous (IV) antibiotic prophylaxis reduces the risk of endometritis by
about 50% after nonelective cesarean sections. (Cunningham et al 1983; Padilla, Spence and Beauchamp 1983). Antibiotic lavage
of the abdominal cavity, however, offers no advantage over IV administration, is time-consuming and has been shown in one
study to be less effective (Conover and Moore 1984).

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gutters and lavage the cavity with sterile isotonic (0.9%) saline
solution.
x Do not explore the peritoneal cavity unless absolutely necessary,
and then only after closure of the uterine incision and surgical
gloves have been changed.

x If the cervix is closed and membranes were not ruptured prior to the
cesarean section:

x Dilate the cervix from below (i.e., through the vagina) sufficiently
to permit the outflow of blood and fluid (lochia) after delivering
the baby and placenta.
x Insert the gloved finger into the cervix only once to dilate it.
x Do not go back and forth or remove the hand from the pelvis and
then put the finger back into the cervix.
x When dilation is completed, remove the gloves and put on a new
pair of sterile or high-level disinfected surgical gloves (Chapter 4).

x To minimize postoperative wound infections:

x Patients should not be shaved prior to surgery. (If it is necessary to

remove pubic or abdominal hair, clip the hair with scissors just
prior to surgery.)
x Make the skin incision with a scalpel rather than with
electrocautery.
x After the fascia is closed, irrigate the wound with sterile isotonic
(0.9%) saline and then blot it dry.
x Whenever possible, do not place drains in the subcutaneous layer.
x Close the skin edges using a subcuticular technique.
x Apply a sterile dressing and care for the wound as described in
Chapter 23.

Aseptic technique is broken whenever a nonsterile area is

touched, such as when the gloved hand reaches down into the
pelvis to extract the baby’s head or buttocks. Whenever a sterile
or high-level disinfected surgical glove (or gloves) becomes
contaminated, it should be changed as soon as possible (see
Chapter 4 for how to change gloves).

Postpartum Care Minimizing the risk of nosocomial infection in mothers during the
of the Mother postpartum period includes the following:

x Wear examination or utility gloves when handling perineal pads,

touching lochia (vaginal discharge) or touching the episiotomy.

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Preventing Maternal and Newborn Infections

x In the immediate postpartum period, check to be sure she is voiding

without difficulty.
x Teach her how to wash the perineal area with boiled water after
changing a pad or having a bowel movement (defecation).
x If the patient is breastfeeding, teach her how to care for her breasts and
nipples to avoid infection (mastitis).
x If delivery was by cesarean section, to avoid pulmonary problems
during the immediate postoperative period and for the next few days:

x use pain medication cautiously,

x encourage her to move about in bed and take deep breaths
frequently, and
x get her out of bed and walking within the first 12 hours (Chapter 27).

x If delivery was by cesarean section and an indwelling catheter was

inserted, to avoid urinary problems:

x check to be sure urine is flowing and the urine collection system is

intact,
x follow the “Tips for Preventing Infections” in Chapter 22, and
x remove the catheter as soon as possible (within 24–48 hours).

Postnatal Care of the Minimizing the risk of nosocomial infection in the newborn involves the
Newborn following:

x Wear gloves and plastic or rubber apron when handling the infant until
blood, meconium or amniotic fluid has been removed from the infant’s
skin.
x Careful removal of blood and other body fluids using a cotton cloth,
not gauze, soaked in warm water followed by drying the skin may
minimize the risk of infection.
x Wash hands before holding or caring for the infant. Alternatively, a
waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub can be used.
x Bathing or washing the newborn should be delayed until the baby’s
temperature has stabilized (usually about 6 hours). The buttocks and
perineal areas are the most important to keep clean. They should be
washed after each diaper change using a cotton cloth soaked in warm
soapy water, and then carefully dried.
x Cover gowns or masks are not required when handling infants.
x No single method of cord care has proved to be better in preventing
infection. General suggestions are:

x Wash hands, or use an antiseptic hand rub, before and after cord care.
x Keep the cord stump clean and dry.

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 Preventing Maternal and Newborn Infections

x Do not cover the cord stump with a dressing or bandage.

x Fold the diaper below the cord stump.
x If the cord stump gets soiled or dirty, gently wash it with boiled
soapy water, and rinse with boiled water and dry with a clean
cloth.
x Explain to the mother that if the cord stump becomes red or is
draining pus or blood she should bring the baby to a clinic or
hospital equipped to care for newborns as soon as possible.

Management of A presumptive epidemic in a nursery or neonatal intensive care unit

Outbreaks in the (NICU) is defined as finding two or more newborns with the same
Nursery or NICU condition (e.g., skin infection or infectious diarrhea) at the same time. If an
epidemic or outbreak of a particular disease such as diarrhea is suspected,
the first step is to assess it promptly and carefully to:

x determine the need for laboratory or epidemiologic studies (if

available);
x identify the source of the diarrhea (e.g., patients, staff or visitors) and
the means of transmission (e.g., contamination via hands of staff,
parents or visitors); and
x decide on the type of control measures required to prevent the spread
of the infection. (See Chapter 28 for details of how to conduct an
outbreak investigation.)

Even if an intensive investigation is not required, the control measures

(e.g., strict isolation or placing all infected newborns in a common area)
should be monitored to be sure that they have been effective and the
problem is resolving.

For additional information on management of outbreaks due to:

x infectious diarrhea and foodborne infections, see Chapter 26; and

x specific airborne, droplet or contact diseases, see Chapter 21 and
Appendix I.

In addition, management of infected newborns, based on their presumptive

diagnosis (clinical findings), is described in Appendix K.

REFERENCES

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and American Academy of

Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 1997. Guidelines for Perinatal
Care, 4th ed, revised. AAP: Elk Grove, IL.

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Preventing Maternal and Newborn Infections

Conover W and TR Moore. 1984. Comparison of irrigation and

intravenous antibiotic prophylaxis at cesarean section. Obstet Gynecol
63(6): 787–791.
Cox S and L Gilstrap. 1989. Postpartum endometritis. Obstet Gynecol Clin
North Am 16(2): 363–371.
Cunningham FG et al. 1983. Perioperative antimicrobials for cesarean
delivery: Before or after cord clamping? Obstet Gynecol 62(2): 151–154.
Faro S. 1990. Infections in Pregnancy. Gilstrap L and S Faro (eds). John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New York.
Gibbs RS. 1980. Clinical risk factors for puerperal infection. Obstet
Gynecol 55(Suppl 5): 178S–183S.
Hemsell DL. 1991. Prophylactic antibiotics in gynecologic and obstetric
surgery. Rev Infect Dis 13(Suppl 10): S821–S841.
Holmes OW. 1843. The contagiousness of puerperal fever. N Engl Q J
Med Surg 1: 503–530.
Horan T et al. 1993. NNIS data: Nosocomial infections in surgical patients
in the United States—January 1986–June 1992. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 14(2): 73–80.
Iffy L et al. 1984. Infection control in obstetrics, in Operative
Perinatology: Invasive Obstetric Techniques. Iffy L and C Charles (eds).
Macmillan: New York, pp 86–99.
Landry K and D Kilpatrick. 1997. Why shave a mother before she gives
birth? Matern Child Nurs 2: 189–190.
Mead PB. 1993. Prevention and control of nosocomial infections in
obstetrics and gynecology, in Prevention and Control of Nosocomial
Infections. 3rd ed, revised. Wenzel RP (ed). Williams & Wilkins.
Baltimore, MD, pp 776–795.
Minkoff HL and RH Schwarz. 1980. The rising cesarean section rate: Can
it be safely reversed? Obstet Gynecol 56(2): 135–143.
Newton ER, TJ Prihoda and RS Gibbs. 1990. A clinical and microbiologic
analysis of risk factors for puerperal endometritis. Obstet Gynecol 75(3
Pt 1): 402–406.
Padilla SL, MR Spence and PJ Beauchamp. 1983. Single-dose ampicillin
for cesarean section prophylaxis. Obstet Gynecol 61(4): 463–466.
Petitti DB et al. 1982. In-hospital maternal mortality in the United States:
Time trends and relation to the method of delivery. Obstet Gynecol 59(1):
6–12.

25 - 16 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWENTY-SIX

PREVENTING INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA AND MANAGING

FOOD AND WATER SERVICES

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What the impact of nosocomial diarrhea is on healthcare

x What the common causes of infectious diarrhea are
x How to manage food and water services in healthcare facilities
x How to prevent nosocomial outbreaks of foodborne diarrhea
x How to prepare clean and safe drinking water

BACKGROUND

Nosocomial diarrhea is a common problem in hospitals, children’s care

facilities and nursing homes (Lynch et al 1997). While not listed as one of
the commonest nosocomial infections, recent studies suggest that
nosocomial diarrhea may occur more frequently than reported and, in fact,
may be the most common site of nosocomial infection in some types of
healthcare facilities. The cost and morbidity also are greater than one
would expect because diarrhea often is not reported or studied as a
nosocomial infection (Farr 1991).

Controlling the spread of nosocomial diarrhea from contaminated food is

an ongoing concern in hospitals and nursing homes. Frequently this is due
to poorly trained food handling staff using unsafe practices involving the
storage, preparation and handling of raw meat, chicken, fish and fresh
eggs as well as some vegetables. Moreover, because the quality of
drinking water in countries with limited resources often is unsafe,
preventing patients getting diarrhea from drinking contaminated water and
controlling outbreaks of waterborne infectious diarrhea are persistent
problems. Therefore, in this chapter guidelines are provided for reducing
the risk of nosocomial diarrhea from contaminated food or water by
improving sanitation, food handling and staff hygiene. In addition,
practical suggestions for managing outbreaks of infectious diarrhea in the
newborn nursery or neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are summarized
in this chapter, and more detailed guidance and instructions are supplied in
Chapter 28. Finally, information is included describing how to prepare
and maintain a continuous supply of clean and safe water for drinking and
medical use.

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DEFINITIONS

x Clean water. Natural or chemically treated and filtered water that is

safe to drink and use for other purposes (e.g., handwashing and medical
instrument cleaning) because it meets specified public health standards.
These standards include: zero levels of microorganisms, such as
bacteria (fecal coliform and E. coli), parasites (Giardia lamblia) and
viruses (hepatitis A or E); low turbidity (cloudiness due to particulate
matter and other contaminants); and minimum levels of disinfectants,
disinfectant by-products, inorganic and organic chemicals and
radioactive materials. At a minimum, clean water should be free of
microorganisms and have low turbidity (is clear, not cloudy).
x Endemic illness or disease. Infectious disease, such as cholera, which
is continuously present at some level (prevalence) in a particular
country or region.
x Environmental hygiene. Process of maintaining a clean, healthy and
pleasing patient and work environment.
x Epidemic. Rapid spread of an infectious disease, such as cholera,
among many individuals in a hospital or community at the same time.
x Nosocomial diarrhea. On at least 2 consecutive days having at least
three loose or watery stools with the onset more than 72 hours after
admission to the hospital (or more days than the incubation period if
the agent is known).

EPIDEMIOLOGY

In hospitalized patients, the incubation period for infectious diarrhea due

to various bacterial and viral organisms may be shorter due to decreased
immunity or other risk factors. Although infectious diarrhea is definitively
diagnosed only when the bacterial or viral agent is identified, many cases
of diarrhea are never fully diagnosed. In the US, nosocomial diarrhea has
been reported to vary from less than 1 per 100 admissions among children
to over 30 per 100 admissions for elderly adults (McFarland 1993). In
developing countries, because diarrhea is so common, even reasonable
estimates are lacking.

Infectious agents causing diarrhea are transmitted by the fecal/oral route in

a number of ways:

x by eating or drinking contaminated food or fluids;

x from a patient handling contaminated articles (e.g., with feces), and
then putting her/his hands in the mouth;
x from the contaminated hands of health workers; and
x from contaminated medical instruments (e.g., gastroscopes) that enter
the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

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 Preventing Infectious Diarrhea and Managing Food and Water Services

Noninfectious diarrhea is usually caused by medications such as antibiotics

or procedures such as endoscopy, nasogastric feeding or X-ray studies
using barium and enemas. While noninfectious diarrhea is a common
problem, usually it does not last long and does not require treatment.

The most serious of the infectious GI illnesses is neonatal necrotizing

enterocolitis that kills the cells of the gut and leads to peritonitis and
septicemia. This condition primarily affects premature infants and
outbreaks have occurred in NICUs and special care nurseries. Although no
specific agent has been identified, the epidemiology suggests that a
transmissible agent (unknown bacteria or virus) is the cause.

MICROBIOLOGY

Outbreaks of diarrhea in hospitals, nursing homes and NICUs have been

associated with a wide variety of organisms including salmonella, shigella,
Clostridium difficile, vibrio (cholera), Candida albicans, Staphylococcus
aureus, cryptosporidium, rotavirus and other enteroviruses. Some of the most
common bacterial and viral agents causing infectious diarrhea, their
incubation period and most prominent clinical characteristics are listed below:

Common Bacterial x Salmonella (salmonellosis) produces fever, nausea and vomiting

Agents followed by diarrhea that frequently contains mucus (whitish and
stringy), but rarely blood, in stools. The incubation period is less than
72 hours (3 days) when large doses of organisms are eaten in
contaminated food or drinks. Outbreaks among children, however, are
commonly the results of contact transmission, and about 50% of
exposed infants will develop illness once a case is introduced in a
nursery. Adults, on the other hand, usually get salmonellosis from
contaminated food, drinks or inadequately cleaned and disinfected
medical instruments such as endoscopes. Once several patients or staff
are infected, transmission by contact to new susceptibles may be very
rapid. Salmonellosis is a common cause of infectious diarrhea,
accounting for more than 50% of all diarrhea outbreaks in nursing
homes in which the causative agent was identified (Levine et al 1991).

Control of outbreaks may be difficult; some nurseries or wards have

had to restrict new admissions. Safe food handling is essential for
prevention, especially raw (uncooked) eggs or egg products (e.g.,
homemade mayonnaise or tartar sauce). Antibiotic treatment prolongs
the time the infected person may carry the organism in her/his GI
system, but antibiotic treatment may be necessary for septic or
severally ill patients. For most, use of oral rehydration solution (ORS)
and supportive care are sufficient.
x Shigella (shigellosis) produces rapid onset of diarrhea, with stools
containing mucus and often blood. Infected persons are often more
sick than is typical for other infecting agents. The incubation period is
1–6 days, and the usual source is fecal/oral transmission from acutely

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Preventing Infectious Diarrhea and Managing Food and Water Services

infected patients. Outbreaks are less common than with salmonella or

viral agents, and patients shed the organisms only for a short period
after becoming symptomatic. Antibiotic treatment may be needed, but
use of ORS is most important.
x Clostridium difficile (formerly called antibiotic-resistant diarrhea or
pseudomembranous colitis) has increasingly become an important
cause of diarrhea. It may be the cause of nearly half of all cases of
nosocomial diarrhea in adult hospitalized patients (McFarland 1995).
The diarrhea ranges from mild and self-limiting to severe
pseudomembranous colitis, which can be fatal. Because C. difficile is
present in the stools of infants and preschool children, colonization
without clinical disease apparently occurs. Its presence in the GI tract
gradually decreases with age. In addition, C. difficile may become
endemic in the nursery and other high-risk units. No nosocomial
outbreaks have been associated with foodborne transmission,
suggesting that contact (person to person) transmission from
contaminated articles or the hands of staff is responsible. For example,
one report noted that when culture-negative patients were placed in a
hospital room currently or previously occupied by a person with C.
difficile diarrhea, they were more likely to develop this type of
diarrhea than patients placed in rooms where no patient had had C.
difficile diarrhea (McFarland et al 1989). This suggests the organism
can persist on inanimate articles (e.g., lamps, door handles or bed rails)
for some time unless rooms are thoroughly cleaned between patients.
x Escherichia coli strains that cause acute diarrhea have not been
reported to be nosocomially transmitted. Toxic strains have been
transmitted in restaurants from contaminated meat that was not cooked
sufficiently to kill the organisms and could be a problem in healthcare
facilities that prepare their own meals from raw meat.
x Vibrio cholerae subgroups produce acute, severe diarrheal disease
characterized by local outbreaks, widespread epidemics and occasional
individual outbreaks. Cholera is usually associated with contaminated
water sources (see last section of this chapter for detailed information
on prevention). Treatment usually consists of ORS.

Common Viral Agents x Rotavirus cause sudden onset of vomiting and diarrhea within 48-72 hours
(2–3 days) after exposure. Fever and upper respiratory symptoms are
present in about half the cases. In addition the virus may be present in the
sputum or secretions for several days. This may account for the extremely
rapid transmission and seasonal peak in infections during winter.
Symptoms subside in a few days, but the stool may contain virus for up to
2 weeks. Rotaviruses are the most common cause of diarrhea in children
under five. Because it is highly infectious, during nursery outbreaks nearly
all infants will become infected. Like C. difficile, the virus survives well
on inanimate surfaces and may become endemic in hospitals.

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 Preventing Infectious Diarrhea and Managing Food and Water Services

x Norwalk and similar viruses cause sudden onset of diarrhea, nausea,

vomiting, mild fever and abdominal cramps for about 24 hours. The
incubation period is short, a few days. These viruses are usually
associated with food (salad, raw vegetables and shellfish) and
waterborne contamination, but nosocomial outbreaks can occur
suggesting that person-to-person transmission does occur.

RISK FACTORS

Host risk factors for nosocomial diarrhea include young age; old age;
patients with burns, trauma or decreased immunity; decreased gastric
acidity; and altered flora in the stomach and gut, such as that occurring
with antibiotic treatment in some people. Health worker risk factors
include lack of hand hygiene, especially in food handlers, and
noncompliance with glove use.

REDUCING THE RISK OF NOSCOMIAL DIARRHEA

Hand Cleanliness Enteric organisms (e.g., E. coli and rotavirus) are transferred to
and Gloves susceptible people via the hands of health workers and patients who get
the organisms on their hands from direct contact with feces or indirectly
from articles that have fecal material on them. To reduce the risk of
exposure and cross-contamination:
Remember: Wash hands,
or use an antiseptic
handrub, before eating,
x Patients and staff should wash their hands or apply waterless, alcohol-
drinking or smoking. based antiseptic handrub after contact with fecal organisms in
bathrooms, on toilet articles such as bedpans, or on patients who have
fecal incontinence.
x Wear new, clean examination gloves before touching mucous membranes
(mouth or nose) of all patients, including infants and children.
x Utility or heavy-duty gloves should be worn if activities are likely to
involve touching or handling feces (e.g., changing the bed of a patient
who has fecal incontinence).

Environmental x Clean and wipe bedpans and bathroom equipment that are regularly
Contamination and handled by patients and staff with a disinfectant (0.5% chlorine
Soiled Linen solution or 1% Lysol) daily and whenever they have been used.
x When fecal soilage does occur (e.g., incontinent patients or diaper
accidents) all soiled articles should be immediately cleaned and
disinfected.
x Staff who sort linen should wear utility or heavy-duty gloves. Also,
soiled linen should be bundled so that leakage does not occur, and all
linen should be handled as if fecal contamination is present (see
Chapter 13 for details).

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Preventing Infectious Diarrhea and Managing Food and Water Services

x Wear gloves when handling linen soiled with moist body substances,
used diapers or toilet paper, and place in a plastic bag or leakproof,
covered waste container.

Food Service Personnel x Routine stool cultures of food service staff are ineffective, expensive
and provide no benefit. Even chronic carriers may only shed
organisms intermittently. For example, routine nasal (anterior nares)
cultures only identify 10–30% of chronic carriers of Staphlycoccus
aureus linked to food poisoning.
x Food handlers with diarrhea should be immediately removed from
handling foods. They should not return to food handling or work with
immunocompromised patients or intensive care or transplant patients
until all symptoms are over for 24–48 hours.

Patients with Diarrhea Patients with diarrhea from any cause should be managed according to
Standard Precautions with Transmission-Based Precautions added if the
diagnosis indicates (see Chapter 21). Other precautions include moving
roommates to another room in the hospital if fecal contamination is likely,
encouraging staff to use gowns or plastic aprons for clean-up activities, and
providing frequent cleaning of articles that might be contaminated. If
available, plastic-backed diapers for infants, children and even adults should
be used. Infants born to mothers with diarrhea should not enter the regular
nursery. Rather, rooming-in should be provided for mother and infant, and
the mother should be taught good hygiene.

Outbreak Management The successful management of outbreaks of diarrhea related to common

source contamination in healthcare facilities usually requires a number of
procedures:

x finding the common source and eliminating it,

x grouping patients with diarrhea together and not allowing the sharing
of equipment or staff with any new or uninfected patients,
x discharging affected and unaffected patients early if their care can be
managed at home,
x making sure that housekeeping is thorough and frequently performed, and
x providing separate space and extra staff to care for affected infants in the
case of nursery or neonatal ICU outbreaks (see Chapter 28 for details).

Because management of outbreaks is expensive, preventing them by

eliminating the risks of food- or waterborne infections is more cost-effective.

MANAGING FOOD AND WATER SERVICES

Nosocomial transmission of fecal organisms by contaminated food or

water can be reduced considerably by improving sanitation, food handling

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 Preventing Infectious Diarrhea and Managing Food and Water Services

and staff hygiene, including handwashing or the use of waterless, alcohol-

based handrub products.

Factors that increase risk of nosocomial diarrhea in hospitals include the

fact that they:

x serve food for more hours than restaurants,

x serve ill and immunocompromised patients,
x must transport and distribute food at greater distances, and
x prepare nasogastric (enteral) feedings and special diets.

In addition, staff often are transient, poorly trained and may have other
health problems that can contribute to poor quality food services.

The most common organisms associated with foodborne outbreaks include

salmonella and Clostridium difficile. Shigella, Escherichia coli, hepatitis
A virus (HAV) and cholera species are next in frequency. For foodborne
infection to occur:

x food and fluids must be infected (contain sufficient numbers of

infectious organisms),
x preparation and storage processes and practices must allow organisms
to persist, and
x food must be served to susceptible hosts.

In a study of 162 foodborne outbreaks in hospitals and nursing homes in

the US, the errors associated with the outbreaks were as follows:

x 38% stemmed from improper holding temperatures for prepared food,

x 18% were due to poor hygiene of a presumably infected employee,
x 14% were caused by improper cooking,
x 13% were due to contaminated equipment,
x 5% occurred because food was obtained from an unsafe source, and
x 9% were caused by other factors (Villarino et al 1992).

Food Service Guidelines All activities in the food service department should be monitored at regular
intervals to be sure that safety standards are being followed, including:

Holding temperatures should be above 60qC/140qF or below 7qC/45qF.

Thermometers for food storage should be checked periodically. Warm,
perishable foods should be cooled before being stored, or stored in shallow
containers so that the center temperatures are not warm enough for
bacteria to thrive on or for toxins to be produced—both are common
causes of staphylococcal “food poisoning” outbreaks.

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Preventing Infectious Diarrhea and Managing Food and Water Services

Cooking should be complete. All parts of the item should reach the proper
temperature. In particular, frozen meats should be thawed before cooking
to avoid the presence of cold spots in the interior. If there is any suspicion
that the interior temperature is below the proper level at the end of
cooking, it should be checked by taking a thermometer reading.

Personal health and hygiene of food service staff are of great importance
and should be supervised by a knowledgeable person. Food handlers
should have convenient access to handwashing facilities and be provided
with individual containers of waterless antiseptic handrub if possible
(Chapter 3). A handwashing station should have access to clean water,
soap and a clean towel (single-use or disposable towels are preferable). If
common towels are used, they should be changed when visibly soiled and
at least every 4 hours. Because food service employees may not appreciate
the importance of handwashing, it must be reinforced in staff training and
through appropriate behavior modeled by supervisors and managers. Staff
need to know:

x basic principles of personal hygiene and how good hygiene helps

prevent disease transmission;
x importance of reporting GI problems or skin lesions, especially on the
hands;
x how to properly inspect, prepare and store the foods they handle;
x how to clean and operate equipment they use such as slicers, blenders
and dishwashers; and
x waste management.

Ensure equipment cleaning and disinfection, especially cutting boards

used for preparing raw meat, fish or poultry. These can become
contaminated and need to be cleaned and disinfected between uses. Other
equipment should be cleaned daily. A system for inspecting and
maintaining all equipment in central kitchens is important.

Purchase raw food from known vendors that meet local inspection
Note: If refrigeration is not standards, if possible. Foods prepared at home should not be shared with
available, prepared formula other hospitalized patients. Also, perishable food brought from home must
should be used within 4 be consumed immediately, and any leftovers returned home with the
hours. Even if refrigeration
visitors.
is available, formula
should not be held more 24
hours (ADA 1991). Contaminated powdered infant formula is also a problem. In one study of
141 powdered breast milk substitutes from 28 countries, more than half
(52%) of the samples contained gram-negative organisms (Muytjens,
Roelofs-Willemse and Jaspar 1988). Most problems with infant formulas
arise during preparation and storage of the freshly prepared product.
Formula should be prepared in a clean space where no other work is being
done at the time. The container should be clean and dry, and water used

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for preparing the formula should be boiled vigorously for 5 minutes. The
prepared formula should be placed in clean bottles, which have been
rinsed with boiled water and allowed to dry.

Preparation of Water boiled for 1–5 minutes is considered safe to drink, while water
Clean Water boiled for 20 minutes is high-level disinfected. Alternatively, water can be
disinfected and made safe for drinking by adding a small amount of
sodium hypochlorite (commercial bleach) solution.1 For example, 15 mL
(0.5 ounces) of a 1% solution will disinfect 20 liters (21 quarts) of water,
leaving a residual chlorine level sufficient to protect the water for 24 hours
(CDC 2000). Chlorination should be done just before storing the water in
a container, preferably one with a narrow neck. (Storage containers often
become contaminated if the neck is large enough to permit hands or
utensils to enter.)

The preparation of clean water containing up to 0.001% (10 ppm) sodium

hypochlorite solution is inexpensive, easy to do and often is needed during
emergency situations (e.g., during floods or other natural disasters that
may lead to contamination of the water system). In addition, being able to
prepare clean water daily is important in healthcare facilities, such as
small health clinics located in rural or remote areas. Frequently, they do
not have access to a reliable water source that can be used for
handwashing and for cleaning instruments, surgical gloves and other
medical items prior to final processing.

A Sustainable Source of Recently, portable systems have become commercially available that
Clean Water generate up to 0.6 % (6000 ppm) sodium hypochlorite from common table
salt, contaminated water from rivers, shallow wells or ponds, and
electricity. The power source may be either 110/220V A/C, D/C or from
solar photovoltaic cells. These systems are designed to operate in remote
or rural areas under extremely harsh conditions for many years. For
example, a small system, operating on solar energy, can treat up to 20,000
liters (over 21,000 quarts) of contaminated water per day in only 8 hours
(ESE 2002). These systems are relatively inexpensive (about $1,500 for a
small system), and extremely easy to use and maintain. They require
nothing more than occasionally putting the electrode in vinegar (3–5%
acetic acid) to dissolve phosphates and carbonates that gradually build up
on the hypochlorite-generating electrode’s cathode (negative pole).
Moreover, they provide a sustainable source of clean and safe drinking
water or a continuous supply of sodium hypochlorite for medical use (e.g.,
decontamination or chemical HLD of instruments).

1
If tap water is cloudy, most particulates (debris and organic material) can be removed by filtering through four layers of
moderately woven cotton cloth, such as cheese cloth or old sari material, before boiling or treating with dilute chlorine
(sodium hypochlorite) solution (Colwell et al 2003; Huq et al 1996).

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Preventing Infectious Diarrhea and Managing Food and Water Services

How to Prevent the In a number of countries, such as Bangladesh, cholera is endemic, and
Spread of Cholera during the rainy season it becomes epidemic. Cholera is spread through
contaminated water. For several years it has been known that microscopic
organisms in the water, called plankton, are the reservoir for the Vibrio
cholerae, the bacteria causing cholera. Recently, Colwell et al (2003)
reported the incidence of cholera was reduced by 48% in Bangladeshi
villages using a simple filtering method to treat their drinking water when
compared to villages not filtering their water (P <0.005). In this study, 65
villages (comprising over 8,000 households and about 133,000 individuals)
were randomly assigned to three groups that used old sari cloth, nylon
mesh or nothing to filter their drinking water for an 18-month period2. In
addition to significantly reducing the cholera incidence, the severity of
illness was also less in those villages filtering their water. The researchers
suggest this also could be due to the effect of the sari cloth or nylon mesh
filters to reduce the number of cholera bacteria in the drinking water.

In this study, sari cloth and nylon mesh were equally effective in preventing
cholera and reducing the severity of illness. Old sari cloth is preferred,
however, because of its smaller pore size (i.e., filters out plankton and
particulates greater than 20 microns), is less expensive and is readily
available in Bangladesh as well as many of the countries where cholera is a
problem. One could further postulate that by first filtering the contaminated
drinking water, followed by treating it with sodium hypochlorite (0.001%
final concentration) as described above, an even greater reduction in the
incidence of cholera could be obtained at little added cost, especially in
rural or remote endemic areas and during epidemics.

REFERENCES

American Dietetic Association (ADA). 1991. Preparation of Formula for

Infants: Guidelines for Health Care Facilities. ADA: Chicago.
Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC). 2000. Safe Water
Systems for the Developing World: A Handbook for Implementing
Household-Based Water Treatment and Safe Storage Projects. CDC:
Atlanta.
Colwell RR et al. 2003. Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by
simple filtration. Proc Nalt Acad Sci USA 100(3): 1051–1055.
Equipment & Systems Engineering (ESE), Inc. 2002. AquaChlor on-site
sodium hypochlorite generator. www.aquachlorese.com.
Farr B. 1991. Diarrhea: A neglected nosocomial hazard? Infect Control
Hosp Epidemiol 12(6): 343–344.

2
A sari is a traditional garment worn by women in Bangladesh, India and Nepal as well as several other countries in Asia. It
is usually made of lightweight cotton that has a thread count of about 140 /inch2.

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Huq A et al. 1996. A simple filtration method to remove plankton-

associated Vibrio cholera in raw water supplies in developing countries.
Appl Environ Microbiol 62(7): 2508–2512.
Levine WC et al. 1991. Foodborne disease outbreaks in nursing homes,
1975–1987. JAMA 266(15): 2105–2109.
Lynch P et al. 1997. Preventing nosocomial gastrointestinal infections, in
Infection Prevention with Limited Resources. ETNA Communications:
Chicago, pp 125–130.
McFarland LV. 1995. Epidemiology of infectious and iatrogenic
nosocomial diarrhea in a cohort of general medicine patients. Am J Infect
Control 23(5): 295–305.
McFarland LV. 1993. Diarrhea acquired in the hospital. Gastroenterol
Clin North Am 22(3): 563–577.
McFarland LV et al. 1989. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile
infection. N Engl J Med 320(4): 204–208.
Muytjens HL, H Roelofs-Willemse and GH Jaspar. 1988. Quality of
powdered substitutes for breast milk with regards to the family
Enterobacteriacae. J Clin Microbiol 26(4): 743–746.
Villarino ME et al. 1992. Foodbourne disease prevention in health care
facilities, in Hospital Infections, 3rd ed. Bennett JV and PS Bachman
(eds). Little, Brown and Company: Boston, pp 345–358.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 26 - 11

Preventing Infectious Diarrhea and Managing Food and Water Services

26 - 12 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWENTY-SEVEN

PREVENTING PNEUMONIA

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x What type of medical or surgical procedures are most often associated

with nosocomial pneumonia
x Importance of cross-contamination (patient to patient or staff to
patient) in causing nosocomial pneumonia
x How to minimize the risk of developing nosocomial pneumonia
x How to clean and disinfect respiratory therapy equipment

BACKGROUND

In the US, nosocomial pneumonia is the second most common site of

hospital-acquired infections, accounting for 18%. Only nosocomial
urinary tract infections are more frequent (Emori and Gaynes 1993).
Nosocomial pneumonia also is the infection most likely to be fatal, with
mortality rates exceeding 30%, and is the most expensive to treat.
Moreover, patients on mechanical ventilators develop pneumonia more
frequently and are more likely to have a fatal outcome than those not
requiring assisted respiration (Lynch et al 1997). In large part, these
findings reflect the severity of the underlying disease.

Most nosocomial pneumonias occur by aspiration of bacteria growing in

the back of the throat (oropharynx) or stomach. Intubation and mechanical
ventilation greatly increase the risk of infection because they:

x block the normal body defense mechanisms—coughing, sneezing and

the gag reflex;
x prevent the washing action of the hair (cilia) and mucus-secreting cells
lining the upper respiratory system; and
x provide a direct pathway for microorganisms to get into the lungs.

Other procedures that may increase the risk of infection include oxygen
therapy, intermittent positive pressure breathing (IPPB) treatment and
endotracheal suctioning.

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Pneumonia is a complex infection that is often difficult to distinguish from

other lung diseases, especially adult respiratory distress syndrome,
bronchitis, emphysema and congestive heart failure. Most commonly
accepted criteria for nosocomial pneumonia include fever, cough,

Infection Prevention Guidelines 27 - 1

Preventing Pneumonia

decreased breath sounds or dullness in a specific area of the lungs and

production of purulent (infected) sputum in combination with X-ray
evidence suggestive of an infection. If laboratory services are available,
typically a gram-stained sputum sample will have many white blood cells
(WBCs), bacteria and few epithelial cells but may not be helpful in
making the diagnosis. In many countries, additional diagnostic testing
(e.g., sputum cultures) is often not available. (Even though specimens
from bronchoscopy yield more specific results, bronchoscopy is invasive
and the potential complications may outweigh the advantages.)

Half of all nosocomial pneumonias occur after surgery, especially if

mechanical ventilation is needed postoperatively. Patients on ventilators, for
example, have a 6- to 21-fold greater risk of getting nosocomial pneumonia
than do patients not on ventilators (Schaefer et al 1996). While with surgical
patients the main reason for mechanical ventilation is the type of operation,
for medical patients it usually is related to the patient’s illness. Not
surprisingly, the risk of postoperative nosocomial bacterial pneumonia is 38
times greater for heart and lung operations (e.g., heart bypass and
pulmonary resections) than for surgery at any other site (CDC 1994).

Microbiology Most reported nosocomial pneumonias are due to bacteria. Early onset
pneumonia is likely to involve the patient’s own flora, especially
streptococcus and haemophilus species. When pneumonia occurs later on
Remember: Handwashing, during the hospitalization, it is more likely to be due to gram-negative
or use of a waterless, organisms from the hospital environment. The combination of severe
alcohol-based handrub, is illness, presence of multiple invasive devices (IVs, urinary catheters and
an effective way to prevent mechanical ventilators) and frequent contact with the hands of personnel
cross-contamination.
often leads to cross-contamination. For example, in one study by
Weinstein (1991), 20–40% of nosocomial pneumonias were due to cross-
contamination of organisms from one patient to another, most likely from
the hands of hospital staff.

RISK FACTORS

Many risk factors for nosocomial pneumonias are not alterable (e.g., age
over 70, chronic lung disease, severe head injuries with loss of
consciousness, other serious medical conditions, such as end stage renal
disease or cirrhosis). Other risk factors are not alterable during the
hospitalization (e.g., cigarette smoking, alcoholism, obesity, major
cardiovascular or pulmonary surgery and patients with endotracheal tubes
or on ventilators). Although it is impossible to change these risk factors,
knowing about them is valuable in terms of anticipating problems and
limiting the use of invasive devices (e.g., intravenous lines and urinary
catheters) as much a possible. Unfortunately, if the underlying medical or
surgical condition is serious, treatment of nosocomial pneumonia may not
be successful.

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 Preventing Pneumonia

REDUCING THE RISK OF NOSOCOMIAL PNEUMONIA

Preoperative Numerous studies have shown that preoperatively teaching patients about
Pulmonary Care how to prevent postoperative pulmonary problems (e.g., deep breathing,
moving in bed, frequent coughing) combined with early movement (sitting
up and walking) and limited use of narcotic analgesics for a short duration
can reduce the risk of nosocomial pneumonia. The greatest opportunities
for prevention of nosocomial pneumonia are in those surgical patients not
anticipated to need postoperative ventilation.

Preventing Colonization Transfer of organisms among hospitalized patients occurs frequently.

and Infections with Several studies have shown marked reductions in nosocomial colonization
New Organisms and infections when heath workers were required to put on clean gloves
(new examination or reprocessed high-level surgical gloves) prior to
contact with the mucous membranes and nonintact skin of patients (Lynch
et al 1990). Therefore, when caring for patients on mechanical ventilators
or receiving IPPB treatment, especially those following heart or lung
surgery, it is important to prevent cross-contamination (from staff to
patient).

Respiratory Therapy To minimize cross-contamination when suctioning patients on ventilators:

Equipment
x Wash hands or use an alcohol-based antiseptic handrub before putting
on gloves.
x Wear clean examination gloves, or reused surgical gloves that have
been high-level disinfected, and a protective face shield or mask.
x Remove gloves immediately after therapy is completed and discard
them in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container.
Note: Mechanical ventilation
should be used only when
x Wash hands or use an alcohol-based antiseptic handrub after removing
necessary and only for as
gloves.
long as necessary.
Suction catheters should be decontaminated, cleaned and high-level
disinfected by boiling or steaming between uses. In addition, use of large
containers of saline or other fluids for instillation or rinsing the suction
catheter should be avoided. If possible, only small containers of sterile
solutions or boiled water, which can be used only once and then replaced,
should be used.

Remember: Do not touch To reduce the risk of contamination and possible infection from
other items in the room or mechanical respirators and other equipment, the following are suggested:
the patient after suctioning
and while still wearing
gloves. x Prevent condensed fluid in the ventilator tubing from refluxing into the
patient because it contains large numbers of organisms. (Any fluid in
the tubing should be drained and discarded, taking care not to allow
the fluid to drain toward the patient.)

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Preventing Pneumonia

x Use only small nebulizer bulbs because nebulizers produce aerosols

that can penetrate deep into the lungs. (Contaminated large-volume
nebulizers have been associated with gram-negative pneumonia and
Remember: Wash hands, should not be used.)
or use an antiseptic
handrub after handling the x Contaminated humidifiers for oxygen administration and ventilator
tubing. humidifiers are unlikely to cause nosocomial pneumonia because they
do not generate aerosols. These humidifiers can, however, be a source
of cross-contamination, so they should be cleaned and disinfected
between patients.
x Although ventilator circuits may become contaminated at the patient
end by organisms from the respiratory tract, there is little evidence that
Note: To prevent small pneumonia is associated with this contamination. Therefore, it is not
volume nebulizer bulbs necessary to change the circuits.
from becoming
contaminated, they should x Breathing circuits should be decontaminated, cleaned and high-level
be cleaned and dried disinfected by steaming or soaking in a chemical high-level
between uses, reprocessed disinfectant.
daily (decontaminated,
cleaned and high-level x Resuscitation devices, such as Ambu bags, are difficult to
disinfected by steaming or decontaminate, clean, high-level disinfect and dry between uses. For
boiling) and used only with example, if not thoroughly disinfected and dried, fluids left inside the
sterile fluids or boiled bag or face piece can be aerosolized during the next use. To prevent
water.
this, a good system for prompt reprocessing and return to use is
necessary.

Preventing Even short-term (a few days) use of nasal feeding tubes increases the risk
Gastric Reflux of aspiration. Feeding small, frequent amounts rather than large amounts
may be less risky. Also, raising the head of the bed, so that the patient is
more or less in a sitting position, makes reflux less likely.

Postoperative As mentioned above, surgical patients should be taught how to prevent

Management postoperative pulmonary problems, such as fluid in lungs and/or poorly air-
filled areas (atelectasis), preoperatively. Surgical units should have
effective plans for:

x optimizing the use of pain medication to keep the patient comfortable

enough to cough effectively,
x regularly moving and exercising patients, and
x encouraging deep breathing in the immediate postoperative period and
for the next few days.

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 Preventing Pneumonia

REFERENCES

Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC). 1994. Guidelines for
prevention of nosocomial pneumonia. Part 1. Issues on prevention of
nosocomial pneumonia. Part 2. Recommendations for prevention of
nosocomial pneumonia. Am J Infect Control 22(4): 247–292. (Authors:
Tablan OC et al and HICPAC).
Emori TG and RP Gaynes. 1993. An overview of nosocomial infections,
including the role of the microbiology laboratory. Clin Microbiol Rev
6(4): 428–442.
Lynch P et al. 1997. Preventing nosocomial pneumonia, in Infection
Prevention with Limited Resources. ETNA Communications: Chicago, pp
131–134.
Lynch P et al 1990. Implementing and evaluating a system of generic infection
precautions: Body substance isolation. Am J Infect Control 18(1): 1–12.
Schaefer SD et al. 1996. Respiratory care, in Pocket Guide to Infection
Prevention and Safe Practice. Mosby-Year Book, Inc.: St. Louis, MO, pp
363–386.
Weinstein RA. 1991. Epidemiology and control of nosocomial infections
in adult intensive care units. Am J Med 91(3B): 179S–184S.

Infection Prevention Guidelines 27 - 5

Preventing Pneumonia

27 - 6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 TWENTY-EIGHT

INFECTION-MONITORING (SURVEILLANCE) ACTIVITIES

KEY CONCEPTS you will learn in this chapter include:

x Why it is important to monitor patient care practices

x What the purpose and limitations of surveillance are
x When surveillance should be considered
x How casefinding can be used to investigate outbreaks of, or exposures
to, nosocomial infections
x What some of the common mistakes in investigating outbreaks are

BACKGROUND

Efforts to prevent patients from acquiring an infection or bad outcome

(e.g., phlebitis following intravenous infusions) while in a hospital require
that healthcare workers use infection prevention practices of demonstrated
value and monitor the care being provided. In the broadest sense,
infection-monitoring (surveillance) activities are designed to guide
corrective action based on accurate information, or to provide the
rationale for not acting when only selective or biased information is
available. Poorly designed monitoring activities can, however, waste
resources by collecting data that are never used or that fail to provide an
accurate picture of what is happening. This occurs most often when
surveillance is inconsistent or analysis is incomplete.

Although all healthcare facilities should monitor patient care practices to

prevent nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections and minimize the
chance of bad outcomes, surveillance is labor-intensive. Infection
surveillance has a long history, and there remains considerable debate
about the design, utility and value of surveillance (Lynch et al 1997). How
then does a healthcare facility monitor infection-related quality of care
activities where resources are limited? As a general rule, monitoring by
surveillance should be used only if it will provide specific information not
available at less cost. Moreover, it should not consume resources that
could be better spent elsewhere. For most facilities with limited resources,
the priority should be:

x Ensure recommended infection prevention practices, such as

sterilization, or where appropriate HLD, of all items that come in
contact with normally sterile tissue, are adhered to.
x Ensure patient care practices are performed according to the best
available evidence (i.e., use Standard Precautions for all patients).

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Infection-Monitoring (Surveillance) Activities

x Monitor compliance with recommended practices for certain high-risk

procedures, such as inserting central venous catheters.
x Work to eliminate unnecessary and unsafe injections.

Finally, routine surveillance should not outweigh investigating outbreaks,

or providing safe water, food and sanitation within the hospital or
healthcare facilities. On the other hand, well-organized surveillance ranks
ahead of repetitive “staff education” programs, especially those not linked
to behavior change activities (Chapter 3).

DEFINITIONS

x Casefinding. Method of identifying patients with nosocomial

infections through a combination of: 1) reviewing medical records, 2)
asking questions directed to patients or health workers, and 3)
checking laboratory, X-ray or other relevant data, if available.
x Nosocomial or hospital-acquired infection (terms used
interchangeably). Infection that is neither present nor incubating at the
time the patient came to the healthcare facility. (Nosocomial refers to the
association between care and the subsequent onset of infection. It is a
time-related criterion that does not imply a cause and effect relationship.)
x Surveillance. Systematic collection of relevant data on patient care,
the orderly analysis of the data and the prompt reporting of the data to
those who need it. Active surveillance consists of collecting
information directly from patients or staff, while passive surveillance
includes examining reports, laboratory information and data from
other sources.

PURPOSE OF SURVEILLANCE

Traditionally surveillance has been used to:

x determine baseline rates of nosocomial infections;

x evaluate infection control measures (e.g., management of multidrug-
resistant infections);
x monitor good patient care practices;
x meet the safety standards required by regulatory agencies; and
x detect outbreaks and exposures.

While infection surveillance (collecting some data on all nosocomial

infections and calculating rates based on discharges or patient days) is not
a useful starting point, knowing when to investigate a situation, what data
to collect, how to analyze and interpret the result and how long to measure
may be extremely useful. Knowing the difference between monitoring a
process (Are they doing what they’re supposed to be doing? Why not?)

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 Infection-Monitoring (Surveillance) Activities

and monitoring an outcome (Is something bad happening? Who? What?

Where? When?) is essential.

Where resources are limited, the use of surveillance as an infection-

monitoring tool generally should be restricted to investigating outbreaks or
exposures. When considering initiating other types of surveillance
activities, the objectives should be reasonable in terms of the resources
and time available, and the projected uses for the data should be clearly
defined before routine collection of data is established. It is much more
difficult to discontinue data collection than to never collect it in the first
place.

WHEN TO CONSIDER PERFORMING SURVEILLANCE

Logically, surveillance should begin only after all recommended steps for
preventing nosocomial infections have been taken. For hospitals in most
countries, rigorously employing the evidence-based infection prevention
practices detailed in the preceding Chapters 3–19 should be the primary
strategy for preventing nosocomial infections and avoiding bad outcomes
in hospitalized patients. Then the use of measures proven to reduce
infection risk at specific sites or from invasive procedures should be
checked (Chapters 22–27). Only after successfully implementing and
monitoring these recommendations should the use of surveillance be
considered.

Finding Patients with An inexpensive, fairly simple way of finding patients with nosocomial
Nosocomial Infections infections is by casefinding. Casefinding consists of reviewing medical
records and asking questions of patients and health workers (active
surveillance). It is guided by clues obtained from passive surveillance
(reports and laboratory information). Routine casefinding is time-
consuming and not recommended where resources are limited, but when
used to investigate a suspected outbreak (e.g., an increased number of
newborns with infectious diarrhea and septicemia over a short time period),
casefinding can be extremely helpful.

Using the above example of a suspected outbreak of infectious diarrhea,

the clinical review of medical records should include collecting basic
demographic information (e.g., name, age, date of birth, admission
diagnosis), checking for fever, new antibiotic use, new cases of diarrhea,
clinical sepsis or the presence of an inflamed surgical wound, drain or IV
site. Talking with patients (or parents of newborns in this example)
should focus on their health, the health of other young children at home,
general hygiene, food handling and sanitation. Discussions with staff
working in the affected area (e.g., the newborn nursery or neonatal ICU)
should deal with ensuring that recommended patient care activities (e.g.,
hand hygiene and use of gloves) are being performed both correctly and at
the appropriate times. Laboratory information to be checked should
include a review of positive cultures and other diagnostic findings if

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Infection-Monitoring (Surveillance) Activities

available. In addition, if laboratory or X-ray staff are informed about the

kinds of information that may suggest nosocomial infections, they can alert
the infection prevention coordinator or working group with useful tips.

Where time and resources are limited, routine use of casefinding should
focus on high-risk areas such as intensive care and postoperative units. In
a large study, for example, more than 70% of all nosocomial infections
occurred in the 40% of patients who had surgery (Haley et al 1985a and
1985b). Moreover, the infections in these units tended to be more serious
than in other areas where infections occur less frequently.

DETECTING AND MANAGING OUTBREAKS

Outbreaks of nosocomial infections do occur, despite the best efforts to

prevent them. When they occur, it is important to identify and interrupt the
process or practice responsible as quickly as possible to minimize the risk
to patients and staff. Investigating and managing suspected outbreaks,
however, can be very complex, requiring the assistance of epidemiologists
and more experienced infection prevention personnel from national or
international health agencies (e.g., CDC). In many instances, however, the
cause of the outbreak can be easily identified (i.e., related to a common
source, patient care practice or nonpractice) and can be resolved without a
complete investigation.

Fortunately, outbreak management is more straightforward, but both

require speedy resolution and both are labor and resource intensive. In
addition, once the source(s) of the outbreak or exposure is identified,
implementing the corrective action may be the most difficult management
issue.

Common Mistakes in Some of the more common errors include:

Outbreak Investigations
x Assumption that an outbreak exists when it really does not. An
apparent increase in cases over recent experience is often only normal
variation; therefore, where possible, confirm the diagnosis, search for
additional cases and determine whether the increase is real before
concluding that an outbreak is occurring.
x Isolation of an organism rarely explains an outbreak.
x The presence of organisms from multiple sites or personnel usually
suggests that these sites became colonized from another source and
Note: The goal in an were not the cause of the outbreak.
outbreak is preventing
more patients or staff from x Negative cultures do not justify concluding that the site (e.g., staff or
becoming infected or at inanimate objects) was not responsible for the outbreak. There could
risk. be many reasons the cultures were negative: incorrect specimen
collection and handling, poor culture technique, including performing
the test incorrectly or using the wrong reagents, and failure to collect
the right specimen.

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 Infection-Monitoring (Surveillance) Activities

x Prevention measures are not implemented immediately. As soon as an

outbreak is suspected, patient care practices that could be responsible
should be evaluated and any problems identified and corrected,
without waiting for results from an investigation. (Table 28-1 outlines
common sources for nosocomial infections at various sites and some
recommended risk-reduction practices.)
x Other similar practices are not evaluated. When a problem with
reprocessing instruments or specific patient care practices is identified,
often the same faults exist elsewhere in the hospital; all similar
situations should be evaluated and corrected as soon as possible.

Administrative Hospitalized patients, staff and visitors are all linked to the community at
Responsibilities large. In addition, there is considerable interaction between healthcare
facilities. Patients may begin care in an ambulance, visit an emergency
room, have an inpatient stay and be discharged to a nursing home or
receive homecare—all in the same episode of illness. As such, countless
health workers, other patients, visitors and staff may be affected. For
example, nosocomial outbreaks of measles and hepatitis B have resulted in
cases in the community because information regarding an outbreak or
exposure in a hospital was not shared. The temptation to withhold this
information because it may reflect badly on the hospital, administration or
personnel is natural—but must be avoided. Other facilities may have
contact with the patients or may use some of the same practices or
commercial products that were responsible for the outbreak. Without the
frank exchange of information, preventable nosocomial infections may
continue to occur. Thus, to minimize the risk to all, the occurrence of
exposures and outbreaks should be widely publicized.

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Infection-Monitoring (Surveillance) Activities

Table 28-1. Measures Identified as Effective in Investigating Outbreaks

SITE WHERE TO LOOK FOR SOURCE AND/ OR MODE INTERIM MEASURES
Common Uncommon
Urinary tract Urinary tract Inadequately processed Re-emphasize known aseptic practices relating
infection instrumentation instruments to insertion and maintenance of urinary
Cross-contamination via Contaminated antiseptic catheters, and monitor compliance.
hands of personnel solution (e.g., povidone- Institute glove use for any contact with urine.
Poor hand hygiene iodine) Separate catheterized patients from each other.
Put on clean gloves just before contact with
urinary meatus.
Wash hands, or use an antiseptic handrub,
after removal of gloves.
Surgical Organisms acquired Airborne spread Re-emphasize known aseptic practices and
wounds intraoperatively by contact Preoperative contamination surgical technique.
with symptomatic or (contaminated antiseptic Exclude infected personnel from patient care.
asymptomatic shedders solution) Separate those at risk from those infected.
among staff Put on sterile or high-level disinfected gloves
Contaminated products just before wound contact.
(wound irrigating solutions) Use sterile fluids for wound care.
Poor surgical technique Wash hands, or use an antiseptic handrub,
(hemostasis, glove puncture) after removal of gloves.
Lower Colonization of upper Airborne spread Re-emphasize known aseptic practices and
respiratory airway with secondary surgical technique.
tract aspiration into lung If respiratory therapy is associated with cases,
Contamination of nebulized examine technique used for disinfection and
solutions or respiratory delivery of therapies (e.g., multidose vials).
therapy equipment surfaces Separate those at risk from those infected.
Cross-contamination via Put on clean gloves just before contact with
hands of personnel mucous membranes and suctioning of patients.
Wash hands, or use an antiseptic handrub,
after removal of gloves.
Blood Intravascular, especially Inadequately processed Re-emphasize known aseptic practices and
central venous catheters instruments surgical technique.
Contamination of insertion Preoperative contamination Intravenous catheters should be changed every
site (contaminated antiseptic 96 hours.
solutions) Put on sterile or high-level disinfected gloves
before inserting catheter and wound contact.
Wash hand, or use an antiseptic handrub, after
removal of gloves.
Adapted from: Lynch et al 1997.

REFERENCES

Haley RW et al. 1985a. The efficacy of infection surveillance and control

programs in preventing nosocomial infections in U.S. hospitals. Am J
Epidemiol 121(2): 182–205.
Haley RW et al. 1985b. The nationwide nosocomial infection rate: A new
need for vital statistics in U.S. hospitals. Am J Epidemiol 121(2): 159–167.
Lynch P et al. 1997. Surveillance, outbreak investigations, and exposures,
in Infection Prevention with Limited Resources. ETNA Communications:
Chicago, pp 31–48.

28 - 6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX A

GENERAL SURGICAL HANDSCRUB

SUPPLIES

The supplies needed for a surgical handscrub include:

x Plain or antiseptic (preferred) soap (Larson 1988)

x Antiseptic agent (povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine is less irritating to skin)
x Running water (When no running water is available, use a bucket with a tap,
which can be turned off to lather hands and turned on again for rinsing, or a
bucket and pitcher.)
x Soft stick with pointed end or brush for cleaning underneath the fingernails
(These items must be cleaned and preferably high-level disinfected after each
use.)
x Soft brush or sponge for cleaning the skin (These items must be cleaned after
each use.)1
x Towels (sterile towels should be provided in the operating room.)

PROCEDURE

The surgeon, scrub nurse or technician should wear a short-sleeved shirt or

blouse when performing a surgical handscrub because it requires scrubbing to the
elbows (Sorensen and Luckman 1979).

Procedure Rationale
1. Remove all jewelry. 1. Jewelry harbors microorganisms, is difficult to
clean and makes putting on gloves more
difficult (Salisbury 1997).
2. Hold hands above the level of the elbow and wet 2. Water should flow from area of least
hands thoroughly. Apply soap, and clean under contamination (hands) to most contamination
each fingernail using the stick or brush. (arms). Washing removes many organisms.
Fingernails should not extend beyond the tip of
the finger more than 3 mm (or 1/8 inch). Long
fingernails can puncture gloves, and bacteria
grow easily underneath them.

1
Avoid using stiff scrub brushes as these can damage the skin, especially if surgical handscrub is done several times per day.

Infection Prevention Guidelines A-1

General Surgical Handscrub

Procedure Rationale
3. Beginning at the fingertips, lather with a soft 3. Friction and lather raise microorganisms.
brush or sponge, using a circular motion. Wash Moving from area of least contamination to area
between all fingers. Move from fingertips to the of most contamination decreases the possibility
elbow of one arm and repeat for the second arm. of spreading contamination.
4. Wash using a soft brush or sponge for at least 2 4. If a brush is used, it should be decontaminated
minutes. and either high-level disinfected or sterilized
before reuse; sponges, if used, should be
discarded.
5. Rinse each hand and arm separately, fingertips 5. Water should flow from area of least
first, holding hands above the level of elbows. contamination to area of most contamination to
Do not let rinse water flow over clean area. decrease the possibility of contamination.
6. Apply antiseptic agent and vigorously rub all 6. Use sufficient antiseptic to cover hands, fingers
surfaces of hands, fingers and forearms for at and forearms.
least 2 minutes.
7. Repeat #5 using clean water.2 7. See #5.
8. Use a separate sterile or clean cloth towel for 8. Moving from area of least contamination to area
each hand to wipe from the fingertips to the of most contamination decreases the possibility
elbow and then discard the towel. of spreading contamination.
9. While waiting to put on sterile or high-level 9. Contact with soiled objects contaminates clean
disinfected surgical gloves, hold hands above the hands. The area below the level of the waist is
level of the waist and do not touch anything. considered unclean.

Note: If scrubbed hands touch any contaminated surface or object before gloving, Steps 3 through 9
must be repeated.

REFERENCES

Colwell RR et al. 2003. Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple

filtration. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 100(3): 1051–1055.
Larson EL. 1988. Guideline for use of topical antimicrobial agents. Amer J Infect
Control 16(6): 253–266.
Salisbury DM et al. 1997. The effect of rings on microbial load of health care
workers’ hands. American Journal of Infection Control 25(1): 24–27.
Sorensen KC and J Luckman. 1979. Basic Nursing: A Psychophysiologic
Approach. WB Saunders Co.: Philadelphia, pp 934–938.
Huq A et al. 1996. A simple filtration method to remove plankton-associated
Vibrio cholera in raw waters supplies in developing countries. Appl Environ
Microbiol 62(7): 2508–2512.

2
If tap water is cloudy, most particulates (debris and organic material) can be removed by filtering through four layers of
moderately woven cotton cloth, such as cheese cloth or old sari material, before boiling or treating with dilute chlorine (sodium
hypochlorite) solution (Colwell et al 2003; Huq et al 1996).

A-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX B

ANTISEPTICS

Many chemicals qualify as antiseptics. The following antiseptics are

generally available in many parts of the world:

x 60–90% alcohols (ethyl, isopropyl or “methylated spirit”)

x 2–4% chlorhexidine gluconate (Hibiclens®, Hibiscrub®, Hibitane®)
x Chlorhexidine gluconate and cetrimide, various concentrations (Savlon®)
x 3% iodine; aqueous iodine and alcohol-containing (tincture of iodine)
products
x 7.5–10% iodophors, various concentrations (Betadine® or Wescodyne®)
x 0.5–4% chloroxylenol (Para-chloro-metaxylenol or PCMX) various
concentrations (Dettol®)
x 0.2–2% triclosan

In choosing an antiseptic, the desired characteristics (e.g., absorption and

persistence) should be considered along with evidence of a given product’s
safety and efficacy, its acceptability to staff and, most importantly, its cost
(Boyce and Pittet 2002; Larson 1995; Rutala 1996). Table B-1 lists several
recommended antiseptic solutions, their microbiologic activity and potential
uses. (The grading system used in this table is excellent, good, fair, and
none.)

ALCOHOL SOLUTIONS (ETHYL OR ISOPROPYL)

Note: In many countries, Ethyl and isopropyl alcohol (60–90%) are excellent antiseptics that are
alcohols are available as commonly available and inexpensive. Their rapid killing action makes them
“industrial methylated very effective in reducing numbers of microorganisms on skin, even under
spirit,” or ethyl alcohol
denatured with a small
gloves. Alcohols are effective against all hepatitis viruses and HIV. They
amount of wood (methyl) should not be used on mucous membranes (e.g., for vaginal preparation).
alcohol (Harpin and Rutter (Alcohols dry and irritate mucous membranes which, in turn, promotes the
1982). Because methyl growth of microorganisms.)
alcohol is the least effective
of the alcohols, it should
not be used alone as an Alcohols are among the safest known antiseptics. A 60–70% solution of ethyl
antiseptic or disinfectant. or isopropyl alcohol is effective, less drying to the skin and less expensive
Before using, be sure the than higher concentrations. Because it is less drying to the skin, ethyl alcohol
ethyl alcohol is of adequate may be more appropriate than isopropyl alcohol for frequent use on skin
strength (60–90%) in (Larson 1995).
locally available “spirit.”

Infection Prevention Guidelines B-1

Table B-1. Antiseptics: Microbiologic Activities and Potential Uses
GROUP ACTIVITY AGAINST POTENTIAL USES
BACTERIA
Affected
Most Relative
Gram- by Surgical Skin
Gram- TB Viruses Fungi Endospores Speed of Comments
Positive Organic Scrub Preparation
Negative Action
Matter
Alcohols Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent None Fast Moderate Yes Yes Not for use on
(60–90% ethyl or mucous membranes
isopropyl)
Not good for
physical cleaning
of skin, no
persistent activity

Chlorhexidine (2–4%) Excellent Good Fair Excellent Fair None Intermediate Slight Yes Yes Has good persistent
(Hibitane, Hibiscrub) effect
Toxicity to ears
and eyes

Iodine preparations Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Good Fair Intermediate Marked No Yes Not for use on
(3%) mucous membranes
Can burn skin so
remove after
several minutes

Iodophors (7.5–10%) Excellent Excellent Fair Good Good None Intermediate Moderate Yes Yes Can be used on
(Betadine) mucous membranes

Para-chloro- Good Excellent Fair Good Fair Unknown Slow Minimal No Yes Penetrates the skin
metaxylenol (PCMX) and should not be
(0.5–4%) used on newborns

Triclosan (0.2–2%) Excellent Good Fair Excellent None Unknown Intermediate Minimal Yes No Acceptability on
hands varies

Adapted from: Olmsted 1996; Boyce and Pittet 2002.

B-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Antiseptics

Advantages x Rapidly kill all fungi and bacteria including mycobacteria; isopropyl
alcohol kills most viruses, including HBV, HCV and HIV; ethyl alcohol
kills all viruses.
x Although alcohols have no persistent killing effect, the rapid reduction of
microorganisms on skin protects against regrowth of organisms, even
under gloves, for several hours.
x Are relatively inexpensive and widely available throughout the world.

Disadvantages x Need emollient (e.g., glycerin or propylene glycol) to prevent drying of

skin (ethyl alcohol may be less drying than isopropyl).
x Easily inactivated by organic materials.
x Flammable (requires storage in cool, well-ventilated areas).1
x Will damage rubber (latex) over time.
x Not good cleaning agents.

CHLORHEXIDINE GLUCONATE (CHG)

Chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) is an excellent antiseptic. It remains active

against microorganisms on skin many hours after use (residual effect) and is
safe even for use on newborn infants. Because CHG is inactivated by soap,
its residual antimicrobial activity is dependent upon the concentration of
CHG in the commercial product. Two to four percent chlorhexidine is the
recommended concentration. New 2% aqueous formulations and 1%
chlorhexidine in a waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub also are
effective (Larson 1995).

Advantages x Broad spectrum of antimicrobial action.

x Persistent action on skin (chemically active for at least 6 hours).2
x Chemical protection (the number of microorganisms inhibited) increases
with repeated use.
x Minimally affected by organic material.
x Several products available commercially, most common is in detergent
base or as a waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub.

Disadvantages x Expensive and not always available.

x Action reduced or neutralized by natural soaps, by substances present in
hard tap water and some hand creams.
x Not effective against tubercle bacillus, only fairly active against fungi.

1
Residual alcohol on hands or skin may be ignited by static electricity, so allow hands to dry thoroughly after using antiseptic
handrub.
2
For maximum effectiveness and residual activity, chlorhexidine should be used on a regular basis (at least daily).

Infection Prevention Guidelines B-3

Antiseptics

x Cannot be used above pH of 8 because it decomposes.

x Avoid contact with eyes as it can cause conjunctivitis.

IODINE AND IODOPHOR SOLUTIONS

Three percent iodine solutions are very effective antiseptics and are available
as both aqueous (Lugol) and tincture (iodine in 70% alcohol) solutions.
Seven and a half percent to ten percent iodophors are solutions of iodine
mixed with a carrier, a complexing agent such as polyvinyl pyrrolidone
(povidone) that releases small amounts of iodine. Povidone-iodine is the most
common iodophor and is available globally.
Note: Iodophors
manufactured for use as The amount of “free” iodine present determines the level of antimicrobial
antiseptics are not effective activity of iodophors (e.g., 10% povidone-iodine contains 1% available
for disinfecting inorganic
objects and surfaces. These iodine, yielding a “free” iodine concentration of 1 ppm [0.0001%])
iodine solutions have (Anderson 1989). Iodophors have a broad spectrum of activity. They kill
significantly less iodine vegetative bacteria, mycobacterium, viruses and fungi; however, they
than chemical disinfectants require up to 2 minutes of contact time to release free iodine, which is the
(Rutala 1996).
active chemical. Once released the free iodine has rapid killing action. In
addition, iodophors generally are nontoxic and nonirritating to skin and
mucous membranes unless the person is allergic to iodine (Larson 1995).

Advantages x Broad spectrum of antimicrobial action.

x Aqueous iodine preparations are inexpensive, effective and widely
available.
x Iodophors are nonirritating to skin or mucous membranes (unless the
person is allergic to iodine), making them ideal for vaginal use (e.g.,
before IUD insertion).
x Up to 3% aqueous solutions do not stain skin.

Disadvantages x Slow to intermediate antimicrobial action.

x Iodophors have little residual effect.
Note: Iodine (aqueous or x Like alcohols, iodine and iodophors are rapidly inactivated by organic
tincture) must never be
materials, such as blood or sputum.
used on mucous
membranes because of its x Tincture or aqueous iodine may cause skin irritation and staining, and must
rapid absorption and be removed from skin after drying. (Use alcohol to remove the stain.)
irritation to the epithelium.
x Absorption of free iodine through skin and mucous membranes may
cause hypothyroidism in newborn infants so use should be limited
(Newman 1989).
x Allergic reactions to iodine and iodophors can occur, so check patient for
history of allergy (iodine and shellfish).

B-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Antiseptics

Do not dilute commercially available iodophors manufactured for

antisepsis (Betadine or Wescodyne) as this increases the
concentration of “free” iodine that can be released and increase the
degree of skin irritation.

CHLOROHEXYLENOL

Note: In commercial Chlorohexylenol (para-chloro-metaxylenol or PCMX) is a halogenated

preparations such as Dettol, derivative of xylenol that is widely available in concentrations of 0.5–4%.
which is expensive, the Chlorohexylenol destroys microorganisms by breaking down the cell wall. It
antiseptic and disinfectant
has low germicidal activity (Favero 1985) compared to alcohols, iodine and
activity is due primarily to
the alcohol content, not the iodophors and is less effective in decreasing skin flora than either CHG or
chlorohexylenol. A 60–90% iodophors (Sheena and Stiles 1982). Because it penetrates the skin, it may be
alcohol solution is equally toxic when applied to some areas of the body, and should not be used on
effective and much less newborns. Therefore, commercial products with chlorohexylenol
expensive.
concentrations above 4% should not be used.

Advantages x Broad spectrum of activity.

x Only minimally affected by organic materials.
x Residual effect persists for several hours.
x Minimally affected by organic matter.

Disadvantages x Inactivated by soaps (nonionic surfactants), making it less useful for skin
preparation.
x Should not be used on newborns due to rapid absorption and potential
toxicity.

TRICLOSAN

Triclosan is a colorless substance that has been incorporated into soaps as an

antimicrobial agent. Concentrations from 0.2–2.0% have moderate
antimicrobial activity against gram-positive cocci, mycobateria and yeast but
not gram-negative bacilli, especially P. aeruginosa (Larson 1995). Although
concern has been expressed that resistance to this agent may develop more
readily than with other antiseptic agents, resistance to skin flora has not been
observed in long-term clinical studies to date.

Advantages x Broad spectrum of activity.

x Excellent persistence.
x Minimally affected by organic matter.

Disadvantages x Not affective against P. aeruginosa or other gram-negative bacilli.

x Bacteriostatic (only inhibits growth).

Infection Prevention Guidelines B-5

Antiseptics

PRODUCTS THAT SHOULD NOT BE USED AS ANTISEPTICS

Hexachlorophene Three percent hexachlorophene is active against gram-positive cocci such as

(HCP) staphylococcus, but has little or no activity against gram-negative bacteria,
viruses, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and fungi. It is slow acting, and one
wash with hexachlorophene does not reduce skin flora. Hexachlorophene has
neurotoxic side effects and can penetrate the skin of premature infants. It
should never be used on broken skin or mucous membranes. Also, when it is
used intermittently, bacteria may grow back in large numbers between uses
(rebound growth), all of which limits use (Larson 1995).

Zephiran® Zephiran is commonly used in many parts of the world as an antiseptic, but it
(benzalkonium has several distinct disadvantages:
chloride)
x Solutions of benzalkonium chloride have repeatedly been shown to
become contaminated by Pseudomonas species and other common
bacteria (Block 1991).
x Solutions of benzalkonium chloride are easily inactivated by cotton
gauze and other organic material and are incompatible with soap (Block
1991).
x Zephiran takes at least 10 minutes to kill HIV, the virus causing AIDS
(Angle 1992). By contrast, 0.5% chlorine solution kills HIV in less than 1
minute.

Mercury Laurel or Although frequently sold as antiseptics, chemicals containing mercury

Other Mercury- should be avoided because of their high toxicity (Block 1991):
Containing Compounds
x Skin exposure to low levels of mercury causes blister formation and
contact dermatitis.
x Inhalation or ingestion of low levels of mercury affects the central
nervous system (numbness, speech impairment, deafness), and higher
levels (200 mg) are fatal.
x Skin contact alone can result in absorption of measurable amounts of
mercury.
x Pregnant women exposed to small doses may not show toxic effects
themselves. The fetus, however, may be harmed because mercury is a
potent teratogen (causes birth defects, including cleft palate, cerebral
palsy and other central nervous system abnormalities).

REFERENCES

Anderson RI. 1989. Iodophor antiseptics: Intrinsic microbial contamination

with resistant bacteria. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 10: 443–446.
Angle M. 1992. Infection Prevention in FP/MCH, in Guidelines for Clinical
Procedures in Family Planning. INTRAH: Chapel Hill, NC.

B-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Antiseptics

Block SS. 1991. Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th ed. Lea &
Febiger: Philadelphia.
Boyce JM and D Pittet. 2002. Guidelines for hand hygiene in healthcare settings:
Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory
Committee and the HICPAC/SHSA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force.
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23(Suppl): S3–S40. Available at:
http://www.cdc.gov/handhygiene.
Favero MS. 1985. Sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis in the hospital, in
Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 4th ed. American Society for Clinical
Microbiology: Washington, DC, pp 129–137.
Harpin V and N Rutter. 1982. Percutaneous alcohol absorption and skin
necrosis in a preterm infant. Arch Dis Child 57(6): 478.
Larson EL. 1995. APIC guideline for handwashing and hand antisepsis in
health care settings. Amer J Infect Control 23(4): 251–269.
Newman NM. 1989. Use of povidone-iodine in umbilical cord care. Clin
Pediatrics 28(1): 37.
Olmsted RN (ed). 1996. Infection Control and Applied Epidemiology:
Principles and Practices. Association for Practitioners in Infection Control
(APIC), Table 19-2. CV Mosby: St. Louis, MO.
Rutala WA. 1996. APIC guideline for selection and use of disinfectants.
Amer J Infect Control 24(4): 313–342.
Sheena AZ and ME Stiles. 1982. Efficacy of germicidal handwashing agents
in hygienic hand disinfection. Br J Med 65: 855–858.

Infection Prevention Guidelines B-7

Antiseptics

B-8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX C

PROCESSING SURGICAL GLOVES

The risk in reusing surgical gloves is that processed gloves have more
inapparent tears than new ones and therefore provide less protection to the
wearer. Sterilization (autoclaving) and high-level disinfection (steaming) of
gloves, when correctly performed, however, can provide a high quality
product (Chapter 14). In addition, double gloving for high-risk procedures
can be done. Therefore, processing surgical gloves constitutes an
appropriate reuse of disposable items where resources are limited
(Daschner 1993).

HOW TO DECONTAMINATE AND CLEAN SURGICAL GLOVES BEFORE STERILIZATION

OR HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTION (HLD)

STEP 1: Before removing soiled surgical gloves, immerse hands briefly in a

container filled with 0.5% chlorine solution.
STEP 2: Remove gloves by turning inside out and soak them in the chlorine
solution for 10 minutes.

(Performing Steps 1 and 2 insures that both surfaces of the gloves are
decontaminated.)
Note: Latex rubber surgical
gloves should be discarded STEP 3: Wash gloves in soapy water, cleaning inside and out.
after processing three times STEP 4: Rinse gloves in clean water until no soap or detergent remains.
because the gloves tear
more easily with additional (Residual soap or detergent can interfere with sterilization or HLD.)
processing (Bagg, Jenkins STEP 5: Test gloves for holes by inflating them by hand and holding them
and Barker 1990; Martin et
al 1988).
under water. (Air bubbles will appear if there are holes.)
STEP 6: Gently air dry gloves inside and out before proceeding with
sterilization. (Gloves which remain wet for long periods of time will absorb
water and become tacky.)

HOW TO STERILIZE SURGICAL GLOVES

After decontamination, cleaning and drying, gloves must be packaged prior

to sterilizing by autoclaving. First, fold the cuffs of the gloves out toward the
Remember: Higher palm so that after sterilization they can be put on easily and without
temperatures and pressures contamination. Next, put gauze or paper inside each glove and under the fold
are destructive to gloves. of the cuff and wrap the gloves as shown in Figure C-1. (Do not tie tightly or
wrap glove packs with rubber bands.) Finally, place them in a wire basket on
their sides to allow optimum steam penetration. (If gloves are stacked in
piles, penetration of steam under the cuffs may be poor.) Autoclave at 121qC
(250qF) for 30 minutes and at a pressure of 106 kPa (15 lb/in2).

Infection Prevention Guidelines C-1

Processing Surgical Gloves

Figure C-1. Preparing Gloves for Autoclaving (Steam Sterilization)

Immediately after autoclaving, gloves are extremely friable and tear easily.
Gloves should not be used for 24 to 48 hours to allow their elasticity to
return and to prevent tackiness (stickiness) (Table C-1).

Table C-1. Tips to Help Avoid Glove Problems

PROBLEM: TACKY OR STICKY GLOVES
Probable Cause Recommended Solution
Residual liquid soap or detergent Reduce amount of liquid soap or detergent used when washing
gloves.
Rinse gloves at least three times in clean water.
Heated to high temperature for too long Use 30 minutes sterilizing time at 121qC (250qF) and remove
gloves from sterilizer as soon as cycle is completed.
Gloves sterilized with other goods Sterilize gloves separately.
Gloves not allowed to dry completely after steaming Wear “wet” within 30 minutes or allow to dry for 4 to 6 hours
before using.
Surfaces of gloves touching each other Gauze or paper wicks should be inserted between the palm
and back of hand of each glove and between the hand of the
glove and the turned-back cuff. This allows steam to contact
all surfaces during sterilization and prevents surfaces from
adhering to each other.
Breakdown (deterioration) of rubber (latex) Store in a dry, cool area.
(Rubber gloves deteriorate while stored even though they Do not store in direct sunlight.
have not been used. They become soft, sticky and
unusable.)
PROBLEM: EXCESSIVE TEARING OR RUPTURING
Gloves used too soon following sterilization Do not use gloves for 24 to 48 hours after sterilization. This
allows gloves to regain their elasticity before use.

Source: Tomlinson 1991.

C-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Processing Surgical Gloves

HOW TO HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECT SURGICAL GLOVES BY STEAMING

After surgical gloves have been decontaminated and thoroughly washed, they
are ready for HLD by steaming (McIntosh et al 1994). (See Chapter 12 for
more information on steaming.)

STEP 1: Fold up the cuffs of the gloves so that they can be put on easily and
without contamination after HLD.
STEP 2: Place gloves into one of the steamer pans that has holes in its
bottom. To make removal from the pan easier, the cuffs should be facing
outward toward the edge of the pan (Figure C-2). Five to fifteen pairs can be
put in each pan depending on the size (diameter) of the pans.

Figure C-2. Gloves in Steamer Pan

STEP 3: Repeat this process until up to three steamer pans have been filled
with gloves. Stack the filled steamer pans on top of a bottom pan containing
water for boiling. A second empty, dry bottom pan (without holes) should be
placed on the counter next to the heat source (see Step 9).
STEP 4: Place the lid on the top pan and bring water to a full rolling boil.
Remember: Be sure there is (When water only simmers, very little steam is formed and the temperature
sufficient water in the
may not get high enough to kill microorganisms.)
bottom pan for the entire 20
minutes of steaming. STEP 5: When steam begins to come out between the pans and the lid, start
the timer or note the time on a clock and record the time in the HLD log.
STEP 6: Steam gloves for 20 minutes.
STEP 7: Remove the top steamer pan and put the lid on the pan that was
below it (the pan now on top). Gently shake excess water from the pan just
removed.
STEP 8: Place pan just removed onto the empty bottom pan (see Step 3).
Repeat until all pans containing gloves are restacked on this empty pan and
the top pan is covered with the lid. (This step allows the gloves to cool and
dry without becoming contaminated.)

Infection Prevention Guidelines C-3

Processing Surgical Gloves

Remember: Do not place STEP 9: Allow gloves to air dry in the steamer pans (4 to 6 hours) before
pans containing gloves on a using.1
table top, counter or other
surface as gloves will be STEP 10: Using a high-level disinfected forceps, transfer the dry items to a
contaminated. dry, high-level disinfected container2 with a tight-fitting cover. Gloves can
also be stored in the stacked and covered steamer pans as long as a bottom
pan (no holes) is used.

REFERENCES

Bagg J, S Jenkins and GR Barker. 1990. A laboratory assessment of the

antimicrobial effectiveness of glove washing and re-use in dental practice. J
Hosp Infect 15(1): 73–82.
Daschner F. 1993. The hospital and pollution: Role of the hospital
epidemiologist in protecting the environment, in Prevention and Control of
Nosocomial Infections, 2nd ed. Wenzel RP (ed). Williams & Wilkins:
Baltimore, MD.
Martin MV et al. 1988. A physical and microbial evaluation of the re-use of
non-sterile gloves. Br Dent J 165(9): 321–324.
McIntosh N et al. 1994. Practical Methods for High-Level Disinfection of
Surgical Gloves. Paper presented at American Public Health Association
Annual Meeting. Session no. 2285, Washington, D.C., 31 October–4
November.
South East Asia Office (SEARO)/World Health Organization (WHO). 1988.
Manual on Infection Control in Health Facilities. SEARO Regional Health
Papers No. 18: New Delhi.
Tomlinson M. 1991. Personal reference. Chosen Mission Project: Erie, PA.

1
Alternatively, allow gloves to cool for 5 to 10 minutes before wearing “wet.” Gloves should be used within 30 minutes, if
possible. After this time, the fingers of the gloves stick together, and the gloves are hard to put on despite being damp. Gloves that
have been removed from the steamer pan(s) to be worn “wet” but were not used during the clinic session should be reprocessed
before using.
2
How to prepare a high-level disinfected container: For small containers, boil water in the covered container for 20 minutes, then
pour out the water, which can be used for other purposes, replace the cover and allow container to dry. Alternatively, and for large
containers, fill a plastic container with 0.5% chlorine solution and immerse the cover in chlorine solution as well. Soak both for 20
minutes. (The chlorine solution can then be transferred to another container and reused.) Rinse the cover and the inside of the
container three times with boiled water and allow to air dry.

C-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX D

PRECAUTIONS FOR THE SURGICAL TEAM

Safety in the operating room, both for patients and staff, requires careful
planning, use of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) and
demands daily attention and maintenance by the surgical team members
and support staff. While traditionally the focus of attention in the OR has
been almost totally directed to protecting the patient, the emergence of the
HIV/AIDS crisis, increasing HCV rates and resurgence of tuberculosis
necessitate that equal attention be given to protecting health workers and
professional staff. In this new era, each member of the team must develop
the habit of focusing on both patient safety and occupational safety at the
same time.

The following section contains safety checklists for the surgical team that
have been adapted from an operating room safety manual by Davis (2001).
They are intended to serve as general guides to improving safety in the
operating room. In addition, they serve as reminders and as means of
raising awareness of risk. These checklists are “not set in stone.” They
should be tailored to procedures and personnel, regularly reviewed and
updated as new knowledge and safety practices evolve.

Infection Prevention Guidelines D-1

Precautions for the Surgical Team

GENERAL SAFETY CHECKLIST

(FOR SURGICAL TEAM)
Absolute prerequisites
R Complete the hepatitis B vaccination series.
R Use Standard Precautions with all patients.
Personal protective equipmentappropriate choices
R Wear fluid-resistant head wear where appropriate.
R Use adequate eye and face protection.
R Use appropriate neck protection (consider recently shaved skin as nonintact).
R Wear fluid-resistant or fluid-impervious gowns, as appropriate to expected exposure risk (if
available).
R Choose gloves appropriately (use double gloving, see below).
R Wear appropriate footwear (shoes not open toed or flip flops).
Personal protective equipmentappropriate use
R Remove gloves carefully to avoid blood splatter.
R Wash hands with soap and clean water or use antiseptic handscrub after removing gloves.
R Remove eye protection last.
R Remove contaminated personal protective equipment (PPE) before leaving the room.
R Carefully remove and discard mask following every procedure.
Safety techniques
R Wear examination gloves when handling surgical specimens.
R Wear eye protection if container is opened or splashing is anticipated.
R Apply dressings and handle drains or packs wearing clean new examination gloves.
R Avoid touching any surface with contaminated gloves.
Safety strategies
R Have extra PPE readily available should replacements be needed.
R Position sharps disposal containers at point of use.
R Have a plan for sharps management.
R Make sure all team members know the plan.
R Modify the plan as needed.
R Focus attention on sharps in use; be aware and alert.
R Alert other OR team members to possible hazards.
R Discourage unauthorized entry into the room.
R Keep extraneous conversation to a minimum.
R Store a tube of blood preoperatively on all surgical patients to be held in the laboratory for
possible HIV testing should an exposure occur.
R A signed consent for HIV testing, in case of an exposure, should be obtained preoperatively to
avoid delay in post-exposure followup.

D-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Precautions for the Surgical Team

Personal preparation
R Prepare your body and mind to function effectively and efficiently.
R Get enough sleep before surgery. If you are working a long shift on obstetrics or trauma service,
nap if and when you can.
R Avoid caffeine, which increases hand tremor.
R Avoid alcohol or other substances that impair perception, judgment or reflexes.
R Promote general good health. Exercise regularly and have an annual physical.
R Avoid behaviors that increase nonoccupational risk of exposure to bloodborne viruses, such as
unsafe sex.

SAFE ASSISTING AND OPERATING CHECKLIST

R Use forceps to put scalpel blade on handle.

R Avoid handling suture needles manually.
R Never hold a scalpel, loaded needle holder, or any other sharp in the same hand simultaneously with
another instrument.
R Scalpels, loaded needle holders, and other sharps should be held in the hand only during cutting,
suturing, or for other specific tasks. At all other times, sharps should be placed off the operative
field.
R Properly employ a Safe Zone for the safe passing of sharps.
R Use verbal warnings to announce transfer of sharps.
R Before tying, either remove the needle from the suture and park the needle safely, or protect the
needle point with the needle holder.
R Avoid finger contact with tissue being sutured or cut.
R Use retractors rather than manual retracting whenever possible.
R Avoid reflex sponging of tissue, which may not be anticipated by the surgeon, when a sharp is in
use.
R Keep eyes on all sharps in use until they are returned to the Safe Zone.
R Pass long laparoscopic instruments, such as needle tip cautery and sharp-pointed scissors, handle
first and tip down.
R Replace the shield onto the tip of a drain trocar with an instrument, not the fingers, before pulling the
trocar out of the exit wound.
R When doing repeat injections with hypodermic needle and syringe, stick needle in rolled, sterile
towel when not in use.
R Remove scalpel blade using forceps; place in sharps container.

Infection Prevention Guidelines D-3

Precautions for the Surgical Team

OPERATING ROOM SAFETY CHECKLIST

(Post at scrub sinks or at OR doors)

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

R Head wear that covers scalp hair
R Eye and face protection in place
R Appropriate gown
R Impervious boots
R Double gloves or glove liners as indicated
R Waterproof drapes (if available)
WORK PRACTICE CONTROLS
R Safe Zone selected and deployed
R Surgeon( ) right-handed ( ) left-handed
R Assistant ( ) right-handed ( ) left-handed
R Appropriate suture needle selection (blunt if applicable)
R Appropriate retractor selection (blunt if applicable)
R Disposable scalpels (if available)
R Smoke evacuation equipment available and functioning (operative laparoscopy)
SHARPS MANAGEMENT
R Sharps disposal container
DELIVERY ROOM SAFETY CHECKLIST
(Post at scrub sinks or at OR doors)

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

R Head wear that covers scalp hair
R Eye and face protection in place
R Appropriate gown
R Impervious boots/shoe covers
R Double gloves, extended cuff gloves (gauntlet) or glove liners as indicated
R Waterproof drapes (if available)
WORK PRACTICE CONTROLS
R SAFE Zone (cesarean section)
R Surgeon ( ) right-handed ( ) left-handed
R Assistant ( ) right-handed ( ) left-handed
R Appropriate suture needle selection (blunt if applicable for episiotomy)
R Appropriate retractor selection (blunt if applicable for cesarean section)
SHARPS MANAGEMENT
R Sharps disposal container
D-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines
 Precautions for the Surgical Team

MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY SAFETY CHECKLIST

R Pass trocars, needles, and other short-length sharps through a Safe Zone.
R Pass long laparoscopic instruments that don’t fit in the Safe Zone, such as needle-tip cautery and
sharp-pointed scissors, handle first and tip down.
R Place long-pointed cautery needles, hollow-bore needles or other long sharps into sleeve ports,
on request only, using two handspreferably one person’s handsand then angle the handle
toward the surgeon’s waiting hand.
R Blunt-tipped suture needles may be used effectively during laparoscopic hysterectomy and are
considered a safer option for patient and surgeon.
R Avoid sprayback; use trocar valves to protect anesthesia personnel as well as the surgical team
members.
R Aspirate all gas, fluid, and blood from the abdomen prior to closing.
SAFE SHARPS DISPOSAL CHECKLIST

R Choose containers with built-in safety features, such as “see-through” (translucent) boxes with a
readily apparent three fourths and full level lines.
R Lids should allow the sharp to enter the container by gravity alone, without the need for
additional manipulation.
R Install containers close to the point of use ideally within arm’s reach.
R Mount containers at a convenient height for use and service, in plain sight and free from
obstructions.
R Do not leave containers freestanding on the floor on their side.
R Do not shake containers to avoid spillage or sharps sticking out.
R Schedule staff training and education for proper use of sharps containers.
R Assign responsibility for maintenance and service of sharps containers.

Infection Prevention Guidelines D-5

Precautions for the Surgical Team

REFERENCES

Davis MS. 2001. Advanced Precautions for Today’s OR: The Operating
Room Professional's Handbook for the Prevention of Sharps Injuries and
Bloodborne Exposures, 2nd ed. Sweinbinder Publications LLC: Atlanta.

D-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX E

DECONTAMINATING AND CLEANING

SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND HYPODERMIC NEEDLES
AND SYRINGES

HOW TO DECONTAMINATE AND CLEAN SURGICAL (METAL) INSTRUMENTS

Decontamination STEP 1: After use, immerse all instruments in a plastic container filled with
0.5% chlorine solution or other locally available disinfectant for 10 minutes
for decontamination. (This step is necessary to help prevent transmission of
HBV or HIV/AIDS to clinic staff.)
STEP 2: If the instruments and other items cannot be cleaned immediately,
rinse the objects with water and towel dry to minimize possible corrosion

Cleaning STEP 3: Scrub instruments under the surface of the water to prevent
splashing of infectious materials. Use a soft brush and liquid soap or
detergent and water. Be sure to clean the teeth, joints and screws—an old
Remember: When toothbrush works well.
cleaning instruments and
other items, wear utility
gloves and, if available, Do not use hot water because it coagulates protein, making blood
protective eyewear, a and body fluids hard to remove.
facemask and a plastic or
rubber apron.
STEP 4: Rinse with clean water until no soap or detergent remains.1 Soap or
detergent can interfere with the action of some chemical disinfectants.
STEP 5: Dry by air or with a clean towel. Water from wet instruments will
dilute chemicals used for sterilization or high-level disinfection (HLD),
making them ineffective. (Drying is not necessary for instruments that are to
be high-level disinfected by boiling or steaming.)
STEP 6: Proceed with sterilization (if available) or HLD (see Chapter 11
or 12).

HOW TO DECONTAMINATE, DISPOSE OF OR REPROCESS HYPODERMIC NEEDLES

AND SYRINGES

The processing and disposal of hypodermic needles and syringes constitute

a special problem. Clearly, to minimize the risk of needlestick injuries to
staff and because needles are difficult to clean and either sterilize or high-
level disinfect satisfactorily, they should be reused as little as possible.

1
If tap water is contaminated, use water that has been boiled for 10 minutes and filtered to remove particulate matter (if
necessary), or use chlorinated water—water treated with a dilute bleach solution (sodium hypochlorite) to make the final
concentration 0.001% (see Chapter 26).

Infection Prevention Guidelines E-1

Decontaminating and Cleaning Instruments and Needles and Syringes

Processing used needles represents an inappropriate reuse of disposables

and is responsible for numerous infections (Kane et al 1999; Phillips et al
1971; Simonsen et al 1999). In some circumstances (where resources are
limited), however, it is the only available option.

Instructions When available and affordable, single-use disposable sterile plastic syringes
and needles or one of the new autodisable syringes are recommended for all
patient care use. If disposables are being used, it is important to:

x Maintain adequate supplies.

x Decontaminate assembled needles and syringes and discard them in a
puncture-resistant sharps container immediately after use.2
x Dispose of these containers by burning, encapsulating or burying them.

As mentioned above, if needles and syringes will be reused, the safest

approach is to process only syringes, but not needles. For those situations
where both needles and syringes must be reused, care must be taken to
avoid accidental needlesticks to cleaning staff during processing. Instructions
for disposing of the needle and syringe or reprocessing either the syringe
alone or both items are given below.

Disposal of Needle STEP 1: Do not recap needle or disassemble needle and syringe.
and Syringe
STEP 2: After use, to decontaminate the needle and syringe, hold the needle
tip under the surface of a 0.5% chlorine solution, fill with solution and push
out (flush) three times.
Note: Sharps containers
should be placed close to STEP 3: Place the assembled needle and syringe in a puncture-resistant sharps
the area they will be container such as a heavy cardboard box, plastic bottle or tin can with lid.
used—within arm’s reach
if possible. STEP 4: When the container is three-quarters full, seal and either burn,
encapsulate or bury it.

Disposal of Needle but STEP 1: Do not recap needle or disassemble needle and syringe.
Syringe Reused
STEP 2: Immediately after use, fill the syringe with a 0.5% chlorine solution
by drawing it into the syringe through the needle.
STEP 3: Decontaminate assembled needle and syringe by placing in a 0.5%
chlorine solution for 10 minutes.
STEP 4: Wearing utility gloves, remove the needle and syringe from
decontamination solution, and push out (flush) solution from the assembled
needle and syringe.

2
Even the SoloShot FX¥ autodisable syringe (Chapter 7) can be decontaminated because after use about 0.1 mL of chlorine
solution can be drawn up. This volume is sufficient to completely fill the needle as well as cover the surface of the plunger and
bottom of the syringe.

E-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Decontaminating and Cleaning Instruments and Needles and Syringes

STEP 5: Remove the needle from the syringe. (If available, use forceps and
grasp the needle at the base where it attaches to the syringe and carefully
remove it by turning.)
STEP 6: Dispose of needle in a puncture-resistant sharps container. (When the
container is three-quarters full, seal and either burn, encapsulate or bury it.)
STEP 7: Take the syringe apart, then wash in soapy water and rinse it at least
three times with clean water.
STEP 8: Sterilize syringes by autoclaving or high-level disinfect them by
boiling or steaming.
STEP 9: Store sterile or high-level disinfected syringes in a sterile or high-
level disinfected container with a tight-fitting cover.

Reuse of Both Needle STEP 1: Do not recap the needle or disassemble the needle and syringe.
and Syringe (not
STEP 2: Immediately after use, fill the syringe with a 0.5% chlorine solution
recommended)
by drawing it into the syringe through the needle.
STEP 3: Decontaminate the assembled needle and syringe by placing in a
0.5% chlorine solution for 10 minutes.
STEP 4: Wearing utility gloves, remove from decontamination solution and
push out (flush) solution from assembled needle and syringe.
STEP 5: Use forceps to take needle and syringe apart, then clean with soapy
water. (Be sure to clean hub area of the needle.) Insert a stylet or needle wire
through the hub of the needle to be sure it is not blocked.
STEP 6: Use forceps to put the syringe and needle back together. Rinse at
least three times by filling with clean water and pushing out (flushing) water
into another container so as not to contaminate the rinse water.
STEP 7: Use forceps to detach the needle from the syringe.
STEP 8: Examine the needle and syringe for:

x bent needle tip or other damage,

x needle hub fit to syringe, and
x readable syringe markers (lines indicating volume—cc or mL).

STEP 9: Use forceps to handle and dispose of damaged needles in a

puncture-resistant sharps container. (When container is three-quarters full,
seal and either burn, encapsulate or bury it.)
STEP 10: Sterilize by autoclaving or high-level disinfect needles and
syringes by boiling or steaming.

Infection Prevention Guidelines E-3

Decontaminating and Cleaning Instruments and Needles and Syringes

STEP 11: Store disassembled sterile or high-level disinfected needles and

syringes in a sterile or high-level disinfected container with a tight fitting
cover.

REFERENCE

Kane A et al. 1999. Transmission of hepatitis B, hepatitits C and human

immunodeficiency viruses through unsafe injections in the developing world:
Model-based regional estimates. Bull World Health Organ 77(10): 801–807.
Phillips I et al. 1971. Pseudomonas cepacia (multivorans) septicaemia in an
intensive care unit. Lancet 1(695): 375–377.
Simonsen L et al. 1999. Unsafe injections in the developing world and
transmission of bloodborne pathogens: A review. Bull World Health Organ
77(10): 789–800.

E-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX F

CHEMICAL DISINFECTANTS

A number of chemicals are classified as high-level disinfectants and are used

alone or in various combinations to disinfect medical instruments and
equipment. In addition, some, such as glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde, are
also classified for use as chemical sterilants (“cold sterilization”) when items are
soaked in them for prolonged periods of time (10–24 hours) (see Chapter 11).

Two new disinfectants, ortho-phthalaldehyde and peracetic acid, are not

covered in this appendix. Experience with both is limited (e.g., peracetic acid
is only used in the US in an automated machine for sterilization), and they
are expensive. Rather, the intent is to provide performance characteristics on
those disinfectants most readily available in countries with limited resources.
These include chemicals such as alcohol (ethyl and isopropyl), chlorine and
chlorine-releasing compounds, formaldehyde, various glutaraldehydes, and
iodines and iodophors.

An exception to this is a novel new disinfectant, called superoxidized water,

that has promise for use in developing countries. It is produced by
electrolyzing saline (sea water) to create a disinfectant or antiseptic. Because
the basic materials (sea water and electricity) are cheap, and the end product
(water) is not damaging to the environment, superoxidized water could
become an important new disinfectant some day. Because it loses activity
with time, usually it is generated at the point of use. Recently, however, when
tested under clean conditions, superoxidized water was found to be effective
in disinfecting endoscopes within 5 minutes, even when 48 hours old
(Selkon, Babb and Morris 1999). Unfortunately, at present the equipment
needed to produce the product is expensive.

ALCOHOLS

Ethyl and isopropyl (2-propyl) alcohol (60–90%) are excellent disinfectants

that are commonly available and inexpensive. Their rapid killing action and
lack of chemical residue makes them ideal for disinfection of many medical
items. The activity of both alcohols, however, drops sharply when diluted
below 50%, with the optimal concentration range being 60–90% solutions
with water (volume/volume).

In many countries, alcohol is available as “industrial methylated

spirit” or ethyl alcohol denatured with a small amount of wood
(methyl) alcohol (Harpin and Rutter 1982). Because methyl alcohol
is the least effective alcohol, it should not be used alone as an
antiseptic or disinfectant. Before using, be sure the ethyl alcohol is
of adequate strength (60–90%) in locally available “spirit.”

Infection Prevention Guidelines F-1

Chemical Disinfectants

Ethyl and isopropyl alcohol are not considered to be high-level disinfectants

because they do not inactivate bacterial endospores and some viruses. For
example, isopropyl alcohol also does not kill hydrophilic viruses (e.g.,
echovirus, coxsackie virus) (Rutala 1996; Rutala 1993). Alcohols are,
however, effective against HBV, HCV and HIV.

Advantages Rapidly kill all fungi and bacteria including mycobacteria; isopropyl alcohol
kills most viruses, including HBV and HIV, and ethyl alcohol kills all
viruses; both are tuberculocidal (Rutala 1996).

x Rapid killing action.

x Not corrosive to metal.
x Inexpensive in comparison to other disinfectants.
x Useful for soaking rubber or latex items occasionally.
x Leave no chemical residue and therefore do not require rinsing.

Disadvantages x Evaporate rapidly, which makes extended contact times difficult unless
the items are immersed.
x Do not penetrate organic material and are easily inactivated.
x Flammable.
x May swell or harden rubber and plastics if used repeatedly or for
prolonged periods of time.
x Damage shellac mounting of lenses in endoscopes.

Considerations for Use x Primarily used as antiseptic and as low- or intermediate-level disinfectant
(wiping oral and rectal thermometers and disinfecting external surfaces
of equipment—stethoscopes, cryoprobe tips, ultrasound probes, Ambu
bags or anatomic models).
x Store in a cool, well-ventilated area because they are flammable.

CHLORINE AND CHLORINE-RELEASING COMPOUNDS

Hypochlorites are the most widely used of the chlorine disinfectants and are
available in liquid (sodium hypochlorite) and solid (calcium hypochlorite and
sodium dichloroisocyanurate) forms.

Chlorine solutions and compounds are high-level disinfectants because they

inactivate all bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites and some spores (Russell, Hugo
and Ayliffe 1982). They are fast-acting, very effective against HBV, HCV and
HIV/AIDS, inexpensive and readily available. They are extremely useful for
decontaminating soiled surgical instruments, gloves and other items as well as
large surfaces such as examination tables (Shapshak et al 1993).

F-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Chemical Disinfectants

When potable (clean) water is available, 0.1% chlorine solution is

satisfactory for high-level disinfection. If the chlorine is to be diluted with
contaminated (unfiltered) tap water, a higher concentration (0.5%) should be
used because much of the chlorine will be inactivated by the microscopic
organic matter in the water (WHO 1988). (Instructions for preparing 0.1%
and 0.5% chlorine solutions from liquid household bleach [sodium
hypochlorite] are listed in Table 10-1.) Dilute solutions can also be made
from other chlorine-releasing compounds available in powder (calcium
hypochlorite or chlorinated lime) or tablet form (sodium dichloroisocyurate)
(Table 10-2). If stored in closed brown bottles, various concentrations of
commercial bleach solutions (1:100 to 1:5) do not lose their efficacy as fast
as formerly thought (50% to 97% potency at 30 days), with higher
concentrations being more stable (Rutala et al 1998).

Sodium Hypochlorite Advantages

(Chlorine Bleach)
x Usually is the least expensive and most readily available disinfectant.
x Easy to prepare and use.
x Quickly inactivates all viruses including HBV, HCV and HIV, as well as
killing tubercle bacillus.
x Very useful for decontaminating soiled surgical instruments, gloves and
other items, and large surface areas. (HLD takes 20 minutes, but
decontamination can take as little as 60 seconds to kill HIV!)

Disadvantages

x Inactivated by organic matter. (Chloramine-T, an alternative compound

Note: Depending on the that releases chlorine, is not inactivated by organic matter to the same
use, HLD versus extent as hypochlorites according to WHO 1988.)
decontamination, 0.1 %
solutions can be made with x Loses potency on standing if left in open container (replace at least
boiled and filtered (if daily).
necessary) water in
advance and stored in x May corrode metal instruments with prolonged exposure (>20 minutes)
closed dark bottles for at to concentrations greater than 0.5%. To minimize corrosion:
least a month with little
loss of potency. x solutions should not be prepared or kept in metal containers (use
plastic containers when possible);1
x exposure time should not exceed 20 minutes; and
x metal items should be thoroughly rinsed with water and dried after
decontamination, or they can be placed in clean water for up to 1
hour before washing.

1
Electrolytic corrosion occurs when two or more dissimilar metals are placed in water or salt solutions, especially if the items are
actually touching each other. To avoid this type of corrosion, steel and aluminum instruments should be immersed in separate
trays. Also, if metal trays or pans (e.g., stainless steel) are used, a plastic mat or gauze pad should be placed on the bottom of the
tray to prevent metal-to-metal contact during soaking. This is especially important when metal instruments are soaked for
prolonged periods (12–24 hours) for chemical sterilization.

Infection Prevention Guidelines F-3

Chemical Disinfectants

Considerations for Use

x Decontamination of surgical instruments, gloves and other items before

cleaning (0.1%–0.5% depending on the quality of the water).
x HLD of plastic items, such as suction cannulae (0.1% made up in water
that has been filtered and then boiled for 20 minutes). (See Table F-1 for
details.)
x Cleaning up blood or other potentially infectious body fluid spills and
wiping down large surfaces (0.5%).
x Clean water for drinking or medical use (cleaning instruments) at
0.001%.

Calcium Hypochlorite Calcium hypochlorite and chlorinated lime are available in powder form.
or Chlorinated Lime Recommended dilutions are listed in Table 10-2.

x Calcium hypochlorite contains approximately 70% available chlorine.

x Chlorinated lime contains approximately 35% available chlorine.

The availability of prediluted chlorinated lime solutions can be confusing.

For example, Eusol® is chlorinated lime and boric acid and contains 0.25%
available chlorine. This is sufficient for disinfection of clean equipment, but
is half the level recommended by WHO for decontamination of contaminated
equipment (WHO 1988).

Advantages

x Both decompose more slowly than sodium hypochlorite, but they still
should be protected by storing away from heat and light.

Disadvantages

x Inactivated by organic matter.

x Like all chlorine compounds, may corrode metal with prolonged
exposure (>20 minutes) to concentrations greater than 0.5% unless
thoroughly rinsed.
x More difficult to prepare dilute solutions due to poor solubility in
alkaline water (pH >8) and amount of nondissolvable particulate matter
in most products.

Sodium Sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) forms hypochlorous acid when

Dichloroisocyanurate dissolved in water. It is available as powder or tablets. NaDCC powder has
60% available chlorine; NaDCC tablets contain 1.5 g available chlorine per
tablet. (See Table 10-2 for how to make recommended dilutions.)

F-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Chemical Disinfectants

Advantages

x NaDCC does not decompose as quickly as sodium or calcium

hypochlorite.
x Tablets are easy to use for measuring.

Disadvantages

x More expensive than sodium or calcium hypchlorite.

x Like all chlorine compounds, they may corrode metal with prolonged
exposure (>20 minutes) to concentrations greater than 0.5% unless
thoroughly rinsed.

FORMALDEHYDE

Formaldehyde in both liquid and gaseous forms can be used as a chemical

sterilant, as well as a high-level disinfectant (Taylor, Barbeito and Gremillion
1969; Tulis 1973). Its uses are limited by its irritating fumes and pungent
odor. Formaldehyde is classified as a potential carcinogen; therefore, care
must be taken to protect staff when preparing and using formaldehyde
solutions (see Disadvantages, below).

A commercially available solution of formaldehyde (formalin), which

contains 35–40% formaldehyde by weight, should be diluted with boiled
water (1:5) to a final solution containing about 8% formaldehyde.

Details for preparing and using formaldehyde (formalin) solutions are

provided in Table F-1.

Advantages x Not readily inactivated by organic materials.

x Can be used for up to 14 days.
x Can safely be used on surgical endoscopes (laparoscopes) because 8%
formaldehyde will not corrode metal or damage lensed instruments,
plastics or rubber.

Disadvantages x Causes skin irritation.

x Irritates the skin, eyes and respiratory tract, even at low concentrations.
x For sterilization, 24-hour soaking in 8% formaldehyde solution kills all
microorganisms, including bacterial endospores.
x Produces a dangerous gas (bis-chloromethyl-ether) when mixed with
chlorine.

Infection Prevention Guidelines F-5

Chemical Disinfectants

Considerations for Use x Because of the potential carcinogenicity in humans and noxious fumes,
liquid or gaseous formaldehyde should not be used for HLD or
sterilization if other high-level disinfectants are readily available. In
many developing countries, however, formaldehyde continues to be
used because both liquid and solid forms (paraformaldehyde) are
extremely inexpensive, readily available and have been used in
hospitals and clinics for many years. Switching over to less toxic
compounds, such as glutaraldehydes or other newer high-level
disinfectants, is strongly recommended but difficult to implement
because of the high cost of alternatives.
x Replace solution sooner than 14 days if cloudy.
x Handle with care. Gloves should be worn to avoid skin contact, eyes
should be protected from splashes and exposure time should be limited.
x Use only in a well-ventilated area. (OSHA exposure standard for
formaldehyde limits the 8-hour time-weighted average exposure to a
concentration of 0.75 ppm [OSHA 1991].)
x Thoroughly rinse equipment with sterile water or boiled and filtered (if
necessary) water at least three times after soaking.

GLUTARALDEHYDES

Glutaraldehydes are widely used for chemical sterilization and HLD of

medical instruments. Aqueous solutions are acidic (pH < 7) and only when
made alkaline are they activated. There are many types of glutaraldehydes
available worldwide. The most commonly used is an alkaline-stabilized 2%
glutaraldehyde available commercially as Cidex® or Cidex 7®. These
chemicals, which are derivatives of formaldehyde, also are irritating and the
fumes very unpleasant; therefore, they should be used only in well-ventilated
rooms.

Because the stability and activity of glutaraldehydes vary considerably

depending on how they are prepared and stored, the manufacturers’
directions must be followed closely. In general, for effective HLD,
instruments and other items should be soaked for 20 minutes, while for
sterilization, instruments should be soaked for 10 hours (see Table F-1 for
Remember: Do not dilute additional information).
unless specified in the
manufacturer=s instructions. Until 1991, glutaraldehyde products were available in alkaline, neutral or
acid forms. Since then, reports have documented that neutral or alkaline
glutaraldehydes have superior killing power and anticorrosive properties
when compared with acid glutaraldehyde (Rutala 1996). As a consequence,
beginning in 1991 acidic glutaraldehyde products were gradually removed
from the market. Recently, however, a new diluted product containing 0.95%
glutaraldehyde with 1.64% phenol/phenate has been cleared by the USFDA
for HLD. The antimicrobial efficacy of this product, however, needs to be

F-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Chemical Disinfectants

independently validated before it can be recommended. Also, like all

glutaraldehydes, it is expensive.

Further details for preparing and using glutaraldehydes are provided in Table
F-1.

Advantages x Not readily inactivated by organic materials.

x Generally can be used for up to 14–28 days (see Table F-1 for details).
x Can safely be used on surgical endoscopes (laparoscopes) because they
will not corrode metal or damage lensed instruments (endoscopes),
plastics or rubber.

Disadvantages x Can cause skin irritation or dermatitis with chronic exposure.

x Vapors are irritating to mucous membranes (eye, nose and mouth) and
respiratory tract.
x Work best at room temperature (20–25qC or 68–77(F).
x Expensive.

Considerations for Use x At present, best disinfectant for HLD and cold sterilization of medical
instruments that are heat-sensitive.
x Replace solution sooner than 14 days if cloudy.
x Wear gloves and protective eyewear in case of splashes and sprays.
Note: Some brands can be x Use only in a well-ventilated area.
used for longer periods of x Thoroughly rinse equipment with sterile water or boiled and filtered (if
time, up to 28 days. Check necessary) water at least three times after soaking.
the manufacturer’s
instructions (Rutala 1996). x Soaking for longer than 20–30 minutes may be required to kill
mycobacterium in cold climates.

IODINES AND IODOPHOR SOLUTIONS

Iodine solutions (1–3% aqueous or tincture) and iodophors (iodine

complexed with an organic material) have been used primarily as antiseptics
Note: Iodophors for many years.
manufactured for use as
antiseptics are not effective Aqueous iodine solutions can be easily made up, and they as well as
for disinfecting inorganic
objects and surfaces.
iodophors are readily available in most countries. Povidone-iodine (PVI) is a
Antiseptics have commonly available iodophor, usually sold as a 7.5–10% solution (1%
significantly less iodine iodine). (For instructions on preparing an iodophor solution, see Table F-1.)
(Rutala 1996). Be sure to
check the label. Iodophors are not high-level disinfectants because conclusive evidence is
lacking that they are effective against bacterial endospores and some fungi.
Also, pseudomonas species, a group of gram-negative bacteria, have been

Infection Prevention Guidelines F-7

Chemical Disinfectants

known to multiply in iodophors (Favero 1985; Rutala 1993). They are

generally nontoxic and nonirritating to skin and mucous membranes.

Advantages x Do not cause deterioration or softening of plastic items if items are kept
dry between soakings.
x Diluted solutions of iodine and iodophors are nontoxic and nonirritating
(unless the person is allergic to iodine).
x Can be used for disinfection of blood culture bottles and medical
equipment such as thermometers.

Disadvantages x Iodine is an oxidizing agent (causes rust) and should be used only for
high-quality stainless steel equipment or plastic materials.
Note: Iodophors must be x Like alcohol and chlorine, iodine and iodophors are inactivated by
properly diluted to be
organic materials; therefore, only previously cleaned instruments should
effective. Correctly diluted
iodophors have more active be placed in iodine or iodophor solutions.
killing power than full- x Thoroughly rinse equipment with sterile water or boiled and filtered (if
strength iodophors due to
the decreased availability
necessary) water at least three times after soaking.
of “free” iodine in the full- x Allergic reactions can occur to staff handling iodine solutions and
strength products. iodophors.

Considerations for Use x Primarily used as antiseptic for skin and mucous membranes (aqueous
preparations only)
x 3% aqueous solutions can be used for decontamination, but must be made
fresh daily

F-8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

Table F-1. Preparing and Using Chemical Disinfectants
CHEMICALS FOR STERILIZATION OR HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECTION
Disinfectant Effective How to Skin Eye Respiratory Corrosive Leaves Time Needed Time Needed Activated Shelf Lifea
(common Concentration Dilute Irritant Irritant Irritant Residue for HLD for Sterilization
solution or
brand)
Chlorine 0.1% Dilution Yes (with Yes Yes Yesc Yes 20 minutes Do not use Change every 14 days,
procedures prolonged sooner if cloudy.
varyb contact)
Formaldehyde 8% 1 part 35B40% Yes Yes Yes No Yes 20 minutes 24 hours Change every 14 days,
(35B40%) solution to 4 sooner if cloudy.
parts boiled
water
Glutaraldehyde Varies (2–4%) Add activator Yes Yes Yes No Yes 20 minutes at 10 hours for Change every 14–28
(Cidex7) (vapors) 25(Cd Cidex days; sooner if cloudy.
Hydrogen 6% 1 part 30% Yes Yes No Yes No 20 minutes Do not use Change daily; sooner
Peroxide (30%) solution to 4 if cloudy.
parts boiled
water
CHEMICALS FOR DISINFECTION (alcohols and iodophors are not high-level disinfectants)
Alcohol (ethyl or 60B90% Use full Yes (can Yes No No No Do not use Do not use If container (bottle)
isopropyl) strength dry skin) kept closed, use until
empty.
Iodophors (10% Approximately 1 part 10% No Yes No Yes Yes Do not use Do not use If container (bottle)
povidone-iodine) 2.5% PVI to 3 parts kept closed, use until
(PVI) water empty.

a
All chemical disinfectants are heat- and light-sensitive and should be stored away from direct sunlight and in a cool place (< 40(C).
b
See Tables 10-1 and 10-2 for instructions on preparing chlorine solutions.
c
Corrosive with prolonged (> 20 minutes) contact at concentrations > 0.5% if not rinsed immediately with boiled water.
d
Different commercial preparations of Cidex and other glutaraldehydes are effective at lower temperatures (20qC) and for longer activated shelf life. Always check
manufacturers’ instructions.

Adapted from: Rutala 1996.

F-9 Infection Prevention Guidelines

Chemical Disinfectants

REFERENCES

Favero MS. 1985. Sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis in the hospital, in

Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 4th ed. Lennette EH et al (eds). American
Society for Microbiology: Washington, DC, pp 129–137.
Harpin V and N Rutter. 1982. Percutaneous alcohol absorption and skin
necrosis in a preterm infant. Arch Dis Child 57(6): 478.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 1991. OSHA
amends formaldehyde standard. Occupational Safety and Health News: 1.
Russell AD, WB Hugo and GA Ayliffe. 1982. Principles and Practice of
Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization. Blackwell Scientific
Publications: Oxford, England.
Rutala WA et al. 1998. Stability and bactericidal activity of chlorine
solutions. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 19(5): 323–327.
Rutala WA. 1996. APIC guideline for selection and use of disinfectants.
Amer J Infect Control 24(4): 313–342.
Rutala WA. 1993. Disinfection, sterilization and waste disposal, in
Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections, 2nd ed. Wenzel RP (ed).
Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, MD, pp 460–495.
Selkon JB, JR Babb and R Morris. 1999. Evaluation of the antimicrobial
activity of a new superoxidized water, Sterilox£, for the disinfection of
endoscopes. J Hosp Infect 41(1): 59–70.
Shapshak P et al 1993. Inactivation of human immunodeficiency virus-1 at
short time intervals using undiluted bleach. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr
6(2): 218–219.
Taylor LA, MS Barbeito and GG Gremillion. 1969. Paraformaldehyde for
surface sterilization and detoxification. Applied Microbiol 17(4): 614–618.
Tulis JJ. 1973. Formaldehyde gas as a sterilant, in Industrial Sterilization:
International Symposium. Briggs Phillips G and WS Miller (eds). Duke
University Press: Durham, NC, pp 209–238.
World Health Organization (WHO). 1988. Guidelines on Sterilization and
High-Level Disinfection Methods Effective Against Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). WHO: Geneva, AIDS Series 2.

F - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX G

INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPERATING AND MAINTAINING

HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM STERILIZERS (AUTOCLAVES)1

There are three types of high-pressure steam sterilizers:

x Gravity displacement
x Prevacuum
x Flash

Gravity Displacement Small (table-top) to intermediate size sterilizers are frequently used in clinics
Sterilizers and physicians= offices (Figure G-1). Larger in-wall mounted units are the
most common type of high-pressure steam sterilizer used in hospitals.

Figure G-1. Simplified Diagram of a Gravity Displacement Steam Sterilizer

Table-top models are relatively simple to operate and essentially are

horizontal pressure cookers. A pool of water in the bottom of the sterilizer is
heated with electricity or kerosene until it turns into steam. The steam then
rises to the top of the chamber because it is lighter than the cool air in the
chamber. As more and more steam is produced, the cool air is forced out of
the chamber through the drain near the bottom of the chamber. When the
steam has pushed all the cool air out, steam will enter the drain, triggering the

1
Adapted from: Tietjen, Cronin and McIntosh 1992.

Infection Prevention Guidelines G-1

High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

thermally- (heat-) regulated valve to close. Once the valve is closed, the
steam continues to build up pressure until the operating temperature
(normally 121qC/250qF) is reached. The timer can now be activated and
timing begun. At the end of the cycle (normally 20 minutes for unwrapped
Remember: Small table- items and 30 minutes for wrapped items), the relief valve is opened which
top (gravity displacement) allows the steam to escape. Usually the steam passes through the water
sterilizers should not be reservoir where it condenses back to water and thus does not enter the room.
confused with so-called After the pressure on the gauge reads zero, the door can be opened 12–14 cm
office “sterilizers.” These
inexpensive “sterilizers”
(5–6 inches). Items should be left to cool for 30 minutes. If steam is still
have a tray on which present (and the chamber is quite warm), condensation of the moist air may
instruments are placed and cause wetness of the items or packs if they are placed on a cool or cold
when the lid is lowered the surface.
items are immersed in
boiling water. They really
are just boilers and can be
This type of sterilizer should be checked routinely by running a biological
used for HLD only. indicator test (see Chapter 12). Also, whenever possible, it is recommended
that temperature-specific indicators (as well as autoclave tape) be used with
each cycle (Webb 1986).

Prevacuum Sterilizers These sterilizers are similar to the gravity displacement sterilizers except that
they have a vacuum pump system to remove the air in the chamber before the
steam is let in. This step reduces the total cycle time. Most prevacuum
sterilizers are operated at the same temperature (121qC/250qF) as gravity
displacement sterilizers. A special type of vacuum sterilizer, called a high-
speed vacuum sterilizer, however, is operated at a higher temperature,
134qC/275qF. The vacuum system not only shortens the cycle time, but also
reduces the chance of air pockets from forming. Because a prevacuum
sterilizer is more complex to operate, it is important to monitor its use closely
and for it to be regularly maintained.

Flash Sterilizers These are small, table-top prevacuum sterilizers, usually located in operating
rooms or adjacent to them. They operate at a higher temperature
(134qC/275qF) and thus have a shorter cycle time. Normally, because of their
small size, their use is limited to sterilization of unwrapped surgical
instruments for emergency purposes (e.g., dropped instruments, etc.).

In summary, in most healthcare facilities gravity displacement sterilizers

are the type most frequently encountered. High-speed vacuum and flash
sterilizers usually are found only in large referral hospitals in most countries
(Webb 1986).

OPERATION

Instructions for operation and routine maintenance of steam sterilizers

(autoclaves) should be included in the basic training of healthcare staff. A
steam sterilizer will reliably sterilize items only when kept in good working
condition and operated correctly.

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 High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

Sterilization by steam requires four conditions: adequate contact, sufficient

temperature, proper time and sufficient moisture. While all are necessary
for sterilization to take place, sterilization failures in clinics and hospitals are
most often caused by lack of steam contact or failure to attain adequate
temperature (Webb 1986).

Contact The most frequent reason for sterilization failure is the lack of contact
between the steam and the microorganisms. This failure may be related to
human error or mechanical malfunction. Frequent causes of steam contact
failure include the following:

x Failure to clean the object being sterilized adequately. Any coating of

soil can protect the microorganisms from direct steam contact. In
addition, the effectiveness of sterilization is dependent on the “bioload”
(number of microorganisms) present prior to the sterilization cycle.
x Instruments closed, locked or stacked. All instruments must be packed
in an open and unlocked position, or disassembled, so that steam can
reach all surfaces (e.g., Place gauze or linen in between bowls so that
steam can reach all surfaces of each bowl).
x Packages wrapped too tightly. Air and steam do not mix readily. Air,
being heavier than steam, normally is displaced to the bottom of the
sterilizer and is then forced out through the drain. If the packs are
wrapped too tightly, however, air is trapped and cannot escape. It forms
cool air pockets at the center of the packages, preventing the items from
reaching temperatures sufficient to kill all microorganisms.
x Packs too crowded. It is essential that the packs be arranged loosely on
the cart or the same type of problem as that in the above example will
occur. Packs should be placed on the edge because it is easier for air to be
displaced downward between the packs than to go through the many
layers of fabric of horizontally placed packs.
x Wrong position of container. If pans, bottles or other airtight containers
are to be sterilized, including containers with instruments inside, it is
essential that the tops be removed (or held loosely in place) and that the
containers be placed on their sides. (If the containers are placed upright,
the air cannot be displaced and will be trapped in them.)
x Clogged strainer. At the bottom of most sterilizers is a small drain
strainer used to keep lint, pins and other small objects from entering the
exhaust line. It is essential that these screens be cleaned daily, or they
will become clogged and trap air in the sterilizer.
x Other mechanical problems. Several other problems can occur, such as
a defective steam trap and clogged exhaust lines. Often, the sterilizer
operator cannot repair such problems. In some cases, however, a weekly
flush of hot liquid soap through the exhaust line will keep it cleaned out.
If the sterilizer manual calls for this weekly flush, it must be performed
or sterilization failure may occur.

Infection Prevention Guidelines G-3

High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

From a review of the above, it is clear that most failures in sterilization begin
with human error. By becoming familiar with these problem areas, staff
responsible for operating the sterilizer can avoid the major causes of
sterilization failure. To detect steam contact failures, the use of an internal
(inside the package) indicator is strongly recommended.

Temperature The next most important factor in steam sterilization is temperature. The
most commonly used temperature for steam sterilization is 121qC (250qF).
When an object at room temperature is placed in a sterilizer, the steam
Note: The temperature transmits thermal energy to the object until the object reaches the same
must never be allowed to temperature as the steam. Under normal conditions this equilibrium occurs
drop below 121qC/250qF. within a few minutes. If the steam is unsaturated (too dry) or if the steam is
If this should happen, prevented from reaching all parts of the object, the temperature may never
sterilization may not take
place. (If available, a reach the level required for sterilization. The only way to be certain the
temperature specific sterilizer is working correctly is to ensure that the temperatures at all points
indicator tape that changes inside the load reach the full operating temperature of 121qC (250qF).
color should be used to be
sure that all items have
been sterilized. When
The temperature gauges and recorders located on the sterilizer control panel
removing the pack, if the sense the temperature of the exhaust line and do not give an indication of
tape has not changed color, center-of-pack temperature. While these sensing devices do give a good
repeat the sterilization cycle.) indication of overall sterilizer operation, they cannot detect air pockets within
packs and similar problems.

Timing Just as it takes a certain amount of time to cook food, it takes a certain
amount of time to kill microorganisms. In both cases, the hotter the
temperature, the less time is required. Sterilization time is measured in D-
values. A D-value is the amount of time required to kill 90% of the
microorganisms present. Different microorganisms are killed in different
amounts of time so each kind of microorganism has a different set of D-
values, and of course, the D-value depends on the temperature.

A highly resistant but relatively harmless (nonpathogenic) microorganism

called Bacillus stearothermophilus is used to test steam sterilizers. As used in
hospitals and clinics to test sterilizers, this microorganism has a D-value of
about 2 minutes at 121qC (250qF). In other words, it would take 2 minutes at
121qC (250qF) to kill 90% of the test microorganisms present. Through
research, mathematical calculation and intelligent “guesses,” authorities have
generally agreed that for normal hospital sterilization about six Bacillus
stearothermophilus D-values (or about 12 minutes) should be sufficient to
kill essentially all pathogenetic microorganisms and give a large margin of
safety. Because in many countries internal temperature sensing devices, such
as temperature-specific chemical indicators, are not available, extra time is
recommended as an added safety margin. Twenty minutes for unwrapped
and 30 minutes for wrapped packs are sufficient to kill most microorganisms.

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 High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

Moisture Last, but not least, is the moisture requirement. Adequate moisture content
of the sterilizer atmosphere is mandatory for effective sterilization by steam.
Adequate moisture content means that the steam must be “saturated,” having
a relative humidity of 100%. When any cool object is placed in the sterilizer,
the steam at the surface of the object is cooled and becomes supersaturated.
Water begins condensing on the surface of the object. This condensation
produces two immediate effects:

x The volume of gas in the sterilizer chamber decreases as the steam (water
vapor) changes to the liquid state and more steam is drawn into the
chamber and into contact with the articles being sterilized.
x Very large amounts of thermal energy are transferred to the object,
raising the temperature of the article significantly. The amount of heat
released is best explained by comparing the calories required to change
the temperature of steam as compared to the calories absorbed when
water is converted to water vapor (steam) (Figure G-2).
Figure G-2. Calories of Heat, Water Temperature and Conversion to Steam

Source: Webb 1986.

One calorie of heat will raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1qC. Thus,
100 calories are required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from
0qC to 100qC. To convert that same gram of water into steam (i.e., vaporize
it), an additional 540 calories are required. When the steam condenses during
the sterilization process, heat is transferred to the items being sterilized and
the steam turns to water at 100qC.

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High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

If the steam is not saturated (less than 100% relative humidity), two problems
will develop, either or both of which will interfere with the adequacy of the
sterilization process:

x Articles in the sterilizer will remain dry, and any microorganisms present
cannot be killed as readily as under wet conditions. (Water vapor softens
the capsules of microorganisms, making them more vulnerable to
destruction by heat.)
x Articles in the sterilizer will remain “cool” much longer, especially if
they are wrapped. Again, using the home kitchen as an example, if a
kettle of beans is placed in an oven (dry heat), it may take hours for them
to be cooked. On the other hand, if they are placed in a pressure cooker
(saturated steam), they will cook much more quickly. Saturated steam is a
much better “carrier” of thermal energy than dry air.

In summary, saturation of the steam is vital to sterilizer operation because

water vapor is the best carrier of thermal energy and because the vapor makes
the microorganisms more vulnerable to destruction by heat (Webb 1986).

OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS (Gravity Displacement Steam Sterilizers)

To ensure correct operation, when available, consult specific operating

instructions supplied by the manufacturer. (See Figure G-1 for a
simplified diagram of a gravity displacement steam sterilizer.) The following
are general instructions that should be effective for most steam sterilizers:

STEP 1: Arrange packs in the chamber to allow free circulation and

penetration of steam to all surfaces. In large sterilizers, which have carts,
packs should be loaded onto the cart and then rolled into the sterilizer.
STEP 2: Sterilize wrapped objects for 30 minutes, unwrapped objects for 20
minutes. Use a timer to keep track of time. The temperature should be 121qC
(250qF); the pressure should be 106 kPa (15 lbs/in2).
STEP 3: Wait about 30 minutes (or until the pressure gauge reads zero) to
permit the sterilizer to cool sufficiently before opening the lid to allow steam
to escape. Open the door of the sterilizer a small amount and allow
instrument packs to dry completely before removal; this may take an
additional 30 minutes. (Damp packs act like a wick drawing in
microorganisms from the environment.) Wrapped instrument packs are
considered unacceptable if there are water droplets or visible moisture on the
outside of the package when removed from the chamber.
STEP 4: To prevent contamination by condensation, place sterile trays and
packs on a surface padded with paper or fabric after removing the packs from
the chamber. (Do not store trays or packs until they reach room temperature;
this usually takes about 1 hour.)

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 High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

STEP 5: After sterilizing, objects wrapped in cloth or paper are considered

sterile if kept dry and the package intact. Sealing packs in plastic bags can
help to prevent damage to the packs and permits a longer shelf life.
Unwrapped objects must be used immediately or placed in a sterile, covered
container.

Problem solving If steam escapes from the safety valve or under the lid, the autoclave is not
working correctly and it is merely steaming items at low-pressure (HLD, not
sterilization). What to do?

x If steam escapes from the safety valve instead of the pressure valve, the
pressure valve must be cleaned and inspected.
x If steam escapes from under the lid, the gasket (rubber ring) must be
cleaned and dried or replaced.

STEAM STERILIZATION PROCEDURE

Sterilization depends on correctly following certain practices and processes.

These include:

x routine maintenance,
x preparing items to be sterilized,
x packaging and wrapping,
Note: Only when all these
procedures are done
x loading,
correctly will items be x operating, and
sterile.
x unloading the sterilizer.

Routine Maintenance Although there are many brands of steam sterilizers, routine maintenance
practices generally are the same regardless of the make or type. (See Figure
G-1 for a simplified diagram of a gravity displacement sterilizer.) For routine
maintenance:

x The outlet screen (or pin-trap) should be removed daily and cleaned
using a mild soap and brush under running water.
x The chamber should be cleaned daily using a soft cloth, or for large
sterilizers, a long-handled mop which is used only for this purpose. Do
not use abrasives or steel wool because they may scratch the stainless
Note: The chamber should steel surface and increase the occurrence of corrosion.
be cooled before doing any
procedure (e.g., loading or
x All door gaskets should be cleaned daily with a lint-free cloth and
cleaning). checked for defects. Defective rubber gaskets should be replaced.
x The carriage (loading cart used to hold the packs placed in a sterilizer)
should be cleaned daily using a mild soap and lint-free cloth. (The wheels

Infection Prevention Guidelines G-7

High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

of the loading cart also should be cleaned at this time, removing any
string or other debris.)
x The exhaust line (or chamber drain) should be flushed weekly. This will
keep the drain free of substances that might hinder air or steam removal
from the chamber. Before flushing the exhaust line, check the
maintenance instructions because trisodium phosphate solution (a special
type of soap) often is recommended (DHEW 1975; Webb 1986). This can
be prepared by adding 1 ounce trisodium phosphate to 1 liter (1 quart)
hot water. If this chemical is not available, the exhaust line can be
flushed with hot water containing a mild soap solution. To do this, first
remove the screen. Then pour 1 liter (1 quart) of the solution down the
drain using a funnel. Complete the process by pouring a liter of hot water
to rinse out the soap and replace the screen.

Because the specific operating instructions for a high-pressure steam

sterilizer (autoclave) usually also contain instructions for routine
maintenance, managers should make copies of these instructions available for
staff to use. If replacement copies are needed, they can be obtained by
writing to the individual manufacturer (normally the address can be found on
the autoclave) or from the donor agency providing the equipment.

Preparing Items for All instruments and other items should be decontaminated and thoroughly
Steam Sterilization cleaned and dried before being sterilized. In some cases, it is not necessary to
completely dry the items being sterilized, such as needles or other items with
small openings because the small amount of water left inside helps in the
steam sterilization process. For such items, after cleaning, flush with distilled
or boiled water just prior to packaging for steam sterilization. Finally, all
jointed instruments should be open (or in the unlocked position) and
disassembled. Reusable cloth items should be laundered and dried after use
or prior to sterilization in order to:

x remove organic matter, and

x prolong the life of the cloth by restoring the fabric’s normal moisture
(water) content.

Packing and Wrapping Wrapping items to be sterilized permits sterile items to be handled and
stored without being contaminated. (See Figure G-3 for examples of typical
wrapping techniques.) Materials used for wrappers should:

x Allow air removal and steam penetration

x Act as a barrier to microorganisms and fluids
x Resist tears and punctures and be free of holes
x Be nontoxic and low-lint
x Be inexpensive

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 High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

Figure G-3. Typical Wrapping Techniques

Types of materials that can be used as wrappers include:

x Muslin cloth (140 thread count): Use two double thickness wraps (four
layers in all), as this is the least effective of the materials used for
wrapping. Use for both steam and dry heat sterilization.
x Paper: Double wrapping (two layers) recommended. Use for steam
sterilization only and do not reuse.

Do not wrap items in any waterproof material, such as plastic or canvas, for
steam sterilization, as steam will not penetrate the material and the item will
not be sterile.

Wrappers should not be reused if they are torn, stained with oils or if they
have hard or gummy deposits. Linen wrappers should be laundered between
sterilizations, even if unused, in order to restore moisture to them (dried out
fibers decrease the ability of the cloth to form a barrier to microorganisms).
Dust covers (sealed plastic bags 2–3 mils thick) can protect the integrity of

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High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

sterile packs during storage. Packs should be placed in plastic bags or other
dust covers after cooling.

Tips for Wrapping

At least two layers of wrapping should always be used to reduce the

possibility of contaminating the contents during unwrapping.

Do not wrap packages too tightly. If wrapped too tightly, air can become
trapped at the center of packages, preventing the temperature from getting
high enough to kill all the microorganisms. Also, wrapping with strings or
rubber bands or tying linen ties too tightly can prevent steam from reaching
all surfaces.

The outer wrapper of the pack can be loosely secured using linen ties (as
described below) or masking tape. (The use of indicator tape for holding
packs together should be minimized as it is expensive and very hard to
remove from linen. It is best used in the center of the pack to verify steam
penetration.)

Packs can be secured with linen ties made from the same cloth. Hemmed
strips about ½ inch wide, in various lengths, can be used one or two to a
package and eliminate the need for a lot of expensive and hard-to-remove
indicator tape. They can be used to secure almost any size package (see
Figure G-4).

Figure G-4. Packs and Ties

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 High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

Loading and Unloading Objectives

x To load items into the autoclave in such a manner as to allow passage of

the most steam through the load.
x To unload the steam autoclave in such a manner as to maintain the
sterility of the items that have been processed through a sterilizing cycle.

General Principles

x When loading, leave sufficient space for steam to circulate freely. Do not
overload.
x Place all packs (linen, gloves) on edge and place canisters, utensils and
treatment trays on their sides.
x Place instrument sets in trays having mesh or perforated bottoms flat on
the shelves.
x In combination loads of cloth (or paper) packs and instruments trays,
place linens on top shelves and trays on lower shelves. This prevents any
condensation (moisture), which forms on cool metal when steam initially
contacts the item, from dripping onto linen packs (DHEW 1975).
x Surgical gloves should be sterilized by themselves or placed on the top
Remember: If an item
shelves.
goes in wet, it will come x Nested packs should be positioned in the same direction to help prevent
out wet. All items air pockets, so condensation can drain and steam can circulate freely.
(instruments, basins and
glassware) must be dry x Shelves (metal wire) or a loading cart must be used to ensure proper
before loading into the loading. It is preferable to use the cart that comes with the sterilizer.
sterilizer. This helps
prevent “wet packs.” The
sterilizer is capable of See Figure G-5 and Tables G-1 and G-2.
drying items that have
become moist during a Metals and Glassware
properly loaded and
operated sterilization
process, but it cannot x Instrument sets should not exceed 8 kg (18 lbs). Basin sets should not
remove excess moisture. exceed 3 kg (7 lbs). This is to limit the amount of condensation which
forms when steam contacts cool metal. Using these limits ensures that the
items will dry during the sterilization cycle.
x Solid containers should be placed on their sides to allow airflow out of
them. If air is trapped in a solid container, it will prevent the steam from
contacting the inner surface and prevent sterilization.

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High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

Figure G-5. Loading a Steam Sterilizer

Source: AAMI 1990.

Surgical Gloves

Sterilize in separate loads (see Appendix C for step-by-step instructions).

Linens

x Linen packs should not be too large and weigh no more that 5 kg (12
pounds) in order to assure steam penetration of the pack in 30 minutes
(the time allowed for sterilizing wrapped items).
x Packs containing sheets, table covers and towels are the most difficult for
steam to penetrate and contact each fiber. Such packs must be placed on
edge on the shelf to insure steam penetration.

Liquids

x Liquids must be sterilized by themselves.

x The amount of liquid in the bottle, not the size of the container,
determines the time required for sterilization.

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 High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

x Use only Borosilicate heat-resistant glass (Pyrex®).

x Use only automatic self-sealing caps for closure.

Table G-1. Loading the Steam Sterilizer Using Loading Carts or Shelves
ESSENTIAL STEPS KEY POINTS
Place all items on a shelf. Use either a loading cart Never place items (wrapped or unwrapped) on the floor of the
or shelves in the sterilizer. sterilizer. Items placed on the floor could block discharge of air
from the sterilizer, or allow air and moisture to be trapped in
pockets, resulting in sterilization failure and “wet packs.”
Items must not touch chamber walls. Packs touching the chamber walls can be scorched or contents
damaged due to excessive heat of the metal walls.
Always allow 7–8 cm (3 inches) of space between This allows displacement of air and free flow of steam.
top-most package and top of chamber.
Place all fabric packs on the edge (folds It is easier for steam to flow down through the folds to penetrate
perpendicular to shelf); and when loading two each fiber than through flat, compressed surfaces.
layers on one shelf, place the upper layer
crosswise to the bottom layer.
Place all bottles, solid metal and glass containers Air will drain out and steam will take its place.
of dry materials on their sides with lids held
loosely in place.
Place treatment trays and utensils on the edge, This prevents pooling of condensation and facilitates drying.
tipped slightly forward.
Place instrument trays (mesh or perforated bottom This helps maintain an orderly arrangement of contents and
only) flat on shelves. If instruments have been reduces damage caused by “dumping” all the instruments into
placed in a solid tray or on a Mayo tray, the tray bottom of tray if instrument tray is placed on its side. This also
must be placed on the edge and tipped slightly facilitates drying.
forward.
Solutions must be sterilized by themselves, and There is always a possibility that solutions will explode. If
placed on the shelves not touching each other. instruments and other items are in the steam sterilizer, they will be
contaminated and they may be damaged.
Use a wire basket to hold glove packages upright. If gloves are stacked, the compression at the bottom of the pile will
Never place packages on top of each other. prevent access of steam to the gloves.
Use only the upper shelves for gloves. Place glove Residual air gravitates to the lower part of the chamber and will
packages loosely on edge with thumbs up, well increase the rate of deterioration of the rubber.
away from the walls of the chamber. Never place
them on the bottom shelf of the chamber.
Do not compress packages or overload the When placing packages on shelves, put hand between them to be
chamber. sure packages are not compressed and give least possible resistance
to steam throughout the load.

Adapted from: Tomlinson et al 1996.

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High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

Combination Loads

x In loads which combine linens (fabrics) and metal items, place linens on
top shelves and metal items below. This prevents condensation from
dripping onto the linen packs, causing them to absorb the excess
moisture.
x When a load is made up of wrapped and unwrapped items requiring
different times to ensure sterilization, the longest required time (i.e., 30
Remember: The sterilizer minutes) must be used.
is unable to remove excess
moisture.
The fundamental rule in loading the sterilizer is to prepare all items and to
arrange the load in such a manner as to present the least possible resistance to
the passage of steam through the load (i.e., from the top of the chamber
toward the bottom).

Unloading Tips

x Allow instrument packs to dry completely before removal (takes 30

minutes).
x Place sterile trays and packs on surfaces padded with paper or fabric.
(Do not place warm packs on cold metal surfaces, as condensation will
occur.)
x Store when packs reach room temperature (usually takes about an hour).
x Sterilized packs and articles should be handled gently and as little as
possible.

Note: If a pack is dropped, tears or comes in contact with moisture, it must

be considered contaminated.

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 High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

Table G-2. Unloading the Steam Sterilizer

ESSENTIAL STEPS KEY POINTS
After the sterilizing cycle has been completed and Always keep the door between you and the sterilizer when opening
the chamber pressure gauge reaches “0,” open the the door.
door 12–14 cm (5–6 inches).
Wait 30 minutes before unloading the sterilizer. This allows residual moisture to dry and the load to cool.
Unloading Using a Loading Cart
Remove the loading cart from the sterilizer and Do not place freshly sterilized packages, especially those not
place it where there is no open window or fan in completely cooled, in front of an open window or a fan because there
close proximity. may be residual humidity in the packages, and dust and dirt could be
forced through the wrappers, contaminating the contents. If there are
water droplets or visible moisture on the outside of the wrapper or
package, or on the tape used to secure it, the package is
contaminated. It must be reprocessed before use.
Look at, but do not handle, the outside of the
package to test for dryness.
When the packs reach room temperature, remove It may take 1 hour or longer for packs to reach room temperature.
packs from the loading cart and place on storage Avoid unnecessary handling.
shelves. They may be dispensed or placed in
sterile storage.
Unloading Using Shelves (loading cart not used)
Remove packages from the sterilizer shelves. Avoid unnecessary handling.
Look at outside of the wrappers for dryness.. If there are water droplets or visible moisture (water stains) on the
outside surfaces of packages, or on the tape used to secure it, the
package is contaminated. It must be reprocessed before use.
Place packs on a surface well padded with paper or In order to prevent condensation from forming, do not place on a
fabric, away from open windows or the front of a cool or cold surface. Do not place freshly sterilized packages,
fan. especially those not completely cooled, in front of an open window
or a fan because there may be residual humidity in the packages, and
dust and dirt could be forced through the wrappers, contaminating
the contents. If there are water droplets or visible moisture on the
outside of the wrapper or package, or on the tape used to secure it,
the package is contaminated. It must be reprocessed before use.
When packages have cooled to room temperature, It may take 1 hour or longer for packs to reach room temperature.
they may be dispensed or placed in sterile storage. Avoid unnecessary handling.

Adapted from: Tomlinson et al 1996.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPERATING GRAVITY DISPLACEMENT NONELECTRIC

(PRESSURE COOKER TYPE) STEAM STERILIZER

The steam sterilizer should be run at 121qC (250qF) 106 kPa (15 lbs/in2) for
20 minutes for unwrapped items, 30 minutes for wrapped items. As moist
heat is the sterilizing agent (i.e., it kills the microorganisms), the temperature
gauge on the exhaust line should be used to monitor when to begin timing the
sterilization cycle, not just the pressure gauge alone (DHEW 1975).

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High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

Figure G-6. Gravity Displacement Sterilizer (Nonelectric)

To ensure correct operation, consult specific operating instructions supplied

by the manufacturer, when available.

Instructions STEP 1: Decontaminate, clean and dry all instruments to be sterilized.

STEP 2: Put all jointed instruments in the opened or unlocked position.
Disassemble instruments composed of more than one part or sliding parts. To
help prevent dulling of sharp points and cutting edges, wrap the sharp edges
and needle points in gauze.
STEP 3: Wrap clean instruments or other objects in a double thickness of
muslin or paper wrap. Instruments should not be held tightly together by
rubber bands or any other means that will prevent steam contact with all
surfaces.
STEP 4: Arrange packs in the chamber to allow free circulation and
penetration of steam to all surfaces.
STEP 5: When using a pressure cooker or kerosene-powered sterilizer, bring
water to boil until steam escapes from the pressure valve only; turn down
heat but keep steam coming out of pressure valve. Do not allow to boil dry.
Steam should always be escaping from the pressure valve.
STEP 6: Sterilize for 30 minutes for wrapped objects, 20 minutes for
unwrapped objects. Time with a clock. The temperature should be 121qC
(250qF); the pressure should be 106 kPa (15 lbs/in2).
STEP 7: Wait about 30 minutes (or until the pressure gauge reads zero) to
permit sterilizer to cool sufficiently before opening the lid to allow steam to
escape. Allow instrument packs to dry completely before removal; this may
take an additional 30 minutes. (Damp packs act like a wick drawing in
microorganisms from the environment.) Wrapped instrument packs are
considered unacceptable if there are water droplets or visible moisture on the
outside of the package when removed from the sterilizer chamber.

G - 16 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

STEP 8: To prevent contamination by condensation, place sterile trays and

packs on a surface padded with paper or fabric after removing from the
chamber. (Do not store trays or packs or place in a plastic dust cover until
they reach room temperature; this usually takes about 1 hour.)
STEP 9: After sterilizing, objects wrapped in cloth or paper are considered
sterile if kept dry and the package intact. Sealing packs in plastic bags can
help to prevent damage to the packs and permits a longer shelf life.
Unwrapped objects must be used immediately or placed in a sterile, covered
container.

STEAM STERILIZING LIQUIDS

Sterile water can only be prepared by steam sterilization.

Instructions x All liquids should be in heat-resistant glass (Pyrex), closed with

automatic self-sealing caps.
x Load steam sterilizer with liquids only.
x Wait until thermometer indicator shows 121qC (250qF) and 106 kPa
(15lbs/in2).
x Time the sterilization using a clock. The amount (volume) of solution in
the bottle determines the sterilization time, not the size of the bottle:

75–200 ml 20 minutes
200–500 ml 25 minutes
500–1000 ml 30 minutes
Note: If bottles of solutions 1000–1500 ml 35 minutes
with different volumes are
sterilized in the same load, 1500–2000 ml 40 minutes
use the sterilization time
recommended for the bottle
x When the sterilization cycle has ended, release the pressure slowly,
containing the largest taking not less than 15 minutes, until the chamber pressure is at “0.”
volume of liquid. Turn operating valve off and open the door only 1 cm (½ inch).
(Suddenly opening the door all the way after a sterilization cycle could
cause liquids to boil over or bottles to burst.) Wait an additional 30
minutes for the chamber to cool before removing the load.

REFERENCES

Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI). 1990.

Standards and Recommended Practices Volume 2: Sterilization. Arlington,
VA, pp 148–149.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare (DHEW). 1975. A Manual for
Hospital Central Services. DHEW # HRA 75-4012, pp 80–83.

Infection Prevention Guidelines G - 17

High-Pressure Steam Sterilizers

Tietjen LG, W Cronin and N McIntosh. 1992. Autoclaves, in Infection

Prevention Guidelines for Family Planning Programs. Essential Medical
Information Systems, Inc.: Durant, OK, pp 208–229.
Tomlinson MJ et al. 1996. Infection Control Techniques/Procedure Manual.
Chosen Mission Project: Erie, PA.
Webb SB (ed). 1986. Central Service Technical Manual, 3rd ed.
International Association of Hospital Central Service Management (IAHCSM):
Chicago.

G - 18 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX H

DECONTAMINATION, CLEANING, HLD AND CHEMICAL

STERILIZATION OF LAPAROSCOPES

Surgical endoscopes (laparoscopes) are delicate instruments that must be

handled with great care to prevent damage. The following recommendations
will help to protect these instruments and prolong their use. Laparoscopes
and accessories should be sterilized or high-level disinfected using chemical
agents. Glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde are the best chemical high-level
disinfectants for soaking laparoscopic instruments because they do not
damage rubber, plastics or lens cements. Other high-level disinfectants, such
as 6% hydrogen peroxide, may be corrosive.

HOW TO DECONTAMINATE AND CLEAN LAPAROSCOPES AFTER USE1

STEP 1: Immediately after use, gently wipe the laparoscope, fiber-optic light
source and cable and plastic tubing with Luer-Lok™ with a cloth soaked in
Note: Because alcohol
rapidly kills HBV and 60–90% ethyl or isopropyl alcohol to remove all blood and organic material.
HIV, this step protects STEP 2: Completely disassemble the laparoscopic equipment: operating
handlers against possible
hepatitis B and AIDS laparoscope or Laprocator™, trocar, uterine manipulator, cervical vulsellum
infection. forceps, Verres needle and Falope Ring® guide kit.
STEP 3: Place disassembled parts in a basin of clean water and mild,
nonabrasive soap.
STEP 4: Wash all outer surfaces, using a soft cotton cloth.
STEP 5: Clean inner channels with a cleaning brush supplied with the
laparoscope kit. Use a circular motion to remove particulate matter. (Organic
matter hidden in the narrow channels may cause infection later.) Be careful
not to forcibly push the brush against the closed end of the inner tube as this
may damage it.
STEP 6: Rinse all parts thoroughly with clean water (running water or from a
basin) three times. Use the brush to remove soap and particles from the inner
channels. (Soap, if not thoroughly rinsed away, will decrease the
effectiveness of the disinfectant.)
STEP 7: Dry equipment with a clean soft cotton cloth or air dry. (Excess
water will dilute the disinfectant, decreasing its effectiveness.)
STEP 8: Clean lenses at least weekly, and more often as needed, but do not
touch the lenses with fingers (see STEP 3, below).
STEP 9: High-level disinfect (for 20 minutes) or sterilize (overnight), or if
not needed immediately, carefully store in instrument container after cleaning

1
Adapted from: Altobelli 1980.

Infection Prevention Guidelines H-1

Laparoscopes

and drying until next use. (Instruments should be high-level disinfected

immediately prior to use to prevent recontamination.)

HOW TO CLEAN LENSES ON LAPAROSCOPES

STEP 1: Remove the plastic eyepiece of the laparoscope prior to cleaning the
proximal lens with acetone or 60–90% alcohol. (Acetone and other organic
solvents can severely damage plastic.)
STEP 2: Clean lenses with a cotton swab soaked in alcohol or acetone.
(Cotton will not scratch the lens, and alcohol and acetone will not weaken the
cement around the lens.)
STEP 3: While cleaning, do not touch lenses with fingers. (Skin oils may
damage the lenses.)
STEP 4: Clean lenses at least weekly, and more often as needed.

HOW TO STERILIZE LAPAROSCOPES

STEP 1: Decontaminate, wash and dry all instruments to be sterilized as

described above.
STEP 2: In a well-ventilated area, wearing gloves to prevent skin irritation,
completely immerse clean, dry, disassembled instruments and cleaning
brush in a plastic container at least 8 cm (3 inches) in depth that contains
either 8% formaldehyde or a 2–4% glutaraldehyde (e.g., Cidex®). The
Note: Avoid placing disinfectant must touch all surfaces in order to be effective. (See Appendix F
instruments on top of each
other, as this may damage for directions on how to prepare and use these disinfectants.)
them. STEP 3: Cover the container during the disinfection procedure. (This will
decrease the rate of evaporation and will keep dust out of the solution.)
STEP 4: Allow to soak 8 to 10 hours in most glutaraldehydes, and at least
24 hours in 8% formaldehyde. Both agents work best at room temperature.
Sterilization cannot be assured at temperatures less than 20qC (68qF).
Because instructions vary, carefully read manufacturer’s instructions for each
product.
STEP 5: Use sterile gloves to carefully remove instruments from the
solution. (Forceps or lifters may damage the instruments.)
STEP 6: Rinse three times with sterile water to completely remove all traces
of the disinfectant. If sterile water is unavailable, rinse in cooled water which
has been filtered and boiled for 20 minutes. Use a sterilized or high-level
disinfected brush to assist with rinsing the narrow channels of the
instruments. (This keeps movable parts from sticking due to any remaining
disinfectant.) Finally, rinse completely with 60–90% ethyl or isopropyl
alcohol. Allow to dry and use immediately. Do not store laparoscopes that
have been rinsed with alcohol because residue can cause movable parts to
stick.

H-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Laparoscopes

STEP 7: Air dry in a sterile container with a cover. (Laparoscopes and

accessories can be stored for up to 1 week in this container.)

HOW TO HIGH-LEVEL DISINFECT LAPAROSCOPES

STEP 1: Decontaminate, wash and dry all items to be high-level disinfected.

STEP 2: In a well-ventilated area, wearing gloves to prevent skin irritation,
completely immerse clean, dry disassembled instruments and cleaning brush
in a plastic container (as above) containing either 8% formaldehyde or a 2–
4% glutaraldehyde (e.g. Cidex) solution. The disinfectant must touch all
Note: Avoid placing
instruments on top of each surfaces in order to be effective. (See Appendix F for directions on how to
other, as this may damage prepare and use these disinfectants.)
them.
STEP 3: Cover the container during the HLD process. (This will decrease the
rate of evaporation and will keep dust out of the solution.)
STEP 4: Allow to soak for 20 minutes.
STEP 5: After 20 minutes, use high-level disinfected or sterile gloves to
carefully remove instruments from the solution. (Forceps or lifters may
damage the instruments.)
STEP 6: Rinse three times with cooled water that has been filtered and
boiled for 20 minutes in order to completely remove all traces of the
disinfectant. (This will prevent the solution from irritating the client’s skin
and keep the movable parts from sticking.) Although not necessary, sterile
water can be used in place of boiled water. Use a high-level disinfected brush
to assist with rinsing the narrow channels of the instruments.
STEP 7: Allow to air dry in a high-level disinfected container or dry with a
high-level disinfected soft cotton cloth and place immediately on the
instrument table.

HOW TO STORE LAPAROSCOPES

STEP 1: Decontaminate, wash and dry all instruments to be stored.

Remember: Before using STEP 2: Assemble laparoscope and trocar.
stored laparoscopes and
accessories such as trocars, STEP 3: Place laparoscope and trocar in the padded container supplied with
they must be disassembled, the equipment and store in a cool, dry place.
cleaned and either
sterilized or high-level
disinfected.

Infection Prevention Guidelines H-3

Laparoscopes

Figure H-1. Atlas of Laprocator System

Source: Altobelli 1980.

TIPS FOR PROLONGING THE LIFE OF LAPAROSCOPES2

x Failure to completely disassemble and clean the endoscope properly is

the most common cause of problems. In addition, blood and other organic
material left to dry on the instruments are difficult to remove and may be
a source of infection.
x Never autoclave or boil laparoscopes because heat will damage the
optics. Always sterilize or high-level disinfect with chemical sterilants
or disinfectants such as glutaraldehyde or formaldehyde.
x Remove instruments from the disinfectant solution as soon as timing
requirements are met. Prolonged immersion may shorten the life of the
instrument.
x Rinse at least three times with cooled sterile (or boiled) water after cold
sterilization or high-level disinfection respectively, to remove residue.
Residue can cause movable parts to stick.

2
Adapted from: Wolf R. 1984.

H-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Laparoscopes

x Wear sterile or high-level disinfected gloves to handle instruments after

final processing. Forceps and clamps may damage the laparoscope.
x Avoid picking up or handling instruments in groups or bunches.
x Always grasp the laprocator at the eyepiece end to avoid damaging the
operative forceps.
x Avoid piling instruments or cables on top of each other to prevent
damage or fiber breakage.
x Do not use Savlon® as it is not a high-level disinfectant and has been
associated with clouding laparoscope optical lenses.

REFERENCES

Altobelli LC et al. 1980. LaprocatorTM Preventive Care and Maintenance.

JHPIEGO Corporation: Baltimore, MD.
Wolf R. 1984. Instruction Manual: Gynecological Laparoscopy
Instruments. (Ref. E1-05-82). Richard Wolf Medical Instruments Corp.:
Rosemont, IL.

Infection Prevention Guidelines H-5

Laparoscopes

H-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX I

TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS NEEDED FOR

SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS1

Precautions
*
Infection/Condition Type Duration†
Abscess
Draining, major a C DI
Draining, minor or limited b S
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome c S
Actinomycosis S
Adenovirus infection, in infants and young children D,C DI
Amebiasis S
Anthrax
Cutaneous S
Pulmonary S
Antibiotic-associated colitis (see Clostridium difficile)
Arthropodborne viral encephalitides (eastern, western, Venezuelan equine
Sd
encephalomyelitis; St Louis, California encephalitis)
Arthropodborne viral fevers (dengue, yellow fever, Colorado tick fever) Sd
Ascariasis S
Aspergillosis S
Babesiosis S
Blastomycosis, North American, cutaneous or pulmonary S
Botulism S
Bronchiolitis (see respiratory infections in infants and young children)
Brucellosis (undulant, Malta, Mediterranean fever) S
Campylobacter gastroenteritis (see gastroenteritis)
Candidiasis, all forms including mucocutaneous S
Cat-scratch fever (benign inoculation lymphoreticulosis) S
Cellulitis, uncontrolled drainage C DI
Chancroid (soft chancre) S
Chickenpox (varicella; see F e for varicella exposure) A,C Fe
Chlamydia trachomatis
Conjunctivitis S
Genital S
Respiratory S
Cholera (see gastroenteritis)
Closed-cavity infection
Draining, limited or minor S
Not draining S
Clostridium
C botulinum S
C difficile C DI

1
Source: Garner JS and HICPAC 1996.

Infection Prevention Guidelines I-1

Type and Duration of Precautions Needed for Selected Infections and Conditions

Precautions
Infection/Condition Type* Duration†
C perfringens
Food poisoning S
Gas gangrene S
Coccidioidomycosis (valley fever)
Draining lesions S
Pneumonia S
Colorado tick fever S
Congenital rubella C Ff
Conjunctivitis
Acute bacterial S
Chlamydia S
Gonococcal S
Acute viral (acute hemorrhagic) C DI
Coxsackievirus disease (see enteroviral infection)
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease Sg
Croup (see respiratory infections in infants and young children)
Cryptococcosis S
Cryptosporidiosis (see gastroenteritis)
Cysticercosis S
Cytomegalovirus infection, neonatal or immunosuppressed S
Decubitus ulcer, infected
Major a C DI
Minor or limited b S
Dengue Sd
Diarrhea, acute-infective etiology suspected (see gastroenteritis)
Diphtheria
Cutaneous C CN h
Pharyngeal D CN h
Ebola viral hemorrhagic fever Ci DI
Echinococcosis (hydatidosis) S
Echovirus (see enteroviral infection)
Encephalitis or encephalomyelitis (see specific etiologic agents)
Endometritis S
Enterobiasis (pinworm disease, oxyuriasis) S
Enterococcus species (see multidrug-resistant organisms if epidemiologically
significant or vancomycin-resistant)
Enterocolitis, Clostridium difficile C DI
Enteroviral infections
Adults S
Infants and young children C DI
Epiglottitis, due to Haemophilus influenzae D U(24 hrs)
Epstein-Barr virus infection, including infectious mononucleosis S
Erythema infectiosum (also see Parvovirus B19) S
Escherichia coli gastroenteritis (see gastroenteritis)
Food poisoning
Botulism S
Clostridium perfringens or welchii S
Staphylococcal S

I-2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Type and Duration of Precautions Needed for Selected Infections and Conditions

Precautions
Infection/Condition Type* Duration†
Furunculosis-staphylococcal
Infants and young children C DI
Gangrene (gas gangrene) S
Gastroenteritis
Campylobacter species Sj
Cholera Sj
Clostridium difficile C DI
Cryptosporidium species Sj
Escherichia coli
Enterohemorrhagic O157:H7 Sj
Diapered or incontinent C DI
Other species Sj
Giardia lamblia Sj
Rotavirus Sj
Diapered or incontinent C DI
Salmonella species (including S typhi) Sj
Shigella species Sj
Diapered or incontinent C DI
Vibrio parahaemolyticus Sj
Viral (if not covered elsewhere) Sj
Yersinia enterocolitica Sj
German measles (see rubella)
Giardiasis (see gastroenteritis)
Gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum (gonorrheal ophthalmia, acute conjunctivitis of
S
newborn)
Gonorrhea S
Granuloma inguinale (donovanosis, granuloma venereum) S
Guillain-Barré‚ syndrome S
Hand, foot, and mouth disease (see enteroviral infection)
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome S
Helicobacter pylori S
Hemorrhagic fevers (for example, Lassa and Ebola) Ci DI
Hepatitis, viral
Type A S
Diapered or incontinent patients C Fk
Type B-HBsAg positive S
Type C and other unspecified non-A, non-B S
Type E S
Herpangina (see enteroviral infection)
Herpes simplex (Herpesvirus hominis)
Encephalitis S
Neonatal l (see F l for neonatal exposure) C DI
Mucocutaneous, disseminated or primary, severe C DI
Mucocutaneous, recurrent (skin, oral, genital) S
Herpes zoster (varicella-zoster)
Localized in immunocompromised patient, or disseminated A,C DI m
Localized in normal patient Sm
Histoplasmosis S

Infection Prevention Guidelines I-3

Type and Duration of Precautions Needed for Selected Infections and Conditions

Precautions
Infection/Condition Type* Duration†
HIV (see human immunodeficiency virus) S
Hookworm disease (ancylostomiasis, uncinariasis) S
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection c S
Impetigo C U (24 hrs)
Infectious mononucleosis S
Influenza Dn DI
Kawasaki syndrome S
Lassa fever Ci DI
Legionnaires' disease S
Leprosy S
Leptospirosis S
Lice (pediculosis) C U (24 hrs)
Listeriosis S
Lyme disease S
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis S
Lymphogranuloma venereum S
Malaria Sd
Marburg virus disease Ci DI
Measles (rubeola), all presentations A DI
Melioidosis, all forms S
Meningitis
Aseptic (nonbacterial or viral meningitis; also see enteroviral infections) S
Bacterial, gram-negative enteric, in neonates S
Fungal S
Haemophilus influenzae, known or suspected D U(24 hrs)
Listeria monocytogenes S
Neisseria meningitidis (meningococcal) known or suspected D U(24 hrs)
Pneumococcal S
Tuberculosis o S
Other diagnosed bacterial S
Meningococcal pneumonia D U(24 hrs)
Meningococcemia (meningococcal sepsis) D U(24 hrs)
Molluscum contagiosum S
Mucormycosis S
Multidrug-resistant organisms, infection or colonization p
Gastrointestinal C CN
Respiratory C CN
Pneumococcal S
Skin, wound, or burn C CN
Mumps (infectious parotitis) D Fq
Mycobacteria, nontuberculosis (atypical)
Pulmonary S
Wound S
Mycoplasma pneumonia D DI
Necrotizing enterocolitis S
Nocardiosis, draining lesions or other presentations S
Norwalk agent gastroenteritis (see viral gastroenteritis)

I-4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Type and Duration of Precautions Needed for Selected Infections and Conditions

Precautions
Infection/Condition Type* Duration†
Orf S
Parainfluenza virus infection, respiratory in infants and young children C DI
Parvovirus B19 D Fr
Pediculosis (lice) C U(24 hrs)
Pertussis (whooping cough) D Fs
Pinworm infection S
Plague
Bubonic S
Pneumonic D U(72 hrs)
Pleurodynia (see enteroviral infection)
Pneumonia
Adenovirus D,C DI
Bacterial not listed elsewhere (including gram-negative bacterial) S
Burkholderia cepacia in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients,
St
including respiratory tract colonization
Chlamydia S
Fungal S
Haemophilus influenzae
Adults S
Infants and children (any age) D U(24 hrs)
Legionella S
Meningococcal D U(24 hrs)
Multidrug-resistant bacterial (see multidrug-resistant organisms)
Mycoplasma (primary atypical pneumonia) D DI
Pneumococcal S
Multidrug-resistant (see multidrug-resistant organisms)
Pneumocystis carinii Su
Pseudomonas cepacia (see Burkholderia cepacia) St
Staphylococcus aureus S
Streptococcus, group A
Adults S
Infants and young children D U(24hrs)
Viral
Adults S
Infants and young children (see respiratory infectious disease, acute)
Poliomyelitis S
Psittacosis (ornithosis) S
Q fever S
Rabies S
Rat-bite fever (Streptobacillus moniliformis disease, Spirillum minus disease) S
Relapsing fever S
Resistant bacterial infection or colonization (see multidrug-resistant organisms)
Respiratory infectious disease, acute (if not covered elsewhere)
Adults S
Infants and young children c C DI
Respiratory syncytial virus infection, in infants and
C DI
young children, and immunocompromised adults

Infection Prevention Guidelines I-5

Type and Duration of Precautions Needed for Selected Infections and Conditions

Precautions
Infection/Condition Type* Duration†
Reye's syndrome S
Rheumatic fever S
Rickettsial fevers, tickborne (Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tickborne typhus fever) S
Rickettsialpox (vesicular rickettsiosis) S
Ringworm (dermatophytosis, dermatomycosis, tinea) S
Ritter's disease (staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome) S
Rocky Mountain spotted fever S
Roseola infantum (exanthem subitum) S
Rotavirus infection (see gastroenteritis)
Rubella (German measles; also see congenital rubella) D Fv
Salmonellosis (see gastroenteritis)
Scabies C U(24 hrs)
Scalded skin syndrome, staphylococcal (Ritter's disease) S
Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis) S
Shigellosis (see gastroenteritis)
Sporotrichosis S
Spirillum minus disease (rat-bite fever) S
Staphylococcal disease (S aureus)
Skin, wound, or burn
Major a C DI
Minor or limited b S
Enterocolitis Sj
Multidrug-resistant (see multidrug-resistant organisms)
Pneumonia S
Scalded skin syndrome S
Toxic shock syndrome S
Streptobacillus moniliformis disease (rat-bite fever) S
Streptococcal disease (group A streptococcus)
Skin, wound, or burn
Major a C U(24 hrs)
Minor or limited b S
Endometritis (puerperal sepsis) S
Pharyngitis in infants and young children D U(24 hrs)
Pneumonia in infants and young children D U(24 hrs)
Scarlet fever in infants and young children D U(24 hrs)
Streptococcal disease (group B streptococcus), neonatal S
Streptococcal disease (not group A or B) unless covered elsewhere S
Multidrug-resistant (see multidrug-resistant organisms)
Strongyloidiasis S
Syphilis
Skin and mucous membrane, including congenital, primary, secondary S
Latent (tertiary) and seropositivity without lesions S
Tapeworm disease
Hymenolepis nana S
Taenia solium (pork) S
Other S
Tetanus S

I-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 Type and Duration of Precautions Needed for Selected Infections and Conditions

Precautions
Infection/Condition Type* Duration†
Tinea (fungus infection dermatophytosis, dermatomycosis, ringworm) S
Toxoplasmosis S
Toxic shock syndrome (staphylococcal disease) S
Trachoma, acute S
Trench mouth (Vincent's angina) S
Trichinosis S
Trichomoniasis S
Trichuriasis (whipworm disease) S
Tuberculosis
Extrapulmonary, draining lesion (including scrofula) S
Extrapulmonary, meningitis o S
Pulmonary, confirmed or suspected or laryngeal disease A Fw
Skin-test positive with no evidence of current pulmonary disease S
Tularemia
Draining lesion S
Pulmonary S
Typhoid (Salmonella typhi) fever (see gastroenteritis)
Typhus, endemic and epidemic S
Urinary tract infection (including pyelonephritis), with or without urinary catheter S
Varicella (chickenpox) A,C Fe
Vibrio parahaemolyticus (see gastroenteritis)
Vincent's angina (trench mouth) S
Viral diseases
Respiratory (if not covered elsewhere)
Adults S
Infants and young children (see respiratory infectious disease, acute)
Whooping cough (pertussis) D Fs
Wound infections
Major a C DI
Minor or limited b S
Yersinia enterocolitica gastroenteritis (see gastroenteritis)
Zoster (varicella-zoster)
Localized in immunocompromised patient, disseminated A,C DI m
Localized in normal patient Sm
Zygomycosis (phycomycosis, mucormycosis) S

Infection Prevention Guidelines I-7

Type and Duration of Precautions Needed for Selected Infections and Conditions

Abbreviations:
* Type of Precautions: A, Airborne; C, Contact; D, Droplet; S, Standard; when A, C, and D are specified, also use S.
† Duration of precautions: CN, until off antibiotics and culture-negative; DI, duration of illness (with wound lesions, DI means
until they stop draining); U, until time specified in hours (hrs) after initiation of effective therapy; F, see footnote.
a
No dressing or dressing does not contain drainage adequately.
b
Dressing covers and contains drainage adequately.
c
Also see syndromes or conditions listed in Table 2.
d
Install screens in windows and doors in endemic areas.
e
Maintain precautions until all lesions are crusted. The average incubation period for varicella is 10 to 16 days, with a range of
10 to 21 days. After exposure, use varicella zoster immune globulin (VZIG) when appropriate, and discharge susceptible patients
if possible. Place exposed susceptible patients on Airborne Precautions beginning 10 days after exposure and continuing until 21
days after last exposure (up to 28 days if VZIG has been given). Susceptible persons should not enter the room of patients on
precautions if other immune caregivers are available.
f
Place infant on precautions during any admission until 1 year of age, unless nasopharyngeal and urine cultures are negative for
virus after age 3 months.
g
Additional special precautions are necessary for handling and decontamination of blood, body fluids and tissues, and
contaminated items from patients with confirmed or suspected disease. See latest College of American Pathologists (Northfield,
Illinois) guidelines or other references.
h
Until two cultures taken at least 24 hours apart are negative.
i
Call state health department and CDC for specific advice about management of a suspected case. During the 1995 Ebola
outbreak in Zaire, interim recommendations were published. (97) Pending a comprehensive review of the epidemiologic data
from the outbreak and evaluation of the interim recommendations, the 1988 guidelines for management of patients with
suspected viral hemorrhagic infections (16) will be reviewed and updated if indicated.
j
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent children <6 years of age for duration of illness.
k
Maintain precautions in infants and children <3 years of age for duration of hospitalization; in children 3 to 14 years of age,
until 2 weeks after onset of symptoms; and in others, until 1 week after onset of symptoms.
l
For infants delivered vaginally or by C-section and if mother has active infection and membranes have been ruptured for more
than 4 to 6 hours.
m
Persons susceptible to varicella are also at risk for developing varicella when exposed to patients with herpes zoster lesions;
therefore, susceptibles should not enter the room if other immune caregivers are available.
n
The "Guideline for Prevention of Nosocomial Pneumonia" (95,96) recommends surveillance, vaccination, antiviral agents, and
use of private rooms with negative air pressure as much as feasible for patients for whom influenza is suspected or diagnosed.
Many hospitals encounter logistic difficulties and physical plant limitations when admitting multiple patients with suspected
influenza during community outbreaks. If sufficient private rooms are unavailable, consider cohorting patients or, at the very
least, avoid room sharing with high-risk patients. See “Guideline for Prevention of Nosocomial Pneumonia” (95,96) for
additional prevention and control strategies.
o
Patient should be examined for evidence of current (active) pulmonary tuberculosis. If evidence exists, additional precautions
are necessary (see tuberculosis).
p
Resistant bacteria judged by the infection control program, based on current state, regional, or national recommendations, to be
of special clinical and epidemiologic significance.
q
For 9 days after onset of swelling.
r
Maintain precautions for duration of hospitalization when chronic disease occurs in an immunodeficient patient. For patients
with transient aplastic crisis or red-cell crisis, maintain precautions for 7 days.
s
Maintain precautions until 5 days after patient is placed on effective therapy.
t
Avoid cohorting or placement in the same room with a CF patient who is not infected or colonized with B cepacia. Persons with
CF who visit or provide care and are not infected or colonized with B cepacia may elect to wear a mask when within 3 ft of a
colonized or infected patient.
u
Avoid placement in the same room with an immunocompromised patient.
v
Until 7 days after onset of rash.
w
Discontinue precautions only when TB patient is on effective therapy, is improving clinically, and has three consecutive
negative sputum smears collected on different days, or TB is ruled out. Also see CDC “Guidelines for Preventing the
Transmission of Tuberculosis in Health-Care Facilities.”(23)

REFERENCES

Garner JS and The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee

(HICPAC). 1996. Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. Infect
Control Hosp Epidemiol 17(1): 53–80, and Am J Infect Control 24(1): 24–52.

I-8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX J

CDC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PREVENTION OF

SURGICAL SITE INFECTION1

RATIONALE

The Guidelines for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection (1999) provides

recommendations concerning reduction of surgical site infection (SSI)
risk. Each recommendation is categorized on the basis of existing
scientific data, theoretical rationale, and applicability.

Category I recommendations, including IA and IB, are those

recommendations that are viewed as effective by HICPAC and experts in
the fields of surgery, infectious diseases and infection control. Both
Category IA and IB recommendations are applicable for, and should be
adopted by, all healthcare facilities; IA and IB recommendations differ
only in the strength of the supporting scientific evidence.

Category II recommendations are supported by less scientific data than

Category I recommendations; such recommendations may be appropriate
for addressing specific nosocomial problems or specific patient
populations.

No recommendation is offered for some practices, either because there is a

lack of consensus regarding their efficacy or because the available
scientific evidence is insufficient to support their adoption. For such
unresolved issues, practitioners should use judgment to determine a policy
regarding these practices within their organization.

RANKING

Category IA. Strongly recommended for implementation and supported

by well-designed experimental, clinical or epidemiological studies.

Category IB. Strongly recommended for implementation and supported

by some experimental, clinical or epidemiological studies and strong
theoretical rationale.

Category II. Suggested for implementation and supported by suggestive

clinical or epidemiological studies or theoretical rationale.

No recommendation (unresolved issue). Practices for which insufficient

evidence or no consensus regarding efficacy exists.

1
Adapted from: Mangram, HICPAC and CDC 1999.

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CDC Recommendations for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. PREOPERATIVE

a. Preparation of the patient

1. Whenever possible, identify and treat all infections remote to
the surgical site before elective operation and postpone elective
operations on patients with remote site infections until the
infection has resolved. Category IA
2. Do not remove hair preoperatively unless the hair at or around
the incision site will interfere with the operation. Category IA
3. If hair is removed, remove immediately before the operation,
preferably with electric clippers. Category IA
4. Adequately control serum blood glucose levels in all diabetic
patients and particularly avoid hyperglycemia perioperatively.
Category IB
5. Encourage stopping use of tobacco products. At minimum,
instruct patients to abstain for at least 30 days before elective
operation from smoking cigarettes, cigars, pipes or any other
form of tobacco consumption (e.g., chewing/dipping).
Category IB
6. Do not withhold necessary blood products from surgical
patients as a means to prevent SSI. Category IB
7. Require patients to shower or bathe with an antiseptic agent on
at least the night before the operative day. Category IB
8. Thoroughly wash and clean at and around the incision site to
remove gross contamination before performing antiseptic skin
preparation. Category IB
9. Use an appropriate antiseptic agent for skin preparation (Table
6). Category IB
10. Apply preoperative antiseptic skin preparation in concentric
circles moving toward the periphery. The prepared area must
be large enough to extend the incision or create new incisions
or drain sites, if necessary. Category II
11. Keep preoperative hospital stay as short as possible while
allowing for adequate preoperative preparation of the patient.
Category II
12. No recommendation to taper or discontinue systemic steroid
use (when medically permissible) before elective operation.
Unresolved issue
13. No recommendation to enhance nutritional support for surgical
patients solely as a means to prevent SSI. Unresolved issue
14. No recommendation to preoperatively apply mupirocin to the
nose (nares) to prevent SSI. Unresolved issue
b. Hand/forearm antisepsis for surgical team members
1. Keep nails short and do not wear artificial nails. Category IB

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 CDC Recommendations for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection

2. Perform a preoperative surgical scrub for at least 2 to 5 minutes

using an appropriate antiseptic. Scrub the hands and forearms
up to the elbows. Category IB
3. After performing the surgical scrub, keep hands up and away
from the body (elbows in flexed position) so that water runs
from the tips of the fingers toward the elbows. Dry hands with
a sterile towel and put on a sterile gown and gloves. Category
IB
4. Clean underneath each fingernail prior to performing the first
surgical scrub of the day. Category II
5. Do not wear hand or arm jewelry. Category II
6. No recommendation on wearing nail polish. Unresolved Issue
c. Management of infected or colonized surgical personnel
1. Educate and encourage surgical personnel who have signs and
symptoms of a transmissible infectious illness to report
conditions promptly to their supervisory and occupational
health service personnel. Category IB
2. Develop well-defined policies concerning patient care
responsibilities when personnel have potentially transmissible
infectious conditions. These policies should govern: (a)
personnel responsibility in using the health service and
reporting illness, (b) work restrictions, and (c) clearance to
resume work after an illness that required work restriction. The
policies also should identify persons who have the authority to
remove personnel from duty. Category IB
3. Exclude from duty surgical personnel who have draining skin
lesions until infection has been ruled out or personnel have
received adequate therapy and infection has resolved. Category
IB
4. Do not routinely exclude surgical personnel who are colonized
with organisms such as S. aureus (nose, hands or other body
site) or group A Streptococcus, unless such personnel have
been linked epidemiologically to dissemination of the organism
in the healthcare setting. Category IB
d. Antimicrobial prophylaxis
1. Administer a prophylactic antimicrobial agent only when
indicated, and select it based on its efficacy against the most
common pathogens causing SSI for a specific operation and
published recommendations. Category IA
2. Administer by the intravenous route the initial dose of
prophylactic antimicrobial agent, timed such that a bactericidal
concentration of the drug is established in serum and tissues
when the incision is made. Maintain therapeutic levels of the
agent in serum and tissues throughout the operation and until,
at most, a few hours after the incision is closed in the operating
room. Category IA
3. Before elective colorectal operations in addition to d2 above,
mechanically prepare the colon by use of enemas and cathartic

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CDC Recommendations for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection

agents. Administer nonabsorbable oral antimicrobial agents in

divided doses on the day before the operation. Category IA
4. For high-risk cesarean section, administer the prophylactic
antimicrobial agent immediately after the umbilical cord is
clamped. Category IA
5. Do not routinely use vancomycin for antimicrobial
prophylaxis. Category IB

2. INTRAOPERATIVE

a. Ventilation
1. Maintain positive-pressure ventilation in the operating room
with respect to the corridors and adjacent areas. Category IB
2. Maintain a minimum of 15 air changes per hour, of which at
least 3 should be fresh air. Category IB
3. Filter all air, recirculated and fresh, through the appropriate
filters per the American Institute of Architects’
recommendations. Category IB
4. Introduce all air at the ceiling, and exhaust near the floor.
Category IB
5. Do not use UV radiation in the operating room to prevent SSI.
Category IB
6. Keep operating room doors closed except as needed for
passage of equipment, personnel and the patient. Category IB
7. Consider performing orthopedic implant operations in
operating rooms supplied with ultraclean air. Category II
8. Limit the number of personnel entering the operating room to
necessary personnel. Category II
b. Cleaning and disinfection of environmental surfaces
1. When visible soiling or contamination with blood or other
body fluids of surfaces or equipment occurs during an
operation, use disinfectant to clean the affected areas before the
next operation. Category IB
2. Do not perform special cleaning or closing of operating rooms
after contaminated or dirty operations. Category IB
3. Do not use tacky mats at the entrance to the operating room
suite or individual operating rooms for infection control.
Category IB
4. Wet vacuum the operating room floor after the last operation of
the day or night with disinfectant. Category II
5. No recommendation on disinfecting environmental surfaces or
equipment used in operating rooms between operations in the
absence of visible soiling. Unresolved issue
c. Microbiologic sampling
1. Do not perform routine environmental sampling of the
operating room. Perform microbiologic sampling of operating
room environmental surfaces or air only as part of an
epidemiologic investigation. Category IB

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 CDC Recommendations for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection

d. Sterilization of surgical instruments

1. Sterilize all surgical instruments according to published
guidelines. Category IB
2. Perform flash sterilization only for patient care items that will
be used immediately (e.g., to reprocess an inadvertently
dropped instrument). Do not use flash sterilization for reasons
of convenience, as an alternative to purchasing additional
instrument sets, or to save time. Category IB
e. Surgical attire and drapes
1. Wear a surgical mask that fully covers the mouth and nose
when entering the operating room if an operation is about to
begin or already under way or if sterile instruments are
exposed. Wear the mask throughout the operation. Category IB
2. Wear a cap or hood to fully cover hair on the head and face
when entering the operating room. Category IB
3. Do not wear shoe covers for the prevention of SSI. Category IB
4. Wear sterile gloves if a scrubbed surgical team member. Put on
gloves after putting on a sterile gown. Category IB
5. Use surgical gowns and drapes that are effective barriers when
wet (i.e., materials that resist liquid penetration). Category IB
6. Change scrub suits that are visibly soiled, contaminated and/or
penetrated by blood or other potentially infectious materials.
Category IB
7. No recommendations on how or where to launder scrub suits,
on restricting use of scrub suits to the operating suite or for
covering scrub suits when out of the operating suite.
Unresolved issue
f. Asepsis and surgical technique
1. Adhere to principles of asepsis when placing intravascular
devices (e.g., central venous catheters), spinal or epidural
anesthesia catheters, or when dispensing and administering
intravenous drugs. Category IA
2. Assemble sterile equipment and solutions immediately prior to
use. Category II
3. Handle tissue gently, maintain effective hemostasis, minimize
devitalized tissue and foreign bodies (i.e., sutures, charred
tissues, necrotic debris) and eradicate dead space at the surgical
site. Category IB
4. Use delayed primary skin closure or leave an incision open to
heal by second intention if the surgeon considers the surgical
site to be heavily contaminated (e.g., Class III and Class IV).
Category IB
5. If drainage is necessary, use a closed suction drain. Place a
drain through a separate incision distant from the operative
incision. Remove the drain as soon as possible. Category IB

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CDC Recommendations for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection

3. POSTOPERATIVE INCISION CARE

a. Protect with a sterile dressing for 24 to 48 hours postoperatively an

incision that has been closed primarily. Category IB
b. Wash hands before and after dressing changes and any contact
with the surgical site. Category IB
c. When an incision dressing must be changed, use sterile technique.
Category II
d. Educate the patient and family regarding proper incision care,
symptoms of SSI, and the need to report such symptoms. Category
II
e. No recommendation to cover an incision closed primarily beyond
48 hours, nor on the appropriate time to shower or bathe with an
uncovered incision. Unresolved issue

REFERENCES

Mangram AJ, Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee

(HICPAC) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 1999.
Guidelines for prevention of surgical site infection. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol 24(4): 247–278.
Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/hip/SSI/SSI_guideline.htm

J-6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 APPENDIX K

FETAL AND NEWBORN INFECTIOUS

DISEASE PREVENTION1

BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

Group B Streptococcal Since its emergence in the 1970s, group B streptococcal sepsis has been the
Septicemia leading bacterial infection associated with illness and death in newborns in
developed countries. For infants with the infection, the mortality rate is up
to 25% even with early diagnosis and prompt treatment. Colonization of
the vagina and rectum in pregnancy is common (from 10–40% of women
during late pregnancy). Although colonization is usually without
symptoms, this pathogen causes considerable maternal and fetal infection
before and after delivery (e.g., chorioamnionitis and septicemia of the fetus
and newborn, and urinary tract infections, endometritis and wound
infections in postpartum women).

About 50% of newborn infants exposed during delivery to mothers

colonized with this pathogen will become colonized. Fortunately,
maternally transmitted antibodies protect most of these infants. Thus, only a
few (1–2 per 1000 live births) develop clinical disease. Preterm or low-birth
weight infants are at the highest risk (about 25%) of developing this serious,
often fatal, infection during the first week of life. This is due, in part, to the
reduced ability of a preterm infant’s immune system to resist infection.

Prophylaxis

Where antenatal services include laboratory testing, most neonatal group

B streptococcal infections can be prevented through the use of intrapartum
antimicrobial prophylaxis in women at increased risk of transmitting the
infection to their newborns (CDC 2000; Keenan 1998). Such women can
be identified by having a positive anogenital culture for this pathogen at
35–37 weeks or at least one of the following risk factors associated with
early-onset infections:

x group B streptococci bacteriuria during pregnancy;

x previously delivered infant infected with group B streptococcal infection;
x preterm birth (before 37 weeks gestation);
x rupture of membranes (>18 hours); and
x clinically evident intra-amniotic infection syndrome (chorioamnionitis)
with maternal temperature greater than 38oC (100.4oF), or prior
infected child.

1
Adapted from: AAP and ACOG 1997.

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Fetal and Newborn Infectious Disease Prevention

Prophylactic antibiotic treatment, as outlined in Table K-1, should begin

as soon as labor starts or a risk factor is identified.

Table K-1. Prophylaxis of Group B Streptococcal Infection

PENICILLIN ALLERGY: RECOMMENDED ALTERNATIVE
MATERNAL STATUS TREATMENT TREATMENT
No known allergy Penicillin G: 5 million Ampicillin: 2 g given in an
units given in an IV load; IV load; then 1g IV every 4
then 2.5 million units every hours until delivery
4 hours until delivery
Allergy Clindamycin (Cleocin): Erythromycin: 500 mg IV
900 mg IV every 8 hours every 6 hours until delivery
until delivery
IV= intravenous

Adapted from: CDC 1996.

Prevention measures in the nursery or neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)

for infants at risk of group B streptococcal disease, who are being treated
prophylactically, should stress hand hygiene, use of gloves and avoidance
of crowding because cross-contamination (infant to infant) can occur on
the hands of health workers. Newborns with early onset group B
streptococcal disease can be treated in the NICU provided Standard
Precautions, including Transmission-Based (Contact) Precautions, are
used. (See Chapters 2 and 21 for details.)

Chlamydial Infection In many countries, 20–40% of pregnant women are infected with
Chlamydia trachomatis, a sexually transmitted infection that is common in
women who are young (age less than 24) and have multiple sex partners.
Chlamydia is transmitted to newborns from infected mothers during birth,
and 60–70% of infants delivered vaginally from infected mothers will
acquire this infection. Of those infected newborns, 30–50% will develop
purulent conjunctivitis unless treated prophylactically at birth with
antibiotic eyedrops (tetracycline or erythromycin). Neonatal pneumonia
occurs in another 10–20%.

Prevention during pregnancy includes treatment of infected pregnant

women in the third trimester (after 30 weeks gestation) with erythromycin
(tetracycline should not be used because it is deposited in the teeth of the
developing fetus). Because antenatal testing is not available in most
developing countries, use of eye drops is the only preventive measure
usually available. Unfortunately, neither tetracycline nor erythromycin eye
drops prevent chlamydial pneumonia. Prophylactic cesarean section is not
recommended because the pneumonia is usually mild and easily and
inexpensively treated.

Newborns with purulent conjunctivitis can be kept in the nursery or NICU

provided Standard Precautions, including Transmission-Based (Contact)

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 Fetal and Newborn Infectious Disease Prevention

Precautions, are used. (See Chapters 2 and 21 for details.) In addition, all
waste items (gauze or cotton wet with drainage from the eyes) should be
disposed of in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container.

Gonorrheal Infection Prevention during pregnancy includes treatment of infected pregnant

women with an appropriate antibiotic (tetracycline should not be used
because it is deposited in the teeth of the developing fetus). Because
antenatal testing is not available in most developing countries, use of eye
drops (tetracycline or erythromycin) is the only preventative measure
usually available.

Newborns with purulent conjunctivitis can be kept in the nursery or NICU

provided Standard Precautions, including Transmission-Based (Contact)
Precautions, are used. (See Chapters 2 and 21 for details.) In addition, all
waste items (gauze or cotton wet with drainage from the eyes) should be
disposed of in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container.

Listeriosis Infection of the fetus or newborn with Listeria monocytogenes can occur
antenatally (transfer across the placenta), during labor and delivery
(vertical transmission) and nosocomially though contact with infected
mothers or health workers. Because antenatal testing is not available in
most developing countries, use of eye drops (tetracycline or erythromycin)
is the only preventative measure usually available.

The clinical findings in infants with listeriosis are not well defined and
often nonspecific, but they may be similar to group B streptococcal
disease with early or late onset syndromes. Prompt diagnosis in the
nursery is important because the infection is easily treated with penicillin
or ampicillin.

Newborns at risk or with active listeriosis can be kept in the nursery or

NICU provided Standard Precautions, including Transmission-Based
(Contact) Precautions, are used. (See Chapters 2 and 21 for details.) In
addition, for newborns with conjunctivitis, all waste items (gauze or cotton
wet with drainage from the eyes) should be disposed of in a plastic bag or
leakproof, covered waste container.

Neonatal Tetanus Neonatal tetanus is a major health problem in many developing countries
where maternity services are limited and immunization against tetanus is
inadequate. Although in the past 5 years progress has been made in
reducing deaths from neonatal tetanus, WHO estimates that more than
500,000 deaths still occur annually in developing countries. Most
newborns with tetanus have been born to nonimmunized mothers who
delivered at home.

Infants become infected during delivery through use of an unclean

instrument (e.g., strips of bamboo) to cut the umbilical cord or following
delivery by placing substances heavily contaminated with tetanus

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Fetal and Newborn Infectious Disease Prevention

endospores (e.g., ashes, cow dung or dust from the hearth or doorway to
the house) on the umbilical stump. Often this is done as part of a
traditional birthing practice.

Prevention of neonatal tetanus, which has a 60–80% case-fatality rate, can

be achieved through a combination of:

x immunizing all women of childbearing age, especially pregnant

women;
x improving the quality and availability of maternity care; and
x educating mothers, relatives and birth attendants of the need for
cutting the cord with a clean instrument and keeping the cord stump
clean.

To be effective, nonimmunized pregnant women should receive at least

two doses of tetanus toxoid prior to delivery—the first at the initial clinic
visit and the second 4 weeks after the first and preferably at least 2 weeks
before delivery. If a woman receives at least three additional doses over
the next couple of years, she will be protected for life.

Syphilis Antenatal testing of pregnant women should be done to identify and treat
those women seropositive for syphilis and to prevent congenital syphilis in
their newborns. If the results of serologic tests for syphilis were equivocal
or not available, a cord blood or venous sample from the newborn should
be tested.

Although the clinical findings of congenital syphilis in the newborn may

be nonspecific, moist open lesions, which may be due to syphilis, are
infectious. Therefore, care of the newborn in the nursery or NICU should
include use of Standard Precautions, including Transmission-Based
(Contact) Precautions, to prevent spread to other infants and health
workers through cross-contamination. (See Chapters 2 and 21 for details).
In addition, all dressings covering the lesions should be disposed of in a
plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container.

VIRAL INFECTIONS

Hepatitis B In many countries, 20–50% of pregnant women are seropositive for HBV,
but prenatal screening for HBV by testing for hepatitis B surface antigen
Note: No special care of (HbsAg) is not available even for “high-risk” women. (Historical
these infants is required information about risk factors identifies less than half of chronic carriers.)
other than removal of Where HBV is endemic all infants should receive HBV vaccine within 12
maternal blood from the hours because the majority of infants born to HBV-infected mothers will
planned injection site to become infected, and about 70–90% chronic carriers. (If available,
avoid introducing some of
the virus contaminating the hepatitis B immune globulin prophylaxis should be given to infants at the
skin. same time.) About 95% of infants will be protected when the three-dose
immunization series with HBV vaccine is completed; therefore,

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 Fetal and Newborn Infectious Disease Prevention

breastfeeding of immunized babies born to HbsAg-positive women poses

no additional risk of transmission of HBV.

After delivery, the baby should be wiped with cotton (not gauze) dipped in
Note: After blood has been clean water to remove blood and amniotic fluid from the newborn skin.
removed, gloves do not
need to be worn for
Doing this minimizes the risk of exposing other infants or healthcare staff
changing diapers and other to blood or potentially contaminated amniotic fluid. After use, dispose of
routine nursing care. the cotton in a plastic bag or leakproof, covered waste container. There is
no need for special precautions or isolation of newborn with an HBV
infected mother; therefore, infants born to infected mothers (whether or
not they receive hepatitis B vaccine) can stay in the nursery or NICU.
Hospital staff need only use Standard Precautions in order to prevent
exposure to blood or potentially contaminated body fluids.

Hepatitis C Virus There is no vaccine or treatment to prevent HCV in humans; therefore, at

present, primary prevention needs to be vigorously promoted. This
involves education combined with behavior change interventions aimed at
promoting safer sexual practices. Also, because HCV, HBV and HIV are
transmitted by the same mechanisms, behavior change messages should be
linked to AIDS and hepatitis B prevention efforts as well.

After delivery, care of HCV infected mothers and infants at risk of

infection is the same as for HBV. Because HCV is found in breastmilk,
women who are seropositive for HCV should be counseled about the risks
of breastfeeding.

Herpes Simplex Virus Women with active genital lesions who delivery vaginally have a 50% risk
of transmitting the infection to their newborn if the infection is primary, but
only 0–8% risk if recurrent. Most (70%) of newborns infected with HSV,
however, are delivered from women who have neither active genital herpes
nor a history of infection. Where possible, pregnant women at term (37
Note: Women with weeks or more) with documented genital lesions and intact membranes
nongenital lesions can be should be delivered by cesarean section to minimize the risk of infection in
delivered vaginally, the newborn.
provided the lesions can be
covered.
Prevention of herpes simplex virus (HSV) by cesarean section is
problematic at this time in most countries with limited resources. This is
due in part to:

x lack of recognition of the lesions during or just before labor,

x high rates of home deliveries in most countries,
x limited availability of cesarean sections,
x risk of serious postoperative maternal infection (endometritis and
wound infections) following cesarean section, and
x cost issues.

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Fetal and Newborn Infectious Disease Prevention

Infants born to mothers with active genital lesions can be cared for in the
nursery or NICU, but Standard Precautions, including Transmission-Based
(Contact) Precautions, should be used to minimize the risk of transmission
to other newborns and health workers. (See Chapters 2 and 21 for
details.) In addition, all waste items (gauze or cotton wet with drainage
from the lesions) should be disposed of in a plastic bag or leakproof,
covered waste container.

A mother with active lesions (genital or elsewhere) should be placed on

Transmission-Based (Contact) Precautions, which includes use of
Standard Precautions, until discharged. She should be taught about her
infection and measures to prevent postpartum transmission to her baby.
Preventive practices the mother should use include:

x Before touching the newborn, the mother should cover nongenital

lesions, thoroughly wash and dry her hands and cover her upper body
with a clean cloth or gown so that the baby does not come in contact
with lesions or potentially infected clothing.
x If the woman has lesions on her lips (cold sores) fever blisters (mouth)
or face, she should not cuddle or kiss her baby until the lesions are
healed. For added protection and if available, a new disposable paper
Note: If the mother has mask or freshly laundered cloth mask should be worn to cover lips or
genital herpes, her baby mouth lesions each time she cares for her infant.
may room with her in the
hospital if she has been x Breastfeeding can be done provided there are no lesions in the breast
taught the preventive area and all skin lesions are covered.
measures.
x Direct contact of a newborn with other family members or friends who
have active HSV infection should be avoided.

Human For HIV, the only effective primary prevention is education and counseling
Immunodeficiency as described for HCV above. In areas where HIV prevalence rates are high
Virus (>2/1000), pregnant women should be strongly urged to volunteer for
counseling and testing. The identification of an HIV-infected pregnant
woman as early in the pregnancy as possible is important to ensure
appropriate counseling and medical care, including termination of
pregnancy if available, and if it is the woman’s choice.

HIV can be transmitted from mother to infant in three ways: in utero

(across the placenta), during delivery or through breastmilk. In breastfed
infants, about half the transmission occurs around the time of delivery, one
third through breastfeeding and a smaller portion in utero. In nonbreastfed
infected infants, about two thirds of transmission occurs during or close to
delivery and one third in utero (DeCock et al 2000). In addition, the risk of
HIV transmission from an infected mother to the fetus and infant is
affected by other factors as shown in Table K-2.

Transmission rates of HIV can be reduced from 25–30% to less than 2%

(>90% reduction) if antiretroviral (ARV) drugs are taken in the last

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 Fetal and Newborn Infectious Disease Prevention

trimester of pregnancy, during labor and delivery, and infants are treated
postpartum for 6 weeks as well as not breastfed (Cooper et al 2002). This
highly effective regime is not available in developing countries. In a
number of countries, however, a shorter and simpler regimen, involving
one oral dose of a single ARV drug to the mother during labor and one
dose to the newborn within 72 hours, is becoming more widely available.
Using this approach, mother-to-infant transmission of the virus can be
reduced by nearly 50% (Guay et al 1999).

Table K-2. Factors Associated with Increased Risk of Mother-to-Infant

Transmission of HIV
STRONG INTERMEDIATE LIMITED
EVIDENCE EVIDENCE EVIDENCE
Maternal Factors High viral load Chorioamnionitis Frequent
unprotected sexual
Immunodeficiency Anemia intercourse
(CD4 <250)
Sexually Vitamin A
HIV infection transmitted deficiency
acquired during infections
pregnancy or Multiple sexual
breastfeeding Smoking partners

Drug use involving

injection
Obstetric Factors Vaginal delivery Invasive procedures Episiotomy
(compared with
elective cesarean
section)
Infant Factors Prematurity Lesions of skin
and/or mucous
Breastfeeding membranes (oral
thrush)

Adapted from: McIntyre 2002.

Several studies also have shown that cesarean section before the onset of
labor reduces the risk of mother-to-infant transmission. The potential
benefit of elective cesarean section, however, has to be balanced against
the reported:

x increased risk of postoperative infections in the mother,

x reduced effectiveness in preventing HIV transmission if mothers
subsequently breastfeed their infants, and
x limited resources in many developing countries to perform elective
cesarean section.

After delivery, care of HIV-infected mothers and infants at risk of

infection is the same as for HBV.

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Fetal and Newborn Infectious Disease Prevention

Human Papillomavirus Genital warts caused by HPV, a sexually transmitted virus, are becoming
more common. In a small percentage of women, HPV infection is
associated with genital cancer (cervix, vagina and vulva), anal cancer in
both sexes and penile cancer in men. Primary prevention should involve
education and counseling similar to that for HCV, but should reflect the
fact that HPV is not transmitted via the blood, but only in vaginal or
cervical discharge or through contact with perineal or penile (male)
lesions.

There is a small risk that infants born to mothers infected with certain
types of HPV may be at increased risk of developing lesions in their
respiratory tract (papillomatosis). Because the risk is low, delivery of
infected women by cesarean section is not indicated to protect the infant.
Cesarean section may be necessary, however, in women whose genital
warts are so extensive that soft tissue stretching of the vulva and perineum
may not be sufficient to allow vaginal delivery.

Infants born to mothers infected with genital HPV do not need special
precautions and can stay in the nursery or NICU.

Rubella Newborns lacking passively acquired maternal antibodies may develop

congenital rubella infection if exposed to the virus during pregnancy.
Vaccination of all children and nonpregnant women is the most effective
method of preventing congential rubella in infants.2

Newborns with congenital rubella infection, or those born to mothers

known to have had rubella during pregnancy, should not go to the nursery
or NICU. They should be placed in a private area. Transmission-Based
(Contact) Precautions, including Standard Precautions, should be used to
protect other infants and health workers. Where possible, care should be
provided to the newborn only by health workers known to have had
rubella or those previously vaccinated. Newborns with congenital rubella
should be considered contagious for up to 1 year of age.

Pregnant women with active rubella at the time of admission to the

hospital should labor and give birth in a separate area. They should be
placed in isolation postpartum and be discharged as soon as mother and
baby are stabilized. Transmission-Based (Contact) Precautions, including
Standard Precautions, should be used to protect other patients in labor or
those who are postpartum, as well as susceptible health workers. Where
possible, care should be provided to the mother only by health workers
known to have had rubella or those previously vaccinated.

Varicella (Chicken Pox) Newborns lacking passively acquired maternal antibodies may develop a
life-threatening infection if exposed to the virus within the last 2 weeks of
pregnancy (viral transfer occurs across the placenta) or at the time of
2
Vaccinated women should be counseled to avoid pregnancy for 3 months because of the possible small risk the vaccine
could cause a congenital abnormality.

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 Fetal and Newborn Infectious Disease Prevention

delivery. The greatest risk is if the baby is born within 2 days before or 5
days after the onset of maternal chicken pox. Infants at risk should receive
varicella immune globulin, 1.25 mL (one vial) intramuscularly. In
addition, the newborn should be placed in isolation to minimize the risk of
transmission (airborne) to other newborns and susceptible postpartum
mothers and healthcare staff. Where possible, care should be provided to
the newborn only by health workers known to have had varicella or those
previously vaccinated.

Pregnant women with active varicella at the time of admission to the

hospital should labor and give birth in a separate area. They should be
placed in isolation postpartum and discharged as soon as mother and baby
are stabilized. In addition, their newborns should be separated from them
until all lesions are healed. Transmission-Based (Droplet and Contact)
Precautions, including Standard Precautions, should be used to protect
other patients in labor or who are postpartum as well as susceptible health
workers. Where possible, care should be provided to the mother only by
health workers known to have had varicella or those previously
vaccinated.

REFERENCES

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and American Academy of

Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 1997. Guidelines for Perinatal
Care, 4th ed, revised. AAP: Elk Grove, IL.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2000. Hospital-based
policies for prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease. MMWR
49(41): 936–940.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 1996. Prevention of
perinatal group B streptococcal infections disease: A public health
perspective. MMWR 45(RR-7): 1–24.
Cooper ER et al. 2002. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the
treatment of pregnant HIV-1 infected women and prevention of perinatal
HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 29(5): 484–494.
DeCock KM et al. 2000. Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission
in resource-poor countries: Translating research into policy and practice.
JAMA 283(9): 1175–1182.
Guay LA et al. 1999. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine
compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission
of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomized trial. Lancet
354(9181): 795–802.
Keenan C. 1998 Prevention of neonatal group B streptococcal infection.
Am Fam Physician 57(11): 2713–2725.
McIntyre JA. 2002. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. IPPF Medical
Bulletin 36(4): 1–2.

Infection Prevention Guidelines K-9

Fetal and Newborn Infectious Disease Prevention

K - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines

 GLOSSARY

Airborne transmission: Transfer of particles 5 µm or less in size into the air, either as airborne droplets
or dust particles containing the infectious microorganism; can be produced by coughing, sneezing,
talking or procedures such as bronchoscopy or suctioning; can remain in the air for up to several hours;
and can be spread widely within a room or over longer distances. Special air handling and ventilation are
needed to prevent airborne transmission. (Chapter 21 and Appendix I)
Amphoteric: Organic chemical (e.g., amino acid) having both acid and basic properties.
Animate: Property of having life or being alive (e.g., human tissue or organs).
Anionic: Positively charged particle or substance (i.e., in electrolysis, anions move toward the
negatively charged cathode); opposite of cationic.
Antisepsis: Process of reducing the number of microorganisms on skin, mucous membranes or other
body tissue by applying an antimicrobial (antiseptic) agent. (Chapters 1, 6 and 23)
Antiseptic or antimicrobial agent (terms used interchangeably): Chemicals that are applied to the
skin or other living tissue to inhibit or kill microorganisms (both transient and resident) thereby reducing
the total bacterial counts. (Chapters 6 and 23)
Antiseptic handrub or waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub (terms used interchangeably):
Fast acting antiseptic handrubs that do not require use of water to remove transient flora, reduce resident
microorganisms and protect the skin. Most contain 60–90% alcohol, an emollient and often an additional
antiseptic (e.g., 2–4% chlorhexidine gluconate) that has residual action. (Chapter 3 and Appendix B)
Asepsis and aseptic technique: Combination of efforts made to prevent entry of microorganisms into
any area of the body where they are likely to cause infection. The goal of asepsis is to reduce to a safe
level or eliminate the number of microorganisms on both animate (living) surfaces (skin and tissue) and
inanimate objects (surgical instruments and other items). (Chapters 1 and 7)
At point of use: Equipment, instruments and supply items are at the place where needed (e.g., sharps
containers are placed within an arm’s reach of where injections are being given). (Chapter 15)
Autoclave: Device that sterilizes instruments or other objects by using steam under pressure. The length
of time required for sterilization depends on temperature and pressure. (Chapter 11 and Appendix G)
Bacterial endotoxins: Lipopolysaccharide components from gram-negative bacteria cell membranes
that result from bacterial metabolism. Endotoxins survive sterilization because they require dry heat at
270q F (132qC) for 1 hour to be inactivated. They can cause pyrogenic reaction symptoms, including
fever, chills, and hypertension.
Bactericide: Agent that kills bacteria.
Bioburden: Number of types of viable microorganisms with which an item is contaminated; also known
as bioload or microbial load.
Biological indicator: Sterilization process monitoring device consisting of a standardized, viable population
of microorganisms (usually bacterial spores) known to be resistant to the process of sterilization being
monitored. Biological indicators are intended to demonstrate whether or not the conditions were adequate to
achieve sterilization. A negative biological indicator does not prove that all items in the load are sterile or
that they were all exposed to adequate sterilization conditions. (Chapter 11 and Appendix G)

Infection Prevention Guidelines Glossary - 1

Biosafety level (BSL) guidelines: Combination of primary and secondary containment and safety
guidelines designed for use in microbiology laboratories and bacteriology research units functioning at
four levels (BSL-1 to BSL-4) of increasing risk. (Chapter 17)
Biological safety cabinets (BSCs): Devices that provide protection for personnel, the agent being
processed and the environment. They range in complexity from level I (general research cabinets for use
with low- to moderate-risk microorganisms) to level III (totally enclosed cabinets with gas-tight
construction that provide maximum protection to workers and the environment). (Chapter 17)
Blood bank: Facility or hospital unit that performs the collection, processing, storage and distribution of
human blood or blood products. (Chapter 18)
Bowie-Dick test: Diagnostic test of a sterilizer’s ability to remove air from the chamber of a prevacuum
steam sterilizer. The air-removal or Bowie-Dick test is not a test for sterilization. (Appendix G)
Casefinding: Method of identifying patients with nosocomial infections through a combination of: 1)
reviewing medical records, 2) asking questions directed to patients or health workers and, 3) checking
laboratory, X-ray or other relevant data if available. (Chapter 28)
Cationic: Negatively charged particle or substance (i.e., in electrolysis, cations move toward the
positively charged anode); opposite of anionic.
Chemical indicator: Sterilization process monitoring device designed to respond with a characteristic
chemical change to one or more of the physical conditions within the sterilizing chamber. Chemical
indicators are intended to detect potential sterilization failures that could result from incorrect
packaging, incorrect loading of the sterilizer, or malfunctions of the sterilizer. The “pass” response of a
chemical indicator does not prove that the item accompanied by the indicator is sterile. (Chapter 11 and
Appendix G)
Clean water: Natural or chemically treated and filtered water that is safe to drink and use for other
purposes (e.g., handwashing and medical instrument cleaning) because it meets specified public health
standards. These standards include: zero levels of microorganisms, such as bacteria (e.g., fecal coliform and
Escherichia coli), parasites (e.g., Giardia lamblia) and viruses (e.g., hepatitis A or E); low turbidity
(cloudiness due to particulate matter and other contaminants); and minimum levels of disinfectants,
disinfectant by-products, inorganic and organic chemicals and radioactive materials. At a minimum clean
water should be free of microorganisms and have low turbidity (is clear, not cloudy). (Chapters 3 and 26)
Cleaning: Process that physically removes all visible dust, soil, blood or other body fluids from
inanimate objects as well as removing sufficient numbers of microorganisms to reduce risks for those
who touch the skin or handle the object. (Chapters 1, 9 and 10)
Cleaning solution: Any combination of soap (or detergent) and water used to wash or wipe down
environmental surfaces such as floors, walls, ceilings and furniture. (Chapter 6)
Clinically significant antibody: Antibody capable of producing an adverse reaction to transfused blood
or blood product obtained from a donor (allogenic antibody) or recipient (autologous antibody).
(Chapter 18)
Closed system for obtaining blood: System in which the blood is not exposed to air or outside
elements during collection, processing—including separation of components (e.g., platelets) if required
prior to transfusion—and storage. It is the safest way to collect, process and store blood. (Chapter 18)
Cohorting: Practice of placing patients with the same active infectious disease (e.g. chicken pox)—but
no other infection—in the same room or ward. (Chapter 21)

Glossary - 2 Infection Prevention Guidelines

Colonization: Pathogenic (illness- or disease-causing) organisms are present in a person (i.e., they can
be detected by cultures or other tests) but are not causing symptoms or clinical findings (i.e., no cellular
changes or damage). (Chapters 1 and 21)
Contact time: Amount of time a disinfectant is in direct contact with the surface or item to be
disinfected. For surface disinfection, this time period starts with the application to the surface, and ends
when complete drying has occurred. (Appendix F)
Contact transmission: Infectious agent (bacteria, virus or parasite) transmitted directly or indirectly
from one infected or colonized person to a susceptible host (patient), often on the contaminated hands of
a health worker. (Chapter 21)
Container: Vessel in which waste is placed for handling, transportation, storage and/or eventual
disposal. (Chapter 8)
Contaminated: State of having been actually or potentially in contact with microorganisms. As used in
healthcare, the term generally refers to the presence of microorganisms that could be capable of
producing disease or infection. (Chapters 8 and 20)
Corrosion: Action of chemical solutions, such as those containing salt (sodium chloride) or commercial
bleach (sodium hypochlorite at concentrations above 0.5%), to cause metal instruments to be gradually
eaten away (rusted) with prolonged contact (i.e., more than 1 hour). (Appendix E)
Critical medical device (or item): Devices that penetrate skin or invade normally sterile parts of the
body (e.g., central venous catheters). These items contact blood and require sterilization. (Chapter 1)
Culture: Growth of microorganisms in or on a nutrient medium; to grow microorganisms in or on such
a medium.
Culture medium: Laboratory substance or preparation used to grow and cultivate microorganisms.
Decontamination: Process that makes inanimate objects safer to be handled by staff before cleaning
(i.e., inactivates HBV, HCV and HIV and reduces, but does not eliminate, the number of other
contaminating microorganisms). (Chapters 1, 9 and 10 and Appendices E, F and H)
Detergents and soaps (terms used interchangeably): Cleaning products (bar, liquid, leaflet or powder)
that lower surface tension, thereby helping remove dirt and debris and transient microorganisms from
hands. Plain soaps require friction (scrubbing) to mechanically remove microorganisms while
antiseptic (antimicrobial) soaps also kill or inhibit growth of most microorganisms. (Chapters 3, 13
and 16 and Appendix B)
Disinfectant: Chemical that destroys or inactivates microorganisms. Disinfectants are classified as low-,
intermediate- or high-level depending on their ability to kill or immobilize some (low- or intermediate-
level) or all (high-level) microorganisms (but not all spores). Phenols, chlorine or chlorine-containing
compounds and quaternary ammonium compounds (QUATs) are classes of disinfectants frequently used
to clean noncritical surfaces such as floors, walls and furniture. (Chapters 12 and 16 and Appendix F)
Disinfectant cleaning solution: Products that are a combination of a detergent (soap) and a chemical
disinfectant. Not all detergents and disinfectants are compatible. Several combinations are available
commercially or can be prepared, such as alkaline detergents with chlorine compounds, alkaline
detergents with QUATs or other nonionic surfactants, and acid detergents with iodophors. (Chapter 16
and Appendix F)
Disposal: Intentional burial, deposit, discharge, dumping, placing or release of any waste material into
or on air, land or water. Disposal is undertaken without the intention of retrieval. (Chapter 8)

Infection Prevention Guidelines Glossary - 3

Donor-Patient: Person whose blood is collected for possible transfusion to another person (allogenic
transfusion). (Chapter 18)
Donor-Recipient: Person whose own blood is collected for possible transfusion to her/himself
(autologous transfusion). (Chapter 18)
Droplet transmission: Contact of the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth or conjunctivae of the eye
with infectious particles larger than 5 µm in size that can be produced by coughing, sneezing, talking or
procedures such as bronchoscopy or suctioning. Droplet transmission requires close contact between the
source and the susceptible person because particles remain airborne briefly and travel only about 1 meter
(3 feet) or less. (Chapter 21)
Dry heat sterilization: Oven that sterilizes metal instruments, glass syringes and bottles and other items
by dry heat. Plastic and rubber items cannot be dry-heat sterilized because temperatures used (160–
170q C) are too high for these materials. (Chapter 11 and Appendix G)
Electrolyte: Chemical substance, such as salt (sodium chloride) or commercial bleach (sodium
hypochlorite), which in solution separates into positive (sodium) and negative (chloride or hypochlorite)
ions and is capable of conducting an electric current by movement of the positive and negative ions to
oppositely charged electrodes. (Appendix F)
Electrolytic corrosion: Chemical process that occurs when two or more different types of metal (e.g.,
stainless steel medical instruments in an aluminum pan) are placed in water or weak salt (sodium
chloride) or commercial bleach (sodium hypochlorite) solution. (To avoid this, instruments should be
placed in plastic pans and instruments made of different metals should not be allowed to touch each
other.) (Appendix E)
Emollient: Organic liquid, such as glycerol, propylene glycol or sortibol, that when added to handrubs
and hand lotions softens the skin and helps prevent skin damage (cracking, drying, irritation and
dermatitis) due to frequent handwashing with soap (with or without antiseptic agent) and water.
(Chapter 3)
Encapsulation: Filling a sharps container that is three-quarters full with cement or clay, which, after
hardening, can be disposed of safely in a landfill. (Chapter 8)
Endemic illness or disease: Infectious disease, such as cholera or AIDS, which is continuously present
at some level (prevalence) in a particular country or region. (Chapter 26)
Endometritis: Acute postpartum infection of the lining (endometrium) of the uterus with extension into
the smooth muscle wall (myometrium). Clinical features include fever, usually developing on the first or
second postpartum day, uterine tenderness, lower abdominal pain, foul-smelling vaginal discharge
(lochia) and signs of peritonitis in women who have had a cesarean section. (Chapter 25)
Endospore or spore (terms used interchangeably): Relatively water-poor round or elliptical resting
cell consisting of condensed cytoplasm and nucleus surrounded by an impervious cell wall or coat.
Spores are relatively resistant to disinfectants and sterilants, specifically the bacillus and clostridium
species. (Chapters 1, 9 and 12 and Appendix F)
Environmental controls: Standards specifying procedures to be followed for the routine care, cleaning
and disinfection of environmental surfaces, beds, bedrails, bedside equipment and other frequently
touched surfaces. (Chapters 15 and 16)
Environmental hygiene: Process of maintaining a clean, healthy and pleasing patient and work
environment. (Chapter 16)
Epidemic: Rapid spread of an infectious disease, such as cholera, among many individuals in a hospital
or community at the same time. (Chapter 26)

Glossary - 4 Infection Prevention Guidelines

Episiotomy: Surgical cut made in the perineum (usually at the 6 o’clock position) just prior to delivery.
The purpose is to facilitate delivery of the presenting part and minimize the risk of injury to the perineal
area. Episiotomies are, however, associated with increased bleeding, may lead to increased tearing (3rd
or 4th degree perineal laceration), frequently become infected and, most importantly, usually not
necessary. (Chapter 25)
Exit site infection (microbiologic diagnosis): Clinical infection in which culture of the discharge (pus
or fluid) at the exit site yields a microorganism, with or without microbiologic evidence of bloodstream
infection. (Chapter 23)
Exposure time: Period of time during a sterilization process in which items are exposed to the sterilant
at the specified sterilization parameters. In a steam sterilization process, exposure time is the period
during which items are exposed to saturated steam at the specified temperature. (Appendix G)
Flash sterilization: Process designed for the steam sterilization of patient-care items for immediate use.
(Appendix G)
Handwashing: Process of mechanically removing soil and debris from the skin of hands using plain
soap and water. (Chapter 3 and Appendices A and B)
Hazard: Intrinsic potential property or ability of any agent, equipment, material or process that can
cause harm. (Chapter 8)
High-level disinfection (HLD): Process that eliminates all microorganisms except some bacterial
endospores from inanimate objects by boiling, steaming or the use of chemical disinfectants. (Chapters
1, 9 and 12 and Appendix F)
Hospital-acquired infection or nosocomial (terms used interchangeably): Infection that is neither
present nor incubating at the time the patient came to the hospital. (Nosocomial refers to the association
between care and the subsequent onset of infection. It is a time-related criterion that does not imply a
cause and effect relationship.) (Chapters 3, 20 and 21)
Hydrophilic (water-seeking): Substances that are capable of dissolving in, taking up or being attracted
to water but not fats or oils (synonym: lipophobic).
Hydrophobic (water-avoiding): Substances that are not capable of dissolving in, taking up or being
attracted to water but are attracted to fats and oils (synonym: lipophilic).
Inanimate: Object or article (e.g., surgical instrument, gloves or other items) that does not have life (not
animate).
Inanimate surface: Nonliving surface (e.g., floors, walls, furniture).
Incineration: Controlled burning of solid, liquid or gaseous combustible (burnable) wastes to produce
gases and residues containing little or no burnable material. (Chapter 8)
Infectious microorganisms: Microorganisms capable of producing disease in appropriate hosts.
Infectious waste: The part of medical waste that is capable of causing infectious diseases. (Chapter 8)
Intermediate-level disinfectant: Agent that destroys all vegetative bacteria, including tubercle bacilli,
lipid and some nonlipid viruses, and fungus spores, but not bacterial spores. (Appendix F)
Intra-amniotic infection syndrome (IAIS), also referred to as amnionitis or chorioamnionitis:
Acute clinically detectable infection in the uterus and its contents (fetus, placenta and amniotic fluid)
during pregnancy. (Chapter 25)

Infection Prevention Guidelines Glossary - 5

Invasive group B streptococcal sepsis: Newborn infection characterized by bacteremia, pneumonia,
meningitis and death in up to 25% of infants with the infection. It occurs most commonly following
IAIS. Other sites of infection include newborn skin infections (cellulitis) and infections in bones
(osteomyelitis). (Chapter 25)
Laboratory-acquired infection: Nosocomial infection resulting from the performance of laboratory
activities by staff, regardless of how it occurred. (Chapters 17 and 20)
Linens: Cloth items used in healthcare facilities by housekeeping staff (bedding and towels), cleaning staff
(cleaning cloths, gowns and caps) and surgical personnel (caps, masks, scrub suits, surgical gowns, drapes
and wrappers) as well as by staff working in specialty units such as ICUs and other units performing
invasive medical procedures (e.g., anesthesiology, radiology or cardiology). (Chapters 5 and 13)
Lipid virus: Microorganism consisting of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat and a
lipoprotein envelope. This type of virus (e.g., HIV) generally is easily and rapidly inactivated by most
disinfectants (e.g., dilute chlorine solutions). Also referred to as an enveloped or lipophilic (fat-seeking)
virus.
Lipophilic (fat-seeking): Substances that are capable of dissolving in, taking up or being attracted to
fats or oils but are not attracted to water (synonym: hydrophobic).
Lipophobic (fat-avoiding): Substances that are not capable of dissolving in, taking up or being attracted
to fats but are attracted to water (synonym: hydrophilic).
Lookback systems: Process of identifying persons who have received blood transfusions from donors
who are subsequently found to have infections with HCV, HIV (and often HBV), and notifying them if
appropriate. (Chapter 18)
Low-level disinfectant: Agent that destroys all vegetative bacteria (except tubercle bacilli), lipid
viruses, some nonlipid viruses, and some fungus, but not bacterial spores. (Appendix F)
Mechanical indicator: Automated devices that monitor the sterilization process (e.g., graphs, gauges,
printouts). (Chapter 11 and Appendix G)
Microorganism: Causative agent of infection. They include bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. For
infection prevention purposes, bacteria can be further divided into three categories: vegetative (e.g.,
staphylococcus), mycobacteria (e.g., tuberculosis) and endospores (e.g., tetanus). Of all the common
infectious agents, endospores are the most difficult to kill due to their protective coating. (Chapter 1)
Minimum effective concentration (MEC): Minimum concentration of a chemical disinfectant needed
to achieve the claimed microbicidal (killing) activity as determined by dose-response testing.
Municipal waste: General waste for collection by municipalities (e.g., local city or town authorities)
generated mainly by households, commercial activities and street sweeping. (Chapter 8)
Muslin: Moderately woven, 100% cotton cloth. (Chapter 5)
Mycobacteria: Bacteria with a thick, waxy coat that makes them more resistant to chemical
disinfectants than other types of vegetative bacteria.
Noncritical medical device (or item): Devices that normally make contact with the patient’s intact skin
(e.g., blood pressure cuff, oxygen masks). These devices require low- to intermediate-level disinfection,
and reuse carries little risk. (Chapter 1)
Nonionic: Neutral (neither positively or negatively charged) particle or substance.
Nonlipid virus: Virus that is more resilient to inactivation than a lipid virus. Nonlipid viruses are also
referred to as nonenveloped or hydrophilic (water-seeking) viruses.

Glossary - 6 Infection Prevention Guidelines

Nosocomial or hospital-acquired infection (terms used interchangeably): Infection that is neither
present nor incubating at the time the patient came to the hospital. (Nosocomial refers to the association
between care and the subsequent onset of infection. It is a time-related criterion that does not imply a
cause and effect relationship.) (Chapters 3, 20, 21 and 28)
Nosocomial diarrhea: On at least 2 consecutive days having at least three loose or watery stools with
the onset more than 72 hours after admission to the hospital (or more days than the incubation period if
the agent is known). (Chapter 26)
Nosocomial infection in newborns: Infection occurring after birth but excluding those infections
known to have been transmitted across the placenta such as congenital syphilis, cytomegalovirus,
rubella, varicella (chicken pox) and the protozoan parasite, Toxoplasmosis gondii. (Chapter 25)
Nosocomial infection in obstetrical patients: Infection that is neither present nor incubating at the time
the patient is admitted to the hospital. Most urinary tract infections and endometritis are nosocomial
even though the causative organism may be endogenous (i.e., present in the maternal lower genital tract
prior to delivery). (Chapter 25)
Occupational injury or infection: Injury or infection acquired by healthcare staff while performing
their normal duties. (Chapters 13 and 20)
Operating room: Area or space where surgical procedures are performed. (Chapter 15)
Organ/Space SSI: Any part of the body other than the incised body wall parts that were opened or
handled during an operation. (Chapter 23)
Parts per million (ppm): Concentrations of trace contaminant gases in the air (or chemicals in a liquid)
are commonly measured in parts per million (ppm) by volume. To convert percent concentration to ppm
and vice versa, use this formula: ppm = percent (%) x 10,000. (Chapter 26)
Pasteurization: Process developed by Louis Pasteur of heating milk, wine, or other liquids to 60qC to
100qC (or the equivalent) for approximately 30 minutes to kill or markedly reduce the number of
pathogenic and spoilage organisms other than bacterial spores. (Chapter 12)
Personal protective equipment (PPE): Specialized clothing or equipment (e.g., gloves, face mask or
plastic apron) worn by an employee for protection against exposure to blood or body fluids or other
hazards. Uniforms, pants, and shirts not designed to function as protection against a hazard are not
considered to be PPE. (Chapter 5)
Phlebitis: Area of swelling, redness, warmth and tenderness of the skin around the site where the
intravascular catheter comes out of the skin (the exit site). If phlebitis is associated with other signs of
infection, such as fever and pus coming from the exit site, it is classified as a clinical exit site infection.
(Chapter 23)
Pocket infection: Infected fluid isolated from the area around a totally implanted intravascular device,
with or without microbiologic evidence of bloodstream infection. (Chapter 24)
Prions: Protein-containing infectious agents that require special handling and processing because they
are resistant to heat and high-pressure steam sterilization. Prions are the only known infectious agents
that do not contain either DNA or RNA. (Chapter 11)
Protective barrier: Physical, mechanical or chemical process that helps prevent the spread of infectious
microorganisms from person to person (patient, healthcare client or health worker), and from equipment,
instruments and environmental surfaces to people. (Chapter 1)

Infection Prevention Guidelines Glossary - 7

QUAT: Abbreviated form of the term quaternary ammonium compound; a surface-active, water-soluble
low-level disinfecting substance that has four carbon atoms linked to a nitrogen atom through chemical
(covalent) bonds. (Chapter 16 and Appendices B and F)
Recipient transfusion reaction: Adverse reaction to infusing blood or blood products into a patient
(recipient). (Chapter 18)
Recycling: Physical and/or chemical process that recovers the basic material in a product (e.g., paper
from newspapers, aluminum from soft drink cans or plastic from disposable syringes) for reuse as a new
or different product. (Chapter 14)
Reprocessing: Decontaminating, disassembling (if necessary), cleaning, inspecting, testing, packaging,
relabeling, and sterilizing or high-level disinfecting single-use devices (SUDs) after they have been used
on a patient for their intended purpose. Reprocessing also is performed on SUDs that were removed from
the package (or container) but not used on a patient or whose expiration date has passed. (Chapter 14)
Resident flora: Microorganisms that live in the deeper layers of the skin, as well as within hair follicles,
and cannot be completely removed, even by vigorous washing and rinsing with plain soap and clean
water. (Chapter 3)
Resterilization: Repeat application of a terminal process designed to remove or destroy all viable forms
of microbial life, including bacterial spores, to an acceptable sterility assurance level. This process is
performed on devices whose expiration date has passed or that have been opened and may or may not
have been used on a patient. (Chapters 11 and 14)
Safe Zone (also Neutral Zone): Device or designated area of the sterile field in which sharps are
placed, accessed, returned, and retrieved to avoid hand-to-hand transfer of sharps between personnel.
(Chapter 7)
Sanitary landfill: Engineered method of disposing of solid waste on land in a manner that protects the
environment (e.g., by spreading the waste in thin layers, compacting it to the smallest practical volume
and then covering it with soil at the end of each working day). (Chapter 8)
Sanitizer: Chemical that reduces the number of bacterial contaminants to safe levels on inanimate
objects based on public health requirements (i.e., a chemical that kills 99.999% of the specific test
bacteria in 30 seconds under the conditions of the test). (Chapter 16)G
Scavenging: Manual sorting of solid waste at landfills and removal of usable material. (Chapter 8)
Segregation: Systematic separation of solid waste into designated categories. (Chapter 8)
Semicritical medical device (or item): Devices that come in contact with mucous membranes or
nonintact skin during use (e.g., endoscopes, respiratory equipment). These devices require high-level
disinfection if sterilization is not practical, and reuse carries a greater risk for cross-contamination than
noncritical items. (Chapters 1, 9 and 12 and Appendices F and H)
Septic pelvic thrombophlebitis: Thrombosis (blockage) of the deep pelvic veins due to inflammation
and blood clots. It is uncommon (approximately 1 in 2000 deliveries). Predisposing factors include
cesarean section after long labor (>24 hours), premature rupture of membranes, difficult delivery
(forceps or vaginal extraction), anemia and malnutrition. (Chapter 25)
Sewerage: System for the collection and transport of sewage, including conduits, pipes and pumping
stations. (Chapter 8)
Sharps: Suture needles, scalpel blades, scissors, wire sutures, broken glass or any object that can cause a
puncture or cut. (Chapters 7 and 8 and Appendix E)

Glossary - 8 Infection Prevention Guidelines

Soaps and detergents (terms used interchangeably): Cleaning products (bar, liquid, leaflet or powder)
that lower surface tension, thereby helping remove dirt, debris and transient microorganisms from hands.
Plain soaps require friction (scrubbing) to mechanically remove microorganisms while antiseptic
(antimicrobial) soaps also kill or inhibit growth of most microorganisms. (Chapters 3, 13 and 16 and
Appendix B)
Soiled or contaminated linen: Linen from multiple sources within the hospital or clinic that has been
collected and brought to the laundry for processing. All items, regardless of whether or not they are
visibly dirty or have been used in a surgical procedure, must be washed and dried. (Chapter 13)
Sorting: Process of inspecting and removing foreign, and in some cases dangerous, objects (e.g., sharps
or broken glass), from soiled linen before washing. This step is extremely important because soiled linen
from the operating room or clinic occasionally contains sharps (e.g., scalpels, sharp-tipped scissors,
hypodermic and suture needles and towel clips). (Chapter 13)
Spaulding classification: Strategy for reprocessing contaminated medical devices. The system classifies
medical devices as critical, semicritical, or noncritical based upon the risk from contamination on a
device to patient safety. (Chapters 1 and 15)
Spore or endospores (terms used interchangeably): Relatively water-poor round or elliptical resting
cell consisting of condensed cytoplasm and nucleus surrounded by an impervious cell wall or coat.
Spores are relatively resistant to disinfectants and sterilants, specifically the bacillus and clostridium
species. (Chapters 1, 9 and 12 and Appendix F)
Steam sterilization: Sterilization process that uses saturated steam under pressure, for a specified
exposure time and at a specific temperature, as the sterilizing agent. (Chapter 11 and Appendix G)
Sterilants: Chemicals used to destroy all forms of microorganisms, including endospores. Most sterilants are
also high-level disinfectants when used for a shorter period of time. Sterilants are only used on inanimate
objects (e.g., surgical instruments) that are used in semicritical and critical areas (e.g., surgery). Sterilants are
not meant to be used for cleaning environmental surfaces. (Chapters 9 and 11 and Appendix F)
Sterile or sterility: State of being free from all living microorganisms. In practice, usually described as a
probability function (e.g., the probability of a microorganism surviving sterilization as being one in a
million). (Chapter 12 and Appendices F and G)
Sterilization: Process that eliminates all microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites)
including bacterial endospores from inanimate objects by high-pressure steam (autoclave), dry heat
(oven), chemical sterilants or radiation. (Chapters 1, 9 and 11 and Appendix G)
Sterilizer: Apparatus used to sterilize medical instruments, surgical gloves, equipment or supplies by
direct exposure to the sterilizing agent (autoclave or dry-heat oven). (Chapter 11 and Appendix G)
Surfactant: Agent that reduces the surface tension of water or the tension at the interface between water
and another liquid; a wetting agent found in many sterilants and disinfectants. (Chapter 16)
Surgical asepsis: Preparation and maintenance of a reduced (safe) level of microorganisms during an
operation by controlling four main sources of infectious organisms: the patient, personnel, equipment
and the environment. (Chapters 6, 7 and 23)
Surgical site infections (SSI): Either an incisional or organ/space infection occurring within 30 days
after an operation or within 1 year if an implant is present. Incisional SSIs are further divided into
superficial incisional (only involves skin and subcutaneous tissue) and deep incisional (involves
deeper soft tissue, including fascia and muscle layers). (Chapter 23)

Infection Prevention Guidelines Glossary - 9

Surgical unit: Whole surgical area including lockers and dressing rooms, preoperative and recovery
rooms, peripheral support areas including storage space for sterile and high-level disinfected items and
other consumable supplies, corridors leading to restricted areas, the operating room(s), scrub sink areas
and the nursing station. (Chapters 7 and 15)
Surveillance: Systematic collection of relevant data on patient care, the orderly analysis of the data and
the prompt reporting of the data to those who need it. Active surveillance consists of collecting
information directly from patients or staff, while passive surveillance includes examining reports,
laboratory information and data from other sources. (Chapter 28)
Time-weighted average (TWA): Average of all concentrations of a chemical to which a worker has been
exposed during a specific sampling time, reported as an average over the sampling time. The permissible
exposure limit for ethylene oxide is 1 ppm as an 8-hour TWA. Exposures above the ppm limit are permitted
if they are compensated for by equal or longer exposures below the limit during the 8-hour workday.
(Appendix F)
Transfusion service: Facility or hospital unit that provides storage, pretransfusion testing and cross-
matching, and infusion of blood or blood products to intended patients (recipients). (Chapter 18)
Transient flora: Microorganisms acquired through contact with patients, other healthcare workers or
contaminated surfaces (e.g., examination tables, floors or toilets) during the course of the normal
workday. These organisms live in the upper layers of the skin and are partially removed by washing with
plain soap and clean water. (Chapter 3)
Tunnel infection: Tenderness, redness and swelling for more than 2 cm (about 1 inch) along the tract of
an intravascular catheter, with or without microbiologic evidence of local or bloodstream infection.
(Chapter 24)
Type of detergent: Commercial cleaning product (liquid or powder) that are composed of a hydrophilic
(water-seeking) component and a lipophilic (fat-seeking) component and can be divided into four types:
anionic, cationic, amphoteric and nonionic detergents. (Chapter 16)
Unit of blood: Sterile plastic bag in which a fixed volume of blood is collected in a suitable amount of
anticoagulant. (Chapter 18)
Urticarial reaction: Allergic reaction consisting of itching (pruritis), hives, skin rash and/or similar
allergic condition occurring during or following a transfusion of blood or blood products. (Chapter 18)
Vegetative bacteria: Bacteria that are devoid of spores and usually can be readily inactivated by many
types of germicides.
Visibly soiled hands: Hands showing visible dirt or are visibly contaminated with blood or body fluids
(urine, feces, sputum or vomit). (Chapter 3)
Waste management: All activities, administrative and operational (including transportation activities),
involved in the handling, treatment, conditioning, storage and disposal of waste. (Chapter 8)
Waterless, alcohol-based antiseptic handrub or antiseptic handrub (terms used interchangeably):
Fast acting antiseptic handrubs that do not require use of water to remove transient flora, reduce resident
microorganisms and protect the skin. Most contain 60–90% alcohol, an emollient and often an additional
antiseptic (e.g., 2–4% chlorhexidine gluconate) that has residual action. (Chapter 3 and Appendix B)

Glossary - 10 Infection Prevention Guidelines