67

2 Atomic structure

2.3 Electrons: energy levels, atomic orbitals, ionisation energy

Electronic Configuration


Electronic Configuration
 relative charges and relative masses
Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701 syllabus Syllabus content
b) deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in
electric fields
68
c) describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom
d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both
atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers and charge
2 Atomic structure
This The
2.2 topicnucleus
describes the type,a)number
of the andthe
describe distribution of the
contribution of fundamental particles to
protons and neutrons which make
atomic up an
nuclei in
atomatom
and the impact of this on some atomic properties.
terms of proton number and nucleon number
b) distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of
Learning
neutronsoutcomes
present
Candidates should be able to:
c) recognise and use the symbolism xy A for isotopes, where x is the nucleon
number and y is the proton number
2.1 Particles in the atom a) identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their
2.3 Electrons: energy relative charges and relative masses
a) describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for
levels, atomic b) the
deduce the behaviour
principal of beams1,
quantum numbers of2protons, neutrons
and 3 and also theand
4s electrons in
and 4p orbitals
orbitals, ionisation electric fields
b) describe and sketch the shapes of s and p orbitals
energy, electron c) describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom
c) state the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton
affinity d) number
deduce theandnumbers of protons,
charge, using neutrons 1s
the convention and
2 electrons
2s22p6 , etc.present in both
atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers and charge
d) (i) explain and use the term ionisation energy
(ii) explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements
2.2 The nucleus of the a) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in
(iii) explain the trends in ionisation energies across a Period and down a
atom terms of proton number and nucleon number
Group of the Periodic Table (see also Section 9.1)
b) distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of
e) deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive
neutrons present
ionisation energy data
c) recognise and use the symbolism xy A for isotopes, where x is the nucleon
f) interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the
number and y is the proton number
position of that element within the Periodic Table
g) explain and use the term electron affinity
2.3 Electrons: energy a) describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for
levels, atomic the principal quantum numbers 1, 2 and 3 and also the 4s and 4p orbitals
orbitals, ionisation b) describe and sketch the shapes of s and p orbitals

 energy, electron
c) state the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton
affinity
number and charge, using the convention 1s22s22p6 , etc.
d) (i) explain and use the term ionisation energy
(ii) explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements
(iii) explain the trends in ionisation energies across a Period and down a
Group of the Periodic Table (see also Section 9.1)
e) deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive
ionisation energy data
f) interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the
position of that element within the Periodic Table
18 www.cie.org.uk/alevel g) explain and use the term electron affinity Back to contents page

18 www.cie.org.uk/alevel Back to contents page

 69
1

2. 1 Disclaimer
A complete discussion of the experimental evidence for the modern
theory of atomic structure is beyond the scope of the CIE A Level
Syllabus.

In this chapter only the results of the theoretical treatment will be

described. These results will have to be memorized as “rules of the
game,” but they will be used so extensively throughout the general
chemistry course that the notation used will soon become familiar.

2. 2 Electron Arrangement
The electronic configuration describes the arrangement of electrons in
atoms.

An atom’s electrons are arranged outside the nucleus in energy levels (or
shells).

Each shell or energy level holds a certain maximum number of electrons.

The energy of levels becomes greater as they go further from the nucleus
and electrons fill energy levels in order.

2. 3 Ionisation energy
Ionisation energy is a measure of the energy needed to remove an electron
from a gaseous atom or ion. It measures how strongly an atom or ion holds
on to its electrons.

+
Attraction between the nucleus and an electron

The greater the pull of the nucleus, the harder it will be to pull an electron
away from an atom.

Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration
 70
2

2. 4 First ionisation energy

Ionisation energies give evidence for the arrangement of electrons in atoms
in shells and sub-shells.

The first ionisation energy for an element is the energy needed to remove
one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms.

Na (g) ➝ Na+(g) + e- ∆H i1 = 496 kJ mol-1

Ca (g) ➝ Ca+(g) + e- ∆H i1 = 590 kJ mol-1

F (g) ➝ F+(g) + e- ∆H i1 = 1680 kJ mol-1

2. 5 Successive ionisation energies

Successive ionisation energies for the same element measure the energy
to remove a second, third, fourth electron and so on.

Na+(g) ➝ Na2+(g) + e- ∆H i2 = 4563 kJ mol-1

Na2+(g) ➝ Na3+(g) + e- ∆H i3 = 6913 kJ mol-1

It is possible to measure energy changes involving ions which do not

normally appear in chemical reactions.

2. 6 Skill check
Which equation represents the second ionisation energy of an element
X?

A X(g) ➝ X2+(g) + 2e-

B X+(g) ➝ X2+(g) + e-

C X(g) + 2e- ➝ X2-(g)

D X-(g) + e- ➝ X2-(g)

Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
 71
3

2. 7 Skill check
Write equations to represent the first ionisation of:

A potassium

B argon

C bromine

D fluorine

2. 8 Skill check
The successive ionisation energies kJmol-1 of element X are listed below.
Identify the group in the periodic table in which X occurs.

Ionisation energies of X:

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

950 1800 2700 4800 6000 12300 15000

2. 9 Successive ionisation energies

After an electron has been removed the rest of them will be more
strongly attracted by the nucleus.

Hence more energy is required to pull the 2nd electron and thus the 2nd
I.E. is greater than the 1st I.E.

Successive ionisation energies are always greater than the previous

one.

Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration
 nucleus. There must be a very great force of attraction
h of successive ionisation between the nucleus and these electrons and there are
mber of electrons removed for no inner electrons to72
shield them. The large increase in
cale (to the base 10) is used ionisation energy between 4the 9th and 10th electrons
ccessive ionisation energies have confirms that the 10th electron is in a shell closer to the
nucleus than the 9th electron.
llowing about sodium from
2. 10 Successive ionisation energies
oved has a low 1st ionisation
d to the rest of the data. It is very 1 electron;
he atom. It is therefore likely to be very easily
ucleus and well shielded by inner 2 electrons; removed
very difficult 8 electrons;
to remove 11+
less easily
removed

nucleus

Figure 3.5 The arrangement of electrons in an atom of sodium can be

deduced from the values of successive ionisation energies.

Check-up
2. 11 Evidence of energy levels
3 a The successive ionisation energies of
The arrangement of electrons in an atom of any element can be deduced
Electronic structure boron are shown in Table 3.3.
from the values of successive ionisation energies.

Theadvertising
In neon successivesigns, gaseousIonisation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th clearly.
I.E of sodium
neon 5th
illustratebombarded
atoms are continually the changeby
electrons. This produces positive neon ions, which then reform as neon atoms.
Ionisation 799 2420 3660 25 000 32 800
This is what happens when scientists measure ionisation energies.
Scientists can also determine ionisation energies from the emission spectra
energy /
of atoms. Using data from spectra, it is possible to measure the energy needed
to remove electrons from ions with
electron −12 increasing positive charges. A succession
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 of ionisation 1
energies, represented
removed kJ mol
by the3symbols4 ∆Hi1, ∆H
5 8 6 9 10 7
i2, ∆Hi3 and so on,
11
is obtained. For example:
mber of electrons removed
Na(g)ionisation
→ Na+(g) + e– 500 first ionisation energy, ∆H = +496 kJ mol–1
energy Table– 3.34600 6900 9500 13400 i1 16600
Successive 20100
ionisation energies of 25500
boron. 28900 141000 158000
Na+(g) → Na2+(g) +e second ionisation energy, ∆Hi2 = +4563 kJ mol
–1

m (log10) ofDefinitions
ionisation energy of sodium Na2+(g) → Na3+(g) + e– third ionisation energy, ∆Hi3 = +6913 kJ mol–1 continued
s removed. The first ionisation energy of an There are 11 electrons in a sodium atom, so there are 11 successive ionisation
element is the energy needed to energies for this element.
remove one electron from each atom The successive ionisation energies of an element are all endothermic and
in one mole of gaseous atoms.
they get bigger and bigger. This is not surprising because, having removed one
A successive ionisation energy of electron, it is more difficult to remove a second electron from the positive ion
an element measures the energy formed.
needed to remove a second, third or
The graph in Figure 5.2 shows a logarithmic plot of the successive
fourth electron and so on from one
mole of gaseous ions of the element
ionisation energies of sodium against the number of electrons removed. This
with the appropriate positive charge. provides evidence to support the theory that electrons in an atom are
arranged in a series of levels or shells around the nucleus. The logarithmic
plot allows an extremely wide range of ionisation energies – from 496 kJ mol–1
2. 12 Ionisation energies of sodium
to 159 080 kJ mol–1 – to be shown on the same graph.
Figure 5.2 !
Log (ionisation energy) plotted against
the number of electrons removed for
sodium.

The graph shows shows

Log ionisation energy

successive ionisation energies

against the number of
Note electrons removed for sodium.
The shells of electrons at fixed or
specific levels are sometimes called
quantum shells, because the word
‘quantum’ is used to describe
something related to a fixed amount
or fixed level.
0 5 10
Highest energy Number of electrons removed
level – electron
easily removed
Notice in Figure 5.2 the big jumps in value between the first and second
Intermediate
energy level –
ionisation energies and again between the ninth and tenth ionisation
electrons harder energies. This suggests that sodium atoms have one electron in an outer
to remove shell or energy level furthest from the nucleus. This outer electron is easily
removed because it is furthest from the nucleus and shielded from the full
Lowest energy attraction of the positive nucleus by 10 inner electrons.
Electronic level Configuration
– electrons Electronic
hardest to remove
configuration
Below this outer single electron, sodium atoms seem to have eight electrons Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
in a second shell – all at roughly the same energy level. These eight electrons
Figure 5.3 " are closer to the nucleus than the single outer electron and only have two
Energy levels of electrons in a sodium atom. inner electrons shielding them from the positive nucleus.
60
 73
5

2. 13 Ionisation energies of sodium

There is a big difference between some successive ionisation energies.
For sodium the first big difference occurs between the 1st and 2nd
ionisation energies.

These large changes indicate that for the second of these two
ionisation energies, the electron being removed is from a shell closer to
the nucleus.

2. 14 Ionisation energies of sodium

electron
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
removed
ionisation
500 4600 6900 9500 13400 16600 20100 25500 28900 141000 158000
energy

There is a big jump in the value of the second ionisation energy. This
suggests that the second electron is in a shell closer to the nucleus
than the first electron.

Taken together, the 1st and 2nd ionisation energies suggest that sodium
has one electron in its outer shell.

2. 15 Ionisation energies of sodium

electron
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
removed
ionisation
500 4600 6900 9500 13400 16600 20100 25500 28900 141000 158000
energy

From the second to the ninth electrons removed there is only a gradual
change in successive ionisation energies. This suggests that all these
eight electrons are in the same shell.

There is a big jump in the value of the 10th ionisation energy. This
suggests that the 10th electron is in a shell closer to the nucleus than
the 9th electron.

Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration
 2 The structure of the atom

Ionisation energies are used to probe electronic configurations in two ways:

● successive ionisation energies for the same atom

●
74
first ionisation energies for different atoms.
We shall look at each in turn.
6
Successive ionisation energies
We can look at an atom of a particular element, and measure the energy required to
remove each of its electrons, one by one:

X(g) → X+(g) + e− ∆ H = IE1

X+(g) → X2+(g) + e− ∆ H = IE2
X2+(g) → X3+(g) + e− ∆ H = IE3 etc.
These successive ionisation energies show clearly the arrangement of electrons

2. 16 Ionisation energies of magnesium

in shells around the nucleus. If we take the magnesium atom as an example, and
measure the energy required to remove successively the first electron, the second, the
third, and so on, we obtain the plot shown in Figure 2.29.

Figure 2.29 Graph of the twelve ionisation

energies of magnesium against electron
200 000
number. The electronic configuration of
magnesium is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2. first
shell
180 000

160 000

140 000

ionisation energy/kJ mol–1

120 000

100 000

80 000

60 000

40 000
second
shell
20 000
third
shell

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
number of electrons removed

Successive ionisation energies are bound to increase because the remaining electrons
are closer to, and less shielded from, the nucleus. But a larger increase occurs when
the third electron is removed. This is because once the two electrons in the outer
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY (third) shell have been removed, the next has to be stripped from a shell that is very
muchCam/Chem
02_29 nearer to AS&A2
the nucleus (the second shell). A similar, but much more enormous,
jump in ionisation energy occurs when the eleventh electron is removed. This has
Barking
to comeDog Art the first, innermost shell, right next to the nucleus. These two large
from
jumps in the series of successive ionisation energies are very good evidence that the
The jumps in successive
electrons in the magnesium ionisation energies
atom exist in threeare moreshells.
different apparent if we plot the
logarithm of the ionisation energy against proton number, as in Figure 2.30.37(Taking
the logarithm is a scaling device that has the effect of decreasing the differences
between adjacent values for the larger ionisation energies, so the jumps between the

2. 17 Ionisation energies of magnesium

181333_02_AS_Chem_BP_020-043.indd 37

Figure 2.30 Graph of logarithms of the

shells become more obvious.) 15/10/14 12:19 PM

twelve ionisation energies of magnesium 5.5

against electron number 1s

2s
4.5
2p
log (IE)

3.5

3s
3

2.5

2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
number of electrons removed

Worked example
Graphs02_30
ofCam/Chem
successiveAS&A2
ionisation energy give us information about
The first five successive ionisation energies of element X are 631, 1235, 2389, 7089 and
how many 8844 electrons
kJ mol
Barking .
Dog Art are in a particular energy level. Consider the graph
−1

How many electrons are in the outer shell of element X?

for silicon shown in Figure 2.35. There is a large jump in the ionisation
Answer
energy graph between
The differences thesuccessive
between the fourth andenergies
ionisation the arefifth ionisation energies, which
as follows:
−1
2 − 1: 1235 − 631 = 604 kJ mol
Now try this suggests that3 − 2:these electrons
2389 − 1235 are removed from different main energy
= 1154 kJ mol −1
−1
4 − 3: 7089 − 2389 = 4700 kJ mol
levels. It can
Decide which group element Y is in,
5 − 4:therefore
8844 − 7089 =be 1755deduced that silicon has four electrons in its
2. 18 Ionisation energiesbetween the third and of
is in silicon
−1
based on the following successive kJ mol
ionisation energies:
outer main The
energy level
largest jump comes
(shell)
has three electrons in its outer shell.
and group
the fourth
4 of the periodic table.
ionisation energies, therefore X
590, 1145, 4912, 6474, 8144 kJ mol−1

First ionisation energies

The second way that ionisation energies show us the details of electronic configuration
is to look at how the first ionisation energies of elements vary with proton number.
Figure 2.31 is a plot for the first 40 elements.
This graph shows us the following.
1 All ionisation energies are strongly endothermic – it takes energy to separate an
electron from an atom.
2 As we go down a particular group, for example from helium to neon to argon, or
from lithium to sodium to potassium, ionisation energies decrease. The larger the
atom, the easier it is to separate an electron from it.

38

181333_02_AS_Chem_BP_020-043.indd 38 15/10/14 12:19 PM

If a graph of ionisation energy (rather than log10 ionisation energy) is

plotted for the removal of the first few electrons from a silicon atom, more
features can be seen on the graph (Figure 2.36). It can be seen that there
is a larger jump in the ionisation energy between the second and third
Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration
ionisation energies. Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
2 2 6 2 2
The full electronic configuration for silicon is 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p . The first
two electrons are removed from the 3p sub-level (subshell), whereas the
 strongly than a neutral atom does. More energy is therefore required to
remove the electron from a positive ion.
2 Once an electron has been removed from an atom, there is less
repulsion between the remaining electrons. They are therefore pulled
in closer to the nucleus (Figure 2.33). If they are closer75
to the nucleus,
7
they are more strongly attracted and more difficult to remove.

This graph shows the energy required to remove each electron in turn
from a gaseous potassium atom.
2. 19 Ionisation energies of potassium

A log scale is being used here to allow all data are presented be used by scientists to support
the data to be plotted on one graph, but their theories? Can you find examples where the
although on one level this has made the data scale on a graph has been chosen to exaggerate a
to interpret and supported the explanations that particular trend – is scientific knowledge objective
een given, it has also distorted the data. The or is it a matter of interpretation and presentation?
nce between the first and second ionisation The arguments for and against human-made
2. 20 Skill check
es of potassium is about 2600 kJ mol−1, but the climate change are a classic example of where the
nce between the 18th and 19th ionisations interpretation and presentation of data are key in
es is over 30 000 kJ mol−1Write
! How an
can equation
the way to represent the 5thopinion.
influencing public ionisation energy of Fluorine.

he log10 of these numbers The simple electronic configuration of potassium is 2,8,8,1, and this
he range. The first can be deduced directly from the graph above. The large jumps in the
n energy of potassium is graph occur between main energy levels (shells).
ol−1, whereas the 19th is
J mol−1. It would be very
o plot these values on a
ph.

2. 21 Skill check

What group is X in?

Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration
 76
8

2. 22 Skill check
The first ionisation energies of four consecutive elements in the Periodic table
are:

Sodium = 494 kJ mol-1

Magnesium = 736 kJ mol-1

Aluminium = 577 kJ mol-1

Silicon = 786 kJ mol-1

a Explain the general increase in ionisation energies from Sodium to Silicon.

b Explain why Aluminium has a lower first ionisation energy than Magnesium.

2. 23 Skill check
The first six ionisation energies of an element are, or 1090, 2250, 4610,
6220, 37,800, and 47,300kJ mol-1. Which group in the Periodic Table does
this element belong to? Explain your decision.

2. 24 Skill check
The successive ionisation energies ΔHi, of an element X are shown in the
table below. Which group in the Periodic Table does X belong to?

Number of electrons removed

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

∆Hi / kJ mol-1 1000 2260 3390 4540 7010 8500 27100 31670 36580 43140

Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
 77
9

2. 25 Successive ionisation energies

We can use successive ionisation energies in this way to confirm:

• The simple electronic configuration of elements.

• The number of electrons in the outer shell of an element and hence

the group to which the element belongs.

The successive ionisation energies for an element rise and there are big
jumps in value each time electrons start to be removed from the next
shell in towards the nucleus.

2. 26 Ionisation energies of oxygen

electron removed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ionisation energy 1310 3390 5320 7450 11000 13300 71300 84100

Large increases can be used to predict the group of any element. The
electron configuration of oxygen is 2,6.

Since the large change is after the removal of 6 electrons, it signifies

that there are 6 electrons in the shell farthest from the nucleus.

Therefore, Oxygen is in Group VI.

2. 27 Successive Ionisation energies

ELECTRONS REMOVED
Element 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 H 1310

2 He 2370 5250

3 Li 519 7300 11800

4 Be 900 1760 14850 21000

5 B 799 2420 3660 25000 32800

6 C 1090 2350 4620 6220 37800 47300

7 N 1400 2860 4580 7480 9450 53300 64400

8 O 1310 3390 5320 7450 11000 13300 71300 84100

9 F 1680 3370 6040 8410 11000 15200 17900 92000 106000

10 Ne 2080 3950 6150 9290 12200 15200 20000 23000 117000 131400

11 Na 494 4560 6940 9540 13400 16600 20100 25500 28900 141000 158700

Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration
 78
10

2. 28 Skill check
The successive ionisation energies, in kJ mol–1, of different elements are
given below. Which groups are the following elements in?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A 799 2420 3660 25000

B 736 1450 7740 10500

C 418 3070 4600 5860

D 870 1800 3000 3600 5800 7000 13200

E 950 1800 2700 4800 6000 12300

2. 29 Skill check
The successive ionisation energies of beryllium are 900, 1757,
14,849 and 21,007 kJ mol-1.
A What is the atomic number of beryllium?
B Why do successive ionisation energies of beryllium always get
more endothermic?
C To which group of the Periodic Table does this element belong?

2. 30 Shells (energy levels)

The principal energy levels are n=1

designated n = 1, 2, 3, and so forth.

The energy levels are not equally

spaced.

The energy gap between successive n=2

levels gets increasingly smaller as the n=3
levels move further from the nucleus. n=4

Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
 79
11

2. 31 Sub-levels (sub-shells)
Electron shells are numbered 1,2,3 etc. These numbers are known as the
principle quantum numbers.

Each energy level (shell) consists of a number of sub-levels (sub-shells),

labeled s, p, d, or f.
Energy Level Number of sub-levels Name of sub-levels

1 1 s

2 2 s, p

3 3 s, p, d

4 4 s, p, d, f

2. 32 Sub-levels (sub-shells)
PRINCIPAL
SUB LEVELS
ENERGY
LEVELS
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

3
i Why is there a large increase between b Draw a sketch graph to show the
the third and fourth ionisation energies? log10 values of the first four successive
ii Explain how these figures confirm that ionisation energies of a Group II element.
the electronic structure of boron is 2, 3.
2
b For the element aluminium (Z = 13), draw
a sketch graph to predict the log10 of the 3.3 Sub-shells and atomic
successive ionisation energies (y-axis) against
the number of electrons removed (x-axis). orbitals 1
Quantum sub-shells
We can use successive ionisation energies in this way to: The principal quantum shells, apart from the first, are
• predict or confirm the simple electronic configuration split into sub-shells (sub-levels). Each principal quantum
of elements shell contains a different number of sub-shells. The sub-
• confirm the number of electrons in the outer shell shells are distinguished by the letters s, p or d. There are
of an element and hence the group to which the also f sub-shells for elements with more than 57 electrons.
element belongs. Figure 3.6 shows the sub-shells for the first four principal
quantum levels. In any principal quantum shell, the
Worked example energy of the electrons in the sub-shells increases in the
order s < p < d.
2. 33 Sub-levels (sub-shells)
1 The successive ionisation energies, ∆Hi, of an
element X are shown in Table 3.4. Which group
in the Periodic Table does X belong to?
We look for a large jump in the value of the 4d
5s
ionisation energy. This occurs between the
removal of the 6th and 7th electrons. So, six n =4 4p
electrons have been removed comparatively 3d
easily. The removal of the 7th electron requires 4s
about three times the energy required to remove
Increasing energy

n =3 3p
the 6th electron. So, there must be six electrons
in the outer shell of X. So, element X must be
3s
in Group VI of the Periodic Table.

2p
Check-up n =2
2s
4 a The first six ionisation energies of an
element are 1090, 2350, 4610, 6220,
37 800 and 47 300 kJ mol−1. Which group n =1 1s
in the Periodic Table does this element
principal quantum sub-shell
belong to? Explain your decision. shell
continued
Figure 3.6 The sub-shells for the first four principal quantum shells.

Number of electrons removed

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
∆Hi / 1000 2260 3390 4540 7010 8500 27 100 31 670 36 580 43 140
kJ mol−1

Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed
Table 3.4 The successive ionisation energies of an element X. For Worked example 1.
Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration
3 Electrons in atoms 37
 80
12

2. 34 Sub-levels
Each sub-level can hold a certain maximum number of electrons.
Type of sub-level Maximum # of electrons

s 2

p 6

d 10

f 14

2. 35 Orbitals
An atomic orbital is a region of space around the nucleus of an atom
which can be occupied by one or two electrons only.

Each sub-level contains a fixed number of orbitals that contain

electrons.
Type of sub-level Maximum # of electrons Number of orbitals
s 2 1
p 6 3
d 10 5
f 14 7

2. 36 Orbitals
Electrons are viewed as charged clouds and the region, which
encloses almost all the charge cloud, is the orbital.

The region in space where the probability of finding an electron in

maximum is called the orbital.

The boundary surface encloses the region where the probability of

finding an electron is high.

The orbitals are of different three-dimensional shapes and are named s,

p, d, f etc. 

Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
 81
13

2 . 2 E L E C T R O N C O N F I G U R AT I O N
2. 37 Orbitals

● could perhaps be at the airport

● might even have gone home to South Africa!
If the class went looking for the teacher they would most likely start looking in
the most probable locations The cluster
closest of dotsBut
to the classroom. show
at 8.15the
am they do
not know with any degree ofprobability of finding
certainty precisely where thean electron
teacher is. at
A three-dimensional graph could be drawn
different with a clusterfrom
distances of dotsthe
showing areas
nucleus.
where there is a high probability of finding him. This is the idea of an orbital. A
boundary surface could be drawn around this cluster of dots to define a region
of space where there is a 99% chance of finding the teacher. This might be the
school perimeter, or Quito where he lives.
If you were also asked to measure the distance from the classroom to the
exact location where the teacher is you could not do this at 8.15 am, as you do
not know his exact location with absolute certainty. Figure 8 An orbital is a three-dimensional
graph with a cluster of dots showing the
What aspects of quantum mechanics does this analogy capture? probability of finding the electron at different
distances from the nucleus
he s atomic orbital
An s orbital is spherically symmetrical. The sphere represents a
oundary surface, meaning that within the sphere there is a 99% y
hance or probability of finding an electron (figure 9).
2. 38 Shells, sub shells and orbitals
he p atomic orbital
A p orbital is dumbbell shaped. There are three p atomic orbitals, px, py,
Energy Level Type of sub- Number of orbitals Maximum # of electrons
nd pz, all with boundary surfaces conveying probable electron density
level
1 s
ointing in different directions along the three respective Cartesian 1 2
x
xes, x, y, and z (figure 10). 2 s 1 2

nergy levels, sublevels, orbitals, and electron

p spin 3 6
s described
he Bohr model introduced the idea of3 a main energy level, 1 2
y n, which is called the principal quantum number. pThis can have 3
z
6
ositive integer values 1, 2, 3, etc. In the quantum mechanical model, as n
ncreases, the mean position of an electron is further from d the nucleus. The 5 10
Figure 9 The s atomic orbital is spherically
nergies of the orbitals also increase as4n increases. Each main
s energy level 1 symmetrical 2
r shell can hold a maximum number of electrons given by 2n2. So the
p 3 6
lectron capacity for n = 1 is 2, for n = 2 is 8, for n = 3 is 18. That is why
we have two elements in the first row of the periodic table, d eight elements 5 10
n the second, etc. y y y

he energy levels are split up into sublevels, of which there are four
ommon types: s, p, d, and f. Each sublevel contains a number of
x x x
rbitals, each of which can hold a maximum of 2 electrons (table 2). z z z
px pz py
Sublevel Number of orbitals in Maximum number of
sublevel electrons in sublevel Figure 10 The three p atomic orbitals are
s 1 2 dumbbell shaped, aligned along the x, y, and
p 3 2. 39 “s” orbital 6
z axes

d 5 10
f 7 The s orbital is spherically
14 shaped. There is
only levels
Table 2 Sublevels of the main energy oneinstheorbital
quantumfor eachmodel
mechanical shell.

The 2s orbital in the second principal 57

quantum shell has the same shape as

the 1s orbital in the first quantum shell.

They are both spherical, but electrons in the

2s orbital have more energy than electrons
in the 1s orbital.

Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration
 For example, Selenium (Se) is in period 4 and 4 along in the p block;
Note: all atoms in the same group 82 therefore the last part of the electronic configuration is 4p4. The full
(vertical column) in the periodic 14
electronic configuration can be worked out from following the arrows:
table have the same outer shell H He 1s2
electronic configuration. For Li Be 2s2 B Ne 2p6
example, all the elements in group Na Mg 3s2
Al Ar 3p6
6 (like Se) have the outer shell K Ca 4s2 Sc Zn 3d10 Ga Se 4p4
electronic configuration ns2np4.
2. 40 “p” orbital
n is the period number.
(remember to go down 1 in the d block)
Therefore the electronic configuration is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4.
Figure 2.23 shows an alternative way of remembering the order in
For each shell (except the first), there aresub-levels
which three pareorbitals.
filled.

13 Give the full electronic configurations of the following atoms:

a N b Ar c V
d Sr e Te

Electrons in atoms occupy atomic orbitals.

An orbital is a region of space in which there is a high probability

of finding an electron. It represents a discrete energy level.

Figurecan
An orbital 2.28 shows
contain a the orbitals that make up the 2s and 2p sub-levels in
There are four different types of atomic orbital: s p d f
the second main energy level. The first shell (maximum number of electrons 2) consists of a 1s orbital
maximum of two electrons.
and this makes up the entire 1s sub-level. This is spherical in shape (Figure
2.24a).
The 1s orbital is centred on the nucleus (Figure 2.24b). The electron
is moving all the time and the intensity of the colour here represents the
2. 41 The first two shells Figure 2.28 shows the orbitals
probability thatelectron
of finding the makeat up the distance
a certain 2s andfrom 2p the
sub-levels
nucleus. in
the second main energy The darkerlevel.
the colour the greater the probability of the electron being at
that point. This represents the electron density.
The electron can be found anywhere in this region of space (except the
nucleus – at the centre of the orbital) but it is most likely to be found at a
certain distance from the nucleus.
The second main energy level (maximum number of electrons 8) is
made up of the 2s sub-level and the 2p sub-level. The 2s sub-level just
consists of the 2s orbital, whereas the 2p sub-level is made up of three 2p
orbitals. The
The third shell (maximum 18 electrons) 2s orbital
consists (like3s,
of the all 3p
other
and s orbitals)
3d is spherical in shape and
bigger
sub-levels. The 3s sub-level is just the than the the
3s orbital; 1s orbital (Figure 2.25).
3p sub-level consists
p orbitals have a ‘dumb-bell’ shape (Figure 2.26). Three p orbitals make
of three 3p orbitals; and the 3d sub-level is made up of five 3d orbitals.
up the 2p sub-level. These point at 90° to each other and are named
One of the five 3d orbitals is shown in Figure 2.29.
appropriately as px, py, pz (Figure 2.27). The px orbital points along the
The fourth shell (maximum 32 xelectrons) consists
axis. The three of oneall4s,have
2p orbitals three
the4p,
same energy – they are described
five 4d and seven 4f orbitals. Theasseven 4f orbitals make up the 4f sub-
degenerate.
level. One of the f orbitals is shown in Figure 2.30.

The third
Within any sub-shell all shell (maximum
the orbitals 18same
have the electrons)
energy consists
(they of the 3s, 3p and 3d
are degenerate),
sub-levels. The 3s sub-level is just the 3s orbital;the
e.g. the three 2p orbitals are degenerate and the 3p sub-level consists
five 3d orbitals are degenerate.
of three 3p orbitals; and the 3d sub-level is made up of five 3d orbitals.
The numberOne of the
of orbitals five energy
in each 3d orbitals
level is isshown
shown in Figure
in Table 2.4. 2.29.
The
2. 42 Electronic configuration fourth shell (maximum 32 electrons) consists of one 4s, three 4p,
fivediagrams
The 4d andofseven
atomic4f that The seven
orbitals.
orbitals 4f orbitals
for more complex make upWhat
atoms. the implications
4f sub- does this
Electrons are distributed
level.inOne
we have different
seen of theenergy
here are derivedlevels
from
f orbitals in the atom
is shown of the2.30.
have
in Figure for element.

the limit of scientifi c knowledge? When we

mathematical functions that are solutions describe more complex atoms in terms of orbitals,
The order intowhich they fill up
the Schrödinger the sub-levels
equation. Exact solutions of the by stability.
is governed
just extending the results from the
we are actually
Within any sub-shell all the orbitals
Schrödinger equation are only possible for a system
have the same energy (they
hydrogen atom and gaining an approximate view of
When electrons fill up the orbitals having the
degenerate), least
theenergy they attain are degenerate and the
involving oneare
electron, e.g.
i.e. the hydrogen atom. three
It is 2p orbitals
the properties of electrons in atoms.
maximum stability.
five
not possible to 3d exact
derive orbitals are degenerate.
mathematical solutions
There are three principles that describe how electrons fill up in orbitals.

The number of orbitals in each energy level is shown in Table 2.4.

Aufbau Principle: Electrons enter the orbital that is available with the lowest
energy. The orbitals are arranged in the order of increasing energy and the
Thenumber
electrons are added until the proper diagramsof of atomic for
electrons orbitals that
the element for more complex atoms. W
have been accommodated we have seen here are derived from have for the limit of scient
mathematical functions that are solutions describe more complex at
to the Schrödinger equation. Exact solutions of the we are actually just extend
Schrödinger equation are only possible for a system hydrogen atom and gainin
involving one electron, i.e. the hydrogen atom. It is the properties of electrons
not possible to derive exact mathematical solutions
Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
 83
15

2. 43 Electronic configuration
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: No orbital can accommodate more than
two electrons. If there are two electrons in an orbital, they must have
opposite spin.

Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity: When there are a number of

orbitals of equal energy, electrons first fill them up individually and then
get paired. By filling up individually, mutual repulsion between electrons
is avoided and thereby maximum stability is achieved. 

2 ATOMIC STRUC T U R E

For convenience, an “arrow-in-box” notation called an orbital

Useful resource
diagram is used to represent the electrons in these atomic orbitals
The “Orbitron” website, (figure 11). We shall use orbital diagrams to represent electron
developed by Professor Mark
2. 44 Electron spin Winter at the University of
configurations.

Sheffield, UK is an excellent s sublevel (one box representing an s orbital)

Electrons are all identical. The only
resource way ofthedistinguishing
for exploring them is by
describing how their energies
shapes ofand spatial
the various distributions differ.

atomic
orbitals. It also provides
Thus an electron in a 1s information
orbital is on different from an electron in a 2s orbital
the associated
sophisticated mathematical
because it occupies a different region of space closerp to the(three
sublevel nucleus,
boxes representing the three p orbitals px, py, and pz)
wavefunctions.
causing it to have less potential energy.

http://winter.group.shef.ac.uk/
orbitron/
An electron in a 2px orbital differs from an electron in a 2py orbital
because although they have exactly the same potential energy,
d sublevel theyrepresenting the five d orbitals)
(five boxes

occupy different regions of space.

f sublevel (seven boxes representing the seven f orbitals)

2. 45 Electron spin Figure 11 Orbital diagrams are used to represent the electron configurations for atoms.
Arrows are drawn in the boxes to represent electrons, a maximum of 2 electrons in each
box (orbital)
There can only be two electrons in each orbital, and they must have
opposite directions of spin. Two electrons in the same orbital have opposite values of the spin
N S magnetic quantum number, ms. The sign of ms ( + __12 or - __12 )
indicates the orientation of the magnetic field generated by the
electron. A pair of electrons in an orbital behaves as two magnets
facing in opposite directions and therefore is commonly represented
by two arrows in a box (figure 12).

Quantum numbers
In this mathematical model of the electronic structure of the atom there are
four quantum numbers. The first is the principal quantum number, n, which
S N
represents the energy level. The second quantum number, the azimuthal
N S quantum number, l, describes the sublevel, and the third quantum
number, the magnetic quantum number, ml, the atomic orbital. The fourth
quantum number, the spin magnetic quantum number, ms, describes the
magnet analogy spatial orientation of the electron spin. Quantum numbers are not formally
examined in the IB Chemistry Diploma, but you need to know the principles
of energy levels, sublevels, atomic orbitals, and electron spin.
S N
half-arrows representing You might think of the four quantum numbers as an electronic postal
electrons of opposite spin address. The country represents the energy level, the province the
in an orbital
Bilal
Bilal Hameed
Hameed Electronic configuration
sublevels, the Electronic
town the orbitals, and the Configuration
street number or postal code the
spin of the electron.
Figure 12 Electron spin is represented by
arrows in orbital diagrams
 Figure 11 Orbital diagrams are used to represent the electron configurations for atoms.
Arrows are drawn in the boxes to represent electrons, a maximum of 2 electrons in each
box (orbital)
84
16
Two electrons in the same orbital have opposite values of the spin
N S magnetic quantum number, ms. The sign of ms ( + __12 or - __12 )
indicates the orientation of the magnetic field generated by the
electron. A pair of electrons in an orbital behaves as two magnets
facing in opposite directions and therefore is commonly represented
2. 46 Electron spin by two arrows in a box (figure 12).

For convenience, an “electrons-in-boxes” notation Quantum

is used numbers
to
In this mathematical model of the electronic structure of the atom there are
represent the electrons in these atomic orbitals:
four quantum
10 Arrange the following in order
numbers. of: is the principal quantum
The first 12 Draw an energy
number, level dia
n, which
S N a increasing
representsenergy
the energy level. The second quantum number, four
theenergy levels in a hy
azimuthal
N S b decreasing wavelength
quantum number, l, describes the sublevel, and the thirdwithquantuman arrow on this dia
ultraviolet
number, radiation infrared
the magnetic quantum radiation
number, transition
ml, the atomic orbital. The that would giv
fourth
s sub-level p sub-level d sub-level
microwaves
quantum orange
number, light
the spin magneticgreen lightnumber, mas, adescribes
quantum line in thetheultraviole
magnet analogy spatialhow
orientation
11 Describe a line inofthe
theLyman
electronseries
spin.ofQuantum
the numbersb are not in
a line formally
the visible reg
examined
hydrogen atominspectrum
the IB Chemistry
arises. Diploma, but you need to know the principles
c a line in the infrared r
Each box represents one orbital:
S N
of energy levels, sublevels, atomic orbitals, and electron spin.
half-arrows representing You might think of the four quantum numbers as an electronic postal
electrons of opposite spin address. The country represents the energy level, the province the
in an orbital
sublevels, the town the orbitals, and the street number or postal code the
spin
Determine of full
the the electron.
electronic
Figure 12 Electron
an orbital withspinelectrons
is represented
inbyopposite spins
arrows in orbital diagrams configuration of an atom with
up to 54 electrons
58 Understand what is meant by The emission spectra of atoms with more than
an orbital and a subshell (sub evidence, such as ionisation energy data (see be
energy level) simple treatment of considering that electrons
energy levels is a useful first approximation but

2. 47 Order of filling orbitals Each main energy level in an atom is made up

(subshells). The first main energy level consists s
second main energy level is split into the 2s sub
The principal energy levels
The sub-levels in each main energy level up to
(shells) get closer together as you
get further from the nucleus. This
results in an overlap of sub- levels.

Within any main energy level (shell) the ord

(subshells) is always s < p < d < f, but there are
orders between sub-levels in different energy lev
the subshells are shown in Figure 2.21.

The Aufbau principle is simply the name given

out the electronic configuration of an atom.
2. 48 Order of filling orbitals
The first example of this 4
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
overlap occurs when the 4s 3d
orbital is filled before the 3d 4s
3 3p
orbital
3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s

Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
 85
17

2. 49 The ‘AUFBAU’ principal

The following sequence will show the
‘building up’ of the electronic structures of
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4 the first 36 elements in the periodic table.

4p
3d
4s Electrons are shown as half-headed
3 3p arrows and can spin in one of two
3s directions.

2p Orbitals are color-coded as below:

2
2s
s orbitals

1 1s
p orbitals

d orbitals

2. 50 Hydrogen
1s1

Hydrogen atoms have one

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
electron. This goes into a vacant
4s orbital in the lowest available
3 3p
3s energy level.

2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 51 Helium
1s2

Every orbital can contain 2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
electrons, provided the electrons
4s are spinning in opposite directions.

3 3p
3s The two electrons in a helium atom
both go in the 1s orbital.
2p
2
2s

1 1s

Bilal
Bilal Hameed
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 86
18

2. 52 Lithium
1s2 2s1

1s orbitals can hold a maximum of

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
two electrons so the third electron in
3d
4s a lithium atom must go into the next
3 3p
available orbital of higher energy.
3s
This will be further from the nucleus
2
2p in the second principal energy level.

2s
The second principal level has two
1 1s types of orbital (s and p). An s
orbital is lower in energy than a p.

2. 53 Beryllium
1s2 2s2

Beryllium atoms have four

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
electrons so the fourth electron
4s pairs up in the 2s orbital. The 2s
3 3p
3s sub level is now full.

2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 54 Boron
1s2 2s2 2p1

As the 2s sub level is now full, the

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
fifth electron goes into one of the
4s three p orbitals in the 2p sub level.

3 3p
3s
The 2p orbitals are slightly higher in
2p energy than the 2s orbital.
2
2s

1 1s

Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
 87
19

2. 55 Carbon
1s2 2s2 2p2

The next electron in doesn’t pair

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
up with the one already there. This
4s would give rise to repulsion
3 3p
3s between the similarly charged
species. Instead, it goes into
2p
2
2s
another p orbital which means
less repulsion, lower energy and
1 1s
more stability.

2. 56 Nitrogen
1s2 2s2 2p3

The next electron will not pair up

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
but goes into a vacant p orbital. All
3d
4s three electrons are now unpaired.
3 3p
3s
This gives less repulsion, lower
energy and therefore more
2p
2 stability.
2s

1 1s

2. 57 Oxygen
1s2 2s2 2p4

With all three orbitals half-filled,

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
the eighth electron in an oxygen
4s atom must now pair up with one
3 3p
3s of the electrons already there.

2p
2
2s

1 1s

Bilal
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2. 58 Fluorine
1s2 2s2 2p5

The electrons continue to pair up

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
with those in the half-filled orbitals.
4s
3 3p
3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 59 Neon
1s2 2s2 2p6

The electrons continue to pair up

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
with those in the half-filled orbitals.
4s The 2p orbitals are now completely
3 3p
3s filled and so is the second principal
energy level.

2p
2
2s In the older system of describing
electronic configurations, this
1 1s
would have been written as 2,8.

2. 60 Sodium to argon
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
 89
21

2. 61 Potassium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

Because the principal energy levels

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
get closer together as you go
3d
4s further from the nucleus coupled
3 3p
3s
with the splitting into sub energy
levels, the 4s orbital is of a LOWER
2p
2 ENERGY than the 3d orbitals so it
2s
gets filled first.
1 1s

2. 62 Calcium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

As expected, the next electron

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d pairs up to complete a filled 4s
4s
3 3p orbital.
3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 63 Elements with proton numbers 1 to 10

Bilal
Bilal Hameed
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22

2. 64 Elements with proton numbers 11 to 20

2. 65 Skill check
Copy and complete the following information for the quantum shell with
principal quantum number 3.

A total number of sub-shells

B total number of orbitals

C number of different types of orbital

D maximum number of electrons in the shell

2. 66 Skill check
An atom has eight electrons. Which diagram shows the electronic configuration of
this atom in its lowest energy state?

Electronic configuration
Electronic Configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
 of the following elements:
a) Phosphorus: [Ne]…
b) Cobalt: [Ar]… 91
23
6 Write the full electron configuration of an
excited sodium atom.
hat are
2. 677 FillSkill check
in the outer electrons of a phosphorus
toms. atom
Fill in the inelectrons
outer the boxes below. atom in the boxes below.
of a phosphorus
3s 3p

me
8 Explain, with an example, the meaning of the
term periodicity.
ss of 9 Consider atoms of boron, magnesium and
er. bromine. In which is the effective nuclear charge
is 63.5. the largest and in which is it the smallest?
the two
ic masses 10 List the particles Cl, Cl− and K+ in order of
increasing radius.
11 Explain why the first ionisation energies of the
ow were 2. 68noble
Skillgases
checkdecrease from helium to krypton.
The
12 the
Give successive
electron orbital ionisation
configurationenergies of anstate
for the ground element,
of the
following atoms or ions:
X, are given in the table. To which group of the
AN periodic table does element X belong?
Ionisation energy/kJ mol−
B O2- 1
Ionisation
C Ca2+ 1st 1 000
D Al3+ 2nd 2 260
licon to
E P3- 3rd 3 390
4th 4 540
bers
5th 6 990
ple of
6th 8 490
7th 27 100

2. 70 8th
Skill check 31 700
9th 36 600
Name all element in the third period (row) of the periodic table
10th 43 100
with the following:


13 Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages
a three valence electrons

of3pESI
b four and TOF mass spectrometers.
electrons

c six 3p electrons

14d twoBy3s considering the3prelative
electrons and no electronseffectiveness of s, p
and d electrons in shielding the nucleus, suggest
m/z why the difference between the atomic radii
of fluorine and chlorine is 50 pm whereas that
the between chlorine and bromine is only 15 pm.

Questions 35

Bilal
BilalHameed
Hameed Electronic configuration Electronic Configuration

27/02/2015 19:58
 92
24

2. 70 Skill check
Name all element in the third period (row) of the periodic table
with the following:


a three valence electrons

b four 3p electrons

c six 3p electrons

d two 3s electrons and no 3p electrons

2. 71 Exceptions in transition elements

Though the s orbital is at lower energy level than the d of the penultimate
shell, after the filling of the d sub-level, the order changes.

The d electrons, because of the shape of the d orbital, penetrate into the
region of space between the nucleus and the s orbital and repel the s
electrons and push them to higher energy level.

Before filling: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d

After filling: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3dx 4s2

2. 72 Exceptions in transition elements

Thus the electronic configuration of iron is

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

and not

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

Remember: 3d is higher than 4s in terms of energy levels!

Electronic configuration
Electronic Configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
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2. 73 Scandium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2

With the lower energy 4s orbital

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
filled, the next electrons can now fill
4s the 3d orbitals. There are five d
3 3p
3s orbitals. They are filled according to
Hund’s Rule.
2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 74 Titanium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2

The 3d orbitals are filled according

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
to Hund’s rule so the next electron
4s doesn’t pair up but goes into an
3 3p
3s empty orbital in the same sub level.

2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 75 Vanadium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2

The 3d orbitals are filled according

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
to Hund’s rule so the next electron
4s doesn’t pair up but goes into an
3 3p
3s empty orbital in the same sub level.

2p
2
2s

1 1s

Bilal
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2. 76 Chromium
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
One would expect the configuration

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p of chromium atoms to end in 3d4
3d
4s 4s2.

3 3p
3s
To achieve a more stable
arrangement of lower energy, one of
2p
2 the 4s electrons is promoted into
2s
the 3d to give six unpaired
1 1s electrons with lower repulsion.

2. 77 Manganese
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2

The new electron goes into the 4s

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
to restore its filled state.
4s
3 3p
3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 78 Iron
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

Orbitals are filled according to

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
Hund’s Rule. They continue to pair
4s up.
3 3p
3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s

Electronic configuration
Electronic Configuration Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed
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2. 79 Cobalt
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2

Orbitals are filled according to

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
Hund’s Rule. They continue to pair
4s up.
3 3p
3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 80 Nickel
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2

Orbitals are filled according to

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
Hund’s Rule. They continue to pair
4s up.
3 3p
3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 81 Copper
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

One would expect the

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
configuration of chromium atoms
4s to end in 3d9 4s2.

3 3p
3s To achieve a more stable
arrangement of lower energy, one
2p
2
2s of the 4s electrons is promoted into
the 3d.
1 1s

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2. 82 Zinc
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2

The electron goes into the 4s to

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4p
3d
restore its filled state and complete
4s the 3d and 4s orbital filling.
3 3p
3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s

2. 83 Gallium to krypton
The 4p orbitals are filled in exactly the same way as those in the 2p and 3p sub levels:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2

Ga - 4p1

Ge - 4p2

As - 4p3

Se - 4p4

Br - 4p5

Kr - 4p6

2. 84 Electronic configuration of ions

Metallic elements, belonging to Group I, II and III form positively charged
ions by losing electrons in their outermost shell, so that the ions may be
iso-electronic with the preceding noble gas.

SODIUM Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Na+ 1s2 2s2 2p6

(1 electron removed from the 3s orbital)

Electronic configuration
Electronic Configuration Bilal Hameed
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2. 85 Electronic configuration of ions

Non-metallic elements belonging to Group V, VI and VII form negative
ions by accepting electrons so that they achieve the noble gas
configuration:

CHLORINE Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Cl¯ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

(1 electron added to the 3p orbital)


2. 86 Transition metal ions

When transition metals form ions, electrons are lost first from the
outermost s orbital and then from the penultimate d sub-level.

Electrons in the 4s orbital are removed before any electrons in the

3d orbitals.
TITANIUM Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
Ti+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s1
Ti2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2
Ti3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1
Ti4+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6`

2. 87 Skill check
Write electronic configurations for the following ions:

a Al3+ d Cu2+
b O2- e Cu+
c Fe3+

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2. 88 Skill check
Write the electron configuration for each ion.

a O2-
b Br-
c Sr2+
d Co3+ 


2. 89 Skill check
Write the electron configuration for each ion.

a O2-
b Br-
c Sr2+
d Co3+

2. 90 Skill check
What is the order of increasing energy of the listed orbitals in the atom of
titanium?

A 3s 3p 3d 4s

B 3s 3p 4s 3d

C 3s 4s 3p 3d

D 4s 3s 3p 3d

Electronic configuration
Electronic Configuration Bilal Hameed
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2. 91 Skill check
A simple ion X+ contains eight protons.

What is the electronic configuration of X+?

A 1s2 2s1 2p6

B 1s2 2s2 2p3

C 1s2 2s2 2p5

D 1s2 2s2 2p7

2. 92 Skill check
Write down the electronic configurations of the following ions:

A bromide

B magnesium

C iron(II)

D copper (II)

E iron(III)

2. 93 Skill check
Determine the number of unpaired electrons in each of these atoms:

A phosphorus

B chromium

C oxygen

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2. 94 Skill check
Use the periodic table to determine the element corresponding

to each electron configuration.

A [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6

B [Ar] 4s2 3d2

C [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p2

D [Kr] 5s2 


2. 95 Periodic table
The modern Periodic Table is arranged such that elements with similar
electronic configuration lie in vertical groups.

Thus elements with electronic configuration ending up as ns1 are put in

one group while those that end up as ns2 are put in another group.

The elements that fill up the s orbital of the highest energy level are said
to belong to the s block, comprising of Groups 1 and 2.

2. 96 Periodic table
The elements that similarly fill up the p orbitals of the highest energy are
said to belong to the p block, which comprises of Groups 13 to 0.

So there are two columns in the s block and six columns in the p block.

The elements that fill up the d sub-level of the penultimate shell are
called the d block elements or the transition element series.

Electronic configuration
Electronic Configuration Bilal Hameed
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2. 97 Skill check
Write down the last term of the electronic configuration for the elements in the
table, the sequence for Hydrogen has been entered for you. Label the s, p and
d blocks on the table.

1s

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