Gensoc Module Body

UNIT 1: THE NATURE OF GENDER STUDIES
Lesson 1: GENDER, SEX AND SEXUALITY
Objectives:
1. Distinguish and explain sex, gender and sexuality.
2. Underscore the different issues concerning the five sexes.
3. Realize and acknowledge the distinctions of the different sexes, gender and sexuality.
What is Sex? What is Gender? What is Sexuality
THE FIVE SEXES

The Five Sexes Why Male and Female Are Not Enough
(complete text found at https://crl.ucsd.edu/~elman/Courses/HDP1/2000/LectureNotes/fausto-
sterling.pdf)
Anne Fausto-Sterling
(Summary)
Illustration of the Issue : In 1843 an individual, Levi Suydam,asked Salisbury, Connecticut to

allow him to vote in a hotly contested election ( this person had to ask for the right to vote
because this was 80 years before women were allowed to vote ).
A lot of people objected to the petition because it was said that this person was more female
than male. What could this mean? A doctor examined him, found a penis and so said he should
be allowed to vote and this vote changed the outcome of the election. Days later the doctor
examined him more closely and realized Suydam menstruated regularly and had a vaginal
opening. So the debate started all over again: male or female?
Western culture is deeply committed to the idea that there are ONLY TWO sexes. Even our
language refuses to acknowledge that there are other possibilities. Must refer to a third person
as he or she. Legally, every adult must be male or female. If you happen to be somewhere in
between, a choice must be made on your birth certificate. So what is the problem? If the state
has an interest in maintaining a two party sexual system, it is in defiance of nature because
people are not all born completely male or completely female .
Biologically speaking, there are actually many gradations running from female to male. In
nature, we find a spectrum of people, a range, not an either-or.
Intersex – used as a catch all phrase for this spectrum
Herms (hermaphrodites) – possess one ovary and one testis
Merms (male pseudohermaphrodites) – possess testes and some aspects of the female
1|Page
genitalia but not ovaries
Ferms (female pseudohermaphrodites) – possess ovaries and some aspects of the male
genitalia but lack testes . All pseudohermaphrodites possess two gonads of the same kind (all
ovaries or all testes) and they also possess the usual chromosomes for their sex (XY male, XX
female), but their external genitalia and their secondary sex characteristics do not match the
chromosomes.
Author’s Argument :These three categories deserve to be recognized as three other kinds of
sexes (Merms, Herms, Ferms). In fact, the author argues further that sex is a vast, infinitely
malleable continuum that defies the constraints of even five categories. One researcher has
some evidence that suggests up to 4% of births are intersexed (other stats show 2%, 1 in 50).
For most this number seems shockingly high. Consider why this might be. Most intersexed
individuals are recognized at birth. The individual is then often put into a particular F or M sex
category through surgery. It is often unlikely that extended family or friends would even know.
Some individuals may not even know they had surgery as infants.
Why does the medical community want to surgically make these individuals male or female
‘right away’ or quickly?
There is an assumption that there are: 1) ONLY two sexes, (2) that ONLY heterosexuality is
right and (3) that psychological health can only be attained if one is fully female or fully male.
In theory it is possible for a true hermaphrodite to become both father and mother of his/her
child (since they have both eggs and sperm). In practice it is not possible because the tubes do
not align in such a way that the egg and sperm can meet.
Hermaphrodites are featured in stories about human origins.
Examples: Early biblical stories say Adam was a hermaphrodite;
Plato, ancient Greek philosopher, refers there were three sexes;
Jewish books give rules for the correct behavior of the intersexed;
During the Middle Ages Europe forced the intersex to choose a
female or male life and then STICK to it or be punished.
On more current issues, some states allow you to change your official, legal sex if you have
had a sex change. Other states say, that despite your surgery, your sex cannot change (since
your chromosomes have not).
In 1937 the urologist Hugh H. Young of Johns Hopkins University published a volume titled
Genital Abnormalities, Hermaphroditism and Related Adrenal Diseases. – studied
hermaphrodites and wrote a book about the life of these individuals. One patient, Emma, had
both a penis and a vaginal opening (making it possible for her to have heterosexual sex with
either gender). In conversation she said she would often rather be viewed as a man, but that she
was unwilling to give up her status since it provided her with free time and money to live the
life she wanted to live (as a wife who doesn’t have to work).
Other doctors have written that to live an intersexed life is to BE subject to anguish and
despair. An intersexed life leaves one doomed to live as a freak, alone and frustrated. So, they
2|Page
say it is very fortunate that we can medically ‘fix’ the problem.
However, studies that follow the intersexed before such surgeries were possible show that not
ONE was psychologically disturbed and not ONE committed suicide.
The question : Why should we care if there are people whose biological equipment enables
them to have sex ‘naturally’ with both men and women?
One answer : There is a cultural NEED to maintain clear distinctions between the sexes.
Society mandates the control of intersexual bodies because they blur and bridge the great
divide.
The problems opponents raise: What would be the psychological consequences of taking the
alternative route – raising children as unabashed intersexuals? What about cruel kids? What
about showering in front of others? What bathrooms do these kids use? How do parents help
them get through puberty?
Response : Almost without exception these children have grown up and adjusted to their
unusual status. There is not one instance of a psychotic or a suicide in the lot of those studied.
The Difference between Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

When filling out a document such as a job application or school registration form you
are often asked to provide your name, address, phone number, birth date, and sex or gender. But
have you ever been asked to provide your sex and your gender? As with most people, it may not
have occurred to you that sex and gender are not the same. However, sociologists and most other
social scientists view sex and gender as conceptually distinct.
Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females,
including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics
such as height and muscularity. Gender is a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions and
roles associated with being male or female. As gender is such a primary dimension of identity,
socialization, institutional participation, and life chances, sociologists refer to it as a core status.
The distinction between sex and gender is key to being able to examine gender and
sexuality as social variables rather than biological variables. Contrary to the common way of
thinking about it, gender is not determined by biology in any simple way. For example, the
anthropologist Margaret Mead‛s cross cultural research in New Guinea, in the 1930s, was
groundbreaking in its demonstration that cultures differ markedly in the ways that they perceive
the gender “temperments” of men and women; i.e., their masculinity and femininity (Mead,
1963). Unlike the qualities that defined masculinity and femininity in North America at the time,
she saw both genders among the Arapesh as sensitive, gentle, cooperative, and passive, whereas
among the Mundugumor both genders were assertive, violent, jealous, and aggressive. Among
the Tchambuli, she described male and female temperaments as the opposite of those observed in
3|Page
North America. The women appeared assertive, domineering, emotionally inexpressive, and
managerial, while the men appeared emotionally dependent, fragile, and less responsible.
The dichotomous view of gender (the notion that one is either male or female) is
specific to certain cultures and is not universal. In some cultures, gender is viewed as fluid. In the
past, some anthropologists used the term berdache or two spirit person to refer to individuals who
occasionally or permanently dressed and lived as the opposite gender. The practice has been
noted among certain Aboriginal groups (Jacobs, Thomas, and Lang, 1997). Samoan culture
accepts what they refer to as a “third gender.” Fa’afafine, which translates as “the way of the
woman,” is a term used to describe individuals who are born biologically male but embody both
masculine and feminine traits. Fa’afafines are considered an important part of Samoan culture.
Individuals from other cultures may mislabel them as homosexuals because fa’afafines have a
varied sexual life that may include men or women (Poasa, 1992).
Sexuality
Sexuality refers to a person’s capacity for sexual feelings and their emotional and sexual
attraction to a particular sex (male or female).
TYPES OF SEXUALITY:
Sexuality or sexual orientation is typically divided into four categories:
• Androsexuality, the attraction towards males, masculinity, or men.
• Asexuality, no attraction to either sex.
• Bisexuality, the attraction to individuals of either sex Heterosexuality, the attraction to
individuals of the opposite sex;
• Autosexuality, sexual attraction to oneself, especially a preference for masturbation over sexual
intercourse.
• Homosexuality, the attraction to individuals of one’s own sex;
• Placiosexuality, an orientation on the asexual spectrum defined as someone who enjoys
performing sexual acts for other people but does not want them reciprocated. Placiosexual people
may be sex neutral or sex repulsed when it comes to having sexual acts performed on them.
• Demisexuality, a sexual orientation where people only experience sexual attraction to folks that
they have close emotional connections with.
• Lithosexual, the sexual orientation of a person who experiences sexual attraction to another
person but does not want it to be reciprocated.
• Polyamory, the practice of, or desire for, intimate relationships with more than one partner, with
the informed consent of all partners involved. It has been described as "consensual, ethical, and
responsible non-monogamy
Heterosexuals and homosexuals may also be referred to informally as “straight” and
“gay,” respectively. North America is a heteronormative society, meaning it supports
heterosexuality as the norm, (referred to as heteronormativity). Consider that homosexuals are
4|Page
often asked, “When did you know you were gay?” but heterosexuals are rarely asked, “When did
you know that you were straight?” (Ryle, 2011).
According to current scientific understanding, individuals are usually aware of their
sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence (American Psychological
Association, 2008). They do not have to participate in sexual activity to be aware of these
emotional, romantic, and physical attractions; people can be celibate and still recognize their
sexual orientation. Homosexual women (also referred to as lesbians), homosexual men (also
referred to as gays), and bisexuals of both genders may have very different experiences of
discovering and accepting their sexual orientation. At the point of puberty, some may be able to
claim their sexual orientations while others may be unready or unwilling to make their
homosexuality or bisexuality known since it goes against North American society’s historical
norms (APA, 2008).
There is no scientific consensus regarding the exact reasons why an individual holds a
heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual orientation. There has been research conducted to study
the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual
orientation, but there has been no evidence that links sexual orientation to one factor (APA,
2008). Research, however, does present evidence showing that homosexuals and bisexuals are
treated differently than heterosexuals in schools, the workplace, and the military. The 2009
Canadian Climate Survey reported that 59% of LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered)
high school students had been subject to verbal harassment at school compared to 7% of non-
LGBT students; 25% had been subject to physical harassment compared to 8% of non-LGBT
students; 31%
5|Page
Check for Facts and Understanding :
1. What information in the article was new to you or surprised you or seemed odd to you? (10
points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. How did this change your thinking about the issue? (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. The type of clothes we buy our children, the names we allow ourselves to choose for our
children and many of our choices and actions concerning our children seem to depend on their
sex. What should you do if a future baby of yours is intersexed? Whose advice would you
seek out? (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Do the doctors have the best answers for you? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers
2 POINTS 4 POINTS 6 POINTS 8 POINTS 10 POINTS
Answer is clearly Answer is partial or Answer is not Answer is accurate Answer is
thought out and incomplete. Key comprehensive or and complete. Key comprehensive,
articulated. points are not clear. completely stated. point is stated and accurate and
Spelling, Question not Key point is supported. complete. Key idea is
punctuation, adequately answered. addressed, but not Spelling, clearly stated,
grammar, and Spelling, punctuation, well supported. punctuation, explained, and well
complete sentence grammar, and Spelling, punctuation, grammar, and supported.
is not observed. complete sentence is grammar, and complete sentence Well organized,
adequately observed. complete sentence is is adequately coherently developed,
adequately observed. observed. and easy to follow.
6|Page
Assessment:
1. Create an illustration or an image that will highlight the differences of sex, sexuality
and gender. The illustration or image must include sub-types for each distinction.
(utilize the space below) (50 points)
7|Page
1. Valuing: If you decide to alter the sex of the child to male or female, at what point in
the child’s development should this be accomplished? What makes this time the
RIGHT time? Discuss your answer below (20 points)
Rubric for answers

8|Page
Lesson 2 : Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Gender Orientation
Objectives:
1. Explain the basic terms and concepts concerning gender, identity, expression and
orientation.
2. Form critical judgment about issues of gender identity, expression and orientation.
3. Value the unique aspects of others’ gender identity, expression and orientation.
4. X: A FABULOUS CHILD'S STORY
SHORT STORY BY LOIS GOULD
(FULL TEXT AVAILABLE AT HTTPS://WAYLANDBROWN.FILES.WORDPRESS.COM/2011/03/X-
STORY.PDF)
SUMMARY
Gould’s X: A Fabulous Child’s Story is about a child named X who is born for an
experiment. The experiment is for two parents to raise a child where no one
including the child knew whether it was a boy or girl in exchange, 23 billion dollars
and 72 cents for the cost of raising baby X. This experiment was to show whether
or not male and female characteristics are developed genetically or external.
Baby X was raised as a happy healthy child who was raised and allowed to do
everything both boy and girl children do, it did not matter whether only boys where
supposed to play football or girls where only supposed to bake cakes; X was raised
to know no differences and did both.
X was never categorized or stereotyped from his parents as to how X should look,
act, feel, or dress base on its gender. Because raising a gender-neutral child-like X
would be difficult unlike any other X’s parents were given an official instruction
manual on how to raise an X.
The instruction manual helped answers and solve most of the questions and
problems X’s parents can across raising X in society designed for males and
females.
In today’s society from the moment parents find out they are expecting a child most
people want to know whether they will be having a boy or girl, and once a mother
gives birth to a baby the first thing that is announced is if the baby is a boy or a girl.
If you ask any expecting family what they wanted their baby to be most people the
first thing they would most likely say is a healthy baby and, then they would say
either a boy or girl; and for those who say the gender-sex of their child does not
matter, in actuality it does. This is because we live in a society where society
automatically characterizes people by their gender.
Gender in today’s society predetermines what you should wear, how you should
act, feel, and look. X’s parents tried to raise a gender-neutral child in a society that
defines males and females from childhood by the way they dressed to the activities
9|Page
they participated in, and when a child like X was raised to ignore and defy all of
societies gender classifications there’s an up roar from children’s parents.
Although the children are at first confused and to curious as to if X is either a boy
or girl, that later accept and embrace the factor that X is just X and does not need to
be classified and defined. The parents of the children are not as accepting; they
demand to find out the sex of the child, pressuring the principal and the parents to
have X examined by outside experts. In society where your gender seems to
predetermine how you should act and behave it is difficult to cross the invisible line
that is in places for roles of males and females.
Gender Identity and Expression
The ways in which a person identifies and/or expresses his gender, including self-image,
appearance, and embodiment of gender roles. One’s sex (e.g. male, female, intersex, etc.) is
usually assigned at birth based on one’s physical biology. One’s gender (e.g. male, female,
genderqueer, etc.) is one’s internal sense of self and identity. One’s gender expression (e.g.
masculine, feminine, androgynous, etc.) is how one embodies gender attributes, presentations,
roles, and more.
Our gender identity is how we feel in relation to being male or female - and there are different
terms, descriptions and labels for different types of gender identities. We describe some of these
terms.
Agender-  Not having a gender or identifying with a gender. They may describe themselves as
being gender neutral or genderless. 
Androgyny - The mixing of masculine and feminine gender expression or the lack of gender
identification. The terms androgyne, agender, and neutrois are sometimes used by people who
identify as genderless, non-gendered, beyond or between genders, or some combination thereof.
Bigender- A person who fluctuates between traditionally “male” and “female” gender-based
behaviors and identities.
Cisgender - A gender identity that society considers to “match” the biological sex assigned at
birth. The prefix cis- means “on this side of” or “not across from.” A term used to call attention to
the privilege of people who are not transgender.
Crossdresser - Cross-dressing refers to occasionally wearing clothing of the “opposite” gender,

and someone who considers this an integral part of their identity may identify as a crossdresser
(note: the term crossdresser is preferable to transvestite and neither may ever be used to describe
a transsexual person). Cross-dressing is not necessarily tied to erotic activity or sexual
orientation.
Gender Expression The external display of one’s gender, through a combination of how they
dress, how they act and other factors, generally measured on scales of masculinity and femininity.
10 | P a g e
Gender Fluid- A mix of boy and girl. A person who is gender fluid may always feel like a mix of
the two traditional genders, but may feel more man some days, and more woman other days.
Genderqueer- A gender identity label often used by people who do not identify with being a
man or a woman, or as an umbrella term for many gender non-conforming or non-binary
identities.
Intersex- A person born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t seem to fit the
typical definitions of female or male. For example, a person might be born appearing to be female
on the outside, but having mostly male-typical anatomy on the inside.
Mx. - Is a title (e.g. Mr., Ms., etc.) that is gender neutral. Pronounced  miks, (similar to Ms) it is
often the option of choice for folks who do not identify as cisgender.
Transgender - First coined to distinguish gender benders with no desire for surgery or hormones
from transsexuals, those who desired to legally and medically change their sex, more recently
transgender and/or trans has become an umbrella term popularly used to refer to all people who
transgress dominant conceptions of gender, or at least all who identify themselves as doing so.
The definition continues to evolve.
Transsexual - The term transsexual has historically been used to refer to individuals who have
medically and legally changed their sex, or who wish to do so. Most transsexual people feel a
conflict between their gender identity and the sex they were assigned at birth. Other labels used
within this group are MtF (male-to-female) or trans woman, and FtM (female-to-male) or trans
man.
Ze / Hir - Alternate pronouns that are gender neutral. Pronounced /zee/ and /here/ they replace
“he” and “she” and “his” and “hers” respectively. Alternatively some people who are not
comfortable/do not embrace he/she use the plural pronoun “they/their” as a gender neutral
singular pronoun.
11 | P a g e
https://www.itspronouncedmetrosexual.com/
Check for Facts and Understanding:
1. When the parents claimed their baby was “Baby X”, people’s responses toward the
parents were not only confusion, but also included anger and hostility. Why is this so?
(10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
12 | P a g e
2. Why do you think people responded the way they did? What does this tell you about how
and when we think about others in terms of gender? (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Have you ever tried addressing a baby whose gender you were not sure of? How did it
make you feel and why? (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. List 3 things that you would include in the Official Instruction Manual for raising “Baby
X”. (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers
thought out and incomplete. Key points comprehensive or and complete. Key comprehensive, accurate
articulated. are not clear. Question completely stated. Key point is stated and and complete. Key idea
Spelling, punctuation, not adequately point is addressed, but supported. is clearly stated,
grammar, and answered. not well supported. Spelling, punctuation, explained, and well
complete sentence is Spelling, punctuation, Spelling, punctuation, grammar, and supported.
not observed. grammar, and complete grammar, and complete complete sentence is Well organized,
sentence is adequately sentence is adequately adequately observed. coherently developed,
ob.served observed. and easy to follow.
Assessment:
1. Thinking back to when you were growing up as a child, what were some of the
things (toys, clothes, hobbies, etc.) which signified or were highly associated with
your gender? Show this by drawing a paper doll. (30 points)
13 | P a g e
2. Discuss some benefits of raising a child without bias towards gender norms? (20 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers

Answer is clearly Answer is partial or Answer is not Answer is Answer is
thought out and incomplete. Key comprehensive or accurate and comprehensive,
articulated. points are not clear. completely stated. complete. Key accurate and
Spelling, Question not Key point is point is stated and complete. Key idea
punctuation, adequately addressed, but not supported. is clearly stated,
grammar, and answered. well supported. Spelling, explained, and well
complete Spelling, Spelling, punctuation, supported.
sentence is not punctuation, punctuation, grammar, and Well organized,
observed. grammar, and grammar, and complete coherently
complete sentence complete sentence sentence is developed, and easy
is adequately is adequately adequately to follow.
observed. observed. observed.
Lesson 3 : GENDER DIFFERENCES
Objectives:
1. Compare and contrast traits and characteristics of the different genders.
2. List down perceptions of people about the different genders.
3. Appreciate the uniqueness, traits and characteristics of the different genders.
ON GENDER DIFFERENCES, NO CONSENSUS ON NATURE VS. NURTURE

AMERICANS SAY SOCIETY PLACES A HIGHER PREMIUM ON MASCULINITY THAN ON
FEMININITY
KIM PARKER, JULIANA MENASCE HOROWITZ AND RENEE STEPLER
14 | P a g e
Parker, Horowitz and Stepler (2017) did a research survey on the traits and characteristics
of the masculine and the feminine genders.
Below are various data from a research on gender differences.
A new Pew Research Center

survey finds that majorities of
Americans say men and
women are basically different
in the way they express their
feelings, their physical
abilities, their personal interests
and their approach to
parenting.
But there is no public
consensus on the origins of
these differences. While
women who perceive
differences generally attribute
them to societal expectations,
men tend to point to biological
differences.
The public also sees vastly different pressure points for men and women as they navigate
their roles in society. Large majorities say men face a lot of pressure to support their family
financially (76%) and to be successful in their job or career (68%); much smaller shares say
women face similar pressure in these areas. At the same time, seven-in-ten or more say women
face a lot of pressure to be an involved parent (77%) and be physically attractive (71%). Far
fewer say men face these types of pressures, and this is particularly the case when it comes to
feeling pressure to be physically attractive: Only 27% say men face a lot of pressure in this
regard.
When asked in an open-ended question what traits society values most in men and women,
the differences were also striking. The top responses about women related to physical
attractiveness (35%) or nurturing and empathy (30%).
For men, one-third pointed to honesty and morality, while about one-in-five mentioned
professional or financial success (23%), ambition or leadership (19%),
The survey also finds a sense among the

public that society places a higher
premium on masculinity than it does on 15 | P a g e
femininity. About half (53%) say most
people in our society these days look up to
men who are manly or masculine; far
When it comes to raising children, more see advantages in exposing girls than boys to
activities typically associated with the other gender
Most adults are open to the idea of exposing young girls and boys to toys and activities
that are typically associated with the opposite gender.
About three-quarters (76%) say it’s a good thing for parents of young girls to encourage
their daughters to play with toys or participate in activities that are typically associated with boys;
a somewhat smaller majority (64%) says it’s a good thing for parents of young boys to encourage
them to play with toys or participate in activities usually thought of as being for girls.
Women are more likely than men to say parents should encourage their children to
engage in activities that are typically associated with the opposite gender, but the difference is
more pronounced when it comes to views about raising boys. Large majorities of women (80%)
and men (72%) say it’s a good thing for parents of young girls to do this; 71% and 56%,
respectively, say parents of young boys should encourage them to play with toys or participate in
activities typically associated with girls.
16 | P a g e
Americans differ over what should be emphasized in raising boys vs. girls.
When it comes to raising children, more see advantages in exposing girls than boys to activities
typically associated with the other gender.
Most adults are open to the idea of exposing young girls and boys to toys and activities
that are typically associated with the opposite gender.
About three-quarters (76%) say it is a good thing for parents of young girls to encourage
their daughters to play with toys or participate in activities that are typically associated with boys;
a somewhat smaller majority (64%) says it’s a good thing for parents of young boys to encourage
them to play with toys or participate in activities usually thought of as being for girls.
Women are more likely than men to say parents should encourage their children to
engage in activities that are typically associated with the opposite gender, but the difference is
more pronounced when it comes to views about raising boys. Large majorities of women (80%)
and men (72%) say it’s a good thing for parents of young girls to do this; 71% and 56%,
respectively, say parents of young boys should encourage them to play with toys or participate in
activities typically associated with girls.
Americans differ over what should be emphasized in raising boys vs. girls views are
reversed, with larger shares of men (46%) than women (38%) saying there should be more
emphasis on this.
Americans offer different assessments of how
boys and girls are being raised these days
when it comes to specific traits and
behaviors. The biggest gap can be seen in
encouraging children to talk about their
feelings when they are sad or upset: 59% of
adults say there is too little emphasis on
encouraging boys to talk about their feelings,
while only 38% say the same about girls
(51% say things are about right in this area
when it comes to girls). And while 51% say
there should be more emphasis on
encouraging boys to do well in school,
somewhat smaller shares (43%) say there
should be more emphasis on this for girls.
When it comes to what’s lacking for girls
these days, more Americans 17 |say
P athere
g e is too
little emphasis on encouraging girls to be
leaders and to stand up for themselves than
say there is too little emphasis when it comes
Women are more likely than men to say there is too little emphasis on encouraging girls to be
leaders: 57% of women say this, compared with 49% of men. But when it comes to encouraging
leadership in boys,
18 | P a g e
Check for Facts and Understanding
1. Discuss how are women and men different in the following aspects:
a. How they express their feelings (10 points)
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
b. Physical Abilities (10 points)
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
c. Approaches in parenting ( 10 points)
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Assessment:
Based from your perceptions and observations, how different and how similar are
women? Using a table, compare and contrast the masculine and the feminine gender.
Cite five(5) similarities and five (5) differences ( 5 pts. each)
SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES
19 | P a g e
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
Lesson 4 : GENDER ROLES
Objectives:
1. Discuss the stereotypes associated with male and female roles.
2. Examine the different gender role theories and how they affect society.
3. Appreciate the participation and roles of the different genders in society.
THE EGG AND THE SPERM: HOW SCIENCE HAS CONSTRUCTED A ROMANCE BASED ON
STEREOTYPICAL MALE FEMALE ROLES
(FULL TEXT AVAILABLE AT HTTPS://WEB.STANFORD.EDU/~ECKERT/PDF/MARTIN1991.PDF)
AUTHOR : EMILY MARTIN

(AN EXCERPT)
As an anthropologist, I am intrigued by the possibility that culture shapes how biological

scientists describe what they discover about the natural world. If this were so, we would be
learning about more than the natural world in high school biology class; we would be learning
20 | P a g e
about cultural beliefs and practices as if they were part of nature. In the course of my research I
realized that the picture of egg and sperm drawn in popular as well as scientific accounts of
reproductive biology relies on stereotypes central to our cultural definitions of male and female.
The stereotypes imply not only that female biological processes are less worthy than their male
counterparts but also that women are less worthy than men. Part of my goal in writing this
article is to shine a bright light on the gender stereotypes hidden within the scientific language of
biology. Exposed in such a light, I hope they will lose much of their power to harm us.
Egg and sperm: A scientific fairy tale
At a fundamental level, all major scientific textbooks depict male and female
reproductive organs as systems for the production of valuable substances, such as eggs and
sperm.2 In the case of women, the monthly cycle is described as being designed to produce eggs
and prepare a suitable place for them to be, fertilized and grown—all to the end of making
babies. But the enthusiasm ends there. By extolling the female cycle as a productive enterprise,
menstruation must necessarily be viewed as a failure. Medical texts describe menstruation as the
"debris" of the uterine lining, the result of necrosis, or death of tissue. The descriptions imply that
a system has gone awry, making products of no use, not to specification, unsalable, wasted,
scrap. An illustration in a widely used medical text shows menstruation as a chaotic
disintegration of form, complementing the many texts that describe it as "ceasing," "dying,"
"losing," "denuding," "expelling."
Male reproductive physiology is evaluated quite differently. One of the texts that sees
menstruation as failed production employs a sort of breathless prose when it describes the
maturation of sperm: "The mechanisms which guide the remarkable cellular transformation from
spermatid to mature sperm remain uncertain. [. . .] Perhaps the most amazing characteristic of
spermatogenesis is its sheer magnitude: the normal human male may manufacture several
hundred million sperm per day."4 In the classic text Medical Physiology, edited by Vernon
Mountcastle, the male- female, productive-destructive comparison is more explicit: "Whereas the
female sheds only a single gamete each month, the seminiferous tubules produce hundreds of
millions of sperm each day" (emphasis mine). 5 The female author of another text marvels at the
length of the microscopic seminiferous tubules, which, if uncoiled and placed end to end, "would
span almost one-third of a mile!" She writes, "In an adult male these structures produce millions
of sperm cells each day." Later she asks, "How is this feat accomplished?" None of these texts
expresses such intense enthusiasm for any female processes. It is surely no accident that the
"remarkable" process of making sperm involves precisely what, in the medical view,
menstruation does not: production of something deemed valuable. 7
One could argue that menstruation and spermatogenesis are not analogous processes
and, therefore, should not be expected to elicit the same kind of response. The proper female
analogy to spermatogenesis, biologically, is ovulation. Yet ovulation does not merit enthusiasm
in these texts either. Textbook descriptions stress that all of the ovarian follicles containing ova
are already present at birth. Far from being produced, as sperm are, they merely sit on the shelf,
slowly degenerating and aging like overstocked inventory: "At birth, normal human ovaries
contain an estimated one million follicles [each], and no new ones appear after birth. Thus, in
marked contrast to the male, the newborn female already has all the germ cells she will ever
21 | P a g e
have. Only a few, perhaps 400, are destined to reach full maturity during her active productive
life. All the others degenerate at some point in their development so that few, if any, remain by
the time she reaches menopause at approximately 50 years of age." 10 Note the "marked contrast"
that this description sets up between male and female: the male, who continuously produces
fresh germ cells, and the female, who has stockpiled germ cells by birth and is faced with their
degeneration.
Nor are the female organs spared such vivid descriptions. One scientist writes in a
newspaper article that a woman's ovaries become old and worn out from ripening eggs every
month, even though the woman herself is still relatively young: "When you look through a
laparoscope [. . . ] at an ovary that has been through hundreds of cycles, even in a superbly
healthy American female, you see a scarred, battered organ."
To avoid the negative connotations that some people associate with the female
reproductive system, scientists could begin to describe male and female processes as
homologous. They might credit females with "producing" mature ova one at a time, as they're
needed each month, and describe males as having to face problems of degenerating germ cells.
This degeneration would occur throughout life among spermatogonia, the undifferentiated germ
cells in the testes that are the long-lived, dormant precursors of sperm
Gender Role Theories

Gender role theories struggle with the same issues, and different theorists take different
positions. Social learning theorists believe that we learn gender roles almost entirely from our
environment, whereas cognitive development theorists believe that children go through a set
series of stages that correspond to certain beliefs and attitudes about gender. In this section, we
talk about evolutionary, social learning, cognitive development, and gender schema theories.
When babies are born, they possess no knowledge and few instinctual behaviors.
However, by the time children are about age 3 or 4 years, they can usually talk, feed themselves,
interact with adults, describe objects, and use correct facial expressions and body language.
Children also typically exhibit a wide range of behaviors that are appropriate to their gender. This
process, whereby an infant who knows nothing becomes a preschooler who has the basic skills
for functioning in society, is called socialization.
Socialization occurs at every age and level of development, and the same is true of
gender role socialization. Most boys dress and act like other boys and play with traditionally male
toys (guns, trucks), whereas most girls insist on wearing dresses and express a desire to do
traditional "female things”, such as playing with dolls and toy kitchens. Is this behavior innate, or
are gender stereotypes still getting through to these children through television and in playing
with their peers?
The answer depends on which theory of gender role development you accept.
Evolutionary Theory: Adapting to Our Environment
22 | P a g e
Recently, we began to understand more about the biological differences between men and
women through the field of evolutionary theory. Gender differences are seen as ways in which we
have developed in our adaptation to our environment. For example, later in this book we explore
how the double standard in sexual behavior developed, in which a man with several partners was
viewed as a "player:' whereas a woman with several partners was viewed as a "slut:' An
evolutionary theorist would explain this gender difference in terms of the biological differences
between men and women.
A man can impregnate several women at any given time, but a woman, once pregnant,
cannot become pregnant again until she gives birth. The time investment of these activities varies
tremendously. If evolutionary success is determined by how many offspring we have, the men
win hands down.
Social Learning Theory: Learning from Our Environment
Social learning theory suggests that we learn gender roles from our environment, from
the same system of rewards and punishments that we learn our other social roles. For example,
research shows that many parents commonly reward gender-appropriate behavior and disapprove
of gender-inappropriate behavior. Telling a boy sternly not to cry "like a girl:' approving a girl's
use of makeup, taking a Barbie away from a boy and handing him Spider-Man, making girls help
with cooking and cleaning and boys take out the trash- these little, everyday actions build into
powerful messages about gender.
Children also learn to model their behavior after the same gender parent to win parental
approval. They may learn about gender-appropriate behavior from parents even if they are too
young to perform the actions themselves; for example, they may see that Mommy is more likely
to make dinner, whereas Daddy is more likely to pay the bills. Children also see models of the
"appropriate" ways for their genders to behave in their books, on television, and when interacting
with others. Even the structure of our language conveys gender attitudes about things, such as the
dominant position of the male; for example, the use of male words to include men and women
(using "chairman" or "mankind" to refer to both men and women), or the differentiation between
Miss and Mrs. to indicate whether a woman is married.
However, people are trying to amend these inequalities today, as evidenced by the
growing acceptance of words such as "chairperson" and "humankind;' and the title "Ms:•
Cognitive Development Theory: Age-Stage Learning
Cognitive development theory assumes that all children go through a universal pattern of
development, and there really is not much parents can do to alter it. As children's brains mature
and grow, they develop new abilities and concerns; at each stage, their understanding of gender
changes in predictable ways. This theory follows the ideas of Piaget (1951), the child
development theorist who suggested that social attitudes in children are mediated through their
processes of cognitive development. In other words, children can process only a certain kind and
amount of information at each developmental stage.
As children begin to be able to recognize the physical differences between girls and boys, and
then to categorize themselves as one or the other, they look for information about their genders.
Around the ages of 2 to 5, they form strict stereotypes of gender based on their observed
differences: Men are bigger and stronger and are seen in aggressive roles such as policeman and
23 | P a g e
superhero; women tend to be associated with motherhood through their physicality (e.g., the child
asks what the mother's breasts are and is told they are used to feed children) and through women's
social roles of nurturing and emotional expressiveness. These "physicalistic" thought patterns are
universal in young children and are organized around ideas of gender.
Gender Schema Theory: Our Cultural Maps
Sandra Bem’s (1074. 1977, 1981) theory is a good example of a theory that tries to
overcome the difficulties posed by the other theories. According to Bern, children (and, for that
matter, all of us) think according to schemas (SKI-muz), which are cognitive mechanisms that
organize our world. These schemas develop over time and are universal, like the stages in
cognitive development theory; the difference lies in Bern's assertion that the contents of schemas
are determined by the culture. Schemas are like maps in our heads that direct our thought
processes.
Bern suggests that one schema we all have is a gender schema, which organizes our
thinking about gender. From the moment we are born, information about gender is continuously
presented to us by our parents, relatives, teachers, peers, television, movies, advertising, and the
like. We absorb the more obvious information about sexual anatomy, "male" and "female" types
of work and activities, and gender-linked personality traits. However, society also attributes
gender to things as abstract as shapes (rounded, soft shapes are often described as "feminine;' and
sharp, angular shapes as "masculine") and even our drinks (champagne is seen as more feminine,
whereas beer is seen as more masculine; Crawford et al., 2004).
Gender schemas are powerful in our culture. When we first meet a man, we immediately
use our masculine gender schema and begin our relationship with an already established series of
beliefs about him. For example, we may believe that men are strong or assertive. Our gender
schema is more powerful than other schemas and is used more often, Bern argues, because our
culture puts so much emphasis on gender and gender differences.
Masculinity and Femininity

What is masculine? What is feminine? Not too long ago, the answers would have seemed quite
obvious: Men naturally have masculine traits, meaning they are strong, stable, aggressive,
competitive, self-reliant, and emotionally undemonstrative; women are naturally feminine,
meaning they are intuitive, loving, nurturing, emotionally expressive, and gentle. Even today,
many would agree that such traits describe the differences between the sexes.
These gender stereotypes, however, are becoming less acceptable as our culture changes.
Masculinity and femininity refer to the ideal cluster of traits that society attributes to each
gender.
Men and women always seem to wonder why people of the other sex behave the way they do.
Yet, society itself supports those kinds of behaviors. Is it really any surprise that men often seem
to pursue appearance over substance in women when advertising, television, and women's and
men's magazines all emphasize women's appearance? Is it surprising, conversely, that some
women pursue the "tough guys" when society teaches them to admire male power? In the end, it
is society that determines the way we view gender relationships, and each of us is responsible to
some degree for continuing those attitudes.
24 | P a g e
Gender Stereotyping
The gender stereotyping of men and women has a profound impact on our society. Due to
the advances made in recent years to establish equality between the sexes, society reflects fewer
attitudes that support discrimination and inequality between men and women. However, even
though we are liberated in our beliefs and attitudes, many of our actions are still influenced by
gender stereotyping and misconceptions about men and women that have been passed down
through the generations. In spite of their stated values, a surprising number of people today relate
to each other based on a gender stereotype.
Dr. Lisa Firestone writes some gender stereotypes about men and women
Common Gender Stereotypes of Men: Common Gender Stereotypes of Women:

 Men are tough and powerful.  Women are helpless and childish.
 Men are unfeeling and insensitive.  Women are sensitive and intuitive.
 Men are logical, sensible and rational.  Women are scatterbrained, unstable and
 Men are afraid to commit in a
irrational.
relationship and form an attachment.
 Men are primarily interested in their  Women can easily form deep emotional
careers or vocations. attachments.
 Men do not have a primary interest in  Women do not have a primary interest in
marriage and parenthood. their careers or vocations.
 Women are primarily interested in a long
term relationship and parenthood.
25 | P a g e
1. In traditional accounts of fertilization, which characteristics are associated with eggs, and
which with sperm?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What social consequences could result from the use of stereotypical male and female imagery
in describing cells?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Assessment:
Breaking Gender Stereotypes:

List down 5 stereotypes associated with males and females. Beside the listed stereotypes,
recommend solutions or ways on how to break these identified stereotypes.
STEREOTYPES HOW TO BREAK FROM
GENDER ROLE
STEREOTYPLES?
Male
26 | P a g e
Female
Lesson 5 : The Construction of Gender in the Historical and Social Development of

Societies
Objectives:
1. Trace the historical developments that constructed and reconstructed gender as an issue.
2. Create a timeline to highlight the historical and social developments of societies.
3. Value the contributions of these historical and social developments in our societies.
The Construction of Gender in the Historical and Social Development of Societies
Guilano (2017) surveys recent empirical research on various historical determinants of

contemporary differences in gender roles and gender gaps across societies, and how these
differences are transmitted from parents to children and therefore persist until today.
1. Agriculture and agricultural technology
A recent literature has emphasized how differences in agricultural technology or, more
simply, a long history of agriculture can have long-lasting effects on the evolution of gender-role
attitudes. Alesina, Giuliano, and Nunn (2013) study the historical persistence of differences in
female labor-force participation. The hypothesis for their empirical analysis comes from the
seminal work of Ester Boserup (1970), in which she argued that differences in the role of women in
societies originate in the different types of agricultural technology, particularly the differences
between shifting and plough agriculture. Shifting agriculture, which uses hand-held tools like the
hoe and the digging stick, is labor-intensive, with women actively participating in farm work, while
using a plough to prepare the soil is more capital-intensive. Unlike the hoe or digging stick, the
plough requires significant upper-body strength, grip strength, and bursts of power to either pull the
plough or control the animal that pulls it. Farming with the plough is also less compatible with
childcare, which is almost always the responsibility of women. As a result, men in societies
characterized by plough agriculture tended to specialize in agricultural work outside the home,
while women specialized in activities within the home. In turn, this division of labor generated a
norm that the natural place for women is in the home. This belief tends to persist even if the
27 | P a g e
economy moves out of agriculture, affecting the participation of women in activities performed
outside the home, including market employment, entrepreneurship, and politics.
2. Pre-industrial societal characteristics
Pre-industrial social characteristics can have persistent effect on gender roles. Among the
most studied are the practice of matrilineality, modes of residence after marriage, and the dowry
versus the bride price.
Matrilineality. Matrilineality refers to the fact that lineage and inheritance are traced through
female members. This can affect the residential patterns of married couples (in matrilineal
societies, it is more common for the married couple to reside in the wife’s natal home with her
mother) and the inheritance of property (with property handed down from women to their
daughters and granddaughters and from men to their sister’s sons).
Matrilineality can improve women’s outcomes for a variety of reasons. Women in

matrilineal societies have greater access to land and other assets, either through direct inheritance
and ownership or through greater access to the possessions of the large matriclan. This makes them
less reliant on their husbands and less vulnerable in the case of a husband’s death. Women in
matrilineal systems have continued kin support, either by living with or near their own family after
marriage or through ongoing connections maintained by matrilineal kinship. They are also likely to
have greater intra-household bargaining power vis-à-vis their husbands and have greater exit
options than patrilineal women. These differences are amplified when a couple resides matrilocally
and a woman is surrounded by her family.
Gneezy et al. (2009) study how competitiveness among women varies between a
patriarchal society—the Maasai in Tanzania—and a matrilineal and matrilocal society—the Khasi
in northeast India. Amongst the Maasai, the most important distinctions between men are age-
based and almost all wealth is in cattle. The age structure prevents men from marrying until they
are roughly 30 and polygamy is the most common form of marriage. Therefore, the average Maasai
woman is married to a much older man who has multiple wives.
For the Khasi, inheritance and clan membership always follow the female lineage. Family
life is organized around the mother’s house, which is headed by the grandmother, who lives with
her unmarried daughters, her youngest daughter, her youngest daughter’s children, and any
unmarried, divorced, or widowed brothers and sons. The youngest daughter never leaves and
eventually becomes the head of the household; older daughters usually form separate households
adjacent to their mother’s household. Furthermore, a woman never joins the household of her
husband’s family and a man usually leaves his mother’s household to join his wife’s household.
Sometimes a man practices duolocal marriage, living in both his mother’s and his wife’s
households, but even when residing with his wife’s family, he spends much of his time in his
mother’s or sisters’ households.
Matrilocality. Whereas most studies look at matrilineal systems in terms of inheritance along with
residence choices after marriage, others investigate patrilocality in isolation, showing that alone it
can give rise to differences in gender roles. In northern India, where the social structure is more
patrilocal than in the south, gender inequality is more pronounced (Jayachandran, 2015). The
mechanism behind it is that when a woman gets married, she ceases to be a member of her birth
family and joins her husband’s family. Under this system, parents gain more returns to investment
in a son’s health and education because he will remain a part of their family, whereas a daughter
28 | P a g e
will physically and financially leave the household upon marriage.
Levine et al. (2003) study how investment in daughters varies based on residence after marriage.
When parents know that their daughters will leave to live in other villages, their private return to
investment in their daughters’ health or education might be expected to be lower than their private
return to investment in their sons. Levine et al. (2003) study the virilocality hypothesis using data
from Indonesia, a country where there is considerable variation in post-marriage residence.
Indonesian groups can practice virilocality, ambilocality (residence with either set of parents),
uxorilocality (residence with bride’s family), and neolocality (residence with neither set of
parents). The authors did not find a strong correlation between virilocality and differential
investment in daughters. They attribute that lack of results to the fact that residential norms are not
very tight in Indonesia. The other interpretation is that it is a combination of norms—of which
virilocality is only one—that reduces investment in daughters.
The dowry versus the bride price. Another factor that can vary substantially across cultures and
have important effects on gender differences in social preferences is the presence of the dowry
versus the bride price. Dowry is a payment that a bride’s parents make to the couple at the time of
marriage. A bride price is a transfer at the time of marriage from the groom and/or his family to the
bride’s family. According to Boserup (1970), these social norms emerged in societies based on
their type of agriculture: where women played a lesser role in agriculture, the dowry prevailed.
Evidence on the impacts of the dowry system on women’s welfare is mostly anecdotal and points
to a pro-male bias. In India, the prospect of paying dowry is often cited as a key factor in parents’
desire to have sons rather than daughters (Das Gupta et al., 2003). The presence of dowry also
reduces investment in human capital and results in newly married women sometimes being the
victims of violence or, worse, dowry deaths as punishment for the dowry being deemed inadequate
by the groom (Bloch and Rao, 2002).
3. The Political and Economic Development of the Gender Construct in Industrial Societies
Sexual Revolution in the Age of Enlightenment
SEXUAL REVOLUTION- (also known as a time of "sexual liberation") was a social

movement that challenged traditional codes of behavior related to sexuality and interpersonal
relationships throughout the Western world from the 1960s to the 1980s.Sexual liberation
included increased acceptance of sex outside of traditional heterosexual, monogamous
relationships (primarily marriage). Contraception and the pill, public nudity, the normalization
of premarital sex, homosexuality and alternative forms of sexuality, and the legalization of
abortion all followed.
The Civil Rights Movement

Nearly 100 years after the Civil War, the civil rights of African Americans were limited by
state laws and discrimination. Some civil rights are the right to vote, the right to equal
treatment, and the right to speak out.
In the early 1950s, segregation was legal. Many Americans believed it should not be. African
Americans went to court to end segregation. In 1954, the Supreme Court ordered the desegregation
of public schools.
29 | P a g e
An Alabama law said that African Americans had to sit at the back of the bus. In 1955 in
Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refused to move to the back of a bus. She was arrested. Her
church organized a protest. African Americans boycotted the buses until buses were desegregated.
This was the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Martin Luther King Jr. helped lead the boycott. He
believed in nonviolent protest. He wanted people to fight back using peaceful actions. In 1956, the
Supreme Court said that segregation on buses was illegal.
Civil Rights Victories. In 1960, African Americans held sit-ins in 54 cities. They sat at lunch
counters that only served food to white people. They would not leave until they were served. In
1963, Congress was discussing a bill to end segregation. Martin Luther King Jr. and other leaders
organized a protest march in Washington, D.C., to show support for the bill. The march on
Washington got Americans to pay attention to the civil rights movement.
President Lyndon Johnson worked with Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It
banned segregation in schools, at work, and in public places. The Voting Rights Act of 1965
guaranteed citizens of all races and ethnic backgrounds the right to vote.
In 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was shot. People from all backgrounds continued the
struggle for civil rights.
The Counterculture Revolution and the Stonewall Riots
The Counterculture of the 1960s. The 1960s were a period when long‐held values and norms of
behavior seemed to break down, particularly among the young. Many college‐age men and women
became political activists and were the driving force behind the civil rights and antiwar
movements. Other young people simply “dropped out” and separated themselves from mainstream
culture through their appearance and lifestyle. Attitudes toward sexuality appeared to loosen, and
women began to openly protest the traditional roles of housewife and mother that society had
assigned to them.
Hippies. Like the members of the New Left, the Hippies were mostly middle‐class whites but
without the political drive. Their hallmarks were a particular style of dress that included jeans, tie‐
dyed shirts, sandals, beards, long hair, and a lifestyle that embraced sexual promiscuity and
recreational drugs, including marijuana and the hallucinogenic LSD. The sex and drug culture were
reflected in the rock music of the time by such groups as Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead
and performers like Jim Morrison and Janis Joplin. Although some young people established
communes in the countryside, hippies were primarily an urban phenomenon. The Haight‐Ashbury
section of San Francisco and the East Village in New York were the focal points of the
counterculture for a brief period from 1965 to 1967.
Sexual politics. The use of other means of birth control, such as diaphragms and IUDs, also
increased. Many states had already legalized abortion, and the new women's movement was
committed to making the procedure even more widely available. Throughout the sexual revolution,
which lasted until the onset of the AIDS crisis in the mid‐'80s, the birth rate declined and the
30 | P a g e
number of abortions, unwed mothers, and divorces rose.
The starting point for contemporary feminism was the 1963 publication of Betty Friedan's The
Feminine Mystique, which argued that women should be allowed to find their own identity, an
identity not necessarily limited to the traditional roles of wife and mother. The number of women
attending college skyrocketed during the 1960s, and many became involved with both the New
Left and the civil rights movement. Even these organizations remained dominated by men,
however. During the takeover at Columbia University, for instance, women were assigned duties
such as making coffee and typing. Consequently, although the political activism of the 1960s was a
catalyst for women's liberation, feminism became most effective when it created its own groups. In
1966, the National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed to address such issues as
allotting federal aid for day‐care centers for working mothers, guaranteeing women the right to an
abortion, eliminating gender‐based job discrimination, and ensuring equal pay for equal work.
Women, however, were not the only group that began to demand equality in the 1960s. Laws
against homosexuals were common, and groups like the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of
Bilitis had campaigned for years with little effect against gay discrimination. In June 1969, the
attempt by the New York City police to close down the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in Manhattan, led
to days of rioting and to the formation of the Gay Liberation Front. The treatment of homosexuals
and lesbians gradually became a national civil rights issue.
The Stonewall Riots

THE SIXTIES is often perceived as an era of social upheaval and orgiastic revelry. But for lesbian,
gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) folks in America, the efflorescence of sexual expression did
not begin until the waning months of that decade in the heart of the nation’s then-largest bohemian
enclave and gay ghetto, New York’s Greenwich Village. The Stonewall Riots that began in the wee
hours of June 28, 1969,1 lasted six nights and catapulted the issue of sexual liberation out of the
Dark Ages and into a new era. The relative freedoms and social acceptance that millions of
particularly urban American LGBT people experience today would have seemed as surreal to that
earlier generation as the prospect of electing an African-American president. On the heels of the
U.S. military’s postwar purge of gays, President Eisenhower signed a 1953 executive order that
established “sexual perversion” as grounds for being fired from government jobs. And since
employment records were shared with private industry, exposure or suspicion of homosexuality
could render a person unemployable and destitute. “Loitering in a public toilet” was an offense that
could blacklist a man from work and social networks, as lists of arrestees were often printed in
newspapers and other public records. Most states had laws barring homosexuals from receiving
professional licenses, which could also be revoked upon discovery. Sex between consenting adults
of the same sex, even in a private home, could be punishable for up to life in prison, confinement in
a mental institution, or even castration. In 1917, foreign LGBT people were barred from legally
immigrating to the United States due to their supposed “psychopathic personality disorder.”2
Illinois was the only state in the country, since 1961, where homosexuality was not explicitly
outlawed. New York’s penal code called for the arrest of anyone in public wearing fewer than three
items of clothing “appropriate” to their gender. And California’s Atascadero State Hospital was
31 | P a g e
compared with a Nazi concentration camp and known as a “Dachau for queers” for performing
electroshock and other draconian “therapies” on gays and lesbians. One legal expert argues that in
the 1960s, “The homosexual…was smothered by law.”3 This repression existed alongside a
growing acknowledgement of the existence of lesbians and gays in literature, theater, movies, and
newspapers. Cultural outlets exposed an expanding gay world to people who may never have
known of its existence, including those who would finally discover affirmation and a name for their
desires.
Homophile activism. In response to this trend, two organizations formed independently of each
other to advance the cause of gay men and lesbians and provide social opportunities where they
could socialize without fear of being arrested. Los Angeles area homosexuals created the
Mattachine Society in 1950, in the home of communist activist Harry Hay. Their objectives were to
unify homosexuals, educate them, provide leadership, and assist "sexual deviants" with legal
troubles. Facing enormous opposition to their radical approach, in 1953 the Mattachine shifted their
focus to assimilation and respectability. They reasoned that they would change more minds about
homosexuality by proving that gay men and lesbians were normal people, no different from
heterosexuals. Soon after, several women in San Francisco met in their living rooms to form the
Daughters of Bilitis (DOB) for lesbians.Although the eight women who created the DOB initially
came together to be able to have a safe place to dance, as the DOB grew they developed similar
goals to the Mattachine, and urged their members to assimilate into general society.
4. Post- Industrial Societies: Women's Role in Post-Industrial Democracy

Barbieri (n.d.) in the UNESCO Courier discusses women’s role in post – industrial
democracy. The article excerpt is as follows:
ACCORDING to the American sociologist Elise Boulding, there are three areas in which
the work of women has built what she calls a "civic society" based on mutual respect. The first is
related to children and teaching. In almost all societies, women are responsible for the education of
children up to their seventh year. Psychologists agree that these are the years in which the child's
world-vision is formed.
The second is related to women's hidden economic role. Its arena may be the kitchen or the
garden, the small production unit which played a crucial role in agricultural societies and has also
often been, though less visibly, the salvation of the highly-industrialized societies of our time.
The third area has also been largely unnoticed. Women are and have been what Elise
Boulding calls the "cement of society". They have fulfilled this role in private, in family life, and
even in dynastic alliances between villages or towns over the centuries.
Boulding has described these areas, which belong to the "underside of history", as
"society's green space, its visioning space, its bonding space. It is a space where minds can learn to
grapple with complexities that are destroying the overside."
Women's efforts to build a viable society of respect and understanding also contribute to
32 | P a g e
the creation of a democratic culture. Children learn respect, tolerance, and other principles of
democratic behavior at a very early stage, in their relations with other members of the family and
the community. In this context, it is interesting to observe and compare the attitudes of families in
different parts of the world: the strong community sense of the hierarchically organized extended
family in Africa, the profound respect with which the elder members of the Chinese family are
regarded, and the focus on younger family members in modern Western society. Women play a
central role in the shaping of these attitudes through the way they behave and the example they set.
It is because their public role has been invisible that they have learned respect for others--a respect
that encourages democratic behavior rather than the dominating behavior often expected of men.
Respect does not, however, mean accepting domination by others; it is coupled with the demand
that women be respected in their turn.
Many examples could be cited of women's civic spirit. Polish women contributed to the
rebuilding of Warsaw's schools after the Second World War; Japanese women organized support
systems after Hiroshima, as did the women of Mexico after the 1984 earthquake.
WOMEN CITIZENS OF TOMORROW
Post-industrial society will be a complex, uncertain society, in which such tools and
methods of industrial society as specialization, separation of tasks, hierarchical structures, and mass
production will no longer be relevant. Notable among its features will be decentralized networks of
small units, diversified activities performed by the same person or unit, and rapidity of action.

1. What are the significant gender role developments:
a. Agricultural societies (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b. Industrial societies (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
c. Post- industrial societies (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
33 | P a g e
Assessment:
Create a timeline that will show the different developments of the histories and social
societies. The timeline should highlight events that changed the various gender roles of men
and women. (50 points)
Lesson 6 : Theoretical Perspectives on Gender
Objectives:
1. Examine the theoretical assumptions that shaped gender issues.
2. Synthesize the different theoretical perspectives in relation to gender role developments.
3. Relate the theoretical assumptions to the present gender role developments of societies.
Structural Functionalism
Structural functionalism provided one of the most important perspectives of sociological

research in the 20th century and has been a major influence on research in the social sciences,
including gender studies. Viewing the family as the most integral component of society,
assumptions about gender roles within marriage assume a prominent place in this perspective.
34 | P a g e
Functionalists argue that gender roles were established well before the preindustrial era
when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home, such as hunting, and women
typically took care of the domestic responsibilities in or around the home. These roles were
considered functional because women were often limited by the physical restraints of pregnancy
and nursing and unable to leave the home for long periods of time. Once established, these roles
were passed on to subsequent generations since they served as an effective means of keeping the
family system functioning properly.
Critical Sociology
According to critical sociology, society is structured by relations of power and

domination among social groups (e.g., women versus men) that determine access to scarce
resources. When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, we can view men as the
dominant group and women as the subordinate group. According to critical sociology, social
problems and contradictions are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate
groups. Consider the women’s suffrage movement or the debate over women’s “right to choose”
their reproductive futures. It is difficult for women to rise above men, as dominant group
members create the rules for success and opportunity in society (Farrington and Chertok 1993).
Feminist Theory
Feminist theory is a type of critical sociology that examines inequalities in gender-related

issues. It uses the critical approach to examine the maintenance of gender roles and inequalities.
Radical feminism, in particular, considers the role of the family in perpetuating male dominance.
In patriarchal societies, men’s contributions are seen as more valuable than those of women.
Additionally, women often perceive a disconnect between their personal experiences and the way
the world is represented by society as a whole.
The first wave (1830’s – early 1900’s): Women’s fight for equal contract and
property rights.
Often taken for granted, women in the late 19th to early 20th centuries, realized that they
must first gain political power (including the right to vote) to bring about change was how to fuel
the fire. Their political agenda expanded to issues concerning sexual, reproductive and economic
matters. The seed was planted that women have the potential to contribute just as much if not
more than men.
The second wave (1960’s-1980’s): Broadening the debate
The second wave of feminism focused on the workplace, sexuality, family and
reproductive rights. During a time when the United States was already trying to restructure itself,
it was perceived that women had met their equality goals with the exception of the failure of the
ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment (which has still yet to be passed).
This time is often dismissed as offensive, outdated and obsessed with middle class white
women’s problems. Conversely, many women during the second wave were initially part of the
Black Civil Rights Movement, Anti Vietnam Movement, Chicano Rights Movement, Asian-
American Civil Rights Movement, Gay and Lesbian Movement and many other groups fighting
35 | P a g e
for equality. Women cared so much about these civil issues that they wanted to strengthen their
voices by first fighting for gender equality to ensure they would be heard.
The third wave (1990’s – early 2000’s): The “micropolitics” of gender equality
Unlike the former movements, the term ‘feminist’ becomes less critically received by the
female population due to the varying feminist outlooks. There are the ego-cultural feminists, the
radicals, the liberal/reforms, the electoral, academic, ecofeminists.
The main issues were prefaced by the work done by the previous waves of women. The
fight continued to vanquish the disparities in male and female pay and the reproductive rights of
women. Work continues to end violence against women in our nation as well as abroad. This
wave was about acceptance and a true understanding of the term ‘feminism’.
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical

role of symbols in human interaction. This is certainly relevant to the discussion of masculinity
and femininity. Imagine that you walk into a bank, hoping to get a small loan for school, a home,
or a small business venture. If you meet with a male loan officer, you may state your case
logically by listing all of the hard numbers that make you a qualified applicant as a means of
appealing to the analytical characteristics associated with masculinity. If you meet with a female
loan officer, you may make an emotional appeal by stating your good intentions as a means of
appealing to the caring characteristics associated with femininity.
Because the meanings attached to symbols are socially created and not natural, and fluid, not
static, we act and react to symbols based on the current assigned meaning. The word gay, for
example, once meant “cheerful,” but by the 1960s it carried the primary meaning of
“homosexual.” In transition, it was even known to mean “careless” or “bright and showing”
(Oxford American Dictionary 2010). Furthermore, the word gay (as it refers to a homosexual)
carried a somewhat negative and unfavourable meaning 50 years ago, but has since gained more
neutral and even positive connotations.
36 | P a g e
1. Explain the importance of family as the smallest unit of the community using structural
functionalism to support your arguments. (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the power relations of men and women in the society using critical sociology to
support your discussion. (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Discuss how women empowerment changed during the different waves of feminism. (10
points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the common symbols and meanings of men and women’s typical behaviors
(Example: Woman- caring; Men- aggressive)? (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers

37 | P a g e
Assessment:
Write a discussion paper that focuses on the following gender role developments of men and
women. In the discussion of the gender roles, incorporate the different theoretical
perspectives to strengthen your arguments.
Gender Role Developments:

Men- Manages the household and takes care of the children
Takes feminine occupations such as cooking (culinary), teaching,
Women- Manages Corporations and Business

Takes the lead in Politics and Economics
The discussion paper should have the following parts:

1. Introduction- an overview of gender role developments in society
2. Body- A detailed discussion of the issues/ gender role developments, supported by the
different theoretical perspectives.
3. Conclusion- Your personal stand or perspective about these shift in gender roles.
Rubrics: (next page)
INTERESTING INTRO- 10 POINTS
DETAILED DISCUSSION- 10 POINTS
STRONG CONCLUSION- 10 POINTS
GRAMMAR/ MECHANICS- 1O POINTS
OVERALL RATIONALITY OF PAPER- 10POINTS
38 | P a g e
Rubric for discussion paper
DESCRIPTION 10 points 8 points 6 points 4 points 2 points
Accurate Items clearly Items clearly Items Items do not The student
Introduction introduced the demonstrate demonstrate demonstrate has no basic
desired learning most of the some of the basic learning understanding
outcomes for the desired learning desired learning outcomes for of the concepts
term have been outcomes for outcomes for the term. The
achieved. The the term. The the term. The student has
student has gained student has student has limited
a significant gained a gained some understanding of
understanding of general understanding the concepts.
the concepts and understanding of the concepts
applications. of the concepts and attempts to
and apply them.
applications.
Strong and Discussion discussion Discussion Discussion
Detailed illustrates the illustrates the illustrates an illustrates a
Discussion ability to ability to attempt to minimal ability Discussions do
effectively critique critique work, critique work, to critique work. not illustrate
work, and to and to suggest and to suggest the ability to
suggest constructive alternatives. critique work
constructive practical
practical alternatives.
alternatives.
Noteworthy Consistency in the There is less There is more There is much Thoughts and
Conclusion flow of thoughts. inconsistency of inconsistency of inconsistency of ideas are all
Ideas are free thoughts. Ideas thoughts. Ideas thoughts. inconsistent.
flowing and there are free flowing are not free Ideas are not Discussion lack
is obvious and the flowing free flowing and coherence and
comfortableness discussion is however, the the discussion is connection.
in the discussion. devoid of discussion is with obvious
hesitation. devoid of hesitation.
hesitation.
Grammar and Items are clearly Items are Items are Items are not Items lack
Mechanics introduced, well introduced and introduced and introduced and organization
organized, and well organized, somewhat lack Spelling,
creatively showing organized, organization. punctuation,
displayed, showing connection showing some Spelling, grammar, and
connection between items. connection punctuation, complete
between items. Spelling, between grammar, and sentence are
Spelling, punctuation, items.Spelling, complete very poor and
punctuation, grammar, and punctuation, sentence are inadequate.
grammar, and complete grammar, and less observed.
complete sentence are complete
sentence are very adequately sentence are
satisfactorily observed. not adequately
observed. observed.
Overall Items are clearly Items are Items are Items are not Items lack
Presentation introduced, well introduced and introduced and introduced and organization
organized, and well organized, somewhat lack
39 | P a g e
creatively showing organized, organization.
displayed, showing connection showing some
connection between items. connection
between items. between items.
Lesson 7: The Social Construction of Homosexuality in History and Culture
Objectives:
1. Describe and compare the gender variance recognized around the world,
2. Examine the influences of these gender variance to social construction of homosexuality.
3. Value the impact of these gender variance to the gender developments worldwide.
GENDER VARIANCE AROUND THE WORLD OVER TIME
LUCY DIAVOLO
Hijras (South Asia)
With thousands of years of documented history, hijras are one of the oldest and best-
known examples of gender variance. The word is a blanket term applied to people
Westerners might define as transgender, intersex, or eunuchs.
Throughout history, hijras in southern Asia have been associated with sacred powers.
They deliver blessings at weddings and births and are feared for their powerful curses. The
focus on their efforts for recognition and rights typically centers on India. That’s in
part because British rule dramatically changed the lives of hijras there. The colonial
government made the simple act of being a hijra a criminal offense. Hijras responded by
forming their own tight-knit communities, and developing their own language.
In 2014, the Supreme Court of India followed precedents in Nepal, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh in recognizing hijras as a legally designated third gender. That decision
helped people in India seeking legal recognition for their identities.
Activists claim it doesn’t go far enough, though. Many hijras still find themselves

resorting to begging or survival sex work to get by. In Indian politics, “hijra” is still used
as a public insult.
Two-Spirit (North America)
For an example of colonially stifled gender variance closer to home, one needs look no further
than the various gender identities recognized and celebrated in indigenous tribes.
40 | P a g e
Navajo tribes recognized four genders that roughly correlate with cisgender and
transgender men and women, using the terms nadleehi for those who "transform" into
femininity and dilbaa for those "transform" into masculinity. The Mohave people used
the terms alyha and hwame to describe similar identities. And the Lakota tribe believed
the winkte people among them had supernatural powers like India’s hijras.
The two-spirit community is experiencing a renaissance of activism lately, but this isn’t a
recent phenomenon, strictly speaking. We’wha was a famous lhamana (i.e., two-spirit)
member of the Zuni tribe. She may have been the first out-of-the-closet gender-variant
person to meet a U.S. president when she was introduced to Grover Cleveland in 1886.
Two-spirit people in North America have benefited from acceptance within their

communities. Already they have reclaimed a piece of their identities by popularizing the
term “two-spirit” in place of the French colonial term berdache.
Il Femminiello (Naples) and Elagabalus (Rome)
Even within the boundaries of colonial Europe, gender-variant people existed.

Documented in paintings from as early as the eighteenth century, il femminiello were
individuals assigned male at birth who dressed and behaved like women in Naples,
Italy.
While largely segregated within the city, il femminiello were considered a blessing and

good fortune upon the families they were born into. To this day, gender-variant
pilgrims still venerate the “Madonna of Transformation” in the country’s southern regions.
These are not the only gender-variant people in the region’s history. Elagabalus was
crowned emperor of the Roman empire in the third century, but insisted that subjects
use the term empress and dressed as a woman. According to some historical accounts,
Elagabalus may have even summoned the empire’s finest doctors in order to pursue a
sexual-confirmation surgery.
In today’s Italy, activists can celebrate the recent marriage of Alessia Cinquegrana.
Cinquegrana, who was crowned Miss Trans Italy in 2014, is reportedly the first trans
woman in the nation to marry a man without first obtaining sexual-confirmation surgery.
Kathoey of Thailand
Kathoey is the commonly used term “that gathers male-to-female transgender people, as well
as effeminate men, under its cover. Kathoey are biological men who have been born with
distinctly female hearts and minds.” (Aldous & Sereemomngkonpol 2008: 11), and it includes
effeminate mannerisms. Kathoey can be found in all walks of life and occupations throughout
the country (CPAmedia, 2009), but are heavily represented in the sex industry.
In Thailand two species of kathoey co-exist: the traditional kathoey of ruralSiam, especially in
the north and north-east, and the modern day kathoey cabaret performer of the tourist cities,
41 | P a g e
especially in Bangkok and in Pattaya.
Kathoey’s views on gender and what it means to be a woman are much like they are in the
West (Winter & Udomsak, 2002). Some kathoey prefer to be called phuying prahphet song
(women of a second kind) (Winter, 2006, 2008). Most kathoey present outwardly as entirely
female – in terms of hair (often long), dress, cosmetics, manner, gait, gestures, voice,
stereotyped personality traits (Winter and Udomsak, 2002) and interests (including vocational).
When they speak they employ a female tone and vocabulary, employing word-forms normally
restricted to females. According to Winter (2002), a very large number of them take hormones,
sometimes from as early as 10 years of age. Many of those who are able to afford cosmetic
surgery do so.
Ancient History & Modern Struggles
These stories offer up a simple lesson: There are always people who find themselves
on the outside of simple binaries. Other examples in the Pacific Islands and South
America reinforce this notion.
While it might be tempting to apply a label like “transgender” to all of these people, it’s
important to respect their sovereignty in defining their own identities. European colonialism
was a major force in hurting and erasing gender-variant people. Using Western terminology to
understand other cultures’ gender variance might only result in perpetuating that harm and
erasure.
Still, the variety of gender expressions and identities is a testament to a key tenet of
Western transgender advocacy. They prove that people have rejected restrictive gender
systems throughout history and in our modern age. As many of the examples
demonstrate, these experiences often exist outside of a binary, not unlike modern
definitions of genderqueer or non-binary.

1. What are the distinct characteristics of the gender variants around the
world? (10 points each )
A. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
42 | P a g e
B. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
C. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
D. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
E. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers
Assessment:
Reflection paper
Discuss the major roles played by these gender variants to the world view of gender, gender
identity and gender expression. (40 points)
The introduction should briefly describe the different gender variants.

The body presents the major roles/ contributions of these gender variants to our world view of
gender, identity and expression. The body should also contain corroborations to support the
writer’s claims.
The conclusion contains the writer’s thoughts about the different gender variants.
43 | P a g e
Rubric: (next page)
Accurate Introduction – 10 points
Strong and Detailed Discussion – 10 points
Noteworthy Conclusion - 10 points
Grammar and Mechanics - 10 points
Rubric for the reflection paper
DESCRIPTION 10 points 8 points 6 points 4 points 2 points

Accurate Items clearly Items clearly Items Items do not The student
Introduction introduced the demonstrate demonstrate demonstrate has no basic
desired learning most of the some of the basic learning understanding
outcomes for desired desired outcomes for of the
the term have learning learning the term. The concepts
been achieved. outcomes for outcomes for student has
The student has the term. The the term. The limited
gained a student has student has understanding
significant gained a gained some of the
understanding general understanding concepts.
of the concepts understanding of the
and applications. of the concepts and
concepts and attempts to
44 | P a g e
applications. apply them.
Strong and Discussion discussion Discussion Discussion
Detailed illustrates the illustrates the illustrates an illustrates a
Discussion ability to ability to attempt to minimal ability Discussions
effectively critique work, critique work, to critique do not
critique work, and to suggest and to suggest work. illustrate the
and to suggest constructive alternatives. ability to
constructive practical critique work
practical alternatives.
alternatives.
Noteworthy Consistency in There is less There is more There is much Thoughts and
Conclusion the flow of inconsistency inconsistency inconsistency ideas are all
thoughts. Ideas of thoughts. of thoughts. of thoughts. inconsistent.
are free flowing Ideas are free Ideas are not Ideas are not Discussion
and there is flowing and free flowing free flowing lack
obvious the discussion however, the and the coherence
comfortableness is devoid of discussion is discussion is and
in the hesitation. devoid of with obvious connection.
discussion. hesitation. hesitation.
Grammar Items are clearly Items are Items are Items are not Items lack
and introduced, well introduced introduced introduced organization
Mechanics organized, and and well and somewhat and lack Spelling,
creatively organized, organized, organization. punctuation,
displayed, showing showing some Spelling, grammar, and
showing connection connection punctuation, complete
connection between between grammar, and sentence are
between items. items. items.Spelling, complete very poor and
Spelling, Spelling, punctuation, sentence are inadequate.
punctuation, punctuation, grammar, and less observed.
grammar, and grammar, and complete
complete complete sentence are
sentence are sentence are not
very adequately adequately
satisfactorily observed. observed.
observed.
UNIT II: Gender and Society Construct
Lesson 1: Gender and Politics
Objectives:
1. Identify the factors that contribute to the process and phenomenon of discrimination
in government.
2. Examine the intersections of gender and power relations within a general political
system.
3. Reflect on the impact of gender discrimination in government and in governance.
45 | P a g e
Introduction
The relationship between gender and governance is often neglected in both conceptual
and empirical work. Much influential political thought is still based on perceptions of the
separation between the ‘public’ realms of politics, military affairs and administration and the
‘private’ realm of domestic and family life. This book is a collection of papers focusing on gender
and governance – in the context of the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP’s)
efforts to promote development, and women’s role in it. While it focuses on the lives of women,
it is very much framed as a study of ‘gender and governance’ rather than ‘women and
governance’. Thus, it recognises the host of social norms and expectations that condition
women’s lives and that, therefore, any useful study of gender and governance must understand
governance in the broadest way – to include the ways in which social and administrative
structures affect society members’ capabilities and access to opportunities. (Demetriades, 2009)
Governance and Gender

‘Governance’ is a slippery term with many definitions, depending on who is talking about it, and
on the context in which it is used. Put simply, governance refers to decision-making by a range of
interested people (or ‘stakeholders’)
including those in positions of power and ‘ordinary’ citizens. These decisions have a
huge impact on the ways in which men and women lead their lives, the rules they are expected to
abide by, and the structures that determine where and how they work and live.
Political Gender Inequality
Even in democratic societies in which gender equality is legally mandated,
gender discrimination occurs in politics, both in regards to presumptions about political
allegiances that fall along gender lines, and disparate gender representation
within representative democracies. Historically, this was even more true when women were
neither considered full citizens nor could not vote.
Intersections of Gender and Politics:

A. Voting Rights for Women
46 | P a g e
Before 1920, women did not have a national right to vote in the United
States. Women’s suffrage, the movement to achieve the female vote, was won gradually at
state and local levels during the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Women’s suffrage took a back seat to the Civil War and Reconstruction, but
America’s entry into World War I re-initiated a vigorous push. When President Woodrow
Wilson announced that America needed to enter the European battlefield in order to protect
democracy, women were up in arms. The National Women’s Party became the first cause to
picket outside of the White House, with banners comparing President Wilson to his German
adversary, Kaiser Wilhelm. The Nineteenth Amendment was passed the year following
the Treaty of Paris, which ended World War I.
B. Women in Recent Politics

Since gaining the fundamental right to vote in 1920, women have worked in many
levels of government in the United States. In 1981, President Ronald Reagan named Sandra
Day O’Connor as the first female Supreme Court justice. She was later joined by Ruth Bader
Ginsburg and has been
succeeded by Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan. Currently, three of the nine sitting
justices are women. In 1996, President Bill Clinton appointed Madeline Albright to be the
first female Secretary of State, a post later given to Condoleezza Rice by President George
W. Bush in 2005. Hillary Clinton is the current Secretary of State.
Women in politics took center stage in the 2008 election. In the primary season, New
York Senator Hillary Clinton ran against future President Barack Obama for the Democratic
nomination. Although Clinton was the twenty-fifth woman to run for U.S. President, she was
the first female candidate to have a significant chance of winning the nomination of a major
party and the general election.
Despite the increasing presence of women in American politics, gender stereotypes
still exist. Data from the 2006 American National Election Studies Pilot Study confirmed that
both male and female voters, regardless of their political persuasions, expected men to
perform better as politicians than women. The only deviation in this data had to do with
competency in areas such as education that are typically perceived as women’s domains and
voters, therefore, trusted women politicians more.
Because gender is considered to be a master status or a primary trait around which individuals
identify, “women” are considered to be a political demographic. In other words, “women” are
47 | P a g e
supposed to have certain political priorities (usually those having to do with children and
education) that unite all women as a voting bloc or a group of individuals who tend to vote in the
same way.
For this reason, political strategists see the “female vote” as one to be won. As such, one will
see organizations uniting the female demographic and political priorities, such as “Women for
Obama” or “Women for Romney. ”
Gender Politics in the Philippines

The gender situation in the Philippines is characterized by sharp contradictions. It
graphically showcases samples of women’s advancement in politics, academic and professional
excellence, and even legislation. But this is contrasted by images of prostituted women, battered
wives, economically disadvantaged women and exploited migrant workers.
The socio-cultural traditions are clashing with the MTV and cyberspace generation. The
long history of colonialism has embedded a patriarchal culture among Filipinos. The conception
of women as full-time homemakers, as subordinated to men, violence against them is private, as
reserve labor force, and as sexual objects is now being eroded by modern women asserting
themselves in many aspects of life. But on the other hand, some are either marginalized,
discriminated, or even exploited by the harsh realities of global economy and consumerism.
This puts the gender equality issues at the forefront of national discourse and precludes
further downslide of women status in the modern Philippine society. Indeed, there are many
handles for the changes to happen. These legal and policy gains resulted from the strong voice of
women that started even during the anti-dictatorship struggle that culminated with the ascension
of Corazon Aquino as the first woman president of the country.
The 1987 Constitution states two prominent provisions. The first in the Declaration of
Principles Article II Section 14 which asserted that "The State recognizes the role of women in
nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men."
Additionally, the Article XIII-Labor: Section 14 provided that "The state shall protect working
women by providing safe and healthful working conditions taking into account their maternal
functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them
to realize their full potential in the service of the nation".
48 | P a g e
Following from constitutional provisions and the subsequent efforts to broaden the its
principles, numerous legislation were enacted that relates to the various aspects of women and
gender concerns, the list include:
 Gender and Development Law (5% of government agencies' budget is for gender
concerns)
 Party-List Law (women as a particular sector for representation in the legislature
through party-list elections)
 Women in Nation-Building Law (allocation of budget for women from development
funds from foreign governments and multilateral institutions)
 Anti Mail-Order-Bride Law (making the practice unlawful)
 Repatriation Law (repatriation of Filipinas who lost citizenship by marriage in case of
need)
 Non-Discrimination Law in Labor Code (women protection in hiring and pay)
 Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (equal rights for women to be recipients of land)
 Military Training equality (women can enter the military and police schools and
providing facilities for them)
While the legal framework is there, the actual situation mirrors the deep gender divide. In the
aspect of women in politics, the notable success of several women is overshadowed by the actual
ground level statistics. The lady Vice-President is up to now a shoo-in in the next presidential
elections in 2004.
But the big picture shows that of all the elective positions occupied through the 1998 elections,
only 15% are women.
In the two-chamber Congress, the Senate (Upper House) has 17.4% women
membership (4 out of 23 seats) which the House of Representatives (Lower House) has 12.4%
(27 out of 217 seats). The first party-list elections in 1998--wherein sectoral groups like women
competed to get a maximum of 3 seats per party in the House of Representatives--resulted in the
winning of one (1) seat for a single women's party. Five (5) other women's party did not make the
minimum votes required.
At the local government level, women Provincial Governors constitute 17% while Vice-
Governors are at 11.5% level. Among the City and Town Mayors, 14.5% of them are women
while the ranks of the Vice-Mayors are at low of 10.8%.
In response to problems that continue to face the Filipina, numerous civil society groups
were organized and pioneering projects were initiated. The vocal women’s movement was
49 | P a g e
instrumental in the enactment of the laws that seek to protect women and broaden their role in
the society. Sub-sectoral groupings of women guaranteed the articulation of specific interests and
agendas while issue-based networks and coalitions advocated and lobbied to policy-makers and
legislators. The campaign for the sexual harassment and the anti-rape laws saw the synergy of the
different organizational forms within the women’s movement. Their current engagement deals
with the law that deals with domestic violence, abortion and divorce.
The gender situation in the Philippines can be described in sum as:

1. The legal framework has provided basic frameworks and processes for women
empowerment and gender fairness but the dynamics of political and social
institutions reinforced by the cultural standpoints continue to provide a push-pull
effect on gender equality.
2. Women have made significant advances in politics. Though there may be several
factors that tends to lessen its importance --like belonging to a political dynasty, the
role of women in national and local decision-making can no longer be ignored and
their competence, in some cases, suits up or even exceeds that of male politicians.
3. The women's voice in the society is very strong due the vibrant women's
movement. Recognized for their work in the international and national levels, the
movement has been instrumental in pushing for many changes in the various facets of
the Philippine society. Additionally, the various organizations have worked on --with
pioneering educational approaches and service-specific projects-- the "culture shift"
of both men and women.
4. The statistics on women remain indicative of the deep-rooted and widespread
problems they encounter in their daily lives. The labor market has stereotyped
women, disadvantaged them in jobs and incomes, and even forced them into
prostitutions and slave-like work. The social image of a Filipina is still that of a weak
person, poster girl of domestic help, expert in double burden, and a sexual object.
While the mainframe of gender politics is changing, the struggle of women to escape
from the traditional mold everyday life continues. (Anonuevo, 2000)
GENDER EQUALITY FOR SOUND GOVERNMENT
50 | P a g e
Empowering and encouraging women to participate more fully in the public sphere is
essential. Gender diversity in public institutions is particularly crucial, given that these decision
making bodies create the rules that affect people’s rights, behaviours and life choices.
An increase of women in public life results in lower levels of inequality and increased
confidence in national governments. Figures show that the increased presence of women cabinet
ministers is associated with a rise in public health spending across many countries.
Ensuring that governments reflect the diversity of the societies they represent guarantees
a balanced perspective which enables an inclusive approach to policy making and service
delivery. There are major structural, legal and social barriers to women’s empowerment in public
life. Lack of visibility and uneven work-life balance arrangements make it especially hard for
women to be active in economic and political life. Women also face a lack of political
encouragement to run for public office.
A whole-of-government approach is crucial to advancing the role of women in
government. Holistic policy making will not only help bring more women into public light, but
will ensure that gender considerations are more systematically embedded in all policies.
To empower women and fully leverage their skills in the global economy, we need to
o improve our public institutions to ensure they have robust accountability
mechanisms;
o create clearly defined roles for implementing a gender equality agenda;
and
o break down our data by gender in order to measure progress on gender
equality.
51 | P a g e
Gender and Politics
End of Lesson Activity
Instructions:
a. Make a short critique of the gender politics situation in the Philippines by answering the
following questions:
b. The critique calls for your own evaluation of gender politics in the Philippines. Your
critique will be evaluated based on your ability to justify your arguments using the
principles described in the reading material and the clarity and organization of ideas.
1. Is there such a thing as a “female vote” when it comes to elections in the Philippines? Why
or why not? (20 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. When it comes to women in politics, is it a matter of laws or a matter of culture? Explain.
(20 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
52 | P a g e
________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers
Lesson 2: Gender and Labor
Objectives:
1. Evaluate the labor conditions that encourage and challenge gender empowerment in
the Philippines.
2. Compare the employment opportunities, benefits, and privileges that are determined
by gender.
3. Make an informative tool that presents the current labor conditions encountered by
women in the Philippines.
Introduction
When men leave their villages for better-paid jobs in cities or abroad, women get
saddled with the farm work as well as their domestic chores. When bloated state
enterprises “rationalise” their workforces, women get laid off before male “heads of
household.” When sweatshops seek underpaid casual labour, women are the first to be
recruited.
When newly rich men dabble in vice, village girls get dragooned into prostitution
and middle-aged matrons wind up divorced. Yet when fast-changing lifestyles provoke a
traditionalist backlash, patriarchy reasserts itself with a vengeance. When inflation bids
up dowries and social pressures depress birth rates, girl babies get aborted or murdered
in their cribs to make way for male heirs. When the resulting skew in the sex ratio makes
for a shortage of marriageable women, a black market arises for kidnapped brides.
53 | P a g e
This excerpt from the magazine Far Eastern Economic Review graphically captures the
multifaceted discrimination and exploitation faced by women. Processes of political and
economic transformation that have changed the face of the world over the past decades have had
a profound impact on the lives of women. Many of these changes have been positive. Some,
however, have
strengthened the bonds of subordination and discrimination against women, restricting

them from enjoyment of their economic and social rights. Internal conflicts and wars have led to
displacement and destruction of property and livelihoods, which place women in an ever more
vulnerable position. Military conflict also results in an increase in violence and crime, and
women and girls become particular targets. Extremism and religious fundamentalism deny
women’s autonomy and subject them to the most cruel and inhuman of punishments for
“transgression” of norms laid out by those in power within the hierarchies that rule these
movements.
The rapid globalization of the world’s economies has brought in its wake not only
structural adjustment programs that weaken national economies and nation-states, but also
promotion of forms of industrialization and agriculture that are more exploitative of both human
and natural resources. Statistics show that the female labor force is the most affected. In addition,
as the poor of the world become poorer, women become the poorest of them all; the
“feminization” of poverty is a reality in the contemporary world. A decrease in social spending—
for example, on public health, education, transport, food and fertilizer subsidies—has been a
critical part of the “structural adjustment programs” imposed on many countries by the
international financial institutions. This decrease has had a disastrous impact on the quality of life
of populations in general, and on disadvantaged communities, such as women, in particular.
The labor force statistics show also a mixed picture (based on available data). Since there
was a notable feminization of the workforce in the past years, July 2000 figures showed that there
are 1.942 million unemployed women while there are 2.631 million unemployed men. However,
more women are taken in for labor flexibility arrangements especially in the big services sector
like in retail trade. This leaves them exposed to employment insecurity and unfair compensation
schemes.
54 | P a g e
Women still accounts for 53% of the unpaid family workers while they constitute only
37.7% of the wage and salary earners. Though this shows that the regular income possibilities for
women are still limited, the average household annual income of female-headed families is
higher. The situation also pushes them to seek employment overseas. Increasing numbers of
domestic helpers and entertainers are also being deployed both legally and illegally.
Within organizations, the gender balance is under overhaul. Trade union leadership is still
male-dominated but women committees and affirmative actions have changed the complexion of
decision-making. The public sector unions have made great inroads as four (4) of the major
federations are under the strong leadership of women.
Gender Discrimination in the Workplace
Workplace gender discrimination comes in many different forms, but generally it means
that an employee or a job applicant is treated differently or less favorably because of their sex or
gender, or because the person is affiliated with an organization or group that is associated with a
particular sex or gender. Even though the words “sex” and “gender” have different meanings,
laws against discrimination at work often use them interchangeably.
Sometimes workers experience discrimination because of their gender and something

else, like their race or ethnicity. For example, a woman of color may experience discrimination in
the workplace differently from a white female co-worker. She may be harassed, paid less,
evaluated more harshly, or passed over for promotion because of the combination of her
sex and her race.
The Gender Pay Gap
The gender wage gap is a measure of what women are paid relative to men. It is commonly
calculated by dividing women’s wages by men’s wages, and this ratio is often expressed as a
percent, or in dollar terms. This tells us how much a woman is paid for each dollar paid to a man.
The difference in earnings between men and women is also sometimes described in terms of how
much
less women make than men. To calculate this gap from the ratio as defined above, simply
subtract the ratio from 1. So, if the gender pay ratio is about 80 percent (or 80 cents on the dollar),
this means that women are paid 20 percent less (or 20 cents less per dollar) than men. A larger
55 | P a g e
difference between men’s and women’s earnings translates into a lower ratio but a larger gap in
their earnings.[ CITATION Gou16 \l 1033 ]
Some examples of treatment that can be classified as gender discrimination include:
a. not being hired, or being given a lower-paying position because of your sex (for example,
when an employer refuses to hire women, or only hires women for certain jobs);
b. being held to different or higher standards, or being evaluated more harshly, because of
your sex, or because you don’t act or present yourself in a way that conforms to
traditional ideas of femininity or masculinity;
Note: For example, if a worker who identifies as a woman receives a

negative performance evaluation that criticizes her for being too “aggressive”
(while men who behave the same way are praised for showing “leadership”), or if
she wears her hair short and is told she needs to be more “presentable,” she may
be experiencing discrimination based on sex stereotypes, which is a form of
gender discrimination.
c. being paid less than a person of a different sex who is similarly or less qualified than you,
or who has similar (or fewer) job duties than you;
d. being denied a promotion, pay raise, or training opportunity that is given to people of
another sex who are equally or less qualified or eligible as you;
e. being written up or disciplined for something that other employees of a different sex do
all the time but never get punished for;
f. being insulted, called derogatory names or slurs because of your sex, or hearing hostile
remarks about people of a certain sex, gender, or gender identity;
g. being intentionally or repeatedly called by a name or referred to as a different gender that

you don’t identify with – as when a transgender man is called by his former (female-
associated) name or referred to as “Miss”;
h. being subject to unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or other verbal
or physical harassment of a sexual nature;
i. being rejected for a job, forced out on leave, or given fewer assignments because you’re
pregnant.
56 | P a g e
Note:
Not all gender discrimination is intentional or explicit. It could still count as

discrimination if your employer does something that ends up excluding or harming
workers of a particular sex without intending to. Oftentimes, a certain practice or policy
— say, a hiring test or requirement — does not say anything about gender, and may not
have been put in place for the purpose of keeping women out of certain jobs, but ends up
having that effect. This kind of practice or policy could still be considered
“discriminatory,” and if you’ve been denied a job-related opportunity, paid less, or lost
your job (were fired) as a result of it, you might have a discrimination claim.
For workplace gender discrimination to be considered illegal, it has to involve treatment that
negatively affects the “terms or conditions” of your employment. Terms or conditions of
employment are all the responsibilities, rules, and benefits of a job. Most of the time, they are set
by an employer or negotiated by a worker and the employer at the time of hire. In unionized
workplaces, they are negotiated and agreed on as part of the “collective bargaining” process.
“Terms and conditions” include but are not limited to things like your job responsibilities, work
hours, dress code, vacation and sick days, starting salary, and performance evaluation standards.
[ CITATION Gen19 \l 1033 ]
Right to Work and Rights at Work
From a gender perspective, the meaning of work would be changed to include unpaid
work at home, on the family farm, and elsewhere, work that is currently not valued by society. A
redefinition of work would recognize women’s productive labor and enable women to profitably
engage in home-based work.
Women are currently relegated to low-paid and low-skilled jobs; this needs to be
rectified. A fresh perspective would help ensure that women have flexible working hours and that
they are reintegrated into the labor force after time off for marriage and childbirth without
penalization for absence.
Rights at work would include protection from sexual harassment in the work place, trade
unions and labor organizations. They would also include provision of nursing breaks for breast-
feeding mothers, and establishment of day-care centers; separate toilet facilities and free access to
57 | P a g e
them; provision of dayrooms for rest and recognition of menstruation-related health problems as
the basis of rest breaks; and ensuring participation of women in trade unions by holding meetings
at times that are convenient to women.[ CITATION Uni \l 1033 ]
An Alternative Perspective
Much of what we hear about the plight of American women is false. Some faux
facts have been repeated so often they are almost beyond the reach of critical analysis.
Though they are baseless, these canards have become the foundation of Congressional
debates, the inspiration for new legislation and the focus of college programs. Here are
five of the most popular myths that should be rejected by all who are genuinely
committed to improving the circumstances of women:
MYTH: Women are half the world’s population, working two-thirds of the world’s
working hours, receiving 10% of the world’s income, owning less than 1% of the world’s
property.
FACTS: This injustice confection is routinely quoted by advocacy groups, the World

Bank, Oxfam and the United Nations. It is sheer fabrication. More than 15 years ago,
Sussex University experts on gender and development Sally Baden and Anne Marie
Goetz, repudiated the claim: “The figure was made up by someone working at the UN
because it seemed to her to represent the scale of gender-based inequality at the time.”
But there is no evidence that it was ever accurate, and it certainly is not today.
Precise figures do not exist, but no serious economist believes women earn only
10% of the world’s income or own only 1% of property. As one critic noted in an
excellent debunking in The Atlantic, “U.S. women alone earn 5.4 percent of world
income today.” Moreover, in African countries, where women have made far less
progress than their Western and Asian counterparts, Yale economist Cheryl
Doss found female land ownership ranged from 11% in Senegal to 54% in Rwanda and
Burundi. Doss warns that “using unsubstantiated statistics for advocacy is
counterproductive.” Bad data not only undermine credibility, they obstruct progress by
making it impossible to measure change.[CITATION Som \l 1033 ]
58 | P a g e
Gender and Labor
Instructions:
a. Construct an infographic based on available data online that presents the current labor
condition experienced by women in the Philippines.
b. The infographic must compare the perceived employment challenges and opportunities
based on gender.
c. A simple advocacy statement must likewise be incorporated as an addition to the
infographic presented.
Rubrics (adapted from Infographics Rubrics by Kathy Schrock 2012):

Components Exceeds Expectations Meets Expectations Needs More Work
(10 points) (8-9 points) (6-7 points)
Topic The topic of the The topic of the The topic of the
infographic is specific in infographic may be a bit infographic is hard to
nature and is intended to too broad to allow the ascertain and needs to
inform or convince the viewer to understand the be made more specific.
viewer. main points.
Type The type of infographic The type of infographic The type of infographic
chosen (i.e. timeline, chosen represents the chosen does not convey
informational, etc) highly content being chosen but the information well or
supports the content being another type may lead to support the content
presented. more clarity for the being presented.
viewer.
Objects The objects included in the Some objects included in Too many different
infographic are repeated to the infographic are types of objects are
support various data points repeated but the used in the infographic
and to make it easier for infographic did not seem and that makes it hard
the viewer to understand to include enough for the viewer to
the infographic. repeated elements to understand the content.
make it understandable.
Data and content The visualization formats The visualization formats Other visualization
visualizations chosen make the data chosen showcase the data, formats should be
presented easy for the but some may make it chosen to best
viewer to understand the difficult for the viewer to showcase the data
information. understand the points. presentation for the
59 | P a g e
viewer.
TOTAL:
40 points
Lesson 3: Gender and Media
Objectives:
1. Define gender stereotype as a concept and as a phenomenon.

2. Describe the existing gender stereotypes that characterize Philippine media.
3. Identify the discursive limits of gender stereotypes between men and women.
Introduction:
Of the many influences on how we view men and women, media are the most pervasive
and one of the most powerful. Woven throughout our daily lives, media insinuate their messages
into our consciousness at every turn. All forms of media communicate images of the sexes, many
of which perpetuate unrealistic, stereotypical, and limiting perceptions. Three themes describe
how media represent gender. First, women are underrepresented which falsely implies that men
are the cultural standard and women are unimportant or invisible. Second, men and women are
portrayed in stereotypical ways that reflect and sustain socially endorsed views of gender. Third,
depictions of relationships between men and women emphasize traditional roles and normalize
violence against women. [ CITATION Woo94 \l 1033 ]
Stereotypical Portrayals of Women and Men
In general, media continue to present both women and men in stereotyped ways that limit our
perceptions of human possibilities. Typically men are portrayed as active, adventurous, powerful,
sexually aggressive and largely uninvolved in human relationships. Just as' consistent with
cultural views of gender are depictions of women as sex objects who are usually young, thin
beautiful, passive, dependent, and often incompetent and dumb. Female characters devote their
primary energies to improving their appearances and taking care of homes and people. Because
media pervade our lives, the ways
they misrepresent genders may distort how we see ourselves and what we perceive as normal and
desirable for men and women.
Stereotypical portrayals of men. Stereotypical portrayals of women.
60 | P a g e
 According to J. A. Doyle (1989, p. 111),  Women are portrayed as significantly
whose research focuses on masculinity younger and thinner than women in
children's television typically shows the population as a whole, and most
males as "aggressive, dominant, and are depicted as passive, dependent on
engaged in exciting activities from which men, and enmeshed in relationships or
they receive rewards from others for their housework. The requirements of
`masculine' accomplishments." youth and beauty in women even
 Relatedly, recent studies reveal that the influence news shows, where female
majority of men on prime-time television newscasters are expected to be
are independent, aggressive, and in younger, more physically attractive,
charge. Television programming for all and less outspoken than males.
ages disproportionately depicts men as
serious confident, competent, powerful,  Media reiterate the cultural image of
and in high-status 'positions. women as dependent, ornamental
 Gentleness in men, which was briefly objects whose primary functions are
evident in the 1970s, has receded as to look good, please men, and stay
established male characters are redrawn quietly on the periphery of life.
to be more tough and distanced from
others . Note: Media have created two images of
 Men are presented as hard, tough, women: good women and bad ones. These
independent, sexually aggressive, polar opposites are often juxtaposed against
unafraid, violent, totally in control of all each other to dramatize differences in the
emotions, and-above all-in no way consequences that befall good and bad
feminine women.
Note: Equally interesting is how males are not  Good women are pretty, deferential,
presented. J. D. Brown and K. Campbell and focused on home, family and
(1986) report that men are seldom shown caring for others. Subordinate to men,
doing housework. they are usually cast as victims,
angels, martyrs, and loyal wives and
 Rarely presented caring for others. helpmates.
 Typically represented as uninterested  Occasionally, women who depart
in and incompetent at homemaking, from traditional roles are portrayed
cooking, and child care. positively, but this is done either by
making their career lives invisible, or
by softening and feminizing working
women to make them more consistent
with traditional views of femininity.
Stereotypical Images of Relationships Between Men and Women
61 | P a g e
Given media's stereotypical portrayals of women and men, we shouldn't be surprised to find
that relationships between women and men are similarly depicted in ways that reinforce
stereotypes. Four themes demonstrate how media reflect and promote traditional arrangements
between the sexes.
1. Women's dependence/men's independence. Walt Disney's award-winning animated film The

Little Mermaid vividly embodies females' dependence on males for identity. In this feature
film, the mermaid quite literally gives up her identity as a mermaid in order to become
acceptable to her human lover. In this children's story, we see a particularly obvious
illustration of the asymmetrical relationship between women and men that is more subtly
conveyed in other media productions. Even the Smurfs, formless little beings who have no
obvious sex, reflect the male-female, dominant-submissive roles. The female smurf, unlike
her male companion,' who have names, is called only Smurfette, making her sole identity a
diminutive relation to male smurfs. The male dominance/female subservience pattern that
permeates mediated representations of relationships is no accident. Beginning in 1991,
television executives deliberately and consciously adopted a policy of having dominant male
characters in all Saturday morning children's programming (Carter, 1991).
2. Men's authority/women's incompetence. A second recurrent theme in media representations
of relationships is that men are the competent authorities who save women from their
incompetence. Children's literature vividly implements this motif by casting females as
helpless and males as coming to their rescue. Sleeping Beauty's resurrection depends on
Prince Charming's kiss, a theme that appears in the increasingly popular gothic romance
novels for adults.
One of the most pervasive ways in which media define males as authorities is in
commercials. Women are routinely shown anguishing over dirty floors and bathroom fixtures
only to be relieved of their distress when Mr. Clean shows up to tell them how to keep their
homes spotless. Even when commercials are aimed at selling products intended for them, up
to 90% of the time a man's voice is used to explain the value of what is being sold. Using
male voice-overs reinforces the cultural view that men are authorities and women depend on
men to tell them what to do.
Television further communicates the message that men are authorities and women are
not. One means of doing this is sheer numbers. As we have seen, men vastly outnumber
62 | P a g e
women in television programming. In addition, the dominance of men as news anchors who
inform us of happenings in the world underlines their authority. Prime-time television
contributes to this image by showing women who need to be rescued by men and by
presenting women as incompetent more than twice as often as men.
3. Women as primary caregivers/men as breadwinners. A third perennial theme in media is

that women are caregivers and men are providers. Once again, as in the 1950s, we see women
devoting themselves to getting rings off of collars, gray out of their hair, and meats on the
table. Corresponding to this is the restatement of men's inability in domestic and nurturing
roles. When media portray women who work outside of the home, their career lives typically
receive little or no attention. Although these characters have titles
such as lawyer or doctor, they are shown predominantly in their roles as homemakers,
mothers, and wives. We see them involved in caring conversations with family and friends
and doing things for others, all of which never seem to conflict with their professional
responsibilities. This has the potential to cultivate unrealistic expectations of being
"superwoman," who does it all without her getting a hair out of place or being late to a
conference.
4. Women as victims and sex objects/men as aggressors. A final theme in mediated

representations of relation-ships between women and men is representation of women as
subject to men's sexual desires. The irony of this representation is that the very qualities
women are encouraged to develop (beauty, sexiness, passivity, and powerlessness) in order to
meet cultural ideals of femininity contribute to their victimization. Also, the qualities that
men are urged to exemplify (aggressiveness, dominance, sexuality, and strength) are identical
to those linked to abuse of women. Women are portrayed alternatively either as decorative
objects, who must attract a man to be valuable, or as victims of men's sexual impulses. Either
way, women are defined by their bodies and how men treat them. Their independent
identities and endeavors are irrelevant to how they are represented in media, and their
abilities to resist exploitation by others are obscured. Advertising in magazines also
communicates the message that women are sexual objects. While men are seldom pictured
nude or even partially unclothed, women habitually are. Advertisements for makeup,
colognes, and hair products often show women attracting men because they got the right
products and made themselves irresistible.
63 | P a g e
Gender and Media
Instructions:
a. Look for two advertisements (i.e. online, newpaper, magazine, etc) that reinforces any of
the four themes identified as stereotypical images of gender.
b. In each of these advertisements, describe how gender stereotyping is reinforced and
suggest a way on how to better present a more equitable view of gender in that particular
advertisement.
Rubrics (adapted from Critical Thinking Value Rubric by Coleen Flaherty of Inside Higher
Education Group):
Component Exceeds Expectations Meets Expectations Needs More Work
(10 points) (8-9 points) (6-7 points)
Context and Thoroughly analyzes Questions some Shows an emerging
Assumptions own and others’ assumptions. Identifies awareness of
assumptions and some relevant contexts assumptions. Begins to
carefully evaluates the when presenting a identify some contexts
relevance of contexts position. May be more when presenting a
when presenting a aware of others’ position.
position. assumptions than one’s
own (vice versa).
Position thesis and Specific position is Specific position Specific position is
hypothesis imaginative, taking into acknowledges the stated but is simplistic
account the different sides of an and obvious.
complexities of an issue. issue.
Limits of position are
acknowledged. Others’
point of view are
synthesized within
position.
Conclusions and Conclusions and related Conclusion is logically Conclusion is
related outcomes outcomes are logical tied to information. consistently tied to
and reflect student’s Some related outcomes some information
informed evaluation and are identified clearly. discussed. Related
ability to place evidence outcomes are
and perspectives oversimplified.
discussed in priority
order.
Total: 30 Points
Lesson 4: Gender and Disability 64 | P a g e

Objectives:
1. Examine the intersections of gender and disability as a general determinant of
discrimination.
2. Compare the manifestations of gender and disability as an interwoven phenomenon
in the public and private spheres.
3. Evaluate the conceptual applications of gender and disability in specific contexts.
The Gendered Experience of Disability
Disabled people have often been represented as without gender, as asexual creatures, as
freaks of nature, monstrous, the ‘Other’ to the social norm. In this way it may be assumed that for
disabled people gender has little bearing. Yet the image of disability may be intensified by gender
- for women a sense of intensified passivity and helplessness, for men a corrupted masculinity
generated by enforced dependence. Moreover these images have real consequences in terms of
education, employment, living arrangements, and personal relationships, victimization and abuse
that then in turn reinforce the images in the public sphere. The gendered experience of disability
reveals sustained patterns of difference between men and women. For people with disabilities
gendering is conditional (Gerschick 2000). Age of onset combined with the type of impairment
leads to gender expectations.
Gendered studies of disability in western industrial nations reveal the following patterns
of public and private dimensions.
In the public arena :
More women than men are classified as disabled, particularly as ageing populations mean
that larger proportions of the elderly are women with
65 | P a g e
 impairments; while disabled people are much more likely to live in poverty, women are
likely to be poorer than men; especially in developing countries where women are often
heads of households.
 Younger disabled women achieve lower educational outcomes than men;
 Disabled women are less likely to be in the paid workforce than either men with
disabilities for non-disabled women, and in general have lower incomes from
employment;
 Women are less likely to have access to rehabilitation, and to employment outcomes
when they do receive rehabilitation;
 The age distribution for women is different to men(older versus younger);
 The type of impairments are different for women and men, with women more likely to
experience degenerative conditions, while men are more likely to experience injury-
related events;
 Women are more likely to experience public spaces as intimidating and dangerous.
[ CITATION Mek04 \l 1033 ]
In the private and familial arena:
 Disabled women are more likely to be living on their own, or in their parental family than
men;
 Disabled women are more likely to be divorced and less likely to marry than men with
disabilities
 Women are more likely to face medical interventions to control their fertility;
 Women are more likely to experience sexual violence in relationships and in institutions.
 Women experience more extreme social categorization than men, being more likely to be
seen either as hypersexual and uncontrollable, or de-sexualised and inert.
66 | P a g e
Moreover in the developing world, gender patterns in relation to disability indicate that:
 Poverty hits harder on women and girls due to patriarchal property ownership structures
 Aid is less likely to reach women and girls who are less able to compete in situations of
scarcity
 Disabled women are more vulnerable to domestic violence
 Disabled girls are likely to find their access to education even more limited than girls in
general
 Women disabled by war have few resources to survive
 Disabled women who are sexually abused are likely to have few if any social supports or
options
 Disabled women are less likely to be accepted as refugees by industrially-advanced

countries (eg Australia prohibits the immigration of people with disabilities). (Abu-Habib
1997; Meekosha and Dowse 1997; Snyder 1999; Charowa 2002)
Gender has been widely used within the humanities and social sciences as both a means to
categorise differences, and as an analytical concept to explain differences. In both the humanities
and social sciences , feminist disability studies has emerged partly as a result of attempts to
explain gendered experience of disability and partly as a challenge to contemporary feminist
theory on gender which fails to take account of disability such as the work of Judith Butler
(Butler 1990; Butler 1993).
The Social Lens of Gender and Disability
Sociological accounts of gender and disability stress the systemic nature of the social
order, and its reinforcement of powerful social institutions and their capacity to enact and impose
definitions and allocate resources. For disability the most central institutions remain those
67 | P a g e
associated with the medical profession, rehabilitation and social support. Many other institutions
also reproduce patterns of gendered discrimination - such as education, employment and
transport. One of the most potent patterns of discrimination is in the access to and use of public
space.
Both gender and disability have both traditionally been seen as a product of biology.
Gender as a result of biology has been thought to determine all manner of social behaviours on
the part of men and women. In a similar way disability as biology has been seen as determining
disabled people’s choices and behaviours. In the 1970s feminists attempted to differentiate gender
from sex (the social from the biological) to counter the argument of women being naturally
inferior and weak. So too disability theorists attempted to separate disability from impairment
(the social from the biological).
But it is no longer adequate to separate the social from the biological in this dichotomous
way. The social relations of gender and the social relations of disability are now viewed as much
more complex and nuanced. The social model of disability has demonstrated that wider power
relations (e.g. class relations in capitalist societies) significantly affect the pattern of disability
disadvantage - making disability survival into a lottery critically affected by the individual’s
income and other material resources. Because the model drew on political economy it emphasised
political and economic processes that generate disabling environments. These patterns together
with conventional norms of femininity have hindered the quest for independence for women with
disabilities. Women thus confront major obstacles not only in relation to overcoming disabling
environments, but also in achieving equal outcomes as men similarly disabled. (Mekosha, 2004)
Gender and Disability

Instructions: Write TRUE if the statement is conceptually correct and FALSE if it is otherwise.
1. Disability and impairment are the same concepts when it is applied to gender.
2. Men and women with disabilities experience the same challenges and
opportunities.
3. Disabilities are directly linked to a person’s employment opportunities.
4. People without gender are considered as asexual beings.
5. The image of disability may be intensified by gender.
6. One of the most potent patterns of disability discrimination is in the access to
and use of public space.
7. Poverty reduces the discriminatory impact on a person’s gender and disability.
68 | P a g e
8. Women are more likely to experience injury-related events than men.
9. The gendered experience of disability reveals sustained patterns of difference
between men and women
10. Wider power relations significantly affect the pattern of disability disadvantage
Lesson 5: Gender and Sports
Objectives:
1. Identify the points of conflict between gender equality as a principle and sports as a
practice.
2. Compare the implications of gender equality between male and female dominated
sports events.
3. Construct a simple critique of the intersections of gender equality and sports.
Introduction:
Since the 1970s, gender has become an important category of analysis in the sociology of
sport. Research has clearly demonstrated that sports are gendered activities as well as social
contexts in which boys and men are more actively and enthusiastically encouraged to participate,
compared with girls and women. Evidence also shows that more males than females participate in
organized competitive sports, and that male dominance characterizes the administration and
coaching of sports. Sports, it is theorized, operate as a site for the inculcation, perpetuation, and
celebration of a type of (heterosexual) masculine identity based on physical dominance,
aggression, and competitiveness. Associated with such masculine imagery, sports serve to
legitimize a perceived natural superiority of men and reinforce the inferiority of females who are
defined with reference to relative weakness, passivity, and grace – the characteristics of
femininity. Therefore, sports are often described as a ‘‘male preserve.’’
69 | P a g e
There is now over 35 years of scholarship that theorizes gender and sport. One of the
most sustained attempts at conceptualizing and theorizing about gender in the sociology of sport
is found in feminist scholarship. The first attempts to analyze women’s place in sport were made
in the 1960s by physical educators. The result was a corpus of largely atheoretical work on
‘‘women in
sport’’ founded upon a liberal feminist consciousness about sport as a ‘‘male preserve’’
characterized by gender inequities.
Three key themes have driven debates about gender and sport since the 1970s.
 First, leading scholars in the sociology of sport have highlighted that throughout history,
sporting practices inculcated behaviors and values defined as male, manly, and
masculine.
 Second, issues surrounding the body, physicality, and sexuality have been brought to the
fore in understanding gender relations in sport.
 Third, it is emphasized that both women and men reinforce and challenge dominant
gender ideology in sport in various ways.
Historical Development
Sociologists of sport have illustrated that the historical development of modern sports
laid the foundations for the gendered character of sporting practices. Over time, sports have been
constructed and reconstructed around the assumptions, values, and ideologies of males, maleness,
and masculinity.
The roots of contemporary sports lie in the Victorian period in Britain, when sports began
to be characterized by organized structures and standardized rules. In terms of gender, late
nineteenth century British developments in sports largely centered on the beliefs and values of
white middle class males. The prestige, status, and superiority afforded to men in society became
marked at this time. In institutions such as public schools, universities, churches, and private
clubs, sports came to represent a Victorian version of masculinity based on physical superiority,
competitiveness, mental acumen, and a sense of fair play. Established ideals of femininity such as
passivity, frailty, emotionality, gentleness, and dependence were in stark opposition to the
strenuous task of playing sports. The belief that male and female traits were innate, biological,
70 | P a g e
and somehow fixed prevailed. Women’s participation in sports was therefore a subject of debate
regarding what type and how much physical activity was appropriate
for them. The marginalization of women and the dominance of men in sports is a legacy
of Victorian images of female frailty that is also reflected in the making of modern sports in the
US.
In both Britain and the US, changes in social life during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries impacted on gender relations in sport. British and American society at this
time was characterized by social relations that were becoming less violent, there was a decreasing
reliance on physical strength in the workplace, and home and educational environments were
becoming ones in which young males spent increasing amounts of time with females. Eric
Dunning (1999) and Michael Messner (1990) refer to these social transformations as the
‘‘feminization’’ of society. One consequence of these processes was the reconstruction of
sporting opportunities and social enclaves (such as the Boy Scouts and the YMCA) for boys and
men to reclaim and reassert their masculinity. While opportunities for women in sports also
increased in the early part of the twentieth century, participation rates for females remained
considerably smaller compared to males. Some sports were acceptable for women so long as they
were not as strenuous or competitive as the male version. Women’s sports were still the subject of
intense debate reflecting and maintaining the Victorian myth of women’s physical ineptitude.
Claims and Controversies
It is increasingly emphasized in studies of sport and gender that dominant ideals of

masculinity and femininity exist at the same time as emergent and residual ones. Such work is
concerned with the relational character of gender. Michael Messner explains that in terms of
gender, sport is a ‘‘contested terrain.’’ This means that at any moment in history and in specific
sporting contexts, there are competing masculinities and femininities. There are many scholars
who now recognize that in sport, as well as in other social settings, some women are more
powerful and influential than other women and men, and some women are empowered at the
expense of other women and men.
Scholars in the sociology of sport have illustrated that many people are empowered by
being involved in sport in spite of traditional gender ideology. Examples show how sport is a site
where established values about gender have been resisted, negotiated, and sometimes
transformed. The assumption that homosexuality does not exist in sport is challenged in research
71 | P a g e
about the many gay men competing in sports at recreational and elite levels. There are events
such as the Gay Games that allow athletes to compete in a relatively unprejudiced environment
where they have less to fear about derogatory and violent responses to their publicized sexual
orientation. Several scholars question the assumption that sport is a site for the oppression of
women by exploring the ways in which women gain from their sporting achievements. Such
research shows that it is possible for women to experience feelings of independence, confidence,
and increased self-esteem from their involvement in a variety of sporting practices. Female
participation in physical activity can also contribute to broadening and alternative definitions of
physicality that are not simply based on traditional ideals about feminine appearance. In the case
of professional sports, some women are able to gain consider able financial wealth and worldwide
recognition from their sporting achievements.[ CITATION Gen20 \l 1033 ]
Female to Male (FTM) and Male to Female (MTF) Sports Issues:
Below is a copy of an article written by Greg Bloche, a professor of law at Georgetown

University and co-director of the Georgetown-Johns Hopkins joint degree program on law and
public health. This editorial was published by The Hill, a Washington-based newspaper in the
United States. The FTM or MTF sports issue has been a dominant issue in the sporting world for
the past years. The editorial of Prof. Bloche raises significant points for understanding further the
issue of FTM and MTF in sports.
72 | P a g e
Do transgender athletes have an unfair advantage?
Does “science” show that transgender girls who compete as females in a sport have an unfair
advantage? That’s the claim made earlier this month by a Tennessee state legislator who
called for a law inflicting career-ruining sanctions on school officials who let trans-student-
athletes compete in accord with their gender identities.
The proposal is neutral on its face: it would apply to both boys and girls. But the specter of
trans girls (girls born as boys) gaining an unfair edge on “real” girls animates it and other
proposals like it. People who are physiologically male at birth have myriad advantages on the
playing field; the story goes: differences in muscle mass, skeletal structures, and hormonal
biology persist after medical and surgical gender transition.
Trans rights advocates — and many in the medical community — push back by observing that
substantial musculoskeletal sex differences don’t emerge until puberty and thus aren’t
significant for children who transition from male to female via hormonal treatments
beforehand. They contend, moreover, that trans women who make the shift via hormonal
therapy after puberty lose any male muscle-mass advantage within a year.
Many questions about the impact of sex-at-birth and gender transition treatments upon athletic
performance remain without scientific answers. But even an encyclopedic set of answers
wouldn’t resolve the separate question of fairness.
Which biological advantages— or disadvantages — should be treated as “talent,” or a “gift,”

or lack thereof, and which should be seen as “cheating” or “unsportsmanlike?”
Myriad influences — environmental, genetic, and mixtures of both — produce differences in

athletic capability and performance. Without these differences, sports would be insufferably
dull. Every competition would yield a tie — or, worse, a winner decided by dumb luck.
So we allow some differences in capability to affect sports outcomes without calling out those
with an edge as cheaters. Indeed, we admire many of these advantages, whether we believe
they’re bestowed by God or good fortune: we praise competitors for their strength, speed,
endurance, agility, toughness, discipline, resolve, and more.
And here’s the key: the lines we draw between the competitive edges we accept, even admire,
and those we think unfair are the stuff of our culture, not our science. Wrestlers compete in
weight classes — we reject a contest between a 125 pounder and a 195 pounder as a mismatch
— but we’re OK with a 6’ 4” high-school basketball center’s unequal struggle under the rim
against an opposing team’s 7-footer.
Or consider the Houston Astros’ mix of high and low tech (high-res cameras to see opposing
catchers’ hand signals from afar, followed by banging on trash cans to tell Astros’ hitters what
pitches to expect) to gain a large advantage at the plate. Sign-stealing of this sort is the stuff of
baseball lore, going back more than a hundred years
It’s allowed — when baserunners pick up the catcher’s signals and tell the batter (by coded
gesture) what’s coming next. But baseball bans binoculars, cameras, and other technologies
that extend the eye’s reach.
To those not steeped in baseball’s mores, this distinction may seem silly: if stealing catchers’
73 | P a g e
signs is allowed, why should the method matter? The mores, though, are key: they set the
sport’s boundaries between cheating and legitimate deviousness.
And mores — and culture — evolve, both within and outside sports. Sometimes, scientific
findings influence this evolution: postmortem proof of the high incidence of brain damage in
former NFL players has inspired new rules against hits that put the brain at high risk. But
science can’t answer the question of how to balance football’s health risks against the
audience appeal of ferocity.
People make such judgments: the governing bodies of sports decide what’s fair or clean and
what’s not. And social norms guide these judgments since a sport can’t prosper without buy-in
from players, fans, and sponsoring institutions like schools and advertisers.
So cultural change off-the-field has no small impact on understandings of athletic fairness.

Movement toward gender equity is driving the dissolution of rules differences between men’s
and women’s competitions. And growing acceptance of gender identity as subjectively-
experienced, not anatomic, is driving change in understandings of which advantages are and
aren’t fair when women and men compete separately.
We should say no to attempts to push back against this acceptance by misusing “science” to
brand birth-anatomy difference as “cheating” or otherwise unfair. More broadly, we should
recognize that in sports, as in the rest of life, we all have competitive edges and weaknesses —
and that judgments about which are and aren’t fair are matters of culture and politics, not
biology.
Gender and Sports

Instructions:
a. Read the article “Do transgender athletes have an unfair advantage?” and make a
commentary on the issues raised in the said article.
b. In your commentary, be able to give your own position on the following:
1. Should biological males who consider themselves as females be allowed to
participate in female sporting events?
2. Should boxing and mixed martial arts be banned as these sports reinforce
aggressive and toxic masculinity as claimed by feminist theories?
c. Put your commentary on a short bond paper. Be ready to share your commentary during a
facilitated debate in class (or via Zoom or Group Chat discussion if possible).
74 | P a g e
Lesson 6: Gender and Social Dynamics
Objectives:
1. Identify the harmful cultural practices and its implications to gender inequality and
discrimination.
2. Describe the common themes of discrimination between bride price and son
preference.
3. Challenge the narratives of male-female binaries in relation to local cultural
contexts.
Introduction:
Differentiation based on gender (male-female) forms the core of gender ideology.

Biological differences are real (e.g., chromosomes, external and internal genitalia, hormonal
states and secondary sex characteristics) and lead to the determination of the male or female sex.
Through gender ideology, however, these differences are extended to the social milieu and are
taken for granted in establishing social position and hierarchy, providing access to resources and
participation in society, and creating stereotyped roles for men and women. On the basis of sex
differences, a superordinate-subordinate hierarchy is established, through which males have
access to land holdings, inheritance, skills, productive employment and the associated high status.
75 | P a g e
Women, on the other hand, receive poor nutrition and medical care, and inferior education; they
suffer violence and are even denied life (female infanticide).
Social institutions such as the family, religious groups or caste systems; political and
legal structures; economic and educational institutions; and the mass media—all are permeated
with norms and values that discriminate against women and legitimize and institutionalize social
placements on the basis of gender.
Son Preference
Son preference is a global phenomenon that has existed throughout history. Today, in
some societies, son preference is so strong and sex-selective practices so common that, at the
population level, the number of boys being born is much greater than the number of girls. This is
notably the case in a number of South and East Asian countries, primarily India, China,
Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong and South Korea, as well as in such former Soviet Bloc countries
in the Caucuses and Balkans as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Serbia.
Particularly in India and China, a deep-seated preference for having sons over daughters
is due to a variety of factors that continue to make males more socially and economically
valuable than females. Inheritance and land rights pass through male heirs, aging parents depend
on support from men in the absence of national security schemes and greater male participation in
the workforce allows them to contribute more to family income. Women, on the other hand,
require dowries and leave the natal family upon marriage, which make them an unproductive
investment. Moreover, only sons carry out certain functions under religious and cultural
traditions, such as death rituals for parents.
At the individual and family level, the primary consequence of son preference is the
intense—and intensely internalized—pressure placed on women to produce male children. In the
past, when having a large number of children was desirable and the norm, one option was to
simply allow a family to grow until a son—or the requisite number of sons—was born; even so,
female infanticide—the most drastic possible expression of son preference—was not uncommon.
Today, son preference is jutting up against widespread desires for smaller families and, at least in
China, strict population policies that limit family size to one or two children. And, of course, new
technologies such as ultrasound imaging to determine fetal sex, together with sex-selective
76 | P a g e
abortion, have facilitated the preference for and practice of choosing boys without having to
resort to infanticide.
At the macro level, the results of entrenched son preference are highly skewed national
sex ratios, which in turn can have decidedly negative social consequences—again, largely for
women and girls. Societies with heavily lopsided sex ratios may face a dearth of women for
marriage, which could increase the likelihood of coerced marriages or bride abduction, trafficking
of women and girls, and rape and other violence against women and girls. A large cohort of
young, single men may lead to more crime-ridden, violent communities and general societal
insecurity, especially in cultures where social standing is closely connected with marital status
and fatherhood.[ CITATION Bar12 \l 1033 ]
Bride Price
Bridewealth, also called bride-price or marriage payment, payment made by a groom

or his kin to the kin of the bride in order to ratify a marriage. In such cultures, a marriage is not
reckoned to have ended until the return of Bridewealth has been acknowledged,
signifying divorce.
The payment of bridewealth is most often a matter of social and symbolic as well as
economic reciprocity, being part of a long series of exchanges between the two intermarrying
families. It consolidates friendly relations between them, provides a material pledge that the
woman and her children will be well treated, symbolizes her worth to the community, and
provides a level of compensation to her natal family for the loss of her labour and company.
Bridewealth is often one part of a reciprocal exchange, in which case it is accompanied by the
provision of a dowry—a payment presented by the bride’s family to that of the groom.
Bridewealth may consist of money or goods, and it may be paid in one sum or in
installments over a period of time. The goods transferred may include a diverse array of items
such as livestock, bolts of cloth, drink, food, traditional weapons (such as spears), and vehicles.
When the exchange entails the provision of labour to the bride’s family, it is known as bride
service.
The practice is common in all parts of the globe in one form or another but, as an
instrument for the legitimation of a marriage, is most highly developed in Africa. In many
77 | P a g e
traditional African societies the husband could not assume full rights to the sexual, economic, or
procreative powers of his wife until a standard portion of the bridewealth had been transferred.
[ CITATION Enc14 \l 1033 ]
Female Genital Mutilation
Most communities have their own rituals, which are practiced to respond to or achieve
certain social needs and goals, such as protection or purification. Some of these rituals and rites
are linked to specific age phases. Female genital mutilation is a widespread ritual, which is also
known as a "rite of passage." It is usually practiced when young girls are entering womanhood. It
is a way of restructuring women's bodies, as a symbol, to adapt to the prevailing social norms,
values and traditions with regard to women's sexuality.
Such rituals usually interact with other elements of the specific culture, such as religion,
which confers sanctity and sacredness on the ritual, so that, in the long term, the boundary
between what is religious and what is ritual becomes vague. The ritual becomes transformed into
an essential component of the cultural identity of the communities practicing it.
Female circumcision/genital mutilation is not mentioned in the holy books of the Bible or
the Qur'an, and yet it is practiced among some of the followers of these books as if it were
ordained by them. For example, some religious leaders in Egypt support FC/FGM as condoned
by Islamic teachings, although the overwhelming majority of both Arab and Moslem countries do
not practice FC/FGM, and many Moslem scholars in Egypt condemn the practice as against
Islamic teachings. Studies in Egypt have highlighted the fact that FC/FGM is practiced by
Moslems and Christians alike. The primary reason given for the practice is: "It is our tradition."
Struggles to stop the practice have gone on through the past few decades, for the most
part with no tangible success. However, in the 1990s efforts have made increasing inroads in
many countries. One main change in the campaigns against FC/FGM was the shift in advocacy
from a health framework to a human rights framework, thanks to the involvement of feminist and
human rights activists. The health framework emphasized the hazardous health effects of
FC/FGM, which channeled most efforts into improving the practice to decrease pain, bleeding
and infection. Thus health workers were increasingly doing the cutting in private and public
health facilities using sterile instruments and anesthetics; these changes in many cases entrenched
78 | P a g e
the practice and led to its medicalization. The human rights framework, on the other hand,
presented the practice as a violation of many of women's human rights, regardless of who does it,
where it is practiced, and whether or not complications arise from it.
In prior decades many UN bodies refrained from open condemnation of the practice,
because of the "cultural specificity" argument, focusing on the health consequences of the
practice. However, following the Vienna Conference on Human Rights in 1993 and the
international declaration on violence against women, UN bodies such as WHO and UNICEF
came out with a firm position against FC/FGM as a violation of women's rights.
Gender and Social Dynamics

Instructions:
 Make a learning journal on the Gender and Social Dynamics lesson. In this journal,
identify three main points that you learned and can apply either as a student, a future
professional, or as a member of your community.
 Place your output on a short bond paper and be ready to share some of your learning
points in class.
79 | P a g e
Lesson 7: Gender-based Violence
Objectives:
1. Contextualize a contemporary definition of gender-based violence that is relevant to
local and global conditions.
2. Identify the types and sites of gender-based violence.
3. Distinguish traditional assumptions of gender-based violence from actual and legal
definitions of gender-based violence.
Introduction
Violence against women is a persistent and universal problem occurring in every culture
and social group. Around the world, at least one in every three women has been beaten, coerced
into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime – most often by someone she knows, including a
member of her own family, an employer or a co-worker. Violence against women has been called
“the most pervasive yet least recognized human rights abuse in the world.” Accordingly, the
80 | P a g e
Second World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993 and the Fourth World Conference
on Women in 1994 gave priority to this issue, which jeopardizes women’s lives, bodies,
psychological integrity and freedom. Violence against women is often known as ‘gender-based’
violence because it partly stems from women’s subordinate status in society.
Gender-based violence is violence against women based on women’s subordinate status
in society. It includes any act or threat by men or male dominated institutions that inflict physical,
sexual, or psychological harm on a woman or girl because of their gender. In most cultures,
traditional beliefs, norms and social institutions legitimize and therefore perpetuate violence
against women.
Gender-based violence includes physical, sexual and psychological violence such as
domestic violence; sexual abuse, including rape and sexual abuse of children by family members;
forced pregnancy; sexual slavery;
traditional practices harmful to women, such as honor killings, burning or acid throwing,
female genital mutilation, dowry-related violence; violence in armed conflict, such as murder and
rape; and emotional abuse, such as coercion and abusive language. Trafficking of women and
girls for prostitution, forced marriage, sexual harassment and intimidation at work are additional
examples of violence against women.
Gender violence occurs in both the ‘public’ and ‘private’ spheres. Such violence not only
occurs in the family and in the general community, but is sometimes also perpetuated by the state
through policies or the actions of agents of the state such as the police, military or immigration
authorities. Gender-based violence happens in all societies, across all social classes, with women
particularly at risk from men they know. The following types and sites of gender-based violence
present an insight into the nature of gender-based violence (Source:
http://www.winrock.org/GENERAL/Publications/Dos_manual.pdf.).
Types of Gender-Based Violence
 Overt physical abuse (includes battering, sexual assault, at home or in the workplace)
 Psychological abuse (includes deprivation of liberty, forced marriage, sexual harassment,
at home or in the workplace)
 Deprivation of resources needed for physical and psychological well-being (including
health care, nutrition, education, means of livelihood)
81 | P a g e
 Treatment of women as commodities (includes trafficking in women and girls for sexual
exploitation)
The life cycle of gender-based violence[ CITATION Swe15 \l 1033 ]
Female Male
Prenatal sex physical/sexual/psychological
Prenatal: child abuse during pregnancy, Prenatal sex selection.
coerced/forced pregnancy.
Physical/sexual/psychological child abuse,
Female infanticide, sexual, child abuse, living
socialisation into violent behaviour, living
Infancy: with domestic violence, neglect including
with domestic violence neglect including
access to food and medical care.
access to food and medical care.
Sexual, physical and emotional abuse,
Sexual, physical and emotional abuse,
prostitution, living with domestic violence,
prostitution, living with domestic violence,
child/forced marriage, FGM, femicide, up-
male circumcision, forced recruitment of
Childhood: bringing that does not allow deviation from
child soldiers, upbringing that does not
traditional gender norms and discrimination in
allow deviation from traditional gender
nourishing food distribution, medical care and
norms.
education.
FGM, prostitution and pornography,
trafficking, sexual harassment at school and in Forced recruitment of child soldiers,
the street, forced marriage, forced recruitment honour crimes, gang violence, expectations
Adolescence
of child soldiers, honour crimes, intimate of violent behaviour as the norm, invitation
partner violence and rape and sexual assault rites into violence.
by relatives, known persons or strangers.
Sexual harassment at work and in the public
Gang violence, witnessing or forced to
space, intimate partner violence, rape and
conduct rape, honour crimes, sexual
Adulthood sexual assault, femicide, forced pregnancy,
exploitation, violence in the army and in
dowry and bride price abuse, honour crimes,
conflict, gun violence.
sexual exploitation and trafficking, stalking.
Elder abuse, intimate partner violence, rape,
Old age abuse of widows, sexual harassment in public Elder abuse.
space, institutional abuse.
82 | P a g e
Sites of Gender-Based Violence
 Family is one of the primary sites of gender violence. It prepares its members for social
life, forms gender stereotypes and perceptions of division of labor between the sexes. It is
the arena where physical abuses (spousal battering, sexual assault, sexual abuse) and/or
psychological abuses occur. (Domestic violence can also take such forms as confinement,
forced marriage of woman arranged by her family without her consent, threats, insults
and neglect; overt control of a woman’s sexuality through either forced pregnancy or
forced abortion.) because violence within the family and household takes place in the
home, it is often seen as a ‘private’ issue and information about it is lacking.
 Community/Society is a group sharing common social, cultural, religious or ethnic

belonging, it perpetuates existing family structure and power inequalities in family and
society. The community justifies the behavior of male abusers aimed at establishing
control over women in the family, and supports harmful traditional practices such as
battering and corporal punishment
 Workplace can also be a site of violence. Either in governmental service or in a business

company, women are vulnerable to sexual aggression (harassment, intimidation) and
commercialized violence (trafficking for sexual exploitation)
 State - legitimizes power inequalities in family and society and perpetuates gender- based
violence through enactment of discriminatory laws and polities or through the
discriminatory application of the law. It is responsible for tolerance of gender violence on
an unofficial level (i.e. in the family and in the community). To the extent that it is the
State’s recognized role to sanction certain norms that protect individual life and
dignity and maintain collective peace, it is the State’s obligation to develop and
implement measures that redress gender violence.
Concepts:
a) The primary inequality that gives rise to gender-based violence is the power inequality
between women and men.
83 | P a g e
b) The majority of perpetrators of gender-based violence are men. However, despite the fact
that no society is free from it, male violence against women varies in degree and intensity
according to the specific circumstances. Many men choose to reject dominant stereotypes
of violent, controlling masculinity.
c) Some types of violence against women are perpetrated by women. Some authors (e.g.
Francine Pickup, in Ending Violence Against Women: A Challenge for Development and
Humanitarian Work , Oxfam GB 2001) point out that oftentimes, women commit
violence as a way to ensure their own survival and security within a social, economic,
and political context that is shaped and dominated by men. For example in some
societies, older women may display violent behavior towards their daughters-in-law.
Race and class may also interact to cause violence against women, when these are the
factors increasing women’s vulnerability. Upper-class women who are socially and
materially dependent on their husbands may use violence against their domestic workers
to protect and assert their position as wives.
d) Gender-based violence is not exclusively a woman’s concern. It is both a cause and

consequence of gender perceptions. The use of the term ‘gender-based violence’ provides
a new context in which to examine and understand the phenomenon of violence against
women. It shifts the focus from women as victims to gender and the unequal power
relationships between women and men created and maintained by gender stereotypes as
the basic underlying cause of violence against women.
Frameworks Against Gender-based Violence:
Violence against women was defined in 1993 by the United Nations Declaration on the
Elimination of Violence against Women as “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is
likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats
of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private
life”.
The Declaration stated that such violence encompasses, but is not limited to, the following:
 physical, sexual and psychological violence in the family including battering, sexual
abuse of girls and young women in the household
84 | P a g e
 dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other harmful
traditional practices
 non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation
 physical, sexual and psychological violence in the community including rape, sexual
abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and
elsewhere
 trafficking of women and forced prostitution
 physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetuated or condoned by a State,

wherever it occurs.
This definition was expanded in 1995 by the Fourth World Conference on Women in its
Beijing Platform for Action, which added that such violence includes:
 forced sterilization and forced abortion
 coercive or forced contraceptive use
 female infanticide and prenatal sex selection
 women’s human rights violations in situations of armed conflict – particularly murder,

systematic rape, sexual slavery and forced pregnancy.
The Beijing Platform for Action identified as particularly vulnerable to violence those
“belonging to minority groups, indigenous women, refugee women, women migrants including
women migrant workers, women in poverty living in rural or remote communities, destitute
women, women in institutions or in detention, female children, women with disabilities, elderly
women, displaced women, repatriated women, women living in poverty and women in situations
of armed conflict, foreign occupation, wars of aggression, civil wars, [and] terrorism including
hostage taking. [ CITATION Cru11 \l 1033 ]
85 | P a g e
Gender-based Violence
Instructions: The following are statements which are attributed to the concept of Gender-based
violence. Determine if the statement is considered as a MYTH (based on assumptions) or a
REALITY (based on facts and studies). Write the word MYTH or REALITY on the space
provided before each statement.
1. Violence only affects certain groups of women.
2. Domestic and sexual violence are the only types of violence affecting
women.
3. Violence can affect all women from all socioeconomic and family
backgrounds.
4. Physical abuse is just one of the many forms of violence.
5. Men have no role in ending violence against women.
6. Domestic violence is a private family matter.
7. Violence against women is a human rights issue.
8. Sexist attitude promote gender stereotypes and discrimination against
women.
9. Sexual violence is more likely to be committed by a stranger.
86 | P a g e
10. There is nothing wrong with a sexist joke.
11. There is nothing we can do to stop violence against women.
12. Violence against women is the product of learned attitudes and norms.
13. Men can’t control their temper, thus they become violent.
14. Sexual violence is caused by women’s provocative and sexy attires.
15. Prostitution that involves money is not a gender-based type of
violence.
UNIT III – GENDER AND SOCIAL PROPOSITIONS
Lesson 1. GENDER AND HEALTH
Objectives:
1. Describe reproductive and sexual health issues.
2. Identify the various reproductive and sexual health issues.
3. Design personal program in order to monitor one’s health.
4. Appreciate the need for community to treat reproductive and sexual health issues
in the community as equally important as other issues as they affect direct effect
on the development of society.
5. Determine what the nature of pro-life and pro-choice concepts as part of gender
issues.
6. Develop a sense of sympathy and understanding for women victims of
circumstances that draws them to undergo dilemma as to the choices they make in
life.
7. Move into articulating his thoughts about pro-life and pro-choice by engaging in
discussion or group dynamics.
8. Understand the rationale before R.A. No. 10354 also known as Responsible
Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012.
87 | P a g e
Reproduction and sexual health concerns and problems
Background: World Health Organization (WHO) and
sexual health The global understanding of sexual health has
evolved over time, including in its relationship to reproductive
health.
WHO’s work in the area of sexual health extends back to at least 1974, when – at a meeting
www.google
convened by WHO in Geneva – the deliberations of professionals with expertise in human
sexuality resulted in a technical report on training for health professionals on education and
treatment in human sexuality. This report defined sexual health as:
“the integration of the somatic, emotional, intellectual, and social
aspects of sexual being, in ways that are positively enriching and that enhance
personality, communication, and love”. (WHO, 1975)
Furthermore, the report indicated that attention to pleasure and the right to sexual
information were fundamental to this definition.
Twenty years later, sexual health was included within the stated definition of reproductive health
in the report of the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD):
“Reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters relating to the reproductive
system and to its functions and processes” (ICPD Report, Sept. 1994)
Implicit in this definition was the ability of people “to have a satisfying and safe sex life”
and the capability and freedom to reproduce if and when desired. Accordingly, the definition of
reproductive health care in the ICPD report also included sexual health, the stated purpose of
which was “the enhancement of life and personal relations, and not merely counselling and care
related to reproduction and sexually transmitted diseases”
The decade following the ICPD gave rise to significant advances in the global
understanding of human sexuality and behaviour, as well as recognition
of the immense global health burden – including extensive mortality and morbidity – associated
with a wide range of sexual and reproductive health conditions, including HIV and other
88 | P a g e
sexually transmitted infections (STIs); unwanted pregnancies; unsafe abortions; infertility;
maternal and genitourinary conditions; gender-based violence and sexual dysfunction. There was
also growing awareness about the impact of stigma, discrimination and poor quality of care on
people’s sexual and reproductive health.
Accordingly, WHO’s global Reproductive health strategy to accelerate progress towards
the attainment of international development goals and targets, endorsed by the World Health
Assembly in 2004, named five core aspects of reproductive and sexual
health, one of which mentioned sexual health explicitly: “promoting
sexual
health” (57th World Health Assembly, Geneva, 2004) www.google.image
s
In recognition of the need to define sexual health more clearly,
WHO convened a group of global experts to take on this task in 2002,
and published the resulting working definition for “sexual health”, as well as for the related
concepts of “sex”, “sexuality” and “sexual rights” in 2006, with further updates to the latter in
2010 (WHO, 2006 & 2010).
These definitions are presented in Box 1.
Box 1. WHO working definitions

Sexual health
Sexual health is a state of physical, emotional, mental and social well-being in relation to
sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. Sexual health
requires a positive and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the
possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination
and violence. For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons
must be respected, protected and fulfilled.
Sex
Sex refers to the biological characteristics that define humans as female or male. While these
sets of biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive, as there are individuals who
possess both, they tend to differentiate humans as males and females. In general use in many
languages, the term sex is often used to mean “sexual activity”, but for technical purposes in
the context of sexuality and sexual health discussions, the above definition is preferred.
Sexuality
89 | P a g e
Sexuality is a central aspect of being human throughout life and encompasses sex, gender
identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction.
Sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values,
behaviours, practices, roles and relationships. While sexuality can include all of these
dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed. Sexuality is influenced by the
interaction of biological, psychological, social, economic, political, cultural,
ethical, legal, historical, religious and spiritual factors.
Sexual rights
The fulfilment of sexual health is tied to the extent to which human rights are respected,
protected and fulfilled. Sexual rights embrace certain human rights that are already recognized
in international and regional human rights documents and other consensus documents and in
national laws. Rights critical to the realization of sexual health include:
 the rights to life, liberty, autonomy and security of the person
 the rights to equality and non-discrimination
 the right to be free from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment
 the right to privacy
 the rights to the highest attainable standard of health (including sexual health) and
social security
 the right to marry and to found a family and enter into marriage with the free and full
consent of the intending spouses, and to equality in and at the dissolution of marriage
 the right to decide the number and spacing of one’s children
 the rights to information, as well as education
 the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, and
 the right to an effective remedy for violations of fundamental rights.
The application of existing human rights to sexuality and sexual health constitute sexual rights.
Sexual rights protect all people’s rights
to fulfil and express their sexuality and enjoy sexual health, with due regard for the rights of
others and within a framework of protection against discrimination.
Sources: WHO, 2006 and 2010 (Defining sexual health: report of a technical consultation on
sexual health and Developing sexual health programmes: a framework for action)
Reproductive and Sexual Health Issues
90 | P a g e
Not all sexual health topics can be covered here, but a number of key sexual health
issues are enumerated and discussed.
Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs) and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), including
HIV
Among the RTIs are STIs, latrogenic infections associated with
unsafe medical procedures in the reproductive tract (e.g. unsafe
www.google abortion) and endogenous infections
such as bacterial vaginosis and candidiasis that arise as a result of disruption to the normal
vaginal microflora. STIs are a major public health concern, contributing significantly to the
global burden of adult disease both because of the acute illness and because of long-term
outcomes such as chronic pain, infertility, adverse outcomes of pregnancy (including stillbirth
and low birth weight) and cancers of the reproductive tract (including cervical cancer). Rates of
STIs are very high worldwide. It is estimated that there are over 340 million new
cases each year of the four most common and curable STIs (WHO, 2006b; WHO, 2007)
These are Chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrhea and trichomoniasis. The impact of HIV and
AIDS on individuals, families, communities and national institutions, including the health and
education sectors, is enormous in many parts of the world. Between
31 and 36 million people are known to be infected.1 Most cases of
HIV infection are sexually acquired, but there is a general
reluctance to address sensitive issues related to sexuality which has
contributed to a slow response in many parts of the world.
Untreated STIs and RTIs are associated with an increased risk of
HIV transmission. Effective management of STIs is therefore
crucial for controlling the transmission of HIV in some populations (Grosskurth et al., 2000).
Control of STIs in particular requires commitment to sexual health in the broadest sense of the
term. A narrow focus on infectious disease control is unlikely to be successful if it takes no
account of the many factors that increase risk and vulnerability of specific individuals and groups.
A framework for action that places control of STIs within a wider context is more likely to have
long-term success, because it will recognize both the cofactors of transmission and the societal
factors that increase an individual's vulnerability. Applying the framework for sexual health
involves recognizing that some sections of the population are particularly vulnerable to STIs.
These include young people, people who engage in transactional sex or commercial sex, and
people who are sexually abused or at risk of violence within their sexual relationships. The sexual
91 | P a g e
health needs of these people go well beyond providing
appropriate clinical care, to include counselling about sexuality,
making referrals to deal with violence, its consequences, or the
risk of violence, and assistance in negotiating about use of
contraceptives.
Unintended pregnancy and abortion.
Unsafe abortion is “a procedure for terminating an unintended pregnancy either by

persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment lacking the minimal medical standards,
or both” (WHO, 1992).
It is estimated that nearly 20 million women www.google.images
each year have an unsafe abortion, of whom
19.2 million are in developing countries. Of these, 5.5 million are in Africa, 9.8 million are in
Asia (excluding Australia, Japan and New Zealand) and 3.9 million are in Latin America and the
Caribbean. The majority (59%) of unsafe abortions in Africa are performed on young women
aged 15–24 years (WHO, 2004).
Unsafe abortions account for 13% of all maternal deaths worldwide. It is estimated that 66,500
women died from the complications of unsafe abortion in 2003 alone.
It thus represents a considerable barrier to achieving the Millennium Development global
target that aims to reduce the maternal mortality ratio by 75% between 1990 and 2015 (Berer,
2004).
A sexual health framework applied to unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions would seek to
explain why these issues continue even though effective and safe methods of contraception and
induced abortion have been available for many years. A number of factors influence the incidence
of unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions in any setting. These include:
•access of young women and young men to information on contraception;
• the legality of supplying contraceptives to unmarried young people;
• the legality of abortion;
92 | P a g e
• sociocultural norms and practices with regard to sex outside marriage;
• unintended pregnancies and the provision of safe abortion;
• the influence of gender-power relations on the ability of girls and women to use contraceptive
methods, or to reject sexual relations with men;
• the readiness of the health service to provide safe abortions to the full extent of the law.
A sexual health framework applied to abortion in general is sought to act across a range of
domains, with the intention not only of ensuring that abortion is made safe, but also to reduce the
need for abortion in the first place. A number of countries such as Nepal, Romania, South Africa,
Tunisia, and United States of America, have successfully reduced the incidence of unsafe
abortion by legalizing it (Cook et al., 2003; Grimes, 2006).
Mongolia and VietNam reduced the incidence by making their existing legal services safer
(Ganatra et al., 200)
Other countries like South Africa and Ghana have taken steps to reduce the stigma associated
with abortion (Ngwena, 2004; Ipas, 2008).
Some countries have also made progress in reducing the number of unintended pregnancies
(Berer, 2004). N.B. Philippine stand on abortion shall be incorporated in the succeeding
discussion on pro-life and pro-choice.
Sexual dysfunction Concerns related to sexual functioning are universal, but they have
culturally specific forms.
Generally it is estimated that between 8% and 33% of the adult population in developed
countries experience some kind of sexual dysfunction in their lifetime, although some studies
suggest that the true figure may be higher (Laumann et al., 1999).
Sexual problems include low sexual desire, male erectile dysfunction, an inability to
achieve orgasm, premature ejaculation, pain during intercourse, and vaginismus. These concerns
are relatively common, but they are seldom diagnosed or
treated in public sector services. It is only recently that the
etiological and epidemiological factors have been explored
in any depth, with most research focusing on erectile
dysfunction in men.
Erectile dysfunction is surprisingly common in all www.google.images
societies in which studies have been conducted In a number
of countries (Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran, Morocco, Nigeria, and Pakistan), the likelihood of
93 | P a g e
men reporting erectile dysfunction has been found to be associated with various characteristics,
most common of which is increasing age (Berrada et al., 2003; Safarinejad, 2003; Seyam et al.,
2003; Shaeer et al., 2003).
Most men and women with sexual dysfunction who seek
care, tend to look for it within the private sector. This is because
public sector services addressing sexual function and dysfunction
are relatively uncommon. However, within a sexual health
framework, the importance of addressing male and female sexual
dysfunction is clear. Studies around the world, including research
in Egypt, Nigeria and Pakistan, have found that sexual dysfunction
is associated with common mental illnesses, including depression,
and with low quality-of-life (QoL) scores.
Sexual function is also closely associated with the dominant expectations of society at
that particular time (about what it means to be a man or a woman, for example), as well as local
cultural mores and beliefs. If not addressed, sexual dysfunction can cause great suffering, by
damaging a person’s ability to form or to sustain an intimate relationship. In a broader sense,
discomfort with sexuality may reduce a person’s ability to set appropriate behavioural boundaries
for himself or herself, whether alone or within a relationship (Robinson et al., 2002). The sexual
health framework recognizes the critical role that sexual function plays in maintaining positive
sexual relationships.
Violence related to gender and sexuality is both a violation of human rights and a public
health concern.
94 | P a g e
Sexual and other forms of gender-based violence include rape, coerced sex, child sexual
abuse, sexualized forms of domestic violence, intimate partner violence, FGM, “honour” crimes,
and forced prostitution. Sexual violence can be directed at women or men, girls or boys, and any
group in a position of vulnerability. While it takes multiple forms, the most common is violence
towards women by men who are known to them, particularly their partners and
husbands, but also other family members. “Intimate partner violence” includes acts of physical
aggression, psychological abuse, sexual coercion (including rape), and a range of controlling
behaviours (WHO, 2005).
These acts are often interlinked, with various types of abuse taking place in the same
www.google
relationship and repeated over time. There are both direct and indirect links between violence and
sexual health. Violence can be an important factor in unwanted pregnancy, in the acquisition of
STIs including HIV, and in sexual dysfunction. Forced sex, both vaginal and anal, can potentially
increase the risk of HIV transmission because of the resulting abrasions and injuries. Studies
show that sexual abuse early in life can lead to increased ill-health in adulthood. This is partly
because of increased sexual risk-taking, such as having early first sex, multiple partners, and
participating in sex work of various kinds (Klein & Chao, 1995)
Experiencing violence can be an obstacle to achieving sexual health in more indirect

ways. In particular, when a woman has reduced autonomy in an inequitable and coercive
relationship, it restricts her ability to make sexual choices and negotiate the conditions of sexual
intercourse, including the use of condoms and other contraceptives. In promoting sexual health, it
is important to tackle both the underlying determinants of sexual violence, through high-quality
education about sex and relationships for young people and mental health support for children
who have been sexually abused to reduce the risk of perpetration of violence, as well as the direct
psychological, economic and acute healthcare needs of the victims of violence. Using a sexual
health framework involves educating the broader community about the impact of sexual violence
and engaging community and religious leaders in addition to the media to bring the issue into
public discourse and reduce its stigma. It might also focus on removing the legal and policy
barriers for bringing criminal charges against perpetrators of violence or protecting the dignity
and confidentiality of victims who press charges against the perpetrator(s) of violence. It may
therefore require training of judges, police and social welfare workers so that they can better
understand and support victims of violence. A comprehensive review of sexual health must also
consider violence that is committed against people because of their real or imagined sexual
characteristics, even though it might be delivered through non-sexual means (i.e. non-sexual
95 | P a g e
assault or injury). These real or imagined sexual characteristics or attributes might relate to sexual
behaviour or practices, a same-gender sexual partner, lack of virginity, extramarital sex, sexual
contact with social “inferiors” or members of “enemy” groups, a “bad reputation”, “dishonour” to
a kin group, and sexual “disobedience”. Although the delivery of violence may not involve rape
or sexual injury, the physical and psychological effects are similar – injury, a reduced ability to
access healthcare for the injuries, and an increased burden of disease. In addition to representing
an assault on a person's fundamental right to life and bodily integrity, violence may be both a sign
and a consequence of gender discrimination. Sexual violence against women and girls reduces
their freedom of movement, association and speech. It also limits access to education, work and
life outside the home. Sexual violence reinforces (and stems from) other forms of inequality as
well, serving to reinforce hierarchies of power based on class, race, ethnicity or caste, or other
important social divisions. Sexual violence thus serves as an “extra-legal” form of punishment
and control (that is, punishment and control that is outside the legal system), which is often
intended to induce shame and diminish the reputation of the victim. (Jejeebhoy & Bott, 2003)
Impact of physical disabilities and chronic illnesses on sexual health.
A variety of physical disabilities can affect sexual functioning and have a negative
impact on sexual wellbeing, through the profound effect they have on interpersonal relationships,
self-esteem and body image. These physical disabilities include neurological disabilities such as
spinal cord injury, stroke, multiple sclerosis, traumatic brain injury and cerebral palsy. The sexual
needs and expressions of people with these disorders are often ignored, because there is a
perception that they are not – or should not be – sexually active. Some chronic illnesses also have
a negative impact on sexual health. Certain cancers, particularly those associated with the
reproductive system, combined with the effects of the often radical treatment involved, can
profoundly affect a person’s sense of their sexuality and sexual functioning (Kaplan, 1992).
Other chronic illnesses, including arthritis, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and depression, as
well as certain medications (such as those used for treating high blood pressure) are also
implicated in sexual health problems (DeBusk et al., 2000; Krousel-Wood et al., 2004). A sexual
health framework might include the creation of policies to increase the social acceptability of
sexual expression by people with a disability or chronic illness. It might also address the
provision of information and education regarding certain side-effects of medicines used by people
with chronic disease.
96 | P a g e
www.google
In order to address these aforementioned issues, a framework was developed citing five
(5) domains with corresponding barriers which will be gleaned from Box 2:
Box 2: Sexual health: strategic action for change

Domain Eliminating barriers Promoting sexual
to sexual health Health
Laws, policies and human Work to change political Work to change political
rights structures that do not structures that do not
recognize sexual health recognize sexual health
concerns, or HIV- and concerns, or HIV- and
sexuality-related stigma Work sexuality-related stigma Work
for the repeal of for the repeal of
discriminatory laws and discriminatory laws and
policies, and to establish policies, and to establish
mechanisms to redress mechanisms to redress
violations of human rights violations of human rights
Work to review laws and Work to review laws and
policies as they affect sexual policies as they affect sexual
and reproductive health Work and reproductive health Work
to review the application of to review the application of
human rights standards to human rights standards to
sexual and reproductive sexual and reproductive health
health Work to create political
97 | P a g e
support for sexual health
issues and interventions
Promote dialogue about
sexual health at all political
levels from grass roots to
national leadership, including
religious and community
leaders Publicize the efforts of
leaders who work to promote
sexual health Develop a
strong evidence base to
identify best practices in
relation to sexual health, and
promote commitment to them
Promote and implement
supportive rights-based
national legislation, policy
frameworks and institutional
policies Promote awareness of
rights (e.g. through work with
media) Use international
human rights standards in
advocacy (e.g. in challenging
FGM)
Education Recognize and remove Incorporate promotion of
barriers to general and rights, diversity and gender
sexuality education equality into teacher-training
curricula Increase access to
comprehensive, choice-based
sexuality education in schools
Promote sexuality education
for the most vulnerable,
including young people who
do not attend school Promote
98 | P a g e
equality within sexual
partnerships and challenge
and condemn violence
Promote community-based
work on gender equality,
building on positive social
norms
Sociocultural Recognize the role of gender- Promote equality and
based power in sexual responsibility in relationships
relationships as a determinant Challenge discrimination on
of sexual health outcomes the basis of sexual and gender
Identify cultural practices that diversity Recognize the
contribute to sexual ill-health positive role that men can
play in improving women’s
health Promote cultural
practices that improve sexual
health (e.g. early discussions
of sexuality and sexual health)
Engage influential community
leaders (e.g. religious leaders)
in debate to promote
awareness of public health
imperatives of addressing
sexual health issues Build
partnerships to implement
culturally sensitive
programmes aimed at
preventing violence against
women, sexual violence,
intimate partner violence, and
FGM
Economic Recognize and emphasize the Promote economic
links between economic empowerment and alternative
marginalization and sexual livelihood strategies for
ill-health vulnerable groups (e.g.
99 | P a g e
women, sex workers, young
people, migrants, and LGBT
who leave home) Promote
economic development that
favours economic
improvement and opportunity
for women and girls Support
research on the links between
sexual health and poverty
Health Eliminate barriers to service Increase access to sexual
provision Ensure adequate health services and resources,
resources for sexual health especially for the most
services vulnerable Improve quality of
sexual health care by
implementing non-
stigmatizing, rights-based
approaches to service
provision Encourage religious
leaders to challenge HIV- and
AIDS-related stigma and
social and gender issues that
are harmful to health within
communities Enhance
communication between
providers and clients (e.g. by
promoting counselling within
sexual health services)
Promote greater integration of
sexual health services Reach
out to men in more positive
ways
Source: WHO, 2010 Developing sexual health programmes: a framework for action)
100 | P a g e
Check for facts and Understanding
Activity 1: Reproductive and Sexual Health Issues.
TRUE OR FALSE. Write T if the statement is TRUE, F if the statement is FALSE.
1. Unsafe abortion is “a procedure for terminating an intended pregnancy either
by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment lacking the
minimal medical standards, or both”.
2. Reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-
being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters
relating to the reproductive system and to its functions and processes.
3. The global understanding of sexual health has evolved over time, including in
its relationship to reproductive health.
4. Erectile dysfunction is surprisingly common in all societies in which studies
have been conducted In a number of countries.
5. Sexual violence can be directed at women or men, girls or boys, and any
group in a position of vulnerability
6. Sexual rights embrace certain human rights that are already recognized in
international and regional human rights documents and other consensus
documents and in national laws
7. Sexual function is also closely associated with the dominant expectations of
society at that particular time
8. Control of STIs in particular requires commitment to sexual health in the
broadest sense of the term.
9. Experiencing violence can be an obstacle to achieving sexual health in more
indirect ways.
10. Sexual health is a state of physical, emotional, mental and social well-being
in relation to sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction
or infirmity.
101 | P a g e
Assessment:
Activity 2: Design your own health program starting age 25 years old onwards.
Using the table below, plan your health program. Identify five (5) activities.
Activities to be Barriers for its How you overcome the

pursued (social, implementation (this can barrier (social,
physical, sexual, etc.) social, psychological, psychological, emotional,
(2 points) emotional, mental, physical) mental, physical) (4
(4 points) points)
e.g. Engaging in Mt. I have fear of heights Undergo therapy
Climbing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Rubrics for answers

1point 2 points 3 points 4 points 5 points
thought out and incomplete. Key points comprehensive or and complete. Key comprehensive,
articulated. are not clear. completely stated. Key point is stated and accurate and complete.
point is addressed, but supported. Key idea is clearly
not well supported. stated, explained, and
102 | P a g e
. well supported.
Well organized,
coherently developed,
and easy to follow.
PRO-LIFE, PRO-CHOICE AS GENDER ISSUE
Can you explain what pro-choice means and pro-life means? When people talk about
abortion I think they’re saying “pro-choice” and “pro-life” the opposite , but I’m not sure.
The pro-choice and pro-life labels are confusing for a reason: They force people into just
two boxes for all their religious, moral, political, and practical beliefs on abortion.
MUCH of the discourse in western countries around abortion rights, in the United States
(US) in particular, has revolved around the dichotomy of ‘‘pro-life’’ and ‘‘pro-choice’’ positions.
In this configuration, support for abortion rights is mainly equated with the idea that abortion is a
woman’s right to choose, a right closely tied to their rights over their bodies. Anti-abortion
groups, on the other hand, proclaim themselves as ‘‘pro-life’’ in an effort to project the other side
as being ‘‘anti-life’’, life here referring only to that of the fetus. (Tan, ML, 2003)
While this pro-life vs. pro-choice framework is an important one, there are other
discourses around abortion rights, shaped by different social and historical circumstances. The
discussion on pro-life vs. pro-choice framework as developed
in the US is compared with the frameworks from the
Philippine.
The US is where the pro-life vs. pro-choice
framework remains the strongest, even though as an argument
www.google
it is fraying at the edges. The Philippines on the other hand
has a peculiar colonial history, having been under Spain from
the 16th to the 19th century, during which Catholicism was introduced. Catholicism remains the
professed religion of about 85% of the population and church leaders continue to wield
tremendous political clout, especially in relation to issues of sexuality. Following the Spanish
colonial period, the Philippines was occupied by the US from 1898 to 1946. American influence
also remains strong in terms of political institutions and processes. In the area of sexuality, it is
curious
that the American Religious Right, mainly identified with evangelical Protestants, have
found allies among Filipino Catholic conservatives. Their impact on the discourse and policies on
abortion in the Philippines is also described in this article.
103 | P a g e
Pro-Life Philippines links the imagery of the fetus to many
other social issues, including that of women’s bodies. Members of
Pro-Life Philippines regularly write to newspapers with dire
warnings about the risks of cancer and other side effects from
contraception itself. Such warnings are especially serious given that
family planning surveys often show that the fear of contraceptive
side effects tops the reasons for non-use and discontinuation of use.
Research that I and Health Action Information Network, a non-government organisation (NGO),
have carried out in the Philippines on perceptions of contraception have consistently shown how
strong these fears are, and that they are picked up from stories told by Catholic church workers.
(Tan, ML, 2001)
Not surprisingly, when mifepristone was approved as a medical abortion drug in the US,
Philippine groups expressed their outrage through graphic references to the womb and the fetus.
Francisco Tatad, a Philippine Senator, described the drug as ‘‘the equivalent of a miniature
chemical
bomb detonated inside a mother’s womb. It is guaranteed to kill
the fetus instantly.’’ (Javellana, JL., 2000) www.google
Thus, anti-abortion rhetoric invokes not just the fetus
but also the womb. Moreover, the Catholic anti-abortion
movement, especially in the Philippines, goes further and lumps
abortion and family planning together as being antifamily. The imagery of fetuses and babies is
not confined to representations in the media, however. In several cities, Pro-Life Philippines has
been able to convince local government officials to put up monuments to aborted fetuses. In
front of the Quiapo church, in a central district in Manila, there is a ‘‘Shrine to the Unborn’’
showing a fetus on an outstretched palm with a crucifixion wound, presumably that of Jesus
Christ. On Shaw Boulevard, a busy street in Metro
Manila, there is a five-story building that on one wall facing the street has a painting of Jesus
carrying what seems to be a fetus but could also be an infant. A caption under the mural reads:
‘‘This is a child, not a choice.’’
In 1995, the Philippines devolved authority over health services
www.google and health policies to local government, opening up new

possibilities for the Religious Right.
The result has been disastrous for family planning. Whenever a pro-life city mayor or provincial
governor comes to power, he (they have always been men) usually prohibits ‘‘artificial
104 | P a g e
contraception’’ in local health units. Invariably, the argument, mainly put forward in TV
interviews, is that the pill and other ‘‘artificial’’ methods are all abortifacients.
In another instance, Abay-Pamilya, an antiabortion group affiliated to Pro-Life

Philippines, was able to pressure the Health Department to withdraw Postinor, an emergency
contraceptive pill. The move was made without public hearings and was based on the argument
that the drug was an abortifacient. In reality, emergency contraception works within the first 72
hours after unprotected intercourse, a time when fertilisation may or may not have taken place.
The anti-abortion groups argued that because there was a chance fertilisation had taken place, the
drug would then work as an abortifacient. Health NGOs came forward demanding the return of
emergency contraception, invoking the medical definition of pregnancy as starting at the time of
implantation rather than fertilisation. The legal hearings, a debate on the status of the zygote and
the embryo, have continued and are unlikely to be resolved in the near future.
Since 2002, still another term, ‘‘the unborn’’, has come into wider usage, with Philippine
President Arroyo declaring 25 March 2004 as the ‘‘Day of the Unborn’’. The choice of date is
tied to the Catholic feast of the Annunciation, when angels were said to have announced to the
Virgin Mary that she was pregnant with Jesus. The President said the day was a way of
promoting a
‘‘culture of defending life from the moment of “conception’’, and was intended to focus
attention on ‘‘babies that died during their mother’s pregnancy’’, with a rather cryptic reference
to the fact that ‘‘3% of fetal deaths recorded were due to ill-health of pregnant women and socio-
behavioural factors’’. (Torres MT, Ager M., 2004)
The unborn have also taken centre stage in the US where, on 2 April 2004, President
Bush signed the Unborn Victims of Violence Act. This new federal law prescribes that a person
who inflicts violence on a pregnant woman and who then harms the mother and the fetus can be
tried for two separate crimes, in effect giving the fetus legal status. With rhetoric similar to
Arroyo’s, Bush gave the following rationale for the new law:
‘‘With this action, we widen the circle of compassion and inclusion in our society, and
we reaffirm that the United States of America is building a culture of life.’’ (Goldstein A.,
2004)
105 | P a g e
Implications for advocacy:
Listening to women’s voices deconstructing the imagery around abortion, and

understanding its social and historical context, are important for strengthening advocacy and
reproductive health services. This is not to suggest that abortion rights groups ape the tactics of
the anti-abortionists, exploiting popular images and associated emotions around fetuses and
babies. Instead, advocacy efforts should draw on women’s own descriptions of their reproductive
lives, their pregnancies and the circumstances and concerns that lead to a decision to have an
abortion. Likhaan, for example, drawing on their interviews, produced a play called Aming
Buhay
(Our Lives).
The play shows
how abortion
takes on
different
meanings
and tensions
for a young
unmarried
girl as
compared to a middle-aged mother of five. The most powerful story is that of a young,
unmarried, pregnant girl facing the fury of her father, who goes on about having lost their
family’s honour. When the girl’s mother comes to her daughter’s defence, the father shifts his
wrath to his wife, who had had an abortion many years before.‘‘Anak ko ‘yan’’ (‘‘That was my
child’’), he bellows, dramatising the
patriarchal construction of the fetus. Likhaan has produced several posters that they hope will
encourage a more open and less judgemental discussion of abortion. One poster reads: ‘‘It could
be (your) mother, your older sister, a cousin or a classmate among the 400,000 women who have
abortions each year.’’ In another part of the poster are the stark words: Libong aborsyon. Libong
dahilan (Thousands of abortions. Thousands of reasons.)
106 | P a g e
Likhaan poster: ‘You don’t know because it’s not talked about. It can be your mother, an elder
sister, a cousin, a classmate... Thousands of abortions, thousands of reasons. Know.
Understand. Don’t judge.’
Whether abortion is legal or not, discourse around this issue is pervasive, found in
popular culture as well as in legal and medical texts. A focus on women’s experiences does not
mean moving away from the politics of the womb. In fact, a focus on the fetus allows an
interrogation of the so-called pro-life rhetoric, asking anti contraception bishops and mayors if
they have ever linked the aborted babies that end up in their garbage cans or their churches to
their own prohibition of contraceptive use. The lack of access here includes the absence of
contraceptive services, not only in cases where such services have been banned, but also social
inaccessibility – the fear of contraception fanned by anti-abortion groups that prevents women
from using it.
In places like the Philippines, where abortion is illegal, women tell horrendous stories
about the pain from catheters inserted in the uterus, pain from massage by traditional birth
attendants and harassment by hospital staff, and speak of feelings of fear, guilt and shame, and
the consequent need for social support. Anti-abortion groups distort these needs as post abortion
trauma. Thus, it is important to expose the way anti-abortion groups manipulate popular culture
and women’s experience, driving home their messages through fear and guilt and showing how
the invocation of terms like baby, child and unborn can be manipulative and callous, insensitive
to the circumstances surrounding the need for abortion. (Tan, ML, 2004)
107 | P a g e
Activity 1: Pro-life or pro-choice.
Assessment
As your reflection on the discussion about abortion. Set aside any prejudice, religious as
well as moral convictions and answer the following questions, briefly and concisely.
1. How will you react to a friend who revealed to you that she underwent an abortion? (10
points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
2. How will you react to a friend who told you that she is contemplating of going through
an abortion? (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
3. Is abortion, per se, legal/moral or illegal/immoral? (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
108 | P a g e
Rubric for answers
articulated. are not clear. Question completely stated. Key point is stated and accurate and complete.
Spelling, punctuation, not adequately point is addressed, but supported. Key idea is clearly
grammar, and answered. not well supported. Spelling, punctuation, stated, explained, and
complete sentence is Spelling, punctuation, Spelling, punctuation, grammar, and well supported.
not observed. grammar, and grammar, and complete complete sentence is Well organized,
complete sentence is sentence is adequately adequately observed. coherently developed,
Republic Act 10354 also known as The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act
of 2012
The Philippines passed a law on Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health after
several decades of controversy and public debate Signed by President Benigno C. Aquino, III on
December 21, 2012, this law’s objective was envisioned in its Section 2 which states, that,
“The State recognizes and guarantees the human rights of all persons including their right
to equality and non-discrimination of these rights, the right to sustainable human
development, the right to health which includes reproductive health, the right to
education and information, and the right to choose and make decisions for themselves in
accordance with their religious convictions, ethics, cultural beliefs, and the demands of
responsible parenthood.
Further, pursuant to the declaration of State policies under Section 12, Article II of the
1987 Philippine Constitution, it is the duty of the State to protect and strengthen the family as a
basic autonomous social institution and equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the
unborn from conception. The State shall protect and promote the right to health of women
especially mothers in particular and of the people in general and instill health consciousness
among them. The family is the natural and fundamental unit of society. The State shall likewise
protect and advance the right of families in particular and the people in general to a balanced and
healthful environment in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature. The State also
recognizes and guarantees the promotion and equal protection of the welfare and rights of
children, the youth, and the unborn.
109 | P a g e
Moreover, the State recognizes and guarantees the promotion of gender equality, gender
equity, women empowerment and dignity as a health and human rights concern and as a social
responsibility. The advancement and
protection of women’s human rights shall be central to the efforts of the State to address
reproductive health care. (see Appendix “” full text of R.A. 10354)
On March 21, 2013, the Implementing Rules and Regulations under Memorandum
Circular No. 2013-0011 was promulgated by the Department of Health with the purpose to
prescribe the procedures and guidelines for the implementation of the RPRH Act in order to
facilitate compliance therewith and to achieve the objective thereof. (IRR of RPRH Act, 2013)
In an Article by the former Secretary of Health, Republic of the Philippines, she

identified the following elements of the RPRH Act, and they are:
(1) Family planning information and services;
(2) Maternal, infant and child health and nutrition, including breast feeding;
(3) Prevention of abortion and management of post-abortion complications;
(4) Adolescent and youth reproductive health guidance and counseling;
(5) Prevention and management of reproductive tract infections (RTIs), HIV/AIDS and sexually
transmittable infections (STIs);
(6) Elimination of violence against women and children and other forms of sexual and gender-
based violence;
(7) Education and counselling on sexuality and reproductive health;
(8) Treatment of breast and reproductive tract cancers and other gynecologic conditions and
disorders;
(9) Male responsibility and involvement and men’s RH;
(10) Prevention, treatment and management of infertility and sexual dysfunction;
(11) RH education for the adolescents; and
(12) Mental health aspect of reproductive health care.
110 | P a g e
The law also provides for the following among other things:
Midwives for skilled birth attendance : The law mandates every city and municipality to
employ an adequate number of midwives and other skilled attendants. Currently, only 57% of
Filipino women 3 give birth with the assistance of a trained medical professional.
Emergency obstetric care: Each province and city shall ensure the establishment and operation
of hospitals with adequate facilities and qualified personnel that provide emergency obstetric
care.
Hospital-based family planning: The law requires family planning services like ligation,
vasectomy and intrauterine device (IUD) placement to be available in all government hospitals.
Contraceptives as essential medicines: Reproductive health products shall be considered

essential medicines and supplies and shall form part of the National Drug Formulary. Their
inclusion in the National Drug Formulary will enable government to purchase contraceptives and
not merely rely on unpredictable donations.
Reproductive health education: RH education shall be taught by adequately trained teachers in
an age-appropriate manner.
Employers’ responsibilities: Employers shall respect the reproductive health rights of all their
workers. Women shall not be discriminated against in the matter of hiring, regularization of
employment status or selection for retrenchment. Employers shall provide free reproductive
health services and education to workers.
Capability building of community-based volunteer workers: Community-based workers shall

undergo additional and updated training on the delivery of reproductive health care services and
shall receive not less than 10% increase in honoraria upon successful completion of training.
Prohibited Acts
The law also provides for penalties for persons who perform certain prohibited acts such as
the following:
111 | P a g e

Knowingly (with malicious intent) withholding or impeding the dissemination of information

about the programs and services provided for in this Act or intentionally giving out incorrect
information;
 Refusing to perform voluntary ligation and vasectomy and other legal and medically-safe
reproductive health care services on any person of legal age on the ground of lack of spousal
consent or authorization;
 Refusing to provide reproductive health care services to an abused minor and/or an abused
pregnant minor, whose condition is certified to by an authorized DSWD official or personnel,
even without parental consent particularly when the parent concerned is the perpetrator;
 Refusing to extend reproductive health care services and information on account of the
patient’s civil status, gender or sexual orientation, age, religion, personal circumstances, and
nature of work: Provided, that all conscientious objections of health care service providers
based on religious grounds shall be respected: Provided, further, that the conscientious
objector shall immediately refer the person seeking such care and services to another health
care service provider within the same facility or one who is conveniently accessible: Provided,
finally, that the patient is not in an emergency or serious case as defined in RA 8344
penalizing the refusal of hospitals and medical clinics to administer appropriate initial medical
treatment and support in emergency and serious cases.
 Requiring a female applicant or employee, as a condition for employment or continued
employment, to involuntarily undergo sterilization, tubal ligation or any other form of
contraceptive method (Cabral, E., 2013)
112 | P a g e
Images from www.google
Activity 1: R.A. No. 10354: RPRH Act of 2012

Assessment
Answer the following questions briefly and concisely.
1. What was the rationale behind the creation of the law, R.A. 10354? (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
113 | P a g e
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Is the law, R.A. 10354 only created to favour Filipino women in society? (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. What do you understand by responsible parenthood? (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Rubrics for answers

LESSON 2: GENDER EQUALITY
Objectives:
1. Describe with clarity the UNICEF proposition on Gender Inequality

2. Recognize the effors of United Nations in establishing the Sustainable Goals on Gender
Equality.
3. Employ various concepts related to Gender Equality in understanding Women
Empowerment as UN Declared Human Right.
114 | P a g e
4. Express one’s views on the Philippines’ position on gender equality.
5. Display enthusiasm in participating in discussion
session relative to Gender Equality.
6. Distinguish one concept in gender equality with
gender inequality as an issue proposition.
7. Initiate discourse and be able to support ones
proposition with ones knowledge on the subject
matter.
www. google.images (UNICEF)
Gender Inequality as an Issue Proposition
Girls and boys see gender inequality in their homes and communities every day – in
textbooks, in the media and among the adults who care for them.
Parents may assume unequal responsibility for household work, with mothers bearing the
www.google
brunt of caregiving and chores. The majority of low-skilled and underpaid community health
workers who attend to children are also women, with limited opportunity for professional growth.
115 | P a g e
And in schools, many girls receive less support than boys to pursue the studies they
choose. This happens for a variety of reasons: The safety, hygiene and sanitation needs of girls
may be neglected, barring them from regularly attending class. Discriminatory teaching practices
and education materials also produce gender gaps in learning and skills development. As a result,
nearly 1 in 4 girls between the ages of 15 and 19 are neither employed nor in education or
training – compared to 1 in 10 boys.
Yet, in early childhood, gender disparities start out small. Girls have higher survival rates
at birth, are more likely to be developmentally on track, and are just as likely to participate in
preschool. Among those who reach secondary school, girls tend to outperform boys in reading
across every country where data are available.
But the onset of adolescence can bring significant barriers to girls’ well-being. Gender
norms and discrimination heighten their risk of unwanted pregnancy, HIV and AIDS, and
malnutrition. Especially in emergency settings and in places where menstruation remains taboo,
girls are cut off from the information and supplies they need to stay healthy and safe. (UNICEF)
In its most insidious form, gender inequality turns violent. Some 1 in 20 girls between the
ages of 15 and 19 – around 13 million – have experienced forced sex. In times of both peace and
conflict, adolescent girls face the highest risk of gender-based violence. Hundreds of millions of
girls worldwide are still subjected to child marriage and female genital mutilation – even though
both have been internationally recognized as human rights violations. And violence can occur at
birth, like in places where female infanticide is known to persist.
Harmful gender norms are perpetuated at the highest levels. In some countries, they
become entrenched in laws and policies that fail to uphold – or that even violate – girls’ rights,
like laws that restrict women from inheriting property. Boys also suffer from gender norms:
Social conceptions of masculinity can fuel child labour, gang violence, disengagement from
school, and recruitment into armed groups. (UNICEF, Gender Equality)
What is UNICEF doing to promote gender equality?
 Reducing inequality strengthens economies and builds stable, resilient societies that give all
individuals – including boys and men – the opportunity to fulfil their potential.
116 | P a g e
 UNICEF builds partnerships across the global community to accelerate gender equality. In all
areas of their work, they integrate strategies that address gender-specific discrimination and
disadvantages.
 This means partnering with national health sectors to expand quality maternal care and support
the professionalization of the mostly female front-line community health workforce.
 It means promoting the role of women in the design and delivery of water, sanitation and
hygiene (WASH) ecosystems.
 And it means working with the education sector to ensure girls and boys thrive in their
learning and find pathways to meaningful employment.
 For adolescent girls especially, UNICEF invests in skills building to further their economic
empowerment – as entrepreneurs, innovators and leaders. We focus on providing learning
environments at a time and place that suit girls’ individual circumstances.
 UNICEF also works on assistive technologies for girls with disabilities, and on the expansion
of digital platforms, vocational training and apprenticeships.
 Supporting girls’ pathway from education to employment requires more than learning
opportunities. It requires keeping girls safe from all forms of violence, in and out of school.
 Targets initiatives to prevent and respond to gender-based violence help end child marriage,
eliminate female genital mutilation, provide safe spaces, support menstrual health
management, deliver HIV and AIDS care, meet psychosocial needs and more.
 They invest in innovative models that protect even the hardest-to-reach girls – like virtual safe
spaces and apps that allow them to report violence and connect to local resources for support.
(UNICEF, Gender Equality)
117 | P a g e
Activity 1: Gender Inequality as an issue proposition
Assessment:
Reflect on the following situations and state your proposition (suggestion)
1. There are some families who still give preference to first born sons.(10 points)
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Some cultures do not encourage girls to go to school because they are confined to doing
house chores. (10 points)
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers
118 | P a g e
UNITED NATIONS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS ON GENDER EQUALITY
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted by all United Nations
Member States in 2015 to end poverty, reduce inequality and build more peaceful, prosperous
societies by 2030. Also known as the Global Goals, the SDGs are a call to action to create a
world where no one is left behind.
Gender equality is the 5th among the 17 Global Goals that make up the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development. An integrated approach is crucial for progress across the multiple
goals, hence the following plans:
1. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls empowering women and
promoting gender equality is crucial to accelerating sustainable development.
2. Ending all forms of discrimination against women and girls is not only a basic human
right, but it also has a multiplier effect across all other development areas.
3. Since 2000, UNDP together with the UN partners and
the rest of the global community has made gender equality central to their work, and we
have seen some remarkable successes.
4. More girls are now in school compared to 15 years ago, and most regions have reached
gender parity in primary education. Women now make up to 41 percent of paid workers
outside of agriculture, compared to 35 percent in 1990.
5. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to build on these achievements to
ensure that there is an end to discrimination against women and girls everywhere.
6. There are still gross inequalities in access to paid employment in some regions, and
significant gaps between men and women in the labour market.
7. Sexual violence and exploitation, the unequal division of unpaid care and domestic work,
and discrimination in public decision making, all remain huge barriers.
8. Ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive health, and affording women equal
rights to economic resources such as land and property, are vital targets to realizing this
goal.
119 | P a g e
9. There are now more women in public office than ever before, but encouraging more
women leaders across all regions will help strengthen policies and legislation for greater
gender equality.
10. Gender equality is one of 17 Global Goals that make up the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. An integrated approach is crucial for progress across the multiple goals.
(UNICEF, SDG)
The SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDG) Fund response
1. The SDG Fund has placed gender equality and women’s empowerment at the heart of its
efforts to accelerate progress towards the SDGs.
2. By directly empowering women and by bringing a gender perspective to all development
work, we can build a more equitable, sustainable future for all.
3. All SDG Fund programmes mainstream gender into their implementation and monitoring
plans.
For example,
 In Bangladesh, the labor force participation of rural women is only 36.4% compared to
83.3% of men. Creating employment and income generating opportunities for women
and enhancing their access to social protection will help reduce gender disparities.
 In Ethiopia, rural women lag behind in access to land property, economic opportunities,
justice system and financial assets. Women farmers perform up to 75% of farm labor but
hold only 18.7% of agricultural land in the country. The SDG Fund is using a
multifaceted approach to generate gender-sensitive agricultural extension services,
support the creation of cooperatives, promote the expansion of women-owned
agribusiness and increase rural women’s participation in rural producer associations,
financial cooperatives and unions.
 In the occupied Palestinian territory, the SDG Fund joint programme is helping to
improve the livelihoods of Palestinian women. The programme is building the capacities
of women-owned and run MSMEs (Micro Small and Medium Enterprises) and
cooperatives, preserving cultural and agricultural products, and turning them into
marketable and exportable products. In addition, the programme is protecting local
production and establish incentives for women cooperatives.
(N.B. This fund, however, is now officially closed, UN is continually sourcing out
funds for the goals)
120 | P a g e
Image: www/google
Activity 1: UN Sustainable Goals

Assessment
Identify three (3) plans among the sustainable goals of UN in relation to gender equality
and discuss each according to your understanding. (10 points each item)
1.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
121 | P a g e
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers
articulated. are not clear. Question completely stated. Key point is stated and accurate and
Spelling, punctuation, not adequately point is addressed, but supported. complete. Key idea is
grammar, and answered. not well supported. Spelling, punctuation, clearly stated,
complete sentence is Spelling, punctuation, Spelling, punctuation, grammar, and explained, and well
not observed. grammar, and grammar, and complete complete sentence is supported.
complete sentence is sentence is adequately adequately observed. Well organized,
adequately observed. observed. coherently
developed, and easy
to follow.
THE PHILIPPINE POSITION ON GENDER EQUALITY
122 | P a g e
While Philippines boasts of being one of the most gender-equal countries in the world
for the past years, the most recent Global Gender Gap Index of the World Economic
Forum shows the Philippines slipping three spots from 7th place.
 The country still remains in the top 10, but the worsening performance has been due to the
wage inequality for similar work carried out.
 The Philippine Institute for Development Studies also states that even when unemployment
rates dropped more rapidly for women than for men, authors of the study highlight that
unemployment rate is not always reflective of the working conditions of women, especially
since it can make it seem that “women in the Philippines who join the labor force have similar
economic opportunities as men.”






 In a report by HR in Asia, it was also found that 76 percent of female respondents in the
Philippines deal with inequality and prejudice in the workplace, with 17 percent admitting to
being questioned about their desire to have a family during the interview process.
 These facts compounded by political leaders who have blatantly vilified women — such as
President Duterte previously saying that there are things women can’t do and jobs women
can’t take on — fueled more women’s groups and women’s initiatives that push back.
 And Edukasyon’s newly launched campaign seems to be
one of the several additions
to the gradual strengthening of the women’s movement in
the country.
“Women are paid 18 to 22 percent less for their counterparts of the same exact position and work
that they do,” says Audrey Pe, founder of Women in Tech, and also one of the youth
ambassadors. “Instead of waiting for the gap in tech to close itself, instead of shifting into a
different field, I decided I wanted to do something about it. I saw the potential of tech to be used
to make a difference.” www.google.com
123 | P a g e
Addressing the gender gap
In March 2020, the Philippines ranked first among 10 Asian countries for gender diversity in the
workforce in the 2019 Gender Diversity Benchmark for Asia report.
While this sounds like good news, women occupy no more than a third of senior positions in the
Philippine workforce. Women are also underrepresented the most in fields related to technology
and engineering.
In an episode of Making Space, Rappler talks to Julia Abad, executive director for the Philippine
Business Coalition for Women Empowerment (PBCWE), and Audrey Pe, founder and executive
director of Women in Technology (WiTech). (Rappler news, listen to the interview, 2020)
What are some of the reasons why there are industries, fields, or even job positions that are seen
as "for men" or "for women"? Pe said that social constructs and stereotypes may play a role in
hindering girls from pursuing careers that might be seen as "male-dominated."
 Audrey Pe, a youth ambassador, also seeks to disrupt the existing

gendered expectations in the workplace of her chosen field:
technology.
 She started Women in Tech (WiTech), an organization that hosts
the first women in tech conference organized by students and for
students in the country, as well as outreach programs where they
teach students in far flung areas the basics of computer programming.
 Through Edukasyon’s campaign, Pe believes that their role is primarily in informing Filipinas
that there are fields they can pursue which they may not be aware of yet or are too afraid to be
a part of.
 She adds that there is value in feeling represented, much as how she was inspired to build her
organization after meeting female leaders in technology. (Ladrico, 2018)
124 | P a g e
ACTIVITY 1: PHILIPPINE POSITION ON GENDER EQUALITY
Assessment
Discuss briefly if Philippines’ position on gender equality is parallel (in conjunction) with
the United Nation’s sustainable development goal.
Cite at least three (3) instances if Yes, cite reasons if No. (10 points each)
_______YES ______NO
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
125 | P a g e
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers
Spelling, punctuation, not adequately point is addressed, but supported. complete. Key idea is
grammar, and answered. not well supported. Spelling, punctuation, clearly stated,
not observed. grammar, and complete grammar, and complete complete sentence is supported.
sentence is adequately sentence is adequately adequately observed. Well organized,
observed. observed. coherently developed,
and easy to follow.
LESSON 3: Philippine Laws on Gender and Society
Objectives:
1. Be familiar with the provision of the following:
a. R.A. No. 9262
b. R.A. No. 8353
c. R.A. No. 7610
d. Specific constitutional and legislative provisions regarding violence against women
2. Distinguish the salient features of the above-cited laws.
3. Apply the provisions of the said by making judgment on cases analysed and assessed.
126 | P a g e
Republic Act 9262 Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004 also
known as AN ACT DEFINING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND THEIR
CHILDREN, PROVIDING FOR PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR VICTIMS,
PRESCRIBING PENALTIES THEREFORE, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
Republic Act 9262 was signed on May 8, 2004 by then President Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo, with full support of women’s rights and feminist groups. Also known as the Anti-
Violence Against Women and their Children Act (VAWC) of 2004, RA 9262 charges tougher
penalties for abusive husbands and men and marks the declaration of the State’s valuation to “the
dignity of women and children and guarantees full respect for human rights” (Sec. 2).
Senator Loi Ejercito was the principal author of Senate Bill 2723 or the Anti- VAWC bill
in the Senate while Rep. Bellaflor Angara-Castillo was the principal author of House Bill 5516 at
the House of Representatives.
Section 2 which is the declaration of policy, avowed that,
“the State values the dignity of women and children and guarantees full respect for
human rights. The State also recognizes the need to protect the family and its members
particularly women and children, from violence and threats to their personal safety and
security.”
Section 3, defined the following terms as used in the law and they are:
(a) "Violence against women and their children" refers to any act or a series of acts committed by
any person against a woman who is his wife, former wife, or against a woman with whom
the person has or had a sexual or dating relationship, or with whom he has a common child,
127 | P a g e
or against her child whether legitimate or illegitimate, within or without the family abode,
which result in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering, or
economic abuse including threats of such acts, battery, assault, coercion, harassment or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty. It includes, but is not limited to, the following acts:
A. "Physical Violence" refers to acts that include bodily or physical harm;
B. "Sexual violence" refers to an act which is sexual in nature, committed against a woman
or her child. It includes, but is not limited to:
a) Rape, sexual harassment, acts of lasciviousness, treating a woman or her child as
a sex object, making demeaning and sexually suggestive remarks, physically
attacking the sexual parts of the victim's body, forcing her/him to watch obscene
publications and indecent shows or forcing the woman or her child to do indecent
acts and/or make films thereof, forcing the wife and mistress/lover to live in the
conjugal home or sleep together in the same room with the abuser;
b) Acts causing or attempting to cause the victim to engage in any sexual activity by
force, threat of force, physical or other harm or threat of physical or other harm or
coercion;
c) Prostituting the woman or child.
C. "Psychological violence" refers to acts or omissions causing or likely to cause mental or
emotional suffering of the victim such as but not limited to intimidation, harassment,
stalking, damage to property, public ridicule or humiliation, repeated verbal abuse and
mental infidelity. It includes causing or allowing the victim to witness the physical, sexual or
psychological abuse of a member of the family to which the victim belongs, or to witness
pornography in any form or to witness abusive injury to pets or to unlawful or unwanted
deprivation of the right to custody and/or visitation of common children.
D. "Economic abuse" refers to acts that make or attempt to a woman financially dependent
which includes, but is not limited to the following:
1. Withdrawal of financial support or preventing the victim from engaging in any
legitimate profession, occupation, business or activity, except in cases wherein the other
spouse/partner objects on valid, serious and moral grounds as defined in Article 73 of the
Family Code;
2. Deprivation or threat of deprivation of financial resources and the right to the use and
enjoyment of the conjugal, community or property owned in common;
3. Destroying household property;
128 | P a g e
4. Controlling the victims' own money or properties or solely controlling the conjugal
money or properties.
(b) "Battery" refers to an act of inflicting physical harm upon the woman or her child resulting to
the physical and psychological or emotional distress.
(c) "Battered Woman Syndrome" refers to a scientifically defined pattern of psychological and
behavioral symptoms found in women living in battering relationships as a result of cumulative
abuse.
(d) "Stalking" refers to an intentional act committed by a person who, knowingly and without
lawful justification follows the woman or her child or places the woman or her child under
surveillance directly or indirectly or a combination thereof.
(e) "Dating relationship" refers to a situation wherein the parties live as husband and wife without
the benefit of marriage or are romantically involved over time and on a continuing basis during
the course of the relationship. A casual acquaintance or ordinary socialization between two
individuals in a business or social context is not a dating relationship.
(f) "Sexual relations" refers to a single sexual act which may or may not result in the bearing of a
common child.
(g) "Safe place or shelter" refers to any home or institution maintained or managed by the
Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) or by any other agency or voluntary
organization accredited by the DSWD for the purposes of this Act or any other suitable place the
resident of which is willing temporarily to receive the victim.
(h) "Children" refers to those below eighteen (18) years of age or older but are incapable of
taking care of themselves as defined under Republic Act No. 7610. As used in this Act, it
includes the biological children of the victim and other children under her care.
Section 5, enumerated the following Acts of Violence Against Women and Their Children.- The
crime of violence against women and their children is committed through any of the following
acts:
(a) Causing physical harm to the woman or her child;
129 | P a g e
(b) Threatening to cause the woman or her child physical harm;
(c) Attempting to cause the woman or her child physical harm;
(d) Placing the woman or her child in fear of imminent physical harm;
(e) Attempting to compel or compelling the woman or her child to engage in conduct which the
woman or her child has the right to desist from or desist from conduct which the woman or
her child has the right to engage in, or attempting to restrict or restricting the woman's or her
child's freedom of movement or conduct by force or threat of force, physical or other harm
or threat of physical or other harm, or intimidation directed against the woman or child. This
shall include, but not limited to, the following acts committed with the purpose or effect of
controlling or restricting the woman's or her child's movement or conduct:
(1) Threatening to deprive or actually depriving the woman or her child of custody to
her/his family;
(2) Depriving or threatening to deprive the woman or her children of financial support
legally due her or her family, or deliberately providing the woman's children
insufficient financial support;
(3) Depriving or threatening to deprive the woman or her child of a legal right; and
(4) Preventing the woman in engaging in any legitimate profession, occupation, business
or activity or controlling the victim's own money or properties, or solely controlling the
conjugal or common money, or properties.
(f) Inflicting or threatening to inflict physical harm on oneself for the purpose of controlling her
actions or decisions;
(g) Causing or attempting to cause the woman or her child to engage in any sexual activity which
does not constitute rape, by force or threat of force, physical harm, or through intimidation
directed against the woman or her child or her/his immediate family;
(h) Engaging in purposeful, knowing, or reckless conduct, personally or through another, that
alarms or causes substantial emotional or psychological distress to the woman or her child.
This shall include, but not be limited to, the following acts:
(1) Stalking or following the woman or her child in public or private places;
(2) Peering in the window or lingering outside the residence of the woman or her child;
(3) Entering or remaining in the dwelling or on the property of the woman or her child
against her/his will;
(4) Destroying the property and personal belongings or inflicting harm to animals or pets
of the woman or her child; and
(5) Engaging in any form of harassment or violence.
130 | P a g e
(i) Causing mental or emotional anguish, public ridicule or humiliation to the woman or her child,
including, but not limited to, repeated verbal and emotional abuse, and denial of financial
support or custody of minor children of access to the woman's child/children.
Towards this end, the State shall exert efforts to address violence committed against
women and children in keeping with the fundamental freedoms guaranteed under the Constitution
and the Provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the convention on the
Elimination of all forms of discrimination Against Women, Convention on the Rights of the
Child and other international human rights instruments of which the Philippines is a party.
The law defines violence against women and their children as a public crime. It provides
for the security of the woman-complainant and her children through the availment of the
barangay, temporary or permanent protection orders. It also identifies the duties of barangay
officials, law enforces, prosecutors, court personnel, social welfare and health care providers and
the LGUs to provide the necessary protection and support of VAWC victims. (Foundations for
Media Alternatives 2017)
Activity 1: Case Analysis applying R.A. No. 9262
1. Situation 1
Ambrosia filed a case of Violation of R.A. No. 9262 against Protacio because he abandoned her
after he learned that A is 11- week old pregnant following their 2year lived-in relationship. B in
his defense alleged that he was deceived by A because, they have agreed that A should be on
contraceptive pill and further, A is no longer a virgin when they started their relationship. Will
the case prosper? Decide. (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. Situation 2
Petra filed a case of Violation of R.A No. 9262 against Pedro. The facts are as following. In the
early morning of February 14, 2020 at about 10 o’clock, Petra was on her way to a nearby sari-
sari store owned and operated by Aling Nena when he met Pedro, who gave her a smile and
winked his right eye. Suddenly, Petra blurted, “ay bastos, maniac” (what a lascivious manic
person) within hearing distance of some people in the area who laughed at what they witnessed.
Pedro felt embarrassed and in retaliation, he said back to Petra, “masungit na matandang dalaga,
feeling maganda, mukha namang tutubi!” (rugged old maid who thinks she is beautiful but looks
like a dragonfly instead). Insulted by what Pedro said, Petra filed this case against Pedro. Will the
case prosper? Decide (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
131 | P a g e
Rubric for answers
Spelling, Question not Key point is point is stated and complete. Key
punctuation, adequately addressed, but not supported. idea is clearly
grammar, and answered. well supported. Spelling, stated, explained,
complete sentence Spelling, Spelling, punctuation, and well
is not observed. punctuation, punctuation, grammar, and supported.
grammar, and grammar, and complete sentence Well organized,
complete sentence complete sentence is adequately coherently
is adequately is adequately observed. developed, and
observed. observed. easy to follow.
Republic Act No. 7610 AN ACT PROVIDING FOR STRONGER DETERRENCE AND
SPECIAL PROTECTION AGAINST CHILD ABUSE, EXPLOITATION AND
DISCRIMINATION, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
What is the rationale of this law?

It is the policy of the State to provide special protection to children from all firms of
abuse, neglect, cruelty exploitation and discrimination and other conditions, prejudicial their
development; provide sanctions for their commission and carry out a program for prevention and
deterrence of and crisis intervention in situations of child abuse, exploitation and discrimination.
The State shall intervene on behalf of the child when the parent, guardian, teacher or
person having care or custody of the child fails or is unable to protect the child against abuse,
exploitation and discrimination or when such acts against the child are committed by the said
parent, guardian, teacher or person having care and custody of the same.
It shall be the policy of the State to protect and rehabilitate children gravely threatened or
endangered by circumstances which affect or will affect their survival and normal development
and over which they have no control.
The best interests of children shall be the paramount consideration in all actions
concerning them, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions, courts of
law, administrative authorities, and legislative bodies, consistent with the principle of First Call
for Children as enunciated in the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child. Every
effort shall be exerted to promote the welfare of children and enhance their opportunities for a
useful and happy life.
Who are the children as defined in this law?
132 | P a g e
“Children" refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age or those over but are unable
to fully take care of themselves or protect themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or
discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or condition.
What is child abuse and other forms of abuse?
"Child abuse" refers to the maltreatment, whether habitual or not, of the child which includes
any of the following:
(1) Psychological and physical abuse, neglect, cruelty, sexual abuse and emotional maltreatment;
(2) Any act by deeds or words which debases, degrades or demeans the intrinsic worth and
dignity of a child as a human being;
(3) Unreasonable deprivation of his basic needs for survival, such as food and shelter; or
(4) Failure to immediately give medical treatment to an injured child resulting in serious
impairment of his growth and development or in his permanent incapacity or death.
What other circumstances would gravely threaten or endanger the survival and normal
development of children?
These are the following:

(1) Being in a community where there is armed conflict or being affected by armed conflict-
related activities;
(2) Working under conditions hazardous to life, safety and normal which unduly interfere with
their normal development;
(3) Living in or fending for themselves in the streets of urban or rural areas without the care of
parents or a guardian or basic services needed for a good quality of life;
(4) Being a member of an indigenous cultural community and/or living under conditions of
extreme poverty or in an area which is underdeveloped and/or lacks or has inadequate access to
basic services needed for a good quality of life;
(5) Being a victim of a man-made or natural disaster or calamity; or
(6) Circumstances analogous to those above stated which endanger the life, safety or normal
development of children.
133 | P a g e
What does "Comprehensive program against child abuse, exploitation and discrimination"
men?
It refers to the coordinated program of services and facilities to protected children against:
(1) Child Prostitution and other sexual abuse;
(2) Child trafficking;
(3) Obscene publications and indecent shows;
(4) Other acts of abuses; and
(5) Circumstances which threaten or endanger the survival and normal development of children.
Can children be employed?
Yes, when a child’s employment or participation in public entertainment or information through

cinema, theater, radio or television is essential: Provided, that employment contract is concluded
by the child’s parent or guardian, with the express agreement of the child concerned, if possible,
and the approval of the Department of Labor and Employment:
Provided, further that the following requirements in all instances are strictly complied with:
(a) The employer shall ensure the protection, health, safety, morals and normal development of
the child;
(b) The employer shall institute measures to prevent the child’s exploitation or discrimination
taking into account the system and level of remuneration, and the duration and arrangement
of working time; and;
(c) The employer shall formulate and implement, subject to the approval and supervision of
competent authorities, a continuing program for training and skills acquisition of the child.
What should the law provide for Children of Indigenous Cultural Communities?
These children in addition to the rights guaranteed to children under this Act:
1. They shall be entitled to protection, survival and development consistent with the
customs and traditions of their respective communities.
2. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports shall develop and institute an
alternative system of education for children of indigenous cultural communities which is
culture-specific and relevant to the needs and the existing situation in their communities.
134 | P a g e
3. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports shall also accredit and support
nonformal but functional indigenous educational programs conducted by non-
governmental organizations in said communities.
4. The delivery of basic social services in health and nutrition to children of indigenous
cultural communities shall be given priority by all government agencies concerned and n
the provisions of health and nutrition services to children of indigenous cultural
communities, indigenous health practices shall be respected and recognized.
5. These children of indigenous cultural communities shall not be subjected to any and all
forms of discrimination.
Children in Situations of Armed Conflict are declared as Zones of Peace.

It shall be the responsibility of the State and all sectors concerned to resolve armed conflicts in
order to promote the goal of children as zones of peace and in order to obtain this objective, the
following policies shall be observed:
(a) Children shall not be the object of attack and shall be entitled to special respect. They shall be
protected from any form of threat, assault, torture or other cruel, inhumane or
degradingtreatment;
(b) Children shall not be recruited to become members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines or
its civilian units or other armed groups, nor be allowed to take part in the fighting, or used as
guides, couriers, or spies;
(c) Delivery of basic social services such as education, primary health and emergency relief
services shall be kept unhampered;
(d) The safety and protection of those who provide services including those involved in fact-
finding missions from both government and non-government institutions shall be ensured.
They shall not be subjected to undue harassment in the performance of their work;
(e) Public infrastructure such as schools, hospitals and rural health units shall not be utilized for
military purposes such as command posts, barracks, detachments, and supply depots; and
(f) All appropriate steps shall be taken to facilitate the reunion of families temporarily separated
due to armed conflict.
Who may file the case for Violation of this law?
Complaints on cases of unlawful acts committed against children may be filed by the following:
(a) Offended party;
135 | P a g e
(b) Parents or guardians;
(c) Ascendant or collateral relative within the third degree of consanguinity;
(d) Officer, social worker or representative of a licensed child-caring institution;
(e) Officer of social worker of the Department of Social Welfare and Development;
(f) Barangay chairman; or
(g) At least three (3) concerned responsible citizens where the violation occurred.
Special Court Proceedings. - Cases involving violations of this Act shall be heard in the
chambers of the judge of the Regional Trial Court duly designated as Juvenile and Domestic
Relations Courts. (See full text of R.A. 7610 as Appendix “”)
Activity 1: Applying R.A. No. 7610

Read the provisions of RA 7610 and answer the following questions:
a. Define the following: (20 points)
1. Children (5 pts)
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Child abuse (5 pts)
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
1. Child trafficking (5 pts)
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b. Can children be employed? Yes or No, How or Why? (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
c. What are the rights of Children of Indigenous Cultural Communities? (10) points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers
1/2 POINT(S) 2/4 POINTS 3/6 POINTS 4/8 POINTS 5/10 POINTS
136 | P a g e
Spelling, Question not Key point is point is stated and complete. Key
punctuation, adequately addressed, but not supported. idea is clearly
grammar, and answered. well supported. Spelling, stated, explained,
complete sentence Spelling, Spelling, punctuation, and well
is not observed. punctuation, punctuation, grammar, and supported.
grammar, and grammar, and complete sentence Well organized,
complete sentence complete sentence is adequately coherently
is adequately is adequately observed. developed, and
observed. observed. easy to follow.
REPUBLIC ACT 8353 AN ACT EXPANDING THE DEFINITION OF THE CRIME OF

RAPE, RECLASSIFYING THE SAME AS A CRIME AGAINST PERSONS, AMENDING
FOR THE PURPOSE ACT NO. 3815, AS AMENDED, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE
REVISED PENAL CODE, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
When and how is rape committed?

Rape Is Committed –
1) By a man who shall have carnal knowledge of a woman under any of the following
circumstances:
a) Through force, threat, or intimidation;
b) When the offended party is deprived of reason or otherwise unconscious;
c) By means of fraudulent machination or grave abuse of authority; and
d) When the offended party is under twelve (12) years of age or is demented, even though
none of the circumstances mentioned above be present.
N.B. The above cited acts shall be punished by reclusion perpetua (imprisonment of at least 20
years and one day to a maximum of 40 years, after which the convicted would be eligible for
parole)
If Rape was committed under the following circumstances, the penalty shall increase from
reclusion perpetua to death:
1. Whenever the rape is committed with the use of a deadly weapon or by two or more persons,
the penalty shall be reclusion perpetua to death.
2. When by reason or on the occasion of the rape, the victim has become insane, the penalty
shall be reclusion perpetua to death.
137 | P a g e
3. When the rape is attempted and a homicide is committed by reason or on the occasion
thereof, the penalty shall be reclusion perpetua to death.
4. When by reason or on the occasion of the rape, homicide is committed, the penalty shall be
death.
Furthermore, the death penalty shall also be imposed if the crime of rape
is committed with any of the following aggravating/qualifying circumstances:
1) When the victim is under eighteen (18) years of age and the offender is a parent, ascendant,
step-parent, guardian, relative by consanguinity or affinity within the third civil degree, or
the common law spouse of the parent of the victim;
2) When the victim is under the custody of the police or military authorities or any law
enforcement or penal institution;
3) When the rape is committed in full view of the spouse, parent, any of the children or other
relatives within the third civil degree of consanguinity;
4) When the victim is a religious engaged in legitimate religious vocation or calling and is
personally known to be such by the offender before or at the time of the commission of the
crime;
5) When the victim is a child below seven (7) years old;
6) When the offender knows that he is afflicted with Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus
(HIV)/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) or any other sexually-transmissible
disease and the virus or disease is transmitted to the victim;
7) When committed by any member of the Armed Forces of the Philippines or para-military units
thereof or the Philippine National Police or any law enforcement agency or penal institution,
when the offender took advantage of his position to facilitate the commission of the crime;
8) When by reason or on the occasion of the rape, the victim has suffered permanent physical
mutilation or disability;
9) When the offender knew of the pregnancy of the offended party at the time of the commission
of the crime; and
10) When the offender knew of the mental disability, emotional disorder and/or physical
handicap of the offended party at the time of the commission of the crime.
138 | P a g e
2) Rape is committed by any person who, under any of the circumstances mentioned in
paragraph 1 hereof, shall commit an act of sexual assault by inserting his penis into another
person’s mouth or anal orifice, or any instrument or object, into the genital or anal orifice
of another person.
N.B. The above-cited acts shall be punished by prision mayor – imprisonment for 6 years and
one day to 12 years.
If Rape was committed under the following circumstances, the penalty shall increase from
prision mayor to reclusion temporal – imprisonment of 12 years and one day to 20 years
1. Whenever the rape is committed with the use of a deadly weapon or by two or more persons,
the penalty shall be prision mayor to reclusion temporal.
2. When by reason or on the occasion of the rape, the victim has become insane, the penalty
shall be reclusion temporal.
“ When the rape is attempted and a homicide is committed by reason or on the occasion thereof,
the penalty shall be reclusion temporal to reclusion perpetua.”
“When by reason or on the occasion of the rape, homicide is committed, the penalty shall be
reclusion perpetua.”
What happens to the case if the victim and perpetrator will subsequently marry?
Answer: The subsequent valid marriage between the offender and the offended party shall
extinguishthe criminal action or the penalty imposed. (Art. 266-A of R.A. 8353)
N.B. In case it is the legal husband who is the offender, the subsequent forgiveness by the wife as
the offended party shall extinguish the criminal action or the penalty: Provided, That the crime
shall not be extinguished or the penalty shall not be abated if the marriage is void ab initio (not
valid from the beginning) (See full text of R.A. No. 8353 as Appendix “”)
What are the specific constitutional and legislative provisions regarding Violence Against
Women (VAW)?
1. The 1987 Philippine Constitution - The protection of the human rights of all Filipinos is
contained in the Philippine Constitution. Among its salient provisions is Article II, Section
139 | P a g e
14 which provides that “the state recognizes the role of women in nation building and shall
ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men.”
2. Anti-Mail Order Bride Law (Republic Act 6955) – The law declares unlawful the
matching of Filipino mail-order brides to foreigners. It penalizes the business of matching
Filipino women for marriage to foreign nationals either through personal introduction as well
as through advertisement, publication, printing or distribution of brochure and flyers,
through membership in clubs created for matching Filipinas to foreign nationals and, through
the use of the postal service.
3. Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 (Republic Act 7877) – The law makes incidents
involving unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or other verbal or physical
conduct of sexual nature, made directly or indirectly in the employment, education or
training environment unlawful. Sexual harassment is about abusing power relations – using
one’s power to extract sexual favors.
4. Rape Victims Assistance and Protection Act of 1998 (Republic Act 8505) The law
provides assistance and protection to rape victims, establishes for the purpose a rape crisis
center in every province and city and authorizes the appropriation of funds for the
establishment and operation of the rape crisis center. Aside from the provision of services,
capacity building/training is also mandated for the law enforcement officers, public
prosecutors, lawyers, medico-legal officers, social workers and barangay officials on human
rights and their responsibilities, gender sensitivity and legal management of rape cases.
5. Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003 (Republic Act 9208) – The law defines trafficking
in person in terms of the acts, means and purposes of trafficking. The trafficked person is
considered as a victim thus, she/he should be provided protection and support services by the
State. Government agencies are mandated to provide services to the trafficked persons at the
international, national and local levels for his/her early recovery and reintegration.
6. Article 245 of the Revised Penal Code (Republic Act 3815) – The law provides that abuse
against chastity is committed by any public officer who shall solicit or make immoral
advances to a woman interested in matters pending before such office for decision, or with
respect to which he is required to submit a report to or consult with a superior officer; or by
any warden or other public officer directly charged with the care and custody of prisoners or
140 | P a g e
persons under arrest who shall solicit or make immoral or indecent advances to a woman
under his custody. A penalty of prison correctional in its medium and maximum periods and
temporary special disqualification shall be imposed on the offender. (NSO, 2009)
7. The Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act 9710) Is a comprehensive women’s human
rights law that seeks to eliminate discrimination against women by recognizing, protecting,
fulfilling and promoting the rights of Filipino women, especially those in marginalized
sector. All rights in the Philippine Constitution and those rights recognized under
international instruments duly signed and ratified by the Philippines, in consonance with
Philippine laws shall be rights of women under the Magna Carta of Women. These rights
shall be enjoyed without discrimination since the law prohibits discrimination against
women, whether done by public and private entities or individuals.
Activity 1: Applying R.A. No. 8353

Answer the following questions: (RA 8353)
1. Who are liable or should be charged with rape? (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Under what circumstances that a crime of rape be penalized from reclusion perpetua to
death? Give two (2) circumstances (10 points each)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What does the phrase mean, “An act of one is an act of all”, in the crime of rape.
Illustrate through an example or situation. (10 points)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
141 | P a g e
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers
Spelling, Question not Key point is supported. complete. Key idea
punctuation, adequately addressed, but not Spelling, is clearly stated,
grammar, and answered. well supported. punctuation, explained, and well
complete sentence Spelling, Spelling, grammar, and supported.
is not observed. punctuation, punctuation, complete sentence Well organized,
grammar, and grammar, and is adequately coherently
complete sentence is complete sentence is observed. developed, and
adequately observed. adequately observed. easy to follow.
LESSON 4: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT: AN OVERVIEW
Objectives:
1. Describe the conception of Gender and
Development
2. Distinguish the various approaches to understanding Gender and Development
3. Initiate thought provoking questions to get responses from group through discussion
sessions
142 | P a g e
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT: AN OVERVIEW
“Man and woman are a peerless pair; being supplementary to one another; each helps the other,
so that without the one, the existence of the other cannot be conceived and, therefore, it follows
that anything that impairs the status of either of them will involve the equal ruin of them both.”
– Mahatma Gandhi
The case of Sarah Longwe and the

Hotel A (Zambian woman)
Sarah Longwe, was denied
entry to an international hotel in Lusaka
on the ground that unaccompanied
women were not allowed into the hotel
because the hotel residents and male
patrons did not want to be disturbed.
Apparently this ban on all
unaccompanied women entering the
hotel bar had been implemented because ‘women not accompanied by a male…used to fight
amongst themselves for men’.
The assumption here was that Longwe had violated male space and, more importantly,
that all women on their own were potentially prostitutes. No evidence was ever produced to
prove this.
Sued for sex discrimination, the defendant hotel contended that the barring of Longwe had
nothing to do with the fact that she was a woman rather it was because she was unaccompanied
by a man!
143 | P a g e
The defendant-hotel then went on to contend that, as a hotel, it was a private enterprise
not subject to constitutional provisions, including those guaranteeing freedom of movement,
freedom of association and proscribing discrimination including that based on sex.
The court rejected the argument that as a private company the hotel was above national
law, noting that the constitution was the supreme law of the country governing both public and
private enterprises.
The court ruled that Longwe’s freedom of movement guaranteed by the Zambian
Constitution had been violated.
The judge further ruled that Sarah Longwe has been discriminated against because of her sex. –
Source: F. Banda, Women, Law and Human Rights: An African Perspective, 2005: 284
The story of Sarah Longwe is not uncommon to several countries where gender
stereotypes as well as sexism are part of social norms. However, it would be enlightening to
look back approaches and events that paved way for the establishment of gender and
development.
What is Gender and Development?
Gender and Development (GAD) – refers to the development perspective and process
that is participatory and empowering, equitable, sustainable, free from violence, respectful of
human rights, supportive of self-determination and actualization of human potentials. It seeks to
achieve gender equality as a fundamental value that should be reflected in development choices
and contends that women are active agents of development, not just passive recipients of
development.
How Gender and Development started?
Approaches towards both men and woman.
Women in Development approach (WID)

This dates back to the 1970s when the belief was that women had not only been left out of
development but had also become even more disadvantaged as a result.
The Women In Development approach believed that the central issue is the absence and
exclusion of women from development programmes and approaches. Women played a central
role in the life of their community and particularly within their family as mothers, educators, care
providers and as workers.
144 | P a g e
Despite increasing the visibility of women in development issues, the WID approach had a
number of limitations.
1. This approach made demands for women’s inclusion in development, but it did not call for
changes in the overall structure or economic system in which women were to be included.
2. The WID approach concentrated very narrowly on the inequalities between men and women
and ignored the social, cultural, legal and economic factors that give rise to those inequalities
in society.
3. WID focused on women almost exclusively and assumed that women were outside the
mainstream of development.
The Women and Development approach (WAD)

This came in the latter part of 1970’s and argued that women had always been part of the
development process, where the work women undertook both inside and outside the household
was vital to the survival and continuance of society.
Women and Development (WAD) saw both women and men as being disadvantaged by
the global economic structures, including class issues and the way wealth was distributed.
WAD therefore argued that the integration of women into development was to their
disadvantage and only worsened their chances of equality.
This approach was criticised for assuming that the position of women would improve if
and when international structures became more equitable, thereby underplaying the role of
patriarchy and not adequately addressing the question of social relations between men and
women and their impact on development.
Gender and Development approach (GAD)

Came about in the 1980s and represents a coming together of many feminist ideas.
It very obviously looks at the impact of development on both men and women –
supporting the equal participation of both women and men in development and emphasising
equality of benefit and control in everyday events.
GAD is not concerned with women exclusively, but with the way in which gender
relations allot specific roles, responsibilities and expectations between men and women, often to
the detriment of women
GAD focuses on the social or gender relations (division of labour etc. ) between men and
women in society and seeks to address issues of access and control over resources and power.
145 | P a g e
It emphasises both the reproductive and productive role of women and argues that it is
the state’s responsibility to support the social reproduction role (mostly played by women) for
caring and nurturing of children.
GAD treats development as a complex process that is influenced by political, social and
economic factors rather than as a state or stage of development.
This approach is about empowering those who are disadvantaged in a community and
enhancing and changing their lives for the better.
Some benefits from focusing on gender in development
1. Positive changes in gender relations and more respectful social attitudes towards women
2. More decision-making and political participation by women in the community
3. Women’s increased knowledge of their legal rights
4. Greater likelihood that girls would stay in school
5. Reduced violence against women.
6. Improved communication and mutual support between men and
7. women on family planning, HIV and other sexually transmitted infections.
8. Increased knowledge by men of women’s health care issues
9. Shifts in attention about shared roles and responsibilities between men and women in
childrearing, labour, and reproductive health issues
( UNFPA, 2005)
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT IN PHILIPPINES
Guided by local legal/official frameworks such as the:

1. The 1987 Constitution – “The state recognizes the role of
women in nation-building, and shall ensure the fundamental
equality before the law of women and men."
2. Executive Order No. 348 of 1989, Approving and Adopting
the Philippine Development Plan for Women for 1989 to 1992
• Mandates the creation of Gender and Development
(GAD) focal points within an agency, a sector or a
locality.
• Executive Order No. 273 – The 1995-2025 Philippine Plan for
146 | P a g e
Gender Responsive Development (PPGD)
3. Republic Act 7192 of 1992, Women in Development and Nation Building Act
4. NSCB Resolution No. 8, Series of 1994 – Enjoining Different
Agencies to Promote Gender Concerns in the Generation of
Statistics
 Provides for strong data support for the effective
implementation of various laws protecting the rights of women.
 Guided by internationally agreed frameworks/commitments, such as the:
- Beijing Platform for Action
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW) (Encarnacion, 2013)
Philippine Plan for Gender and Development, 1995-2025, is a National Plan that
addresses, provides and pursues full equality and development for men and women. Approved
and adopted by former President Fidel V. Ramos as Executive No. 273, on September 8, 1995, it
is the successor of the Philippine Development Plan for Women, 1989-1992 adopted by
Executive No. 348 of February 17, 1989.
Three years after, DENR Administrative Order No. 98 – 15 dated May 27, 1998 came up
as the Revised Guidelines on the Implementation of Gender and Development (GAD) Activities
in the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in order to strengthen the
DENR GAD Focal Point System and accomplishing the GAD vision “Partnership of Empowered
Men and Women for Sustainable Development”.
Republic Act No. 9710, otherwise known as the Magna Carta of Women was approved
on August 14, 2009 which mandates non-discriminatory and pro-gender equality and equity
measures to enable women’s participation in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of
policies and plan for national, regional and local development.
A Memorandum Circular No. 2011 – 01 dated October 21, 2011 was released addressing
to all Government Departments including their attached agencies, offices, bureaus, State
Universalities and Colleges (SUCs), Government-Owned and Controlled Corporations (GOCCs)
and all other government instrumentalities as their guidelines and procedures for the
establishment, strengthening and institutionalization of the GAD Focal Point System (GFPS).
147 | P a g e
Activity 1: Gender and Development
1. Trace the history of Gender and Development from
a. Women in Development Approach, what are the limitations? (10 points), identify at
least two (2) and explain briefly
_______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. What are the innovations in Gender and Development that had been missing in Women
in Development Approach. Identify two (2) and explain briefly (10 points each)
148 | P a g e
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Rubric for answers

Spelling, Question not Key point is supported. complete. Key idea
punctuation, adequately addressed, but not Spelling, is clearly stated,
grammar, and answered. well supported. punctuation, explained, and well
complete sentence Spelling, Spelling, grammar, and supported.
is not observed. punctuation, punctuation, complete sentence Well organized,
grammar, and grammar, and is adequately coherently
complete sentence is complete sentence is observed. developed, and
adequately observed. adequately observed. easy to follow.
LESSON 5: SYNTHESIS OF CONTENDING GENDER ISSUES IN THE

PHILIPPINES AND BEYOND
Objectives:
At the end of the discussion, the student should:
1. Discuss the implications of these gender issues in the Philippines.
2. Assess the situation in which these gender issues affect the social dynamics so that one is
able to cope to anticipate further happening of events.
3. Describe how these gender issues had direct relationship with the past that will enable
the student to formulate hypothesis that lead to understanding the present and even
anticipate the future.
149 | P a g e
There are so many controversies, arguments as well as debates pertaining to gender in

general, and all its undercurrents and underlying forces in particular. We tried to resolve these
issues, came up with consensus via laws legislated convincing each of us that gender issues have
long been unravelled. However, we have to accept the fact that gender issues will remain to by
dynamic, ever-moving and self-motivated so long as
societies
exist and
people act
out in
accordance
with
changing
times.
Philippine society has long emerged to be adept in keeping up with changes and trend, as
Filipinos respond overwhelmingly with challenges in gender concerns, indeed, there are several
if not numerous that are worth deliberating.
150 | P a g e
LESBIANS, GAYS, BISEXUAL, TRANSGENDER, QUEER (LGBTQ)
The Philippines is known to be one of the more tolerant countries in the world to the LGBTQ+
(lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) community, but it has yet to pass a bill
prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity or expression.
Who would not forget the much talked about the “restroom” incident between a transgender
woman who was prevented by the Janitress from using the said woman’s restroom in a Cubao
mall in Quezon City on August 13, 2019. The transgender woman. Gretchen Custodio Diez, was
arrested for going live on Facebook while inside the female restroom. Diez claimed that she is a
proud trans woman who expresses herself as a woman and she always goes to the female
restroom every single day. So she got offended by this act. Later on, the janitress apologized and
decided not to pursue the case against her for unjust vexation. The incident, however, did not end
there as it earned supporters of Diez her cause for better treatment for transgender people.
(Talabong 2019)
SOGIE - stands for Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression. But what do those
words mean anyway?
Sexual Orientation is about to whom you have sexual or romantic feelings. You can be
heterosexual (attracted to the opposite gender); homosexual (attracted to the same gender);
bisexual (attracted to both genders); or pansexual (attracted to all genders).
You can even be asexual or ace (you have romantic feelings towards people but not sexual
attraction), or aromantic (you can be sexually attracted to people but you don't have romantic
feelings).
Gender Identity is about how you identify yourself, regardless of you sexual orientation. You can
be male or female, and if you feel that the gender assigned to you at birth is true to who you are,
you are cisgender. Or you can be transgender, meaning you feel that your real identity is
different from the one assigned to you at birth (think Caitlyn Jenner, BB Gandanghari, Angelina
Mead King).
151 | P a g e
Gender Expression is how you express or show your gender, by the way you dress, act, move,
talk.
What is the SOGIE Bill?
The SOGIE Bill is basically an anti-discrimination bill. It recognizes that many people, whether
they're LGBTQIA+ or cisgender, experience discrimination based on their SOGIE. The bill seeks
to protect all people from this kind of discrimination. There are currently three versions of the
SOGIE Bill filed in the Senate, by Sen. Risa Hontiveros, Sen. Imee Marcos, and Sen. Francis
“Kiko” Pangilinan.
Who will the SOGIE Bill affect?
Everybody, every person has SOGIE, "the bill applies to all. Even cis heteros have sexual
orientation and gender identity or expression. The SOGIE Equality Bill does not provide
LGBTIQAs with special rights."
Some people have said that there isn't really a need for a SOGIE Bill, since there are many
members of the LGBTQIA community who are accepted and successful in different industries.
But there are also members who live their lives deprived of basic rights, such as the right to work,
the right to education, the right to access to health services, facilities, and establishments, and
others, simply because of their sexual orientation and gender identity or expression.
Discrimination has been a reality in the lives of LGBTIQAs. While some might not have been
discriminated against, or might not have felt stigmatized, it does not negate the lived experiences
of others who have."
Basically, just because you haven't experienced it or seen it happening, that doesn't mean it
doesn't happen at all! Maybe you should ask the different LGBTQIA people you know if they've
ever experienced any discrimination. And don't forget, discrimination has happened—and still
happens!—to cisgender women, too.
What is covered by the SOGIE Bill?
152 | P a g e
With the SOGIE Bill, certain activities can now be declared discriminatory, and a person can
actually file charges if any person, corporation, or organization commits these acts. These
activities include the promotion of stigma (like if you say HIV cases are increasing because of
gay men having sex), and denial of access to public service, with special mention of military
service.
It will also be a violation if there's "differential treatment of an employee, a job applicant, or any
one engaged by virtue of a contract of service" because "companies should hire based on merit
and not based on anyone's SOGIE. To deny the right to work based on SOGIE is a clear case of
discrimination and is penalized by the bill when it becomes a law."
What else is a violation?
"Denial of admission to, expulsion from, or discipline of a student by an educational institution,"

meaning "exclusive boys schools should accept trans men and exclusive girls schools should
accept trans women."
If the SOGIE Bill were already a law, the case of Gretchen Diez would be a clear violation
already, since this a discriminatory act: "Denial of access to establishments, facilities, utilities, or
services." This means "trans women should be allowed to use female bathrooms because they are
women. The same goes with trans men and male bathrooms."
Other examples of violations include:
 Refusal or revocation of accreditation, formal recognition, or registration of any

organization, political party, or institution
 Denial of access to medical and health services
 Denial of application or revocation of professional license
 Forced medical or psychological examination to determine and/or alter a person’s SOGIE
without his or her consent (This bill requires the approval of the appropriate Family Court
for minors)
 Harassment by the police or military
The bill also has provisions for administrative sanctions for government officials who
refuse to investigate, prosecute, or act on complaints for violations.
153 | P a g e
The SOGIE Bill also mentions programs to promote non-discrimination and diversity;
Social Protection Programs to protect those who are vulnerable to stigma and discrimination on
the basis of their SOGIE; and diversity programs and policies. It also mandates all government
agencies to develop and implement SOGIE-specific gender sensitivity education and information
dissemination. (Rosero, 2019)
MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE
In the Philippines, a married couple cannot divorce by law. Regardless of where they
live, this law follows them throughout the entire world. Article 15 of the New Civil Code states
that laws pertaining to familial rights and responsibilities, or to the standing, form and legal
capability of persons, are compulsory upon inhabitants of the Philippines even though residing
overseas. Therefore, Filipinos are still under the rule of their land even if they are in another
location.
Exceptions Regarding Divorce
There are exceptions to every rule. In the Philippines, marrying someone of another race
or country may allow a divorce. Divorce can take place if the spouse from another country seeks
it in their own home country. The foreigner’s country must accept the divorce for it to be valid. In
the Family Code of the Philippines, paragraph 2 of Article 26 explains that legal marriages
between a Filipino national and a non-native are genuinely recognized. A divorce must be
accurately attained overseas by the non-native spouse which is the only way to allow remarriage.
In order for a Filipino to remarry, he or she must have been in a marriage that is
recognized by Filipino law, involve a marriage between a Filipino and a non-native, and the non-
native must have obtained a legally binding divorce while overseas. In order for the divorce to be
legally binding, it must be filed in court and accepted there. If this process is followed, both
parties are free to remarry.
Until recently, this applied only to mixed couples of Filipino marriages. The rule has
broadened and now includes Filipinos who have become naturalized in another country and seek
a legally binding divorce.
154 | P a g e
If the non-native has been approved a divorce, this does not mean that the Filipino has the
right to enter into another marriage. There must be an acknowledgment of the divorce of a non-
native from the Filipino courts for remarriage to be possible. After the Filipino courts have
acknowledged the dissolution of marriage, only then can a Filipino citizen remarry.
Annulment
Annulment is the only solution to divorce in the Philippines. An annulment acts as if a marriage
has never taken place. A marriage may be terminated in this fashion if the marriage does not meet
all of the legal requirements. There are only a few options that are available to Filipinos when
seeking an annulment.
Philippines: House Bill on Divorce Approved in Committee
On February 4, 2020, a bill proposing the legalization of divorce in the Philippines was
approved by the Committee on Population and Family Relations of the Philippine House of
Representatives. Currently, the Philippines and the Vatican are the only two sovereign states in
the world that still prohibit divorce.
Opponents of this initiative argue that, if divorce is allowed, it will destroy the institution
of marriage. The author of the bill, Rep. Edcel Lagman, challenged this argument, stating in his
sponsorship speech for the bill that, because the proposed divorce law “cannot undo centuries of
dearly held Filipino customs and traditions honoring and celebrating marriage and the family[,
m]arriage and the family are and will still be at the heart of the Filipino way of life.” Lagman
further stated that spouses who are willing to consider divorce do so when they no longer have a
functioning marriage. And it is because of failed marriages and the impossibility of reconciliation
that the bill’s explanatory note says that the Philippine state has the duty to provide spouses in
such relationships with the possibility of divorce.
The bill looks upon divorce as a women’s rights issue. The bill’s explanatory note states
that “not being able to get out of an eventual loveless, unhappy, even abusive marriage is a
human rights concern for women,” while section 3(4) of the bill provides that the proposed
divorce law is “pro-woman legislation” because it would allow Philippine wives to be liberated
from abusive relationships and “regain dignity and self-esteem.”
155 | P a g e
Nevertheless, the bill contains a general rule providing for six-month cooling-off period
after the filing of a petition for divorce during which the court must pursue efforts aimed at
reuniting and reconciling the parties. Exceptions to the rule would include instances in which one
of the spouses is sentenced to imprisonment for six years, or when the spouses have been
separated for at least five years.
The Committee on Population and Family Relations of the Philippine House of

Representatives is expected to refer the approved bill to the full House for further analysis and
debate. (Guerra, 2020)
Activity 1: Gender issues

Assessment
In a tabular form discuss the following gender issues, by identifying the pros and cons and
support your arguments.
GENDER ISSUE PROS CONS

(10 points) (10 points)
SOGIE BILL
156 | P a g e
DIVORCE BILL
Rubric for answers

Spelling, punctuation, not adequately point is addressed, but supported. complete. Key idea
grammar, and answered. not well supported. Spelling, punctuation, is clearly stated,
not observed. grammar, and complete grammar, and complete complete sentence is supported.
sentence is adequately sentence is adequately adequately observed. Well organized,
observed. observed. coherently
developed, and easy
to follow.
EVALUATION OF THE COURSE
1. What lesson or activity did I enjoy most? Why?
2. What is the most important lesson which I can apply in my daily life?
3. What are the new insights/discoveries that I learned?
157 | P a g e
4. What topic/s do I find least important?
5. What possible topics should have been included?
References
Anonuevo, C. Q. (2000). An Overview of the Gender Situation in the Philippines. Philippines.
AUREA - Aromantic Attraction and Relationship Terms. Retrieved from

https://www.aromanticism.org/en/attraction-relationship-terms
Barot, S. (2012). A Problem and Solution Mismatch: Son Preference and Sex Selective Abortion
Bans.
Basic Definitions: Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression (SOGIE).Retrieved from
https://www.chp.edu/-/media/chp/departments-and-services/adolescent-and-young-adult-
medicine/documents/gender-and-sexual-development/basic- definitions-sogie.pdf?la=e
Berer M (2004). National laws and unsafe abortion: The parameters of change. Reproductive
Health Matters, 12(24):1–9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15938152,
retrieved 05 January 2020)
Berrada S, et al., (2003). Prevalence of erectile dysfunction and its correlates: A population-based
study in Morocco. International Journal of Impotence Research, 15(Suppl.1):S3–S7.
https://www.nature.com/articles/3900968, retrieved 05 January 2020)
Brown, J. D., & Campbell, K (1986). Race and gender in music videos: The same beat but a
different drummer. Journal of Communication, 36, 94- 106.
Butler, J. P. (1993). Bodies that matter : On the Discursive Limits of 'Sex'. New York, Routledge.
158 | P a g e
Cabral, E. (2013). A view on the reproductive health law, 2013. https://www.asean-
endocrinejournal.org/index.php/JAFES/article/view/48/471, accessed 12 February 2020.)
Carter, B. (1991, May 1). Children's TV, where boys are king. New York Times, pp. Al, L18.
Cavanaugh, L. (2018). A brief history: The four waves of feminism. Retrieved from
https://www.progressivewomensleadership.com/a-brief-history-the-four-waves-of-
feminism/
Cook RJ, Dickens BM, Fathalla M (2003). Reproductive Health and HumanRights. Oxford,
Clarendon Press.
https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199241323.001.0001/
acprof-9780199241323, retrieved 05 January 2020)
Cruz, A., & Klinger, S. (2011). Gender-based violence in the work: Overview and selected
annotated bibliography. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
de Busk R, et al., (2000). Management of sexual dysfunction in patients with cardiovascular

disease: Recommendations of the Princeton consensus panel. The American
Journal of Cardiology, 86(2):175–181.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10913479, accessed 05 January 2020)
Demetriades, J. (2009). Gender and Governance. Institute of Development Studies - Bridge
Development Gender. Institute of Development Studies.
Developing sexual health programmes: a framework for action. Geneva: World Health
Organization; 2010 (http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/
publications/sexual_health/rhr_hrp_10_22/en/, retrieved 05 January 2020).
Diavolo, L. (2007). Gender variance around the world over Time. Retrieved from
https://www.teenvogue.com/story/gender- variance-around-the-world
Doyle, J. A. (1989). 111W le experience (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown.
Education and treatment in human sexuality: the training of health professionals.Geneva: World
Health Organization; 1975 (http://apps.who.
int/iris/bitstream/10665/38247/1/WHO_TRS_572_eng.pdf, retrieved 12 January 2020).
Encarnacion, J. (2013. Workshop on Improving the Integration of a Gender Perspective into
Official Statistics. April 13-16, 20013. http://www.unsiap.or.jp/e-
learning/el_material/3_Population/3_3_gender/1304_gen/GD_10_001_f002_s1_Philippin
es.pdf
Encyclopedia Britannica. (2014). Retrieved from www.britannica.com:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/bridewealth
Fausto-Sterling (1993). "The Five Sexes: Why male and female are not enough" (PDF). The
Sciences (March/April 1993): 20–24. doi:10.1002/j.2326-1951.1993.tb03081.
159 | P a g e
Foundations for Media Alternatives, (2017). What we need to know about R.A.
9262.https://medium.com/fma-ph/what-we-need-to-know-about-ra-9262-50818517ec13
Ganatra B, et al., (2004). From research to reality: The challenges of introducing medical abortion
into service delivery in Vietnam. Reproductive Health Matters, 12(Suppl.24):105–113.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3776121?seq=1, retrieved 05 January 2020)
Gender and Sports. (2020). Retrieved from sociology.iresearchnet.com:
http://sociology.iresearchnet.com/sociology-of-sport/gender-and-sports/
Gender Discrimination at Work. (2019). (Equal Rights Advocate) Retrieved from

www.equalrights.org: https://www.equalrights.org/issue/economic-workplace-
equality/discrimination-at-work/
Giuliano. P. (2017). Gender: A historical perspective. The Oxford Handbook of omen and the
Economy. Retrieved from
https://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty_pages/paola.giuliano/Gender_history_September2
017.pdf
Goldstein A., (2004). Bush signs Unborn Victims Act. Washington Post. 2 April 2004. p.A04.
https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/04/20040401-3.html,
accessed 12 February 2020)
Gould (1978). X: The fabulous child’s story. Retrieved from
https://waylandbrown.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/x-story.pdf
Gould, E., Schieder, J., & Geier, K. (2016). What is the gender pay gap and is it real? Economic
Policy Institute.
Grosskurth H, et al., (2000). Control of sexually transmitted diseases for HIV-1 prevention:
Understanding the implications of the Mwanza and Rakai trials. Lancet. 355(9219):1981–
1987. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10859054, retrieved 05 January 2020)
Guerra, G. (2020). Divorce, Marriage and family status. Philippines. March 4, 2020.
https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/philippines-house-bill-on-divorce-
approved-in-committee// accessed 16 March 2020.)
Implementing Rules and Regulation of Republic Act No.
10354.https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2013/03/18/implementing-rules-and-
regulations-of-republic-act-no-10354/, accessed 12 February 2020).
Improved communication and mutual support between men and women on family planning, HIV
and other sexually transmitted infections. Retrieved on 12 February 2020.)
Interviews with eight women, unpublished).
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1016/S0968-8080(04)24013-7, accessed 12
February 2020.)
Javellana JL., (2000). Tatad asks DOH to ban abortion pill. Philippine Daily Inquirer. 3 October
2000. p.3. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1016/S0968-8080(04)24013-7,
accessed 12 February 2020)
160 | P a g e
Jejeebhoy SJ, Bott S (2003). Non-Consensual Sexual Experiences of Young People: A Review of
the Evidence from Developing Countries. New Delhi, Population Council.
http://www.etc-graz.at/typo3/fileadmin/user_upload/ETC-Hauptseite/manual/training-
material/English/05_manual_health_act3doc2.pdf accessed 05 January 2020.
Kaplan H (1992). A neglected issue: The sexual side effects of treatments for breast cancer.
Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 18:3–19.
Klein H, Chao B (1995). Sexual abuse during childhood and adolescence as predictors of HIV-
related sexual risk during adulthood among female sexual partners of injection drug
users. Violence Against Women, 1(1):55–76.
Laumann E, Paik A, Rosen R (1999). Sexual dysfunction in the United States: Prevalence and
predictors. Journal of the American Medical Association,
281:537–544. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10022110, retrieved 05 January
2020)
Likhaan. Ibat Ibang Mukha ng Aborsyon. (2004). [Different faces of abortion]. Manila: Likhaan
https://www.google.com/search?q=Likhaan.
+Ibat+Ibang+Mukha+ng+Aborsyon&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiT
0uSB1MfpAhXBfXAKHZh9BSwQ_AUoAXoECAwQAw&biw=1366&bih=618#imgrc
=BoV25iU3hnbSIM, accessed 12 February 2020.)
Little.W. (2013). Introduction to Sociology. 2nd Canadian Edition. Retrieved from

https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology2ndedition/chapter/chapt er-12-gender-
sex-and-sexuality.
Martin, E. (1991). The egg and the sperm: how science has constructed a romance based on
stereotypical male-female roles. Retrieved
fromhttps://web.stanford.edu/~eckert/PDF/Martin1991.pdf
Mekosha, H. (2004). Gender and Disability. In SAGE Encylcopedia of Disability. Sydney: SAGE.
National Statistics Office Gender and Development Committee March 2009. Constitutional and
Legislative Provisions on Violence Against Women. https://psa.gov.ph/content/q-
constitutional-and-legislative-provisions-violence-against-women. Accessed 16 March
2020.)
Ngwena C (2004). An appraisal of abortion laws in Southern Africa from a reproductive health
rights perspective. Journal of Law and Medical Ethics,
32(4):708–718. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15807359, retrieved 05 January
2020)
OECD. (n.d.). Retrieved from Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development:
https://www.oecd.org/gov/women-in-government.htm
Parker, Horowitz and Stepler (2017). On gender differences, no consensus on nature vs. nurture.
Retrieved from https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2017/12/05/on-gender-differences-no-
consensus-on-nature-vs-nurture/
161 | P a g e
Philipine Statistics Office (2010). Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act No. 9710).
https://psa.gov.ph/content/q-magna-carta-women-republic-act-no-9710. Accessed 16
March 2020.)
Portia Ladrido, 2018. Does “Gender Equality” exist in the Philippines?
https://cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/2018/08/29/young-pinays.html, accessed 16
March 2020.)
Report of the International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo, 5–13 September
1994). New York (NY): United Nations; 1994 (A/ CONF.171/13;
http://www.un.org/popin/icpd/conference/offeng/poa.html, retrieved 05 January 2020).
Reproductive health strategy to accelerate progress towards the attainment of international
development goals and targets. Global strategy adopted by the 57th World Health
Assembly. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004
(http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/general/RHR_04_8/ en/, retrieved
05 January 2020).
Republic Act No. 10354. The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012
https://pcw.gov.ph/law/republic-act-10354, accessed 12 February 2020)
Republic Act No. 8353.http://www.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/RA-8353-Anti-
Rape-Law-and-RA-8505_Rape-Victim-Assistance.pdf
Robinson BE, et al., (2002). The sexual health model: Application of a sexological approach to
HIV prevention. Health Education Research, Theory & Practice, 17(1),
43–57. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11890176, accessed 05 January 2020)
ROSERO, R.(2019). What You Should Know About The SOGIE Equality September 19, 2019.
https://www.cosmo.ph/lifestyle/sogie-bill-philippines-a613-20190919-lfrm accessed 16
March 2020
Safarinejad MR (2003). Prevalence and risk factors for erectile dysfunction in a population-based
study in Iran. International Journal of Impotence Research, 15(4):246–
252. https://www.nature.com/articles/3901024, accessed 05 January 2020)
Seyam RM, et al., (2003). Prevalence of erectile dysfunction and its correlates in Egypt: A
community-based study. International Journal of Impotence Research,
15:237–254.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10601462_Prevalence_of_erectile_dysfunction
_and_its_correlates_in_Egypt_A_community-based_study, accessed 05 January 2020)
Shaeer KZM, et al., (2003). Prevalence of erectile dysfunction and its correlates in men attending
primary care clinics in three countries: Pakistan, Egypt and Nigeria. International Journal
of Impotence Research, 15: S8–S14. https://www.nature.com/articles/3900971,
accessed 05 January 2020)
Sommers, C. (2016, May). 6 Feminist Myths that will not die. Time Magazine.
162 | P a g e
Suriyasarn, B. (2014). Gender identity and sexual orientation in Thailand. Retrieved from
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---sro-
bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_356950.pdf
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. (2015). Preventing and Responding to
Gender-based Violence: Expressions and Strategies. Stockholm: SIDA.
Talabong, R. (2019). Trans woman arrested after being blocked from using women's restroom in
Cubao 15 August 2019.https://www.rappler.com/nation/237698-transgender-woman-
arrested-after-blocked-using-women-restroom-cubao, accessed 16 March 2020
Tan ML., (2001). Good Medicines. Amsterdam7 Het Spinhuis, University of Amsterdam, 2001.
https://www.who.int/drugresistance/Manual1_HowtoInvestigate.pdf, accessed 12
February 2020)
Tan ML., (2003). Fetal rights, children’s rights. Philippine Daily Inquirer. 16 December 2003.
p.7. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3776127?seq=1, accessed 12 February 2020)
Tan, ML., (2004). Fetal Discourses and the Politics of the Womb, Reproductive Health Matters,
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1016/S0968-8080(04)24013-7, accessed 12
February 2020)
Torres MT and Ager M., (2004). President Arroyo declares March 25 as ‘‘Day of the Unborn’’.
Manila Times. 26 March 2004.) https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1016/S0968-
8080%2804%2924013-7, accessed 12 February 2020.)
UNFPA (2005). Gender equality: https://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality accessed 05 January
2020.)
UNICEF, Gender Equality, https://www.unicef.org/gender-equality accessed 05 January 2020.)
UNICEF, Sustainable Development Goals, https://www.unicef.org/sdgs accessed 05 January
2020.)
University of Minnesota Human Rights Resouce Center. (n.d.). Economic, Social, and Cultural
Rights of Women. Minnesota, USA.
What is Gender-based Violence? (2003). Minnesota, USA.
WHO (2004). Unsafe abortion: Global and regional estimates of the incidence of unsafe abortion
and associated mortality in 2000. Geneva, World Health Organization. Accessed 05
January 2020.)
WHO (2005). WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against
women: Initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women’s responses. Geneva,
World Health Organization.
https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/24159358X/en/, accessed
05 January 2020.)
WHO (2006b). Sexually transmitted infections
(http://www.who.int/health_topics/sexually_transmitted_infections/en/, retrieved 05
January 2020).
163 | P a g e
WHO (2007). Unsafe abortion: Global and regional estimates of the incidence of unsafe abortion
and associated mortality in 2003
(http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/9789241596121/en
/index.html, retrieved 05 January 2020).
Wood, J. T. (1994). Gendered Media: The Influence of Media on Views of Gender. 31-39.
164 | P a g e

Gensoc Module Body

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Gensoc Module Body

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Gensoc Module Body

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT 1: THE NATURE OF GENDER STUDIES

Lesson 1: GENDER, SEX AND SEXUALITY

1. Distinguish and explain sex, gender and sexuality.

2. Underscore the different issues concerning the five sexes.

What is Sex? What is Gender? What is Sexuality

THE FIVE SEXES

Illustration of the Issue : In 1843 an individual, Levi Suydam,asked Salisbury, Connecticut to

The Difference between Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

Rubric for answers

Gender Identity and Expression

Crossdresser - Cross-dressing refers to occasionally wearing clothing of the “opposite” gender,

Check for Facts and Understanding:

Rubric for answers

Lesson 3 : GENDER DIFFERENCES

ON GENDER DIFFERENCES, NO CONSENSUS ON NATURE VS. NURTURE

Below are various data from a research on gender differences.

A new Pew Research Center

The survey also finds a sense among the

Lesson 4 : GENDER ROLES

AUTHOR : EMILY MARTIN

As an anthropologist, I am intrigued by the possibility that culture shapes how biological

Egg and sperm: A scientific fairy tale

Gender Role Theories

Evolutionary Theory: Adapting to Our Environment

Masculinity and Femininity

Common Gender Stereotypes of Men: Common Gender Stereotypes of Women:

Breaking Gender Stereotypes:

Lesson 5 : The Construction of Gender in the Historical and Social Development of

The Construction of Gender in the Historical and Social Development of Societies

Guilano (2017) surveys recent empirical research on various historical determinants of

1. Agriculture and agricultural technology

2. Pre-industrial societal characteristics

Matrilineality can improve women’s outcomes for a variety of reasons. Women in

Sexual Revolution in the Age of Enlightenment

SEXUAL REVOLUTION- (also known as a time of "sexual liberation") was a social

The Civil Rights Movement

The Counterculture Revolution and the Stonewall Riots

The Stonewall Riots

4. Post- Industrial Societies: Women's Role in Post-Industrial Democracy

WOMEN CITIZENS OF TOMORROW

Check for Facts and Understanding

Lesson 6 : Theoretical Perspectives on Gender

Structural functionalism provided one of the most important perspectives of sociological

According to critical sociology, society is structured by relations of power and

Feminist theory is a type of critical sociology that examines inequalities in gender-related

The second wave (1960’s-1980’s): Broadening the debate

Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical

Rubric for answers

Gender Role Developments:

Women- Manages Corporations and Business

The discussion paper should have the following parts:

Lesson 7: The Social Construction of Homosexuality in History and Culture

GENDER VARIANCE AROUND THE WORLD OVER TIME

Hijras (South Asia)

Activists claim it doesn’t go far enough, though. Many hijras still find themselves

Two-Spirit (North America)

Two-spirit people in North America have benefited from acceptance within their

Il Femminiello (Naples) and Elagabalus (Rome)