Unit I

Physical Layer
● Computer Network: An interconnected collection of autonomous computers is
called a computer network. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are
able to exchange the information.
● Data Communication System have 5 components
– Message- it is data and data can be represented as text, audio, number,
image,video etc.
– Sender Receiver
– Transmission media Protocol
–
–
Data Flow
● Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one way
street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit;the other
can only receive
● Half Duplex: In half duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa The half -duplex mode is like a one lane road with traffic allowed in both
directions.
● Full – Duplex: In full -duplex bothstations can transmit
and receive simultaneously. The full duplex mode is like a two way street
withtraffic flowing in bothdirections at the same time.
– This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two
physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling
in both directions.
 Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.
– Performance:Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit
time and response time,number of users,the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and theefficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay(more throughput and less delay.)Transit time is the amount of time
required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is
the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
–
Reliability:Reliability is measured in terms of accuracy of delivery.Network
reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from a failure, and the network's robustness.
–
Security:Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from data losses.
●
 Use of computer network
● 1. Business Applications

●
Resource sharing
●
High reliability due to alternative sources of data.
●
Cost Effective.
●
Communication Medium
● 2. Home Application
●
Access to remote information.
●
Person to person communication
●
Interactive entertainment.
●
Electronic commerce.
Classification of network based on size

●
LAN: Local Area Network
●
MAN: Metropolitan area network
●
WAN: wide area network
●
PAN:Personal area network.
 LAN
●
A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices,
usually within an office building or home.
●
LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be
needed by multiple users
●
Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile
●
Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
●
Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device Has lower
●
cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s
● LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fibre optic cable can be
used in wired LAN’s.
●
Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that governs how packets are configured
and transmitted.
● Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These topologies
include:
–
– Bus
–
– Ring
–
– Star
● LANs are capable of very high transmission rates
●
Advantages and disadvantages of LAN
Advantages:
–
Speed
–
Cost
–
Security
●
E-mail
●
Resource Sharing

Disadvantages:

●
Expensive To Install
●
Requires Administrative Time
●
File Server May Fail
●
Cables May Break
 MAN

●
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans
a city or a large campus.
●
A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging
from several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
●
A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be
used by many individuals and organizations.
● A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.
● A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
● Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL to
customers and cable TV network.
 WAN
●
WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the
world.
●
A WAN is two or more LAN's connected together. The LANs can be many
miles apart.
●
To cover great distances, WAN's may transmit data over leased high-speed phone
lines or wireless links such as satellites.
● Multiple LAN's can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers,
or gateways, which enable them to share data.
● The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.
Difference
 PAN

● A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer
devices (including telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters within a
room

●
It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting
to a larger network such as the internet.
● PAN’s can be wired or wireless
●
e.g. Personal computer
 Topology of LAN

●
Topology: the physical arrangement in which computers are interconnected with
each other is known as topology.
●
 Mesh

●
Every link is dedicated point-to-point link.
●
The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
●
To link n devices fully connected mesh has:
n ( n - 1) / 2 physical channels (Full-Duplex)
●
Every Device on the network must have n - 1 ports
●
For example , to connect 8 devices it requires .... links and ...... ports.
● Advantages
●
Each connection carry its own data load (no traffic problems)
●
A mesh topology is robust
●
Privacy or security
●
Fault identification and fault isolation

● Disadvantages:
●
Big amount of cabling Big number of I/O ports
●
Installation and re-connection are difficult
●
Sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available
●
space Hardware connect to each I/O could be expensive

●
Application : Mesh topology is implemented in a limited fashion; e.g., as
backbone of hybrid network
 Star

● Dedicated point-to-point to a central controller (Hub)

● No direct traffic between devices
● The controller acts as an exchange
●
● Advantages:
●
Less expensive than mesh (1 Link + 1 port per device)
●
Easy to install and reconfigure
●
Less cabling
●
Additions, moves, and deletions required one connection .
●
Robustness : one fail does not affect others
●
Easy fault identification and fault isolation

● Disadvantages:
●
Dependency of the whole topology on one single point (hub)
●
If central hub collapse whole network gets distrub
●
More cabling than other typologies ( ring or bus)
●
Application:Used in LAN
Bus
● Physical Architecture:
●
Nodes connect to cable by drop lines and taps
●
Signal travels along the backbone and some of its energy is transformed to
heat
●
Limit of number of taps and the distance between taps
● Advantages:
– Ease of installation
–
Less cables than mesh, star typologies
● Disadvantages

●
Difficult re connection and fault isolation ( limit of taps)
●
Adding new device requires modification of backbone
●
Fault or break stops all transmission
●
The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of the origin, creating
noise in both directions
 Ring

●
Each device has dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it
●
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until
it reaches its destination
●
Each devices incorporates a Repeater
● Advantages
●
Easy of install and reconfigure
●
Connect to immediate neighbors
●
Move two connections for any moving (Add/Delete)
●
Easy of fault isolation

● Disadvantage
●
Unidirectional
●
One broken device can disable the entire network.
●
This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch
 Hybrid Topology

●
Example: having a main star topology with each branch connecting several
stations in a bus topology
●
● Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or typologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the typologies included

●
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
●
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
Classification of Network Architecture.

●
Client/server architecture
●
Peer to peer network
●
Software defined networks(SDN)
 Client/server architecture

●
In client/server model there is generally 1 server (highest priority) and
other machines acts as client (lowest priority).
●
It is centralized network.
●
Server makes the resources available to the client.
●
Communication happens between client and server and not between 2
clients directly.
●
It is request response model.
●
Client sends request about resource it requires and server responds the client
by allocating that resources to the client.

●
Example of request/response model is web browser.
● Advantages:
–
The network is secure because of central monitoring and administration.
–
Data access is easy as data is backed up at server.
–
Cost effective as many clients shares the resources.

Disadvantages:
–
Cenralised server must have high speed and lot of memory.
–
To manage such network it requires professional system administrator.
–
Special Network operating system(NOS) is required.
 Peer to Peer Network
●
It is decentralized network.
●
All computer (peer) communicate with other computer for resource
sharing
●
Every peer acts as both server and client( all are of same priority)
●
To Manage such a network is difficult .
● Advantages:
–
Expensive server are not required.
–
Special OS is not required.
–
User can control sharing of resources.
–

● Disadvantages:
●
To take backup it is difficult due to decentralised system.
●
Less secured system.
●
Possibility of future expansion is less.
●
Used for small network where no. Of users are less than 10.
 Client -Server Model Peer to Peer N/w
There is a specific server and specific clients each node act as client and server.
connected to the server.

The client request for service and server Each node can request for services and can
respond with the service. also provide the services.

Focus is on Sharing the information. Focus is on connectivity

The data is stored in a centralized server. Each peer has its own data.

When several clients request for the services As the services are provided by several servers
simultaneously, a server can get bottlenecked. distributed in the peer-to-peer system, a server
in not bottlenecked.

The client-server are expensive to implement. Peer-to-peer are less expensive to implement.

Client-Server is more stable and scalable. Peer-toPeer suffers if the number of peers
increases in the system.
e.g. Web browsing,E-mail Client,FTP E.g. File sharing
client
 SDN

●
SDN is technology that provides network management for a network that
requires more flexibility and easy to troubleshoot any problem.
●
It centralizes the network intelligence in a single network component
(controller) which is known as brain of SDN
 Working of SDN

● Every intelligent device(switch/router) has 2 planes

– Control plane
– Data plane.
● Control plane finds out optimal path from source to destination while data plane
sends data according to selected path.
● But if network administrator has to manage all these intelligent devices(control
plane of each switch/router) separately, then it becomes tedious and difficult task
for network administrator as network grows.
● So SDN provides solution to this problem, in that control plane of all intelligent
devices are accumulated under one centralized component known as Controller,
and network administrator has to administer only single Controller and not
individual devices present in network.
●
 SDN Components.

1. SDN application: it is program that communicates with controller about network

requirement and behavior
2. SDN Controller: It controls all activities of networking.
3. SDN Datapath:It is logical network that shows visibility and control over data
processing.
4. SDN Control to Data- Plane Interface(CDPI): it acts as interface between SDN
Controller and SDN datapath.
5. SDN northbound Interface(NBI): It acts as interface between SDN Application and
SDN Controller.
 Application of SDN

●
SDMN: Software defined Mobile network.
●
SD-WAN:Software defined wide area network.

●
SD-LAN:Software defined local area network.

●
Group data delivery using SDN
●
Security using SDN
Ad-Hoc and Infrastructure Mode
 Infra-structure mode Ad-hoc Network
In infrastructure mode, the communication In ad-hoc mode, each node communicates
occurs only between the wireless nodes and directly with other nodes, so no access
access points (AP) , but not directly point control is needed.
between wireless nodes

Access points acts as,a bridge to other Nodes in Ad-hoc can communicate if they
wireless/wired network are within the same range.
Physical infrastructure is needed No physical infrastructure is needed.
Cenralised network functionality lies As no central co-ordination exists, we need
within AP and client is just a simple to use decentralized MAC protocols such as
machine. CSMA/CA

Most infrastructure based WLAN uses Most Ad-hoc based WLAN uses contention
TDMA-based protocols MAC protocols (e.g. CSMA)

E.g. IEEE 802.11 & HIPERLAN2 are E.g. Bluetooth is a typical ad-hoc network.
based on infrastructure mode.
 Network Devices

● Hub
● Repeater
● Bridge
● Switch
● Router
● Brouter
● Gateways
● Access point
 Hub

●
Operates at physical layer of OSI model i.e. purely H/W
●
Connects multiple computers or other network devices together.
●
It is not intelligent device i.e. A network hub has no routing tables or
intelligence on where to send information
●
There is no filtering in Hub.It broadcasts all network data across all
connection•
●
Collision domain is very high I.e if n devices in the network then collision
domain equals to n.
●
But having all information broadcast to multiple ports can be a security risk and
cause bottlenecks.
●
A hub is basically a multiport repeater. Hubs can not filter data,so data packets
are sent to all connected devices.
 Types of Hub

● Active Hub:-It is also known as multi port repeater.

It regenerates the signal.
For that regeneration it requires external power supply.

●
Passive Hub:-It does not regenerates the signal .
It does require any external power supply.

●
Intelligent Hub:it can process data, monitor traffic and provide troubleshooting
information.
It can identify nodes that are generating unnecessary traffic.
 Repeater

●
Operates at the physical layer i.e. purely H/W and not Software.
●
Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal
becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal
can be transmitted over the same network.
●
They do not amplify the signal.(amplify amplifies noise also)
●
When the signal becomes weak,they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it
at the original strength.
●
It is a 2 port device.
●
It is not intelligent device.
●
No filtering of data it only forwards data.
●
Collision domain is also high equals to n (no. of devices in network)
 Bridge
●
A bridge operates at data link layer.
●
It acts as bridge between two LANs.
●
A bridge is a repeater, but filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of
source and destination.
●
Bridge is intelligent device and buffer (memory) is provided ,so uses Store and
forward method for forwarding frame.
●
It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It
has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
●
Bridge Table: Bridge table consist of two entries MAC address and port number.

Types of Bridges
●
Transparent Bridges(Dynamic) :- In this bridge ,bridge table entries such as
MAC address and port no. are automatically done.(network administrator do not
make entries manually).
●
Bridge table automatically updates as network grows.
●

●
Static Bridge: :- In these bridges, entries in bridge table (mac address and port
no) are done manually by network administrator.
●
Bridge table is not automatically updated as network grows, network
administrator updates bridge table each time when new path is discovered.
 Bridge forwarding and filtering

●
When a frame arrives at one of the ports of a bridge, it has to make a decision about
forwarding the frame on which port. This decision is made based on bridge table.

●
In order to make such decisions every bridge needs a table called forwarding table
or forwarding database.

●
There are a few thousand entries in a Forwarding table and it is filled up by
bridge learning
●

●
Bridge Table is constructed as shown in below figure.

●
 Bridge Table

Mac Address Port No

M1 P1
M2 P1
M3 P1
M4 P2
M5 P2
M6 P2
● Bridge Forwarding: E.g. When M1 sends data to M5, then M1 sends data at
Bridge ,bridge checks destination MAC address from Bridge Table which shows
with M5, Port No. 2 is associated, so it forwards frame/data on port No. P2 and so
on . This concept is known as Bridge Forwarding.
● Bridge Learning:Initially all bridge table is empty, bridge knows nothing about
Mac address and port No.
● E.g. initially bridge table is empty, M1 send data to M5,when data received at P1
port on Bridge , bridge makes entry in table as
● MAC Address Port No.

●
M1 P1

● M5 receives frame and send reply frame, when reply frame received at Bridge on P2
it makes entry in table as
● MAC Address Port No.
M1 P1
●
M5 P2
●

● In this way initially entries are made in bridge table and is known as Bridge
Learning.
 Bridge Filtering:

● For Example: M1 sends data to M2. Both the systems are on same port No. P1.
● When frame receives at Bridge, it checks destination MAC address and Port No.
which are M2 and P1.
● So Bridge found that both source and destination are on same port no. P1, so it will
discard frame and not forwards data on P2.
● This is known as Filtering.
● In case of HUB /repeater ,it forwards the data and no filtering is there but in case of
bridge filtering is applied before forwarding the data according to bridge table.
 Bridge Learning Procedure
●
When a bridge receives a frame, it first compares the source address(mac) of
the frame with each entry in the forwarding table.
● If no match(source address) is found, then the bridge will add this source address
alongwith the port number on which the frame was received to the forwarding table.
And forward the frame to all ports excepts port on which frame is received.
●
If a match is found, then the bridge forwards the frame to the port indicated in the
entry.
● If the port is same as one on which the frame was received then frame is discarded.
 Switch

●
A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency (large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.
● Switch is data link layer device.
●
Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to correct port only.
●
Switching table is used to forward packet to appropriate destination using
MAC Address.
●
It is intelligent device and follows store n forward method for forwarding
●
Difference between Hub and Switch is Hub forwards data to all systems in
Network(broadcast) while switch forwards data to appropriate Destination.
 Router

●
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses.
● Router is mainly a Network Layer device.
●
Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets.
●
Router uses routing table for routing
●
It is used to forward packet from LAN to over WAN.
●
Router is also a Intelligent device.
 Brouter

●
It is also known as bridging router is a device which combines features of both
bridge and router.
● It can work either at data link layer or at network layer.
●
Working as router, it is capable of routing packets across networks and working as
bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.
 Gateway

●
A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that
may work upon different networking models.
●
They basically works as the messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
● Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
● Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.
●
It commonly works with Router.
 Access point

●
In a wireless local area network (WLAN), an access point is a station that transmits
and receives data (sometimes referred to as a transceiver).
●
An access point connects users to other users within the network and also can serve
as the point of interconnection between the WLAN and a fixed wire network.
●
Each access point can serve multiple users within a defined network area; as people
move beyond the range of one access point, they are automatically handed over to
the next one.
● A small WLAN may only require a single access point; the number required
increases as a function of the number of network users and the physical size of the
network.
 HUB SWITCH
It is broadcasting device It is point to point communication device
It operates at physical Layer of OSI model It operates at data link Layer of OSI
model
It is not intelligent device, so it is cheap It is intelligent device , so it is expensive
Due to broadcasting comparatively more
comparatively less secure secure
Hub simply broadcast the incoming Switch uses switching table to find
packet destination and transmits packet
to intended destination only.
 Transmission Media

●
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver
● It is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another.
● Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
●

●
 Guided media

● It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

●
Which carries data from one point to another point along physical path.
●

Features:
●

● High Speed , highly Secure

● Used for comparatively shorter distances
 Twisted Pair Cable

●
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires twisted around each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath.
● Twisting of wires will reduce the effect of noise or external interference. i.e. The
induced emf generated due to interference into two wires tends to cancel due to
twisting.
● They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
●

● Twisted Pair is of two types:

– 
Unshielded Twisted Pair(UTP)
– 
Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

●
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose.
● It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:

– Least expensive
–
– Easy to install
High speed capacity

Disadvantages:
– Susceptible to external interference
– Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
– Short distance transmission due to attenuation
 UTP Categories

● Less expensive, less resistant to noise than STP

Categories: –

●
CAT 3 (Category 3): up to 10 Mbps of data
●
CAT 4 (Category 4): 16 Mbps throughput
●
CAT 5 (Category 5): up to 1000 Mbps throughput
●
CAT 5e (Enhanced Category 5): higher twist ratio
●
CAT 6 (Category 6): six times the throughput of CAT 5
●
CAT 6e (Enhanced Category 6): reduced attenuation and
crosstalk
●
CAT 7 (Category 7): signal rates up to 1 GHz
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

● This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference.

●
It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone
lines.
Advantages:
●

– Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

–
– Eliminates crosstalk
Comparatively faster
● Disadvantages:
– More expensive Bulky
–
Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

–
 Coaxial Cable
● It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a
Separate insulated protection cover.
●
Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:

– Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)

–
Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
● Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
●
Advantages:
●
High Bandwidth Better
●
noise Immunity
●
Easy to install and
expand
●
Inexpensive
● Disadvantages:
– Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
 Optical Fiber Cable

● It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
● The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.
● It is used for transmission of large volumes of data.
●
Advantages:

●
Increased capacity and bandwidth
Light weight
●
Less signal attenuation
● Disadvantages:
●
Difficult to install and maintain
High cost
●
Fragile
 Principle of light propagation in fiber

●
The light enters into a glass fiber from one end and gets reflected within the
fiber.
●
It follows a zigzag path along the length of fiber. It is known as total internal
reflection.
●
Total Internal reflection takes place when
●
Refractive index of glass fiber core > refractive index of cladding around
the core.(n1 > n2)
●
The angle of incidence of light entering the fiber > critical angle (Φ c )

●
Sin Φc = n2/n1
 Unguided Media

●
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.
●
No physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals.
●
Features:
●
Signal is broadcast through air
Less Secure
●
Used for larger distances
● There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:

(i) Radiowaves
●
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings.
●
The sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned.
●
Frequency Range: 3KHz – 1GHz.
●
AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for
transmission.
●
Further Categorized as: (i) Terrestrial (ii) Satellite.
(ii) Microwaves
– It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to
be properly aligned with each other.
– The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the
antenna.
– Frequency Range: 1GHz – 300GHz.
– These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television
distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
– Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication.
–
They cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between
systems.
– Frequency Range: 300GHz – 400THz.
– It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
 Protocol

●
Protocol: It is set of rules used for communication or it is aggreement between
2 parties how communication will proceed.
● Protocol Hierarchy:
●
 Reasons for having Layered Protocol.

●
It simplifies the design as each layer has specific function.
●
Layer architecture provides flexibility to modify and develop network services.
●
Lower layer provides services to upper layer.
●
Due to layered architecture addition of new services and management of network
is easy.
●
Logical segmentation allows parallel working by different team on different task.
Information flow
 Design Issues for Layers
1. Addressing: There are multiple processes running on one machine. Every
layer needs a mechanism to identify senders and receivers.
2. Error Control: There may be erroneous transmission due to several problems
during communication. These are due to problem in communication circuits,
physical medium, due to thermal noise and interference. Many error detecting and
error correcting codes are known, but both ends of the connection must agree on
which one being used. In addition, the receiver must have some mechanism of
telling the sender which messages have been received correctly and which has
not.
3. Flow control: If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a slow
receiver, then there must be flow control mechanism to control the loss of data
by slow receivers. There are several mechanisms used for flow control such as
increasing buffer size at receivers, slow down the fast sender, and so on. Some
process will not be in position to accept arbitrarily long messages. Then, there
must be some mechanism to disassembling, transmitting and then reassembling
messages.
● 4. Multiplexing / demultiplexing: If the data has to be transmitted on transmission
media separately, it is inconvenient or expensive to setup separate connection for
each pair of communicating processes. So, multiplexing is needed in the physical
layer at sender end and demultiplexing is need at the receiver end.
5. Routing: When data has to be transmitted from source to destination, there
may be multiple paths between them. An optimized (shortest) route must be
chosen. This decision is made on the basis of several routing algorithms, which
chooses optimized route to the destination.
6. Reliability: It is a design issue of making a network that operates correctly
even when it is made up of unreliable components.
7. Scalability: When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus scalability is
important so that network can continue to work well when it gets large.
8. Confidentiality and Integrity: Network security is the most important factor.
Mechanisms that provide confidentiality defend against threats like
eavesdropping. Mechanisms for integrity and prevent faulty changes to
messages.
 ISO/OSI Model
●
ISO stands for International organization of Standardization. This is called a model
for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.
●
The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in
a complete communication system.

●
Exchange of data in OSI model
 Functions of Different Layers :
● The Physical Layer :
●
It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.
●
It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

●
It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over
network.
●
Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
●
It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
●
Data encoding is also done in this layer.
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.

●
 Data Link Layer :
●
Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over
the physical layer.
●
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one
node to another, over the physical layer.
●
Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
●
This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled
by this layer.
●
This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the
frame traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop,
when the frame buffers are full.

●
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next Hop
Hop to Hop Delivery
●
It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
●
It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
●
It decides which route data should take.
●
It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.
●
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.

●
Layer 4: Transport Layer :
●
It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
●
Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this
layer
●
It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller
units and passes it on to the Network layer.
●
Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled
more efficiently by the network layer.
●
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.
●
Process-to-process delivery
● Layer 5: The Session Layer :
●
It is used for Authentication Purpose
●
Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different
applications.
●
Transfer of data from source to destination session layer ,streams of data are marked
and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
●

●
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
●
Session layer
● Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :
●
Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver
will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
●
While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for
the application layer.
●
Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under
this condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
●
It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.
Application Layer
 Application Layer
● Layer 7: Application Layer :
1. It is the topmost layer.

2. The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

3. Transferring of files ,distributing the results to the user is also done in this layer.

●
Mail services, directory services, network resource etc are services provided by
application layer.
4. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be
sent data
● Merits of OSI reference model:
– OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
–
–
Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
– Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

● Demerits of OSI reference model:

– Model was devised before the invention of protocols.
–
Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
– It is just used as a reference model.
 The TCP/IP Reference Model
●
TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed
by Department of Defense's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA)
● Features:
– Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was
easy.
– The network was robust, and connections remained intact until the source and
destination machines were functioning.
● Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
– Lowest layer of the all.
–
–
Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
Varies from host to host and network to network.

● Layer 2: Internet layer

– It is similar to network layer of OSI
–
It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
– It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
– Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
– IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer
● Layer 3: Transport Layer
– 1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
–
2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by

transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
–
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
–
– 5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are

handled more efficiently by the network layer.

6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

It includes 2 types protocols TCP (Connection oriented) : Transmission control

– protocol and UDP:(connection less) : user datagram protocol.
–
● Layer 4: Application Layer
●
The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the
protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
●
TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a
remote machine and run applications on it.
●
FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst
computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
●
SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a
route.
●
DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for
Hosts connected over a network.
OSI/TCP IP Model
● Merits of TCP/IP model
●
It operated independently.
●
It is scalable.
●
Client/server architecture.
●
Supports a number of routing protocols.
●
Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

● Demerits of TCP/IP
●
In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
●
The model cannot be used in any other application.
●
Replacing protocol is not easy.
●
It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.
Addresses in TCP/IP
Relation between addresses
and layer
 Physical Address
● Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as
shown below:
●

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
● A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) is physical address.
 Physical Address

● A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87.
The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows,
the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical
address 87 is the receiver.
●
 Logical Address

●
Logical addresses are address which identifies the host uniquely.
●
It is used for universal communication that are independent of underlying
physical networks.
●
Logical address in the internet is currently 32 bit.
●
It is defined in decimal format e.g. 192.168.12.103
●
The physical address changes from hop to hop but logical address remains the
same.
 Example on changes in Physical and logical address from hop
to hop delivery.

Two routers connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of
addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router,
however, is connected to three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each
router has three pairs of addresses, one for each connection.
E.g. The computer with logical address A and physical address 10 needs to send a
packet to the computer with logical address P and physical address 95.
IP-Address
 Port Address

●
A port number is the logical address of each application or process that uses a
network or the Internet to communicate.
● Port address is 16-bit address represented by one decimal number
●
e.g. 753.
Fig. shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The sending computer is
running three processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port addresses j and k. Process a in
the sending computer needs to communicate with process j in the receiving computer.
Note that although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to destination.
 Connection oriented vs connection less

●
Connection oriented:In connection oriented service , user first establishes a
connection , uses the service and then release the connection.
●
After connection establishment , negotiation takes place between sender and receiver
regarding message size, quality of service etc.
●
Bit of stream follows the same path from source to destination.
●
It is reliable communication
●
e.g. Telephone connection
●
TCP:transmission control protocol is a connection oriented protocol
Connection Less:
●
No connection is established.
●
Each message contains destination address and routed independently.
●
Because of this the message may arrive out of order at the destination which requires
reassemble by using sequence no.
●
It is ureliable communication
●
e.g. Postal system
●
UDP: user datagram protocol is connection less protocol.
 Line coding
● Line coding converts digital data into digital signal.
●
● Draw manchester and diff. Manchester for following data bits:
– 101011100
–
–
1100110
10000101111
 Spread specrum

●
After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a
spreading code and spreads the bandwidth.
●
The original bandwidth B and the spreaded bandwidth Bss.
●
There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth:
●
frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
●
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
FREQUENCY HOPING SPREAD SPECRTUM
●
FHSS technique uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by
the source signal.
●
It is known as frequency hopping because at instance signal modulate one
frequency and at next instance it modulates different frequency
●
A pseudorandom code generator, called pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit
pattern for every hopping period Th
●
The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this
hopping period and passes it to the frequency synthesizer.
●
The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that frequency, and the source
signal modulates the carrier signal to generate spread signal.
●
● Suppose we have decided to have eight hopping frequencies.
●
In this case, M is 8 and k is 3. The pseudorandom code generator will create eight
different 3-bit patterns. These are mapped to eight different frequencies in the
frequency table
 Direct sequence spread spectrum
●
The DSSS technique also expands the bandwidth of the original signal, but the
process is different.
● In DSSS, we replace each data bit with 11 bits using a spreading code. In other
words, each bit is assigned a code of 11 bitscalled chips , where the chip rate is 11
times that of the data bit.
● So the required bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the
bandwidth of the original signal.
The spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code. It can
●
also provide immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.

●
Bandwidth Saring