COMPLETION DESIGN AND ENGINEERING

Contents Page Contents Page

Introduction .................................................. 1 Corrosion ..................................................... 48

Multiphase Fluid Flow .................................. 2 Corrosion Control .............................. 49
Well System Analysis ................................... 6 Types of Corrosion ............................ 50
Inflow Performance ........................... 8 Hydrogen Sulfide ............................... 50
Outflow Performance ......................... 8 Stress Corrosion Cracking ................ 53
Well Performance .............................. 10 Carbon Dioxide .................................. 54
Designing Well Performance ....................... 15 Oxidation ........................................... 56
Tubing Size ......................................... 16 Cathodic Protection ........................... 56
Tubing Depth ..................................... 18 Erosion Corrosion .............................. 56
Completion Equipment Selection ................. 19 Elastomers ................................................... 57
Tubing String Specification ................ 19 Application (Wellbore) Conditions ..... 57
Basic String Design and Selection .... 22 Seal Failure Modes ........................... 63
Tubing Forces .............................................. 25 Design and Configuration .................. 66
Buoyancy ........................................... 26 Elastomer Types ............................... 68
Length and Force Changes ............... 29 Plastics .............................................. 73
Piston Effect ...................................... 30 Wellbore Deposits ........................................ 75
Buckling Effect ................................... 31 Scale ................................................. 76
Ballooning Effect ............................... 33 Wax ................................................... 78
Temperature Effect ............................ 34 Asphaltenes ....................................... 79
Summary of Forces ........................... 35 Hydrates ............................................ 79
Mechanically Applied Force .............. 36 Emulsion ............................................ 81
Tubing Stress Calculations ................ 37 Inspection and Handling .............................. 81
Deep Completions ........................... 37 Running the Tubing String ............... 82
Material Selection ........................................ 39 Perforating ................................................... 83
Basic Metallurgy ................................. 40 Perforation Program Design .............. 83
Material Performance and Properties 35 Perforation Gun Components ............ 89
Material Application ............................ 45 Perforation Gun Systems .................. 90
Quality Assurance .............................. 45

Introduction

The design of an efficient, safe and economic completion There are an enormous range of completion types and
system is dependent on the acquisition of accurate data configurations in use worldwide. Most of which can be
and the selection of appropriate components. Since the classified by the following general criteria.
ultimate success of the completion systems is dependent
on its successful installation, the installation procedures • Wellbore/reservoir interface, i.e., open-hole or cased
should also be given some consideration at this time. hole completion.

In many cases, several types of component can be used • Production method, i.e., natural/artificial lift production.
with equal success. Previous experience and knowledge
of potential problem areas enable the selection process to • Producing zones, i.e., single /multiple zone production.
be completed with a degree of confidence.

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Within each classification, completion design will vary ated wellbores. Four conditions are generally recognized
according to the following reservoir and location charac- when describing flow in oil and/or gas wells.
teristics.
• Bubble flow - characterized by a uniformly distributed
• Gross production rate gas phase as discrete bubbles in a continuous liquid
phase. Bubble flow is further classified into bubbly and
• Well pressure and depth dispersed bubble flows, based on the presence or
absence of slippage between the liquid and gas phases.
• Formation properties In bubbly flow, relatively fewer and larger bubbles move
faster than the liquid phase due to slippage. In dispersed
• Fluid properties bubble flow numerous tiny bubbles are transported by
the liquid phase, causing no relative motion between the
• Well location two phases. Dispersed bubble flow is sometimes known
Production hydraulics, or the flow of fluids through the as froth flow.
production tubulars can be a complex condition to asses,
and design for. However, several computer models are
available to assist in completion designers achieve an
efficient flow regime which minimizes the risk of problems
later in the life of a completion. For example, most gas
wells perform well upon initial completion, However, as
the reservoir pressure depletes, liquid loading can occur
which may restrict or even prevent production. Dispersed bubbles

In order to understand the basic principles of production

hydraulics it is necessary to have some understanding of
multiphase fluid flow characteristics.

Multiphase Fluid Flow

Almost all wells produce a mixture of gas and liquids even

though they may be distinctly classed as oil wells or gas Bubble flow
wells (Table 1).

There are several flow regimes associated with the up-

ward flow of multiphase fluids in vertical, or slightly devi-

OIL AND GAS WELL CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA Taylor bubble

Gas/Liquid Ratio Liquid Yield Well
(Scf/bbl) (bbl/MMcf) Classification

<10,000 >100 Oil

>50,000 <20 Gas

10,000-50,000 20-100 Multiphase

Slug flow

Fig. 1. Oil and gas well classification criteria. Fig. 2. Bubble and slug flow characteristics.

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•Slug flow - characterized by a series of slugs, comprising • Annular/mist – characterized by a continuous gas phase
a gas pocket called a Taylor bubble, a plug of liquid core with the liquid flowing upwards as a thin film on the
(slug) and a film of liquid around the Taylor bubble tubing wall. Some investigators have called this flow
flowing downwards. For vertical flow, the Taylor bubble pattern mist flow, since small liquid drops are continu-
is an axially symmetrical bullet-shaped gas pocket that ously being broken from, and reabsorbed by the annular
occupies almost the entire cross-sectional area of the film. The interfacial shear stress acting at the core-film
pipe. The liquid slug, containing smaller gas bubbles, interface and the amount of entrained liquid in the core
bridges the tubing thereby separating the Taylor bubbles. are important parameters.

• Transition or churn flow – a chaotic flow of gas and liquid Bubble, slug and churn flow patterns are typically associ-
in which both the Taylor bubbles and liquid slugs be- ated with oil wells. However, it is possible for oil and gas
come distorted. Neither phase appears to be continuous wells to include all flow patterns (in addition to a single
and the liquid phase appears to move both up and down phase liquid or gas). The flow pattern is determined by
(oscillate) the tubular. Churn flow is considered a transi- several factors, but most significantly by:
tion region between slug flow and mist flow.
• liquid flowrate

• gas flowrate

• liquid density

• gas density

Chaotic flow • interfacial tension

pattern
• tubular geometry

During production, the relationships between these fac-

tors are further complicated by changes in temperature
and pressure throughout the wellbore, and by the result-
ing exchange of mass between phases. Consequently,
Transtion flow modeling of multiphase flow is extremely complicated and
is best achieved with the assistance of a computer mod-
eling program, e.g., PERFORM™ Well System Analysis
software (DSSC).
Annular film
A characteristic common to each flow regime is that a
velocity differential exists between all fluid phases. This
results in an accumulation (or holdup) of one phase with
Mist core respect to the other(s). This further complicates the accu-
rate modeling of hydrostatic pressure.

The most efficient flow regime for liquid removal from gas
wells is annular/mist flow. The gas velocity required to
sustain a stable annular/mist flow condition is known as
Annular/mist flow the critical velocity. When analyzing or designing gas well
completions, the critical velocity must be exceeded through-
out the wellbore to ensure sustained, efficient liquid re-
Fig. 3. Transition and annular flow characteristics. moval.

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 RESERVOIR, WELL AND LOCATION CRITICAL DESIGN FACTORS

Parameter Design Implications

High Production Rate

Potentially significant friction pressures.
Liquid 1500 to 10,000 BOPD Large diameter tubing (>2-7/8-in.)
Gas 35 to 140 MMscf/D Large diameter casing (>5-1/2-in.)
Thermal expansion/contraction allowance
Potential erosion problems
Specialized ancillary equipment, e.g., artificial
lift equipment.

Low Production Rate

Artificial lift equipment required
Liquid <30 BOPD Potential paraffin build up
Gas <1MMscf/D Operating costs become critical

Very High Pressure

High-strength tubulars and components
10,000 to 25,000 psi H2S tolerance of high-strength steels
Special performance packers and seals
Detailed checks and testing procedure
for completion installation.

High Pressure
Threaded connections unacceptable
3,000 to 10,000 psi Special grade tubing and couplings
Special capability for well kill

Low Pressure
Threaded connections generally accepted
<1000 psi Artificial lift may be required
High risk of formation damage

Deep Wellbore
Potential high-pressures
>10,000 ft Tubing tension should be modeled
Casing/liner sizes may be restrictive
Specialized artificial lift systems
Potential corrosion due to high-temperature
and high-pressure combination.

Well Location
Special regulatory requirements
Offshore Subsurface safety valve requirements
Well servicing and access constraints

Urban Areas Special safety requirements

Environmental constraints

Special Environments Awareness of wellhead damage factors

Suitability of artificial lift

Fig. 4. Reservoir, well and location critical design factors.

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 RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID CRITICAL DESIGN FACTORS

Parameter Design Implications

Very Low Permeability <1 md Hydraulic fracturing required

Low Permeability 1 to 50 md Hydraulic fracturing possibly required

High drawdown across perforations

Hydraulic fracturing unlikely to be of benefit

Moderate Permeability >50 md Matrix acidizing possibly required
Risk of formation damage
Moderate drawdown across perforations

High Permeability >1 Darcy Lost circulation may be a problem

Formation strength may not allow high
velocity production.
Formation may be easily damaged.

Fluid Properties Regulatory requirements

Hydrogen Sulfide May require corrosion protection
Gas considered sour

Carbon Dioxide Consider inhibitor or special steel protection

if CO2 partial pressure is >10 psi.

Water production Possible scale problems

Artificial lift may be required

Water injection Consider protection from oxidization.

Fig. 5. Reservoir rock and fluid critical design factors.

Note: A rule-of-thumb estimation frequently used for criti- The tables in Fig. 4 and 5 identify the critical concerns for
cal velocity is 10 ft/sec. This should be used as a guide completion design, as determined by well type and loca-
only. Installation designs should be confirmed as suitable tion factors.
by applying an appropriate model to the specific condi-
tions encountered. A summary of key implications is included to illustrate the
level of detail required when designing an oil well comple-
tion.

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Well System Analysis Important completion parameters can be entered, and
varied, to enable the assessment of their contribution to
The process of optimizing production involves first under- the overall performance of the completion system.
standing the reservoir fluid and deliverability parameters,
then optimizing the design of each well component in the The term/name NODAL Analyses comes from the con-
line of flow, wellbore, completion, and reservoir seg- cept that a complete well system is actually made up of
ments. components and that at any point in the system flow
stream, a single point (node) is composed of an inflow
The objectives of system analysis may be summarized as component (into the node) and an outflow component (out
follows, the overall goal being systems optimization. of the node). Node components are related by the follow-
ing two rules.
• Optimize the completion system to the reservoir
deliverability. • Pressure into the node is equal to the pressure out of the
node.
• Identify restrictions or the limiting factors of production. Pout = Pin

• Identify means of increasing the production efficiency. • Flowrate into the note is equal to the flowrate out of the
node.
NODAL analysis is an analytical tool for forecasting the Qout = Qin
performance of zones with various completion designs.

Surface choke Gas

Pdsc

Ptf Psep

Separator

Liquid
SSSV Pusv-Pdsv

Pwts
DH Restric-
Pur-Pdr Pe
tion

Pwf

Fig. 6. NODAL analysis system principal components.

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In this analysis process, the producing system is consid- • Safety valves
ered in four components (Fig 6).
• Surface chokes
• Separator
• Tubing size
• Horizontal flow line
• Flow line size
• Tubing/completion string
• Separator or header pressures
• Reservoir
Systems analysis requires a node position be designated
Each component is analyzed separately and then as a within the well system. The position of the node is arbi-
group to evaluate the performance of the complete trary. However, there are advantages in having the node
system. A more detailed analysis can be undertaken to positioned where well system components are segre-
evaluate or illustrate the effects of completion compo- gated. The most common node position used is in the
nents. Nodes can be selected on completion and perfor- wellbore, in the middle of the perforated interval (Fig. 7).
mance components such as: This position has the advantage of separating tubing and
flowline related effects (outflow) from the reservoir and
• Inflow ability completion effects (inflow).

• Perforations

• Restrictions
Flowline component

Completion component

Outflow Wellbore component

Inflow Inflow Reservoir component

Node (Pwf )

Fig. 7. NODAL analysis system principal components.

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Important completion parameters can be entered, and Inflow Performance
varied to enable the assessment of their contribution to
the overall performance of the completion system. If the pressure at the node position is the same as the static
reservoir pressure (Pr,) then the flowrate into the node will
Optimization is generally a trial and error task of changing be zero. In order for the reservoir fluids to flow toward the
the parameter values used in each component until node position, the pressure at the node position must be
computer generated results match the desired well per- decreased below the static reservoir pressure. As the
formance. This will establish a level of confidence in the pressure at the node position is reduced more, the result-
computer generated results that can be carried to the next ing response from the reservoir and completion is an
phase of the nodal analysis whereby parameters are increased flowrate.
changed to optimize the well for future performance
behavior and anticipated workovers. If the response from the completion is removed from the
system, a relationship exists between the reservoir re-
Reservoir parameters are generally fixed, although the sponse and the sandface pressure (Pws). This is known as
primary reservoir pressure may deplete during the pro- the Inflow Performance Relationship or IPR. A typical IPR
ducing life of the well. Fluid parameters are usually fixed profile is shown in Figure 8. If the pressure at the node is
except for ratios such as GWR, GOR, or GLR. the same as the reservoir pressure, the reservoir will not
flow.
The production system components to be optimized in-
clude the wellbore and completion configuration. Only a In most cases the IPR plot is curved due to the effects of:
few parameters can be effectively changed to enhance
the performance of most well systems: • fluid friction

• Tubing or flowline • fluid turbulence

• Wellhead or separator pressure (compression) • changing fluid properties

• Choke or restriction size A straight line IPR (linear relationship) applies, theoreti-
cally, to single phase incompressible fluids.
• Perforation density (shots per foot)
Outflow Performance
• Perforation geometry (length and diameter)
If the well is not flowing (Q=0) then the pressure at the
• Perforated interval length node position will equal the static bottomhole pressure.
This pressure comprises the combined pressure of the
• Skin (stimulation) weight of the vertical fluid column and the pressure at the
outflow point. The outflow point is assumed to be at the
• Artificial lift wellhead if no flowline is included in the system. If a
flowline is included in the system, then the outflow point is
Initiating changes in any parameter may result in a cost or the separator or end of the flowline.
expenditure impact which negates production or revenue
gain. Consequently, the design engineer must be aware If the outflow point pressure (wellhead or separator pres-
of both technical and non technical issues effecting de- sure) is held constant at all times and if the pressure at the
sign and selection. For example, altering the wellhead node is varied, there must be a change in the flowrate in
flowing pressure can effect both the well performance and the system. As flow rate is increased, an additional
the specifications of surface facilities required to handle or pressure component for friction loss is induced into the
process the wellbore fluids. An appropriate wellhead system. Figure 9 shows a plot of the pressure at the node
flowing pressure should be selected on the basis of versus the resulting flowrate.
project economics.

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 PRESSURE AT NODE (Pwf ) – e.g., psi
Static reservoir pressure (Pr )

Inflow performance
relationship

0
FLOWRATE (q) – e.g., Mscf/d

Fig. 8. NODAL analysis system principal components.

PRESSURE AT NODE (Pwf ) – e.g., psi

Static reservoir
pressure Outflow curve
(Pr )

0
FLOWRATE (q) – e.g., Mscf/d

Fig. 9. NODAL analysis system principal components.

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The characteristic ‘J’ shape of the tubing performance Well Performance
curve (TPC) is due to differences in phase velocities,
known as slippage. At low rates, the liquid phase accu- An indication of the rate and pressure at which a well will
mulates allowing only gas to flow from the well. produce (under specific conditions) is given by superim-
posing the TPC and IPR curves discussed above.
As the flowrate increases, the hydrostatic component
decreases due to the entrained gas. However, the fric- When investigating the inflow component, as the pres-
tional component increases. The minimum (TPC point) sure at the node is decreased, the flowrate will increase.
occurs as the increased frictional pressure drop exactly With the outflow component, an increase in pressure at
offsets the hydrostatic pressure drop. the node position is required to increase flowrate. From
this observation, there must be a pressure and flowrate
There are several published methods for predicting the which will satisfy the requirements of both the inflow and
behavior of wells producing multiphase fluids. Due to the outflow components. The point at which the TPC and IPR
complex nature of the conditions being modeled, the curves intersect indicate the flow rate and pressure that
prediction methods make several assumptions. The satisfies both inflow and outflow components and is
suitability or accuracy of each method is thereby depen- known as the operating point or natural flow point (Fig 10).
dent on the conditions of the well or reservoir under
analysis being comparable with the assumed conditions. When the curves intersect well to the right of the TPC
The table in Figure 11 summarizes some of the common minimum, the well will flow at a stable rate determined by
flow prediction methods used to obtain the TPC. Simi- the natural flow point. Where the curves intersect close to,
larly, when developing an Inflow Performance Relation- or to the left of the TPC minimum, unstable flowing
ship (IPR) curve, a number of model options exist. The conditions will exist (Fig. 14). With the natural flow point
tables in Figure 12 and 13 summarize some appropriate occurring in an unstable flow region, a smaller tubing size
models which are generally applicable under the reser-
voir and development conditions shown.
PRESSURE AT NODE (Pwf ) – e.g., psi

Inflow performance relationship

Operating
Operating pressure point

Outflow curve Operating

flowrate

0
FLOWRATE (q) – e.g., Mscf/d

Fig. 10. Operating point calculation – stable flow.

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 SUMMARY OF COMMON PRESSURE LOSS PREDICTION METHODS

Method Well Fluid Flow Data type Validity/ Comments

Classification Accuracy

Duns & Ros Oil, water, Flow pattern Laboratory, Good Tends to be conservative and
(1963) gas dependent exp and field overpredict the pressure drop. Good
method where several flow patterns
exist.

Hagedorn & Brown Oil, water, Slip flow Field Good (in some Predicts correct minimum TPC, but
(1965) gas experimental flow patterns) poor in bubble flow. Liquid hold-up
prediction can be less than for no
slip flow. Use with caution.

Hagedorn & Brown Oil, water, Flow pattern Field Good Tends to be optimistic, underpredicts
with Griffith air dependent experimental pressure drop. Preferred correlation in
the absence of other data.

Orkiszewski Oil, water, Flow pattern Hagedorn & Brown Fair Tends to be conservative and
(1967) gas dependent data and field overpredict the pressure drop.

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Aziz et al Oil, water, Flow pattern Laboratory Variable Optimistic, underpredicts pressure
(1972) gas dependent and field drop.

Beggs & Brill Air, water Flow pattern Laboratory Poor Use only for deviated wells (>45°)
(1973) Tends to overpredict pressure drop.

Beggs & Brill Air, water Flow pattern Laboratory Fair Developed for deviated wells.
with Palmer dependent Tends to overpredict pressure drop.

discussed with anyone outside the Schlumberger organisation.

Cornish Oil and gas Homogeneous Field (annular Good (in some) Does not predict a TPC minimum.
(1976) flow) flow patterns) Not generally appropriate for design.

Kleyweg et al Oil, water Slip flow Field Not known Developed for gas lift in deviated wells
(1983) gas (>70°). Limited use.

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Ansari N/A Mechanisti N/A Excellent Slightly conservative though consistent

Fig. 11. Summary of common pressure loss prediction methods (for TPC generation)
(1989) models for all flow patterns. Gives correct TPC
 IPR MODEL SELECTION – (Based Type of Reservoir)

Well Producing Suggested PR

Type Conditions Model

Undersaturated Pwf > Pb Linear PI or radial flow

oil equation

Saturated oil Pwf < Pb Vogel or Fetkovich

Damaged or Pwf > Pb Standing or linear PI

saturated oil S > +3 If very damaged (S>7)

Undersaturated oil PR > Pb Composite Vogel and

at PR but saturated Pwf < Pb linear PI
Pwf

Wells producing oil WC>O Use as indicated above

and water for oil + linear PI
(or radial flow equation for water).

Water zone WC>90% Linear PI or radial flow

equation

High rate q> 25 stb/d/ft Blount-Jones or radial

undersaturated oil flow equation with
turbulence coefficient.

High rate q> 25 stb/d/ft Blount-Jones

saturated oil Pwf < Pb

Gas wells Pseudo-pressure equation

(m(PR) - m(Pwf ) = Aq = Bq2)

Fig. 12. IPR model selection based on reservoir type (for IPC generation).

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 IPR MODEL SELECTION – (Based on Development Stage)

Radial flow Reservoir Empirical

Equation Model IPRs IPRs

Technical Evaluations

Prospect evaluation Guestimate potential - -

Exploration well Extrapolate test results - Validate interpretation

Development Planning

Conceptual design Primary method Identify variations Validate results

(large field) geographically/with Highlight damage risks
time

Conceptual design Primary method - Validate results

(small field or single well) Highlight damage risks

Development plan Validate results and Primary method Validate results

skin assumptions Highlight damage risks

Detailed design Validate results and Primary method Validate results

(large field) evaluate completion Highlight damage risks

Detailed design Primary method If available use for Validate results

(small field or single well) evaluate completion future IPR Highlight damage risks

Optimizing Operations/Workover

Well performance assessment Estimate skin and - Primary method

determine the cause

Field studies (forecasts/ Validate results Predict future IPR Primary method for
artificial lift/compression) (alternative to simulation) current IPRs

Workover planning Primary method for post- Predict future IPR Primary method for
workover IPR current IPRs

Revised development plan Define model input Primary method Validate reservoir model
results

Fig. 13. IPR model selection based on well/field development stage (for IPC generation).

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 PRESSURE AT NODE (Pwf ) – e.g., psi

Inflow performance relationship

Apparent operating
point (unstable)

Outflow curve

0
FLOWRATE (q) – e.g., Mscf/d

Fig. 14. Operating point calculation – Unstable flow.

Apparent operating
PRESSURE AT NODE (Pwf ) – e.g., psi

point (unstable rate)

Outflow curve

Inflow performance
Apparent operating relationship
point (stable rate)

0
FLOWRATE (q) – e.g., Mscf/d

Fig. 15. Combined IPR and TPC plots – dual intersection.

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or artificial lift should be considered. In some cases, in flow rate (Fig 16). However, shot density from 4 to 8 spf
smaller tubing causes a high frictional pressure which may only increase the flow rate by another 30%. The
reduces the flowrate to unacceptable levels. This may be effect of higher shot density above 4 spf is therefore
overcome by using a tapered string or partial completion. minimal making the 4 shot per foot density a conservative
Alternatively, intermittent flow or periodic production re- optimum. Optimum values are typically not the highest
gimes may be used to enable production from a well flow rate possible, but a conservative amount less than
during unstable conditions. the maximum flow rate obtainable. Often a higher flow
rate means an associated higher workover cost. This cost
If the curves intersect at two points (Fig. 15.) the intersec- can be evaluated with the incremental gain in flow rate to
tion to the left is always in an unstable flow regime. In this arrive at an economic optimum using other computer
instance, it would be necessary to kick-off the well quickly programs for economic analysis.
to enable the production rate to reach point B. Where-
upon production may increase to stable flow at point A, or The most common wellbore components varied for opti-
become more unstable and eventually die. mization include:

Designing Well Performance • tubing size

Changes to well system parameters effect the system • packer depth

flowrate. By sensitizing single parameters, the flowrate
changes can be correlated to the value of the parameter • restrictions
being studied. Most parameters will have values that
effect the flowrate substantially for a range of values but • annular flow
usually exhibit a diminishing effect. For example, perfora-
tion analysis may show that values of shot density be- • GLR (gas-liquid-ratio)
tween 1 and 4 spf (shots per foot) make a 200% increase

Minimal
Diminishing effect
effect
FLOWRATE (q) – e.g., Mscf/d

Optimum

Increasing shot density

has a diminishing effect
Maximum with higher shot densities
effect
Minimal return for
increased risk and
Low associated cost
flowrate

0
5 10
PERFORATION SHOT DENSITY – Shots/ft

Fig. 16. Effects of perforation shot density.

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Tubing Size size has a minimal effect in increasing production (flow
rate). This curve may show a hump in the middle as a
Selection of correct tubing size is important for maintain- result of larger tubing sizes causing a reduced flow rate
ing an economical flow rate for the desired production which will produce a liquid holdup problem. The systems
period. Large tubing is good for the higher flow rates, low analysis graph should be reviewed to identify liquid holdup
pressure loss and lower fluid velocity desirable during the regions of the outflow curves. These are unstable flow
early life of the well. However, as the reservoir pressure regions of the outflow curve where the pressure is de-
and flowrate decline, large tubing may become less ad- creasing while the flow rate increases. When an inflection
vantageous as liquid holdup problems are encountered at is reached the curve begins a trend of increasing pressure
lower fluid velocities. Smaller tubing sizes may be neces- with increase flow rate. This appears as a characteristic ‘J’
sary. The lower flow rates and higher pressure losses curve profile.
incurred will be compensated by the higher fluid velocity
which alleviates problems associated with liquid holdup For gas well cases the unloading minimums and erosional
(Fig. 17 through 19). limits can be shown on the systems graph to illustrate
velocity constraints. Flow rates must be maintained higher
Input data for a systems analysis with the node at the than the minimum flow rates for unloading water and
bottom of the wellbore is required. Relevant fluids, wellbore, condensate. Flow rates should be kept less than the
completion, and reservoir data is entered, with outflow maximum erosional flow rates for each tubing size sensi-
being sensitized at various tubing IDs. The resulting tized. Control of wellhead pressure (to change the flow
outflow sensitivity graph will show the tubing size vs. flow rate) may be necessary to maintain flow velocities below
rate result. The optimum tubing size is obtained from this the erosional limit. Larger tubing sizes will increase the
graph by judging a tubing size where an increase in tubing minimum flow rate and increase the maximum erosional
flow rate limit.

3-1/2-in. 4-1/2-in.
FLOWRATE (q) – e.g., Mscf/d

(tubing) (tubing) 5-1/2-in.

2-7/8-in. (tubing)
(tubing)
2-3/8-in.
(tubing)
Liquid holdup
reduces flowrates
in larger sizes
1-1/2-in.
(CT)
Maximum effect
at low flowrates

0
1 2 3 4 5
TUBING INTERNAL DIAMETER (in.)

Fig. 17. Effect of tubing size (ID) on system performance.

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 All wellbore liquids
removed at higher
BOTTOM HOLEPRESSURE (Pwf ) flowrates

Liquid holdup occurs Outflow curve

at low flowrates

Unstable Stable Inflow

flow region flow region performance
relationship

0
FLOWRATE (q)

Fig. 18 Importance of stable flow for liquid removal.

2-3/8 in.
BOTTOM HOLEPRESSURE (Pwf )

tubing 3-1/2 in.

tubing

Flowrate limit
(erosion)

Minimum flowrate
Minimum flowrate to unload water
to unload condensate

0
FLOWRATE (q)

Fig. 19. Critical flow rates for liquid removal and erosion.

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Tubing Depth

When the tubing size is established, the setting depth can Production tubing is generally run into the wellbore as far
be studied by sensitizing the outflow curve on tubing as possible. The tubing string can be considered as a
depth. This function may not be directly available as an long choke in the well system. Smaller and longer tubing
outflow sensitivity option (dependent on the nodal analy- increases the tubing choke effect, so shorter and larger
sis software used). It may be necessary to run individual tubing, being less restrictive, may be preferable for high
cases one at a time to get the resulting flow rates for each production wells.
tubing setting depth and then construct a graph of flow
rate vs tubing depth. This graph may have to be gener-
ated with several tubing sizes to achieve an overall
assessment of tubing size and depth (Fig. 20).
FLOWRATE (q) – e.g., Mscf/d

2-7/8-in.
tubing
2-3/8-in.
tubing

0
2000 4000 6000 8000
TUBING DEPTH (ft)

Fig. 20. Effect on tubing depth.

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Completion Equipment Selection Tubing String Specification

As with all downhole components, investigative data on Tubing generally provides the primary conduit from the
completion components must include full details of di- producing interval to the wellhead production facilities.
mensions, profiles and connections. This is a basic Therefore, the proper selection, design, and installation of
requirement of all downhole equipment, but is of special tubing is a very important part of any completion system.
significance in completion design and installation since
many future well service activities will require thru-tubing • Size/dimensions – The tubing must be sized to enable
access. efficient production.

Further steps in the completion selection and evaluation • Grade – The string should be designed to prevent failure
process will use the basic dimensional data as shown from tensile forces, internal and external pressures and
below. the corrosive nature of the wellbore environment.

• Length (depth) • Assembly – the components of the string must be

installed undamaged to provide a pressure tight seal.
• ID/OD
Length
• Well path-deviation
Tubing joints vary in length from 18 to 35 ft. In any tubing
• Upsets and profiles shipment, the joint length will vary so accurate measure-
ment of each joint is essential. Pup joints (for spacing out
• Connections and tool joints the string) are available in shorter lengths.

When completing a well, the proper selection of tubular Diameter

components is possibly one of the most important deci-
sion processes. Tubular components come in a number Tubing is available in a range of OD sizes. The most
of different grades and diameters and several factors common sizes are 2-3/8, 2-7/8, 3-1/2 and 4-1/2-in. (5-1/2
must be considered prior to their selection. and 7-in. tubing is fairly common in some areas e.g., North
Sea). The API defines tubing as pipe from 1-in. to 4-1/2 in.
The higher formation pressures encountered in recent OD. Larger diameter tubulars being termed casing (4-1/2-
years have required that tubing and components have a in. to 20-in.).
greater yield strength. In addition, improved sealing
mechanisms at tool joints and connections is also re- Construction
quired. The types of connection available has therefore
also increased. Personnel involved with completion de- Most types of tubing joint are threaded on each end (pin
sign and installation should understand the proper appli- end) and connected by couplings (box). The pipe used for
cation of common tubing and components types. Simi- production tubing may be manufactured by one of two
larly, good working knowledge of common seals, tool methods.
joints and couplings is necessary.
• Seamless pipe is defined as a wrought steel tubular
A critical part of any well completion operation is the product made without a welded seam (most commonly
inspection of components prior to final assembly and used for production tubing). It is manufactured by hot
installation. Completion specialists and supervisors should working steel, or if necessary by cold finishing the hot-
be aware of necessary inspection procedures, as well as worked tubular product to produce the desired shape,
the basic handling procedures for each completion com- dimensions and properties.
ponent.
• Electric welded pipe is defined as pipe having one
longitudinal seam formed by electric-flash welding or

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 electric-resistance welding, without the addition of ex- High strength tubing is generally considered to include
traneous metal. grades with a yield strength above 80,000 psi. C-75 and
N-80 are often included because their manufactured yield
The following criteria are used to classify or specify tubing strength often exceeds 80,000 psi. High strength tubing,
string material and joint construction. particularly P-105, presents an increased sensitivity to
sharp notches or cracks.
• Tubing OD, e.g., 3-1/2-in.
Calculation of the maximum allowable stress of a certain
• Weight lbm/ft (manufactured ±5%) pipe is carried out by multiplying the minimum cross-
(a) Plain end weight sectional area of the pipe (in2) times the minimum yield
(b) Nominal weight strength rating of the pipe (psi).

• Wall thickness Failures of high-strength tubing are normally caused by:

(a) Nominal I.D. (Manufactured + or - 1/8-in.)
(b) Drift I.D. (Minimum I.D.) • Manufacturing defects

• Coupling O.D. • Handling/transportation damage

(a) Upset (EUE)
(b) Non-upset (NUE) • Hydrogen embrittlement.

• Grade (Minimum yield strength in psi) Any sharp edged notch or crack in the surface of a material
is a point of stress concentration which tends to extend the
• Tool Joint (thread type) crack progressively deeper into the material much like
(a) Non-upset (NUE) driving a wedge. Low strength materials are soft and
(b) Upset (EUE) ductile and will yield plastically to relieve the stress con-
(c) Integral (premium thread) centration. High strength materials do not yield to relieve
the stress concentration and tend to fatigue or fail more
Tubing Grade rapidly when subjected to cyclic stresses.

Tubing is manufactured according to API specifications Tubing Connections

and must undergo a wide variety of tests and checks
before shipment and installation. Standard API steel There are two standard API coupling tubing connections
grades for tubing are J-55, C-75, C-95, N-80, P-105, and available.
V-150.
• Non-Upset (NUE) is a 10-round thread form in which the
Grades C-75 and C-95 are intended for hydrogen sulfide joint has less strength than the body of the pipe (Fig. 21).
service where higher strength than J-55 is required. The
C grade steel is heat treated to remove martensitic crystal • Upset Tubing Connection (EUE) is an 8-round thread
structure and produce a hardness not higher than Rc-22. form wherein the joint has greater strength than the pipe
body.
The grade of new tubing can be identified by color bands:
For high pressure service, the API EUE type of connec-
J-55 Green tion is available in 2-3/8, 2-7/8 and 3-1/2-in. sizes and
K-55 Two green larger with longer threads. The effective thread is 50%
C-75 Blue longer than standard.
N-80 Red
C-95 Brown It is occasionally necessary to provide extra clearance to
P-105 White enable tubing installation. To accommodate this, API
couplings can be turned down (to specified tolerances)

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without loss of joint strength. Special clearance collars In addition to the standard API connections, there are a
are usually marked with a black ring in the center of the wide variety of specific joint connections available. In
color band indicating steel grade. Extra clearance cou- order to ensure a good seal in any connection, specified
pling type thread forms have been developed for non- make-up requirements must be met. Most connections
upset tubing which have 100% joint strength. use a metal-to-metal seal which requires that the mating
pin and box surfaces are forced together with sufficient
Integral-joint premium threads provide additional clear- stress to establish a bearing pressure greater than the
ance and are available in a number of configurations. differential pressure across the connection. The bearing
Some can be turned down to provide even greater clear- pressure (Pb) is defined as the pressure exerted between
ance. This type of joint is more expensive and is generally the metal surfaces created by the torque used at make-up
used in special situations (high-pressure or gas well (Fig. 22).
applications).

Bearing
Pressure
(Pb)

Non-Upset External Upset Integral tool joint

(NUE) (EUE) (EUE)

Fig. 21. Non-upset and upset tool joints. Fig. 22. Integral tool joint.

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Round thread connections form several metal-to-metal The stresses applied during make-up and subsequent
seals between the tapered portions of pin and box sur- service determine the success of the connection seal.
faces. The small void between the crest and root of the When compiling tubular make-up procedures the mini-
mating threads must be filled with thread compound solids mum, optimum and maximum torque for each connection
in order to transmit adequate bearing pressure from one type should be known.
threaded surface to another.
Basic String Design and Selection
Some connections (e.g., Hydril) have large smooth metal-
to-metal connections. The threads in this type of connec- When selecting a tubing string a number of factors must
tion have a relatively large clearance and do not act as be considered. Modern oil and gas well completions are
seals. Threads like Armco Seal Lock has both a sealing often of complex configuration and require extremely
thread and a smooth metal scaling surface (Fig. 23). A detailed design and engineering by specialists.
Teflon ring is used in some premium connections to
provide a supplementary seal and provide corrosion pro- When selecting completion components, the factors shown
tection. should be considered. This of course is in addition to the
basic efficiency, safety and economic requirements of all
completions.

• Facilitate installation

• Optimize production

• Simplify maintenance

• Enable stimulation or workover

• Provide for contingency

The basic string design and selection process should

Metal-to-metal consider the following guidelines before detailed planning
seal areas is undertaken.

Tension

Tension design should be no more than 80% of the yield

strength of the tubing.

Production rate

Too small a flow area (within both the tubing and compo-
nents) can limit production. However, increasing the tub-
ing size typically decreases the flow velocity. This may
allow gas to break through the liquid resulting in liquid fall-
back and eventual liquid loading which may kill the well.
Also, the additional income from a marginally higher
production rate may not offset the increased cost of
installing larger tubing.

Fig. 23. Hydrill tool joint.

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The casing ID imposes an absolute limit on the size (OD)
of the production tubing. All completion components must
fit into the casing with sufficient clearance for running,
pulling and remedial operations.

Pressure

Wall thickness of the tubing must be strong enough to

withstand downhole pressures. Two modes of failure
should be considered, burst and collapse.

• Burst – Tubing should not be subjected to pressures

higher than its rated pressure divided by 1.1 for tubing
collapse resistance and internal yield pressure (unless
it has been previously tested at a higher pressure, see
API 5C2).

• Collapse – Collapse design factor should not be less

than 1.0 based on the actual differential pressure that
could be applied, e.g., a full annular fluid column with an
empty tubing string.

Physical forces

Forces or stresses resulting from well geometry, tempera-

ture, pressure, or applied force can significantly effect the
tubing string and completion components. (Fig. 24).

Environmental

Sweet or sour corrosion effects the selection of tubing and

component materials.

Connector Compatibility

Completion components often downhole tools (safety

valves, mandrels, packers, etc.) must be mated to an
existing tubing thread with crossover subs.

Clearance Considerations

Dual strings in narrow casing can require the use of turned

down couplings - side pocket mandrels must be aligned
parallel to each other. In strings with a large “r” valve
(tubing to casing clearance, section 3.3.5) buckling of the
tubing can be more severe.

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 Mechanical Influences

Tubing Grade
Casing Grade
Tension Applied (Pick-up)
Compression Applied (Set-down)
Frictional Forces
Helical Buckling
Tubing Fiber Stresses
Packer Type
Packer Setting Mechanism
Tubing/Packer Motion

Fluid Related Influences Temperature Related Influences

Tubing Fluid Density – Initial Surface Temperature – Initial

Tubing Fluid Density – Final Surface Temperature – Final
Casing Fluid Density – Initial Downhole Temperature – Initial
OIL AND GAS WELL
Casing Fluid Density – Final Downhole Temperature – Final
COMPLETIONS
Completion Capacity
–
Flowrate (DH Choke)
STRING LENGTH
AND FORCES

Pressure Related Influences Wellbore Geometry Influences

Applied Tubing Pressure – Initial Tubing OD

Flowing Tubing Pressure – Final Tubing ID
Casing Pressure – Initial Casing Grade (ID)
Casing Pressure – Final Tubing to Casing Radius
Buoyancy Effect (Hydrostatic) Tubing Wall-thickness (Weight)
Buoyancy Effect (Applied) Setting Depth (Measured)
Ballooning Effect Total Vertical Depth
Piston Effect Packer Seal Diameter
Pressure Buckling Effect Terminal End Area (Tubing)
Extreme (High-Low) Pressure – Workover

Fig. 24. Factors influencing completion string length and force changes.

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Tubing Forces tubing components not only must meet minimum stress
requirements, but they themselves contribute directly to
• Temperature these stress calculations. The illustration in Fig. 11 sum-
marizes the principal variables that need to be considered
• Pressure in a completion operation.

• Weight The examples contained in this section relate to a basic

completion calculation of a single string in a non-deviated
• Fluid gradients well. Deviated wellbores require more complex modeling
to properly assess the forces required, or encountered,
• Friction during:

Determining the stress levels that the completion string • Installation/setting of the completion
and components will be subjected to, under the best and
worst conditions, is a critical step in completion design. • Initial and stabilized production
Properly assessing the length and force changes will
ensure premature failures and costly remedial operations • Stimulation or wellbore treatments
are avoided.
• Retrieval of completion equipment
Each completion will have a variety of downhole condi-
tions which affect the total design, choice of downhole Calculation of downhole forces and length changes are
tools, and the operation of the completion components largely dependent on the type of packer to tubing cou-
once in place. Changes in temperatures, pressures, ap- pling. The tubing may move unrestrained (Fig. 25a),
plied weight, fluid gradients and friction are a few of the contracting or expanding within the system limits of travel
variables that must be considered. Choice of packers and (through the use of a polished bore packer and stinger or

Tubing landed on Tubing latched

packer into packer
Tubing stung
through packer

(a) Free tubing/packer motion (b) Limited tubing/packer motion (c) No tubing/packer motion

Fig. 25. Factors influencing completion string length and force changes.

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expansion joints). This is known as a stung-through or Buoyancy
unlimited motion arrangement. Unlimited refers to direc-
tion capabilities (up or down) and not to a limited expan- Archimede’s Principle, which deals with buoyancy, states;
sion or contraction which all systems will have. "A body (pipe) wholly or partially submerged in a fluid,
experiences an upward force equal to the weight of the
A landed packer to tubing relationship (Fig. 25b) provides fluid displaced."
for movement of the tubing string upwards (contraction)
only. Expansion of the tubing string would result in in- For example, consider the hydrostatic pressure acting on
creased packer compressive forces. the cross-sectional end area of the tubing. The buoyancy
of a tube is the same in any position, but in the vertical
The third category is a latched tubing to packer situation position the entire force is concentrated on the lower end,
where any expansion or contraction of the tubing string is i.e., in the horizontal position the entire force is distributed
restrained by the packer (Fig 25c) . These forces which evenly over the length.
are felt by the packer are transmitted back through the
tubing string and account for tension or compressive Fig. 26 illustrates this example for a well having:
forces and corresponding length changes (helical buck-
ling) in the tubing string. a. The same weight fluid in annulus and tubing.
b. A straight non-tapered tubing string.
c. No packer to limit the tubing motion.

A C

Fig. 26. Buoyancy example 1. Fig. 27. Buoyancy example 2.

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For a tapered string installation, additional factors must be plugged. DST testing utilizes this technique which places
considered. If the annular and tubular fluids are of the large forces on the total end area of the string. Fig. 29
same density, calculate the force on the lower (small) illustrates such a buoyancy force acting on the end of the
tubing (at depth), and add it to the force resulting from the tubing/tool string
area change where the strings join (the number added
may be a positive or a negative number). Again, in this In completion calculations, hookload is a term often mis-
example, tubing movement is not constrained by a packer used or misunderstood. Hookload is the resultant weight
(Fig. 27) (registered by the weight indicator) of the tubing string and
completion components. This reflects all positive and
If different densities of fluid are placed in the tubing and negative pressures or forces acting on perpendicular and
annulus, a pressure differential force will exist. All effec- vectoral areas of the production string. These forces
tive surface areas other than those parallel to the wellbore (often referred to as piston forces) can be the result of a
must be considered. Figure 28 illustrates this concept in gas or a liquid pressure.
the third design shown. Thus, positive and negative
buoyancy forces can contribute to the string weight in Four basic designs illustrate hookload forces (Fig. 30
fluid. through 33). In all designs shown, the tubing is free to
move internally to the packer (stung-through). Fluid gra-
Buoyancy force is at its strongest when tubing (or work dients (pressure) may be different in annulus, tubing, and
string) is run into a fluid with the end of the tubing being in the reservoir area, thereby creating different net force
effects.

C Force acts
on tubing end
(plugged)

Fig. 28. Buoyancy example 3. Fig. 29. Buoyancy example 4.

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Example 1 force areas A and B canceling each other and D and E
canceling each other. Force area C contributes a negative
This represents a well that has the tubing plugged by force and is calculated by multiplying the casing total
means of a blanking plug or similar device. Three sepa- pressure (hydrostatic and applied) times the surface area
rate regions exist which can contain three different fluid of C.
gradients or pressures. Surface area A and B cancel each
other. Area C contributes an upward negative force equal Force F is positive and is the tubing total pressure (hydro-
to the area times the pressure (hydrostatic + applied) at static and applied) times the area of F. All forces are
depth in the annulus. combined (whether negative or positive) to arrive at a total
hookload force.
"SB" is the Seal Bore area of the packer in square inches.
Region D is the total ID area of the tubing multiplied x Example 3
(tubing hydrostatic pressure + tubing applied pressure).
This force contributes a positive force to the hookload. In Example 3 the force areas B and D cancel each other
Surface area E represents the total OD area of the leaving force E (tubing ID area x total tubing pressure)
plugged end X (formation pressure at depth). acting downward.

Example 2

This illustrates a tubing size larger than the seal in a stung-

thru packer. Only two pressure effected regions exist with

OD OD

ID ID
F D

B C B C
A A

E
E

SB SB

Fig. 30. Example 1. Fig. 31. Example 2.

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Example 4 Length & Force Changes

The force areas A and B cancel each other while D and C The most important aspect when evaluating a packer
contribute negative forces. installation is the determination of the length and force
changes due to varying pressures and temperatures.
Hook load When the magnitude and direction of these length and
force changes have been calculated, this information can
Tubing weight + Buoyancy + String pressure effects then be used as shown below.

Hookload deals with the weight indicator reading while the • To aid in the packer selection process
tubing is hanging in the elevators. In a situation where
restricted tubing movement is encountered (a landed or • To determine if tubing damage will occur
latched packer), the observed hookload (actual) reading
may be more or less than the calculated hookload value. • To determine the proper spacing-out procedure for the
This condition is also true when a stung-thru packer packer and completion components
reaches its maximum stroke and starts placing forces on
to the packer (if it does not separate from the packer as in
some designs). If the actual and the calculated hookloads
differ this is an indication that weight is being slacked off
(compressed) on the packer or tension is being pulled.
However tubing-to-casing frictional drag can contribute
greatly to compressive or tensile forces.

OD
OD

ID ID
A

B C
E A
B
D

C
D
SB SB

Fig. 32. Example 3. Fig. 33. Example 4.

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There are four different effects which create length and • Shortening of the string resulting in tension
force changes. Each of these effects must be analyzed
and combined to assess the total effect for any packer • Pressure buckling
installation.
Knowing these expected results, we can establish the
• Piston effect validity of our answers.

• Buckling effect Piston Effect

• Ballooning effect Piston effect is the result of pressure changes inside the
tubing string or in the casing annulus. Pressure changes
• Temperature effect inside the tubing string act on the difference in areas the
packer area (Ap) and the tubing ID (Ai). Pressure changes
The piston effect, buckling effect and ballooning effect in the annulus act on the difference in the areas between
result from pressure changes in the system. The tempera- the packer area (Ap) and the tubing OD area (Ao).
ture effect is related only to temperature change and is not
effected by pressure changes. While some effects are The result of the piston effect is a force up or down on the
related to each other, each must be calculated individu- end of the tubing string. Because the piston effect acts
ally. Each calculated effect will have a magnitude and only on the bottom of the tubing string, it is often referred
direction. Once each effect is known, they are combined to as the end area effect. If the tubing is free to move with
to obtain the total effect. The decision to add or subtract respect to the packer, the piston effect will result in a
when combining is based on the direction that each effect length change of the tubing. If the tubing is not free to move
(resultant force) acts. with respect to the packer, the piston effect will result in a
force change on the packer.
The approach used to evaluate packer installation prob-
lems will depend on the type of tubing to packer hookup When determining the piston force, always consider the
being considered. If the packer system will not permit packer to tubing relationship as balanced when the packer
length change in the direction of the total effect, then the is set. Consider any changes after the packer is set as
packer installation is evaluated by calculating the force having an effect on the packer to tubing relationship.
changes.
Piston effects are very similar to hookload except for
Forces on the completion string are generally expressed changing pressure conditions in the tubing and annulus.
in very large numbers. Consequently, if a force direction In a completion operation where a packer is being run,
(e.g. 25,000 lbf up) is added to the string weight instead increasing buoyancy forces reduce the weight on the
of being subtracted, a 50,000 lbf error is entered into the string. As long as a pressure change or freedom of tubing
calculations. movement is permitted, a hookload calculation correctly
represents force changes. In this neutral state minimal
Length change calculations should not be confused with forces are placed on the tubing string. When tubing or
force change calculations. Complete understanding of annular pressure is increased or decreased (hydrostatic
each condition (buckling, etc.) should give the designer a or applied pressure) piston force equations must be used.
rough estimate before calculation. For example, in a
cement operation where cement occupies the total tubing Steel tubular goods, whether J-55 tubing or P-105, are
volume and brine occupies the annulus, by experience taken to have an expansive or contractive force constant
we know that the gradient of cement is considerably of 30,000,000 psi. Standardization of units (inches) re-
higher than brine water. Before forces are calculated we quires conversion of the entire tubing string length from
know that the tubing will experience: feet to inches.

• Severe ballooning forces The derived formula for calculating piston force (F1) is
written as:

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Piston effect The "r" value is the radial distance from the outside of the
tubing OD to the casing wall. The higher the "r" value the
F1 = [(Ap - Ao) x (∆ Po)] - [(Ap - Ai) x (∆Pi) greater buckling can occur (Fig. 37).

A resultant length change is represented by: Compression Buckling

∆L1 = F1 x L Compression buckling is the result of weight or force being

E As applied on the tubing end (Fig. 35). The force applied
Where: results in bowing of the tubing. This concept is easily seen
Ap = Packer seal-bore area (in2) when a flexible yardstick has one end placed in the floor
Ao = Tubing OD area (in2) and the other end is pressed on from above. Compression
Ai = Tubing ID area (in2) buckling is one of the greater contributing forces and can
As = Tubing wall cross-sectional area (in2) be the result of many combined forces (e.g., in a latched
∆Po = Change in annulus pressure (psi) packer system, an increase in temperature will cause
∆Pi = Change in tubing pressure – at packer (psi) expansion of the tubing resulting in buckling and possibly
corkscrewing).
Buckling Effect

Buckling effect is perhaps the most difficult effect on

tubing to understand. Buckling is caused by two different
force distributions.

• Compressive force on the end of the tubing

• Force distribution acting across the tubing wall.

Temporary and Permanent Buckling

In temporary buckling, forces have been generated great

enough to cause buckling within the elastic limit of the
tubing material. These forces have not exceeded the yield Bowed tubng
strength of the tubing and when buckling forces are
released the tubing will return to its original shape.

In permanent buckling, buckling forces have exceeded

the yield strength (elastic limit) of the tubing and the tubing
will remain buckled even when buckling forces are re-
leased.

Neutral Point Buckling

Neutral point buckling will occur until a point is reached

(neutral point) that forces are not strong enough to cause
buckling. From this point to the surface, the tubing is
relatively straight. The amount or severity of buckling is
dependent upon the forces placed on the tubing, the size
of the tubing, and the "r" value (Fig. 34).

Fig. 34. Bowed tubing.

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 Neutral point High
pressure
Tubing
Low deflection
pressure

Neutral point

Fig. 35. Compression buckling. Fig. 36. Pressure buckling.

(casing ID - tubing OD)

r=
2

Fig. 37. Radial clearance.

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Pressure Buckling If the pressure differential is reversed by applying a higher
pressure on the outside of the tubing than on the inside of
Pressure bucking is an unequal force distribution caused the tubing, forces are created which will attempt to col-
by a large internal tubing pressure differential. Minor lapse the tubing. As the tubing tries to collapse, an
variations in the wall thickness of tubular goods will initiate increase in length will result (if it is free to move). If the
pressure buckling. Pressure buckling only occurs with a tubing is retrained in a packer, a compression force will be
high internal differential tubing pressure and contributes exerted on the packer.
very little to tubing length contraction (Fig. 36).
The effect of ballooning is directly related to the area over
Buckling calculations are simple but lengthy and should which the pressure acts. Since the area outside of the
be approached systematically. tubing is larger than the area inside, the effect of reverse
ballooning is slightly greater than that of ballooning. The
(r)2(Ap)2{[Plfinal-Piinitial)] - [(Pofinal-Poinitial)]}2 lengthening of the tubing due to collapse forces is known
∆L2 = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(buckling) (-8) (E)(I)(Ws + Wi - Wo) as reverse ballooning.

Unlike piston and buckling effects, the ballooning effect

Ballooning Effect occurs throughout the entire length of tubing. Therefore,
the calculations for ballooning are based on the changes
When pressure is applied to the inside of a tubing string, in average pressure on both the inside and outside of the
the pressure differential from the inside of the tubing to the tubing. Because the average pressure is based on the
outside of the tubing creates a force that will attempt to surface pressure plus the pressure at the packer, increas-
burst the tubing. These burst forces cause the tubing to ing the bottom hole pressure by changing fluid gradient
swell (balloon). If the tubing is free to move the length would only have half the effect of making the same change
becomes shorter (Fig. 38 and 39). by applying additional surface pressure.

Fig. 38. Ballooning. Fig. 39. Recerse ballooning.

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It is possible for well conditions to affect the average space-outs designed to take account of the temperature
pressure both inside and outside the tubing. Conse- effect should be applied with caution.
quently, the ballooning and reverse ballooning effects
should always be calculated together. Ballooning can • In injection applications, the temperature of the injected
cause either a length or a force change depending on the fluid will vary with time as a result of climatic changes.
tubing's ability to move at the packer. When an installation is planned where the injection
temperatures will vary, average temperature calcula-
Temperature Effect tions should be based on worst case injection tempera-
ture.
The temperature effect is the only one of the four basic
effects which is not pressure related. The length and force The wellbore surface temperature is typically the tubing
changes due to temperature effect are a function of the temperature (°F) 20 ft below the wellhead. The most
change in average temperature throughout the tubing accurate well data available should be used. If a surface
string. temperature is not readily available, 70˚F is generally
acceptable as an estimated temperature.
When the average temperature is decreased, e.g., by
injecting cool fluids, the string will shorten in length if the Bottom-hole temperatures should be measured by down-
tubing is free to move. If the tubing is restrained from hole instruments whenever possible. Geothermal activity
moving, a tension force will be applied to the packer. or volcanic zones can elevate downhole temperatures.
When the average tubing temperature is increased, either The use of an accurate temperature gradient (approved
by injecting or producing hot fluids, it will cause the tubing for the particular area/field) may be a viable alternative.
to elongate if it is free to move. If the tubing is restrained
from moving, a compressive force will be applied to the
packer.
Neutral

In many packer installations the temperature effect will be

the largest of the four effects. To find the average tem-
perature of the tubing string, both the surface and bottom
hole temperature must be known.

On the initial completion (static condition) the average Contraction

tubing temperature is the bottom hole temperature plus
ICE
the surface temperature divided by two. This will form the
base case to determine the effect of a force and length
change due to an increase or decrease of temperature.

Two important points should be kept in mind when the

equipment is installed downhole.

• The temperature effect is not immediate. It may require Expansion

several minutes to several hours for the temperature HEAT
effect to be seen. However, it is normally assumed that
the temperature effect occurs immediately. This as- HEAT

sumption allows the temperature effect to be added to

the pressure effects so that all factors can be considered
at one time.

In some situations this assumption can create problems

resulting in equipment failure. Consequently, forces or Fig. 40. Effect of changing temperature.

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Gradient is the temperature increase (°F) for each 100 where:
feet of depth. A simple formula for temperature at depth
using gradient would be: As = Cross-sectional area of tubing wall (in2)
∆t = Change in average tubing temperature (°F)
Bottom-hole temperature
Final Average Tubing Temp
Surface Temperature (˚F) + Gradient (˚F) x TVD
100 ft Final surface temp + Final BHT
2
A general gradient of 1.6°F/100 ft represents an average
gradient commonly used if current temperature data is not Initial Average Tubing Temp
available.
Initial surface temp + Initial BHT
Temperature changes downhole are influenced by many 2
variables. Operations which cool the tubing string, (injec-
tion of liquids from the surface) the string temperature can Summary of Forces
be taken to be the same as the injection fluids (providing
a high enough flowrate exists). The type of packer to tubing arrangement used dictates
the formula to be chosen for calculating total forces. For
In a steam injection situation, heating of the entire string expansion or stung-through completion strings, length
may take several hours. Consequently expansion of the change formula should be used. For fixed or latched
string takes longer. Cooling of the string after injection packer to tubing completion force change formula should
ceases would also take a designated amount of time. In be used. Tension or compression placed on the string is
any situation where temperature changes are expected, also a factor in choosing the correct formula:
use data which would accurately represent the highest For tubing strings capable of motion
and lowest extremes in temperatures.
∆Ltotal = ∆L1 + ∆L2 + ∆L3 + ∆L4+ ∆Lslackoff
Calculations typically use 30,000,000 psi to represent the or
modules of elasticity for steel. Another constant to be used ∆Ltotal = ∆L1 + ∆L2 + ∆L3 + ∆L4 + ∆Ltension
is the thermal coefficient of expansion of steel (ß) which is
shown as: For fixed tubing strings

ß = .0000069 in/in/˚F Fp = F1 F3 + F4 + Fslackoff

or
Used in conjunction with E (30,000,000 psi) the following Fp = F1 F3 + F4 + Ftension
applies:
Where:
30,000,000 lbf x .0000069 in. ˚F = 207 psi/˚F ∆L1 = Length change - piston effect
in.2 in. ∆L2 = Length change - buckling effect
∆L3 = Length change - ballooning effect
∆L4 = Length change - temperature effect

Temperature force changes F1 = Force - piston effect

F2 = Force - buckling effect
Temperature Force Change = (207) (As) (∆T) F3 = Force - ballooning effect
F4 = Force - temperature effect
Fp = Packer to tubing force

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Mechanically Applied Force

In addition to the basic effects (piston , buckling, balloon-

ing and temperature effect) created by pressure and
temperature changes, any mechanically applied length or
force changes must also be considered. The mechani-
cally applied forces are created by either pulling tension
into the tubing or slacking off weight onto the packer.
These length or force changes must be combined with the
basic effects in order to properly analyze a completion or
packer installation (Fig. 41).

When tension is applied to the tubing string, it stretches

according to a relationship called Hooke's Law. This
Top joint tension
relationship has been used to predict and generate tubing
stretch charts.
(i) Tubing string weight
When tubing weight is slacked off onto the packer, the
tubing will shorten according to both Hooke's Law and the
helical buckling phenomena. This shortening of the tubing
has also been used to generate engineering tables.

Applied tension and slackoff forces are used to not only

set packers (hookwall) but also to compensate for other
effects (e.g., pressure and temperature) which will occur
as the well conditions vary during production.
(ii) Tubing/packer forces
When applied forces are used to set a packer, the length
change must be used in conjunction with the direction and
length of the packer setting stroke to determine the correct
packer spaced out. (iii) Buoyancy

When applying slackoff forces, it should be noted that not

all the slackoff reaches the packer. This is a result of the
helical buckling that occurs at the bottom of the tubing
string as the tubing weight is slacked off.

Applied force, (slacking off or pulling weight on the tubing

string), is used to place the proper compression or tension
on a hookwall packer. Where a hydraulic set packer is Fig. 41. Packer/wellbore forces.
used, this process helps to remove damaging forces from
the string. Limited expansion capabilities in expansion
joints and stung-through packers may quickly be used if
not properly compensated for in mechanically applied
forces.

If the tubing were under severe tension forces, it may be

necessary to slack weight off, then hang the tubing.

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For calculation of applied mechanical forces the following Top tubing joint tension
formulas are used
TJT = (Tubing String Weight air) + (Fa) - (Fp)
Length Change Due to Tension
Additional Considerations:
(F+)(L)
∆Lt = ––––– • A force balance relationship is present in all downhole
(E) (As)
components, from the top joint to the packer. When
Force Change Due to Tension compression is applied to a packer, tension decreases
on the top joint. When tension is pulled on the packer,
(∆Lt)(E)(As) tension increases on the top joint. When a tubing string
Ft = ––––––––– is plugged and pressured up (setting a packer), tension
(L) forces are placed on the top joint.

Length Change Due to Slackoff • To determine if the tubing will burst or collapse, differen-
tial pressure working on the tubing must be compared to
the appropriate list burst and collapse rating of that
(Fs)(L) (r)2 (F2) particular grade and size of pipe.
∆Ls ––––– + –––––––––––––––––––––
(E) (As) (8)(E)(I)(Ws + Wi - Wo) Deep Completions

The design, installation and operation of completions for

Tubing Stress Calculations deep completions/wellbores poses several potential prob-
lems relating to tubing movement and the resultant
The final completion calculation check is to determine the stresses. The majority of operators select a permanent
forces acting on the tubing and whether or not tubing packer system in preference to retrievable packers which
failure will occur (Fig 42). In a situation where tubing is have limited (and frequently unreliable) capability in deep
being stressed higher than the recommended 80% safety wellbore applications.
factor a heavier grade of tubing, further application of
mechanically applied force, or applied pressure may be The basic problem associated with packers in deep
needed to meet operational requirements. Any extreme wellbores is the relatively high level of movement (or
operating condition should be considered during the plan- stresses) resulting from temperature or pressure varia-
ning phase (Fig. 43). For example, to help eliminate an tions. This can pose problems with the tubing/packer
expensive fishing job, some capacity may be allowed for interface, i.e., the mechanical connection and hydraulic
stuck packer removal. seal between the tubing string (dynamic) and the packer
(static). A variety of packer options and configurations are
The top joint of tubing (connected to the tubing hanger) shown in Section 6 – Completion Components.
experiences the greatest tension in a production string. If
all joints of tubing are equal strength and a tension force
is placed on the string from the packer that exceeds the
yield strength, top joint failure will result. To calculate the
force exerted on the top joint, the following calculations
are used:

Actual force on end of tubing

Fa = [(Ap - Ao) x (Pofinal)] - [(Ap - Ai) x (Pifinal)]

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Initial applied pressure Final applied pressure

Initial casing pressure Final casing pressure

Initial surface temp. Casing Final surface temp.

Initial tubing fluid † Final tubing fluid †

Tubing

Initial annular fluid† Applied force Final annular fluid†

on packer

Packer depth

Initial BHST Final BHST

Packer seal-bore

Perforation depth
Plug-back depth

† Fluid weight and level

Fig. 42. Initial and final wellbore/completion conditions.

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 Completion fluid Completion fluid Injection or
stimulation fluid

Completion fluid Completion fluid Completion fluid

Mid stroke Seal assembly

(or setting on up-stroke
weight on Seal assembly
latched packer on down-stroke
systems)

(i) Initial (ii) Producing (iii) Treatment

(installation) conditions conditions (fluid injection) conditions

Fig. 43. Tubing movement resulting from changing fluid properties.

Material Selection
Recent exploration and completion operations have re-
In general "material" terms, oil and gas wells are hostile sulted in wells being drilled deeper with higher pressures
environments. Consequently, careful consideration must and temperatures being encountered. Such conditions
be given to the materials from which completion compo- may fall outside the specifications, or operating enve-
nents are manufactured or machined. A wide variety of lopes, recognized by conventional completion engineer-
materials, with a range of mechanical properties, have ing guidelines.
been developed specifically for use in downhole comple-
tion components. While proper selection of completion The API has established standards for the manufacture
materials is a key factor in ensuring completion longevity, of many downhole and surface completion components
it is important that the design life of the completion is such as safety valves and wellhead equipment. Govern-
compatible with the production profile of the well or field mental agencies through the American Society of Me-
(Fig 44). chanical Engineers (ASME) and the Society of Pollution
Prevention Equipment (SPPE) enforce the quality of
Completion components and materials must be chosen to manufacture, installation and service of these compo-
resist the damaging effects of pressure, temperature and nents.
corrosion. However, in severe cases, it may be necessary,
or cost effective, to incorporate a system which mitigates Items not covered by regulating agencies must still meet
the harmful effects of agents present in the wellbore or the operational conditions and stresses imposed by pres-
reservoir fluid, e.g., inhibitor injection strings or conduits. sure and corrosive conditions.

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Material selection criteria for oilfield equipment are typi- The graph shown in Figure 45 illustrates the relationships
cally determined by the following categories: between cost, availability and performance. In this in-
stance, cost refers the manufacturing cost of the compo-
• Mechanical properties (function) nent, i.e., material, machining and post treatments. Mate-
rial availability typically decreases as the alloy becomes
• Operating environment more complex. Performance relates to a combination of
strength and corrosion resistance, i.e., high-strength and
• Ease of manufacture good corrosion resistance equates to good performance
for completion applications.
• Cost
Basic Metallurgy
• Availability
An alloy is a mixture of two or more pure metals, blended
These categories relate to the selection of metals, elas- in a liquid state. Pure metals may exhibit certain corrosion
tomers, and plastics used in construction of downhole resistance but lack in strength qualities or vice versa. The
equipment. They are not listed in order of priority since technology or science of metals, alloys, and fusion
they may vary for different applications.

WELL LIFE DESIGN EXAMPLES

Long-life Completions (>15 years)

Subsea or unmanned satellite wells.

Oil wells in large single zone fields equipped with artificial lift.
Sweet gas or injection wells with few production problems.
Multiple zone completions.
Enhanced recovery projects.

Medium-life Completions (5 to 15 years)

Natural flowing oil wells in large or over-pressured zones or reservoirs.

Gas wells and injection wells with potential production problems ( sand,water, scale or corrosion)
Oil wells equipped with gas lift or hydraulic pumps early in their life.
Zones with limited reserves (possible multiple zones)

Short-life Completions (<5 years)

Wells with limited reserves in each interval of interest.

Artificial lift wells with ESPs or beam pumps.
Applications where routine workovers are more appropriate than complex completions.

Temporary Completions

Drill stem test

Extended well test
Production testing of appraisal wells
Temporary installation to maintain production until next scheduled workover.

Fig. 44. Completion/well life examples.

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(welding) procedures is metallurgy. This section summa- Typical material examples include 1018 and 1030 steel.
rizes the more common or important alloys used in the To enhance certain properties, alloying elements such as
manufacture of downhole oilfield tools. Choice of metals chromium, molybdenum, silicon and manganese are
used in production equipment depends upon the corro- added. The addition of alloying elements up to 5% weight
sive environment, physical stress on the item, customer are categorized as low alloy steel. Typical examples
choice limitations, availability of material, and the actual include AISI 4130 or 4140 steel.
application of material and component.
The designation 41XX refers to steel with some added
Steel, the most common completion/downhole material, chromium and molybdenum. The last two digits refer to
is an iron based, or ferrous alloy (Fig. 46). Alloys contain- the percentage of carbon present in the steel (i.e., 4130
ing basic elements other than iron are known as nonfer- has 0.30% carbon). Small amounts of carbon can have a
rous alloys, e.g., nickel or copper based alloys (Fig. 47). significant effect on heat treatment processes and me-
chanical properties of steel.
Carbon and Alloy Steel
API grades such as N-80, L-80 etc are examples of low
Steel is an alloy of Iron (Fe) and Carbon (C) with less than alloy steels used to manufacture API tubing or casing.
2% carbon. Carbon steel does not have alloying elements The composition of L-80 is similar to 4140 steel though a
added, but contains some impurities such as sulfur, phos- quench and temper type heat treatment is required to
phorus and oxygen. meet specifications.

Note: The API produce extensive tables detailing API

tubing material requirements.

$50/lbm Cobalt base alloys

(MP-35N, Elgiloy, etc.)

Nickel base alloys

(<) Availability (>)

(Monel, X-750, etc.)

Titanium alloys
COST

(TI-6-4, etc.)
Required
Stainless steels
(304, 17-4 etc.)

Alloy steels
(AISI 4340 etc.)

Mild steels
$0.50/lbm (AISI 1020, 1080 etc.)

At risk Total immunity

PERFORMANCE
(Strength, Corrosion etc.)

(<) % Fe (>)

Fig. 45. General comparison of materials used in downhole completion components.

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Cast Iron Nickel Based Alloys

Alloys of iron and carbon with a percentage of carbon over Monel consists of approximately 70% nickel and 30%
2% are known as cast iron. These alloys also have higher copper and exhibits good resistance against H2S (except
silicon content than steel. Commonly used grades of cast at high temperatures), CO2, O2, and chloride corrosion
iron in packers and accessories are gray iron (i.e. class 40 while maintaining a high degree of ductility and strength.
with tensile strength of 40,000 psi) and ductile iron. The availability of Monel is dependent upon the manufac-
tured form, i.e., pipe or rod. Monels are very difficult to
Ductile iron is used in applications in which higher strength process during manufacture.
and ductility are required (e.g., grade 80-55-6 will have a
80,000 psi tensile strength, 55,000 psi yield strength and Inconels consist of nickel and chromium and are very
6% elongation). Cast irons are used in many packers resistant to corrosion. The 200 series are pure nickel
because the materials are easy to mill and are generally alloys, 400 and 500 series are nickel-copper alloys such as
less expensive than steel. Since cast irons are less monel. The 600 and 700 series are nickel chrome alloys
forgiving than steel, an understanding of cast iron is such as Inconels, while 800 and 900 series are nickel iron
required before selection can be made for specific appli- alloys.
cations.
Monel, Inconel, and Incoloy are trademarks of Inco alloys.
Stainless Steel For example the generic name of these alloys are Alloy
500, Alloy 718, Alloy 825, etc.
Steel will quickly rust in the presence of moisture and
oxygen. The addition of chromium gives steel the stain- Molybdenum is added to alloys to impart resistance to
less quality. Stainless steel must contain approximately pitting and cracking by chloride. Nickel based alloys have
12% chromium or more. excellent resistance to CO2 and H2S but selection is depen-
dent on temperature and concentration of the corrosive
Stainless steel is classified by AISI based on its micro- agent.
structure. The 200 and 300 series stainless steels are
austenitic, while the 400 series are ferritic or matensitic. Alloys are generally expensive and are hard to machine,
There are several grades in each class. Stainless steel is therefore, the tools and equipment made from these alloys
often used due to its resistance to weight loss corrosion in tend to be expensive. Nonetheless, certain severe envi-
a CO2 environment. ronments justify their use, due to the long-term reliability
required from their use.
Austenitic steel such as 304 and 316SS are soft and are
not heat treatable, but can be cold worked to high strength. Other Alloys
Martensitic SS such as 12Cr (410 SS) and 13 Cr (420
Mod.) SS are heat treatable and are generally used with Nonferrous alloys are metals containing a low percentage
about 80,000 psi minimum yield strength. Ferritic steel of iron in their composition (Fig. 47). Brass generally
such as 440 SS is not commonly used, except perhaps as contains copper and zinc. Bronze contains chiefly copper
the ball for a pump out plug. and tin with iron, aluminum, manganese, nickel and lead
added when desired.
Precipitation hardened steels such as 17-4 pH SS (17%
Cr, 4% Ni) are annealed and aged to higher strength Copper based alloys such as brass have limited use in oil
levels. Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstruc- and gas applications. Shear pins and shear stocks are
ture of austenite and ferrite and hence are called duplex made from half hard brass. Half hard implies 50% cold
SS. For example, 25 Cr duplex SS with 80,000 psi worked brass. The specific amount of cold work offers a
minimum yield strength is used in an annealed condition. specific strength level.
The material 9 chrome 1 moly steel is not stainless steel,
but due to its high amount of chromium offers good rust These compounds corrode (surface pit) rapidly in H2S but
protection. are not subject to sulfide stress cracking and hydrogen

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 FERROUS ALLOY COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS

Metal/Alloy Composition Example Remark/Characteristic

Iron Fe Pig Iron Not used

Steel Fe + C (C up to 2%) 1020 Low strength structural

steel

Low Alloy Steel Fe + C; (Mn,Cr,No, 4130 Various strength levels

Mo,V less than 3%) 8620 Common material
4140

High Alloy Steel Fe + C, (Cr,Mo more 9Cr-1Mo High Strength -

than 5%) corrosion resistant will
rust slightly

Stainless Steel Minimum 12% Cr Will not rust

Ferritic (12-27% Cr) Ferritic 430 Generally non heat

treatable-not
commonly used

Martensitic Fe + Cr, Cr 12% 410 Heat treatable. Good

for CO2 corrosion

Austenitic Fe + 18% Cr + 8% 316 Soft, non heat-

Ni + 2 - 3% Mo treatable susceptible to
chloride stress
cracking

Precipitation Fe + Cr +Ni + Cu 17Cr-4Ni Higher strength

Hardening + Cb + Ta (17-4PH)

Duplex Austenitic/ Fe +25% Cr + 8% 22/25 Cr Higher strength, higher Fer-

ritic ni + 2/3% Mo + Cu/N Duplex SS corrosion resistance

Cast Iron Fe + C (C, 2-4%) Inexpensive

Gray Graphite (C) Used as Hand wheels

White Cementite (Fe3C) More ductile than gray

Fig. 46. Ferrous alloy composition and characteristics.

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 NON-FERROUS ALLOY COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS

Metal/Alloy Composition Example Remark/Characteristic

Aluminum Al - Soft

Copper Cu - Soft, electrical use

Brass Cu + Zn Yellow brass Shear pins, various

Bronze Cu + Sn (tin) Phosphobronze Bearings—bushings etc.

Monel Ni +Cu Monel 400 Soft, corr., resistance

Ni + Cu + A1 + Ti Monel K-500 high strength, corr.
resistance

Inconel Ni + Cr + Mo Inconel 625 Soft

Ni + Cr + Cb + Ta Inconel X-750 High strength, used as
spring material
Ni + Cr + Mo + Ti Inconel 725 High strength, high corr. res.

Ni + Cr + Mo + Inconel 718 Ultra-high strength, high

Cb + Ta corr. res.

Incoloy No + Cr + Fe Incoloy 800 Soft

Ni + Cr + Fe + Mo Incoloy 825 Soft
Incoloy 925

Cobalt/Nickel Co + Ni+ Cr + Mo MP35N Ultra-high strength, high

Elgiloy corr. Res., normally used
as spring material

Fig. 47. Non-ferrous alloy composition and characteristics.

embrittlement. They are very resistant to galling but are have excellent high strength properties at room tempera-
generally weak structurally. Aluminum alloys are often ture and elevated temperatures. An exception being Monel
used purposefully for corrosion resistance. Aluminum is in hot high H2S environments (the copper reacts and the
only moderately strong structurally and requires special metal pits).
welding techniques.
Miscellaneous Alloys and Coatings
Cobalt alloys are used for hard facing of metals and are
highly resistant to wear and corrosion. Elgilory MP-35N is Due to the shortages and limitations of many H2S service
a high strength cobalt alloy which is highly resistant to alloys, various other metal compounds are being used for
SSC. Alloys with high Nickel (40%) are also resistant to equipment manufacture.
this type of cracking at higher temperatures. With an
increased amount of molybdenum, the resistance to chlo- • Hasteloy – a nickel and molybdenum alloy.
ride stress cracking further increases. Nickel alloys also Highly corrosion resistant.

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• Stellites – cobalt, chromium and tungsten alloys. heat treatment. Hardening can be controlled as to the
For anti wear application. depth of heat penetration on a component. Resistance
to wear is associated with surface hardness.
• Colomonoys – nickel and boron alloys.
For anti wear coating. • Galling Resistance – On rubbing the surfaces of one or
both mating parts, excessive friction results in localized
• Cemented carbides – containing tungsten carbide. welding and subsequent roughing of the surface. This
For anti wear coating. can be minimized by having materials of different hard-
ness on mating parts. Nickel alloys, austenitic stainless
All of the above alloys are resistant to H2S corrosion. steels (300 series) and aluminum have poor galling
resistance.
Material Performance and Properties
• Corrosion resistance – Corrosion resistance is of utmost
The required strength and specifications of a completion importance and will be covered in a following section.
component is obviously dependent on its application.
Reliability over the anticipated life of the completion being The tables in Figs. 48 and 49 summarize the various types
the basic criteria. When selecting materials for the con- of heat treatment, and the effects on metal characteris-
struction of completion components, many factors must tics..
be considered. In addition to the cost, availability, and
manufacturing characteristics, the following qualities are Material Applications
important:
In all cases, it is necessary to investigate the specific
• Strength – The stress at which a material begins to application of a component. To enable material selection
deform permanently is considered its yield strength. The The application can then be matched to the properties of
stress at which the material breaks is greater than its the most appropriate material. For example, components
yield strength and is known as the materials tensile which operate under compression may not need the
strength. These strengths are typically measured and added corrosion resistance required by tensile compo-
expressed in psi. nents.

• Ductility – The ability to stretch or elongate before Components, such as the outer bodies of safety valves,
breaking. Assessed by measuring the percent elonga- packers, etc., are not normally exposed to flowing fluids
tion in a 2 in. gauge length on a test specimen and the and often categorized as stagnant flow components.
reduction in cross-sectional area at the break compared Internal components that are exposed directly to flowing
to the original diameter. fluids and possible corrosive well fluids (mandrels, flow
tubes, flappers, etc.) are known as flow-wetted compo-
• Notch Toughness – The energy absorbed on impact nents.
loading is a measure of toughness. This property con-
cerns the problem of steel becoming brittle at a low Examples of material applications are shown in Figure 50.
temperature. It is usually measured in ft/lbf with a Charpy
V-notch impact test. Quality Assurance

• Hardness – Resistance of the material to plastic defor- Processed metals obtained form steel-mills are generally
mation. Hardness of steel can be correlated to tensile identified by lot numbers and documentation. This pro-
strength. A common way to test hardness is Brinell vides evidence that certain tests and/or procedures have
Hardness Testing (BHN). The Rockwell Hardness Test been followed to assure a standard of excellence and
is designated by Rc or Rb. Rb is used on softer material. quality control of the metal items.
Vickers or Microhardness Test are also used. In all these
cases the hardness is measured in terms of indentation. Internal flaws in the metal, improper depth or degree of
Hardness can often be altered by different methods of heat treatment penetration, improper alloy percentage

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 HEAT TREATMENT (Low and High Alloy Steel and Martensitic Stainless Steel)

Process Objective Type of Cooling Temperature

Annealing Softening Slow cool > 16000

Normalizing Equalizing Air cool >16000

grain refining

Quenching Hardening Water quench > 16000

Oil quench
Air quench

Tempering Relieve internal After quenching 11000 to 13000

stresses

Stress relieving Relieve stresses 11000 to 13000

after welding or
cold working

Induction Hardening Induction heating the

hardening localized area and
quenching

Carburizing Case-hardening Adding extra carbon

on the surface

Nitridizing Case-hardening Adding extra nitrogen

on the surface

Fig. 48. Heat treatment summary – carbon steel and martensitis stainless steel

HEAT TREATMENT (Nickel Alloy and Austenitic Stainless Steel)

Process Objective Type of Cooling Temperature

Solution Softening Water quench from 19000 approx

annealing

Aging Hardening Process of precipitation

which increases the
strength
(17-4 PH, Monel K-500,
Inconel 718 & X-750)

Fig. 49. Heat treatment summary – nickel alloy and austenitic stainless steel

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 PACKER COMPONENT MATERIALS
Component Materials

1. Top Sub 4130, 4140

2. Torque Sleeve 4130, 4140
3. Upper Mandrel 4130, 4140
4. Bearing Bronze
5. Spirolox High Tension Steel

6. Set Screw Steel

7. Brass Shear Screw Brass
8. Expander Ring 1018, 1020 Annealed
4130, 1015
9. Belleville Spring 4140
10. Garter Spring Inconel X-750

11. Ratchet 4130, 4140

12. Cylinder 4130, 4140
13. Ratchet 4130, 4140
14. Piston 4130, 4140
15. Upper Cone 4130, 4140

16. Lower Mandrel 4130, 4140

17. Slips Cast 8620 Carburized
18. Spring (Slip) Oil Tempered Steel
19. Bottom Sub 4130, 4140

Fig. 50. Common alloys used for manufacturing production packers.

composition, or actual sizing deviations are kept to mini- In wellbore environments where H2S, CO2, chloride and
mum by stringent quality control and assurance pro- O2 corrosion is not a problem, tubing string components
grams. A metal component that has obvious or hidden manufactured from steel will meet operational needs.
flaws will fail under extreme corrosive, heat and pressure,
or high stress situations, such as encountered in many Selective heat treating or annealing can provide im-
wellbores. proved hardness, machineability, or corrosive resistance
properties. Hard facing, plating, anodizing high impact
Proper use of the correct material should be verified static fusion and various new technologies are available
through material traceability. During the manufacturing in treatment of metal surfaces. Smooth surfaces are
process, inspection should be supported by appropriate necessary in areas where static seals (such as O-rings
nondestructive test procedures. and packing) are contacted. Dynamic seal areas (such as
on sliding surfaces found in safety valve piston areas,
Hardness testing is an essential manufacturing check to hydraulic packer piston areas, sliding sleeves, and ther-
avoid unexpected failures in sour service components. mal expansion joints) also may require components with
Several readings should be taken on the part/component special surface treatment. An obvious requirement is that
to ensure the proper heat treatment and welding proce- sealing surfaces must not tear or abrade the seals. A
dure has been successfully completed. poorly coated or plated metal surface will eventually tear
seals and result in communication (leakage) of pressure/
fluids.

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Corrosion Essential conditions for corrosion require the presence
of:
Corrosion is generally viewed as the factor having the
greatest detrimental effect on the life and integrity of • Corrosive media (e.g., oxygen)
completion equipment and components. In severe envi-
ronments, components will fail extremely rapidly often • An electrolyte (e.g., moisture)
with spectacular results and requiring expensive fishing or
retrieving operations. • Heat or pressure

There are three principal failure mechanisms associated In general terms, all forms of corrosion encountered in
with corrosion. Although two related to material loss, the oilfield tubulars require the presence of moisture. The
cause and effect of each are significantly different. moisture may be present in very small quantities, but is an
essential part of the corrosion process.
• Material loss – uniform loss of material
Corrosion (all forms) is an electrochemical reaction hav-
• Pitting or localized loss ing a source of potential voltage and an electrical circuit
(Fig. 51). These conditions form an corrosion cell. Vary-
• Stress corrosion cracking ing surface conditions, material conformities and mi-
croenvironments may cause different parts (locations) of
In material loss corrosion, the base metal reacts to form a a metal object (component) to corrode. Such localized
compound which lacks the structural strength or form of reactions are difficult to predict, so complete protection is
the original material. This can occur as oxidation (rusting) generally the only viable action.
or closely related oxidation by sulfur attack from H2S.
The degree of corrosion is largely dependent upon :
The weakening of metal through H2S or chloride attack is
often known as stress cracking. This generally occurs in • The amount of current (I), measured in milliampere or
high strength alloys. amps, which is present in an electrolytic reaction.

++
ANODE Fe Fe + 2e
e
Corrosion Electron Current flow
coupon flow
e

+
CATHODE 2H + 2e H2

Electrolyte (solution)

Fig. 51. Corrosion cell diagram.

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• The electromotive force or voltage (E), which is present • Use of non-reactive metals
in an electrolytic reaction.
• Insulation or protection
• The resistance (R) which is present in an electrolytic
reaction. • Reversal of the electrical current causing corrosion

These three factors are used in an equation know as • Removal or inhibition of the corrosive substance.
Ohm’s law which states that the current is inversely
proportional to the resistance. Passive Corrosion Control

Passive corrosion control principally relates to the design

Voltage (E) of the well and selection of the completion components.
Current (I) = –––––––––––––
Resistance (R) The following factors may be included.
• The choice of metals and materials from which the tools
or components are manufactured.

• Placement of protective coatings on surfaces exposed

Therefore, the resistance (of the electrolyte or conducting to the conditions.
substance) determines the rate of reaction. A highly
resistant medium will not conduct electron flow as readily • Electrical insulation or isolation of the components.
as low resistant medium. Petroleum products are gener-
ally highly resistant while water with large amounts of Active Corrosion Control
dissolved solids (ions) or gases, is highly conductive.
Active corrosion control relates to the steps taken during
Metals such as silver, iron, cooper, etc., are highly con- well production. The following factors may be included.
ductive while glass (silica), plastics, and protective paints
are highly resistant. Good insulators (resistant materials • Corrosion inhibition – Chemicals are injected into the
such as plastics) not only protect metals from electron flow wellbore or production flowpath to control corrosion.
but also protect metals from chemical attack.
• Cathodic protection – Applying reversal current on the
The chemical reaction describing the basic process is: production string to overcome that induced by the elec-
trolytic reaction.
Fe –> Fe+ + + 2 electrons
• Sacrificial metals – Sometimes used in conjunction with
The exact nature of the reaction process is dependent on cathodic protection.
many factors, e.g., composition of the electrolyte, pres-
ence of dissolved gases etc. Water Injection Wells

Corrosion Control • Oxygen scavengers – Trace quantities of oxygen in

treatment liquids or gases can be removed to halt
Understanding the corrosion mechanisms allows the oxidation of the production string.
completion technologist to choose an appropriate means
of corrosion control. The corrosion can be stopped or • Bactericidal treatments – Under certain conditions,
slowed by active or passive techniques (or in some cases some types of bacteria produce H2S.
both).
A corrosion study should be completed for new comple-
In any means of corrosion control, the objective is to break tion applications and should include details of the follow-
the chemical reaction by: ing basic aspects of corrosion.

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• Detection method • Solution or environment pH

• Corrosion type/characteristics • Cold working of the metal

• Protection or prevention method • Hardness of the metal

Due to the relatively high cost of continuous or active • Exposure time/duration

corrosion control or protection, the best mean of combat-
ing corrosive conditions is the proper selection of corro- • Alloy composition
sion resistant alloys (CRA) for downhole components at
time of installation. Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion

Types of Corrosion Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can occur naturally in the reser-
voir, be produced from reactions with/within the packer
There are several distinct types of "corrosion" associated fluid or result from contaminants being injected into the
with the failure of oil and gas well completion equipment. reservoir. A major source of reservoir contamination comes
Some of these conditions may be influenced by environ- from sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) and bisulfates. Sul-
mental or operational factors in addition to an electro- fate reducing bacteria are anaerobic bacteria which pro-
chemical corrosion process, e.g., erosion corrosion. duce H2S in a reaction with sulfates present in the reser-
voir. Bisulfates produce H2S through a reaction with
• Hydrogen sulfide (sour corrosion) reservoir materials or fluids.

• Sulfide stress corrosion cracking (SSC) In the presence of water, H2S reacts with steel and
produces hydrogen. The corrosion mechanism can be
• Carbon dioxide (sweet corrosion) generalized as:

• Chloride stress corrosion cracking (SCC) H2S + Fe –> (Water) –> FeS + 2H

• Oxidation This corrosion reaction can lead to three conditions or

types of failure which are of concern when designing and
• Galvanic corrosion installing oil and gas well completions.

• Erosion corrosion • Corrosion of iron to iron sulfide

• Corrosion fatigue The iron sulfide produced by the above reaction typically
forms a black scale on the metal surface. This provides
When more than one influence is present, corrosion rates an ideal environment for further accelerated attack.
can increase dramatically and present some difficulty in However, when compared with sulfide stress corrosion
the selection of appropriate materials. The following fac- cracking, the practical importance of this corrosion is
tors can effect the rate and degree of internal and external typically only significant when H2S is present in high
corrosion. concentrations.

• Concentration of the corrosive substance • Hydrogen embrittlement

• Presence of moisture Atomic hydrogen liberated by the reaction described

above can migrate into a micro defect site and weaken
• Tensile stress the molecular bond within the material. A crack can be
created which can propagate to the surface. This condi-
• Temperature tion is the basis of hydrogen embrittlement.

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• Sulfide stress corrosion cracking Users should note that MR0175 addresses SSC and does
not cover weight loss corrosion, high temperature crack-
If the conditions for hydrogen embrittlement are present ing and other types of corrosion.
where components are under stress, sulfide stress
cracking can occur. This can result in a premature and SSC also depends upon applied stresses. These must
dramatic failure, even at low H2S concentration levels. also be within safe limits to help improve the cracking
Consequently, SSC is generally considered to be the resistance. In low allow steels with hardness below 22HRc,
most important hazards associated with H2S wellbore one can apply up to 80% of the yield strength to minimize
environments. For maximum hardness recommended SSC failure. The stress level below which failure can be
per NACE MR0175 refer to Figure. 52. avoided is referred to as a threshold stress. High strength
steel grades, such as P-110, have a lower threshold or
Sulfide Stress Corrosion Cracking (SSC) lower tolerance for H2S, lower strength steel grades such
as L-80, have a higher threshold or higher tolerance for
The mechanism of SSC is not completely understood, H2S. Generally, quenched and tempered steel grades
however, sufficient is known of the conditions leading to offer better SSC resistance than normalized grades.
component failure that effective guidelines have been
established. The reaction is affected by a complex In high alloy steels such as 9 Cr-1 Moly and martensitic
interaction of many factors which include the following : stainless steels like 12/13 chrome steels, hardness is
limited to 22 HRc maximum. Even at this value, the
• Composition and microstructure of the material threshold stress can be as low as 40-60% of the material
yield strength. The threshold stress also depends upon
• Fluid pH the material cleanliness and chemical composition of the
steel. Laboratory corrosion data for 9 Cr-1 Moly and 12/13
• Concentration of H2S chrome steels vary widely and are not good predictors of
field performance. The 9 Cr-1 Moly steel material has
• Applied or residual stress demonstrated good field experience in H2S and CO2
environments.
• Temperature
As the strength increases in an alloy, tolerance for amount
• Exposure time of H2S decreases. Susceptibility of SSC also decreases
as the temperature increases. At higher operating tem-
The majority of SSC failures are prevented in low alloy peratures (>150°), certain high grade steels demonstrate
steels and certain stainless steels by controlling maxi- higher cracking resistance.
mum strength and hardness in order to limit internal or
residual stresses. The accepted maximum hardness is Most SSC occurs at lower temperatures and is most
22 HRc for carbon, low alloy steels and martensitic common in upper portions of the wellbore (where tensile
stainless steels. stress is greatest). Onset of SSC may be accelerated
during periods of shutdown, initiated by a reduction in
NACE MR0175 states that: "Fluids containing water as a temperature.
liquid and hydrogen sulfide are considered sour environ-
ments and may cause sulfide stress corrosion cracking of
susceptible materials". If the partial pressure of H2S in the
gas is greater than 0.05 psia, material shall be selected to
resist sulfide stress cracking per NACE MR0175 (Fig. 53
and 54).

The NACE document lists acceptable materials and manu-

facturing processes. Generally, maximum hardness limi-
tations are imposed on the material to minimize SSC.

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 HARDNESS SPECIFICATIONS FOR ALLOYS SUITABLE FOR SOUR SERVICE

Alloy Type Maximum Hardness (Rc) Condition

Carbon & Low Alloy Steels 22 Hot rolled annealed

N, Nt, NQT, QT

Martensitic Stainless Steel 22 Q & Double T

Austenitic Stainless Steel 22 Annealed

Ferritic Stainless Steel 22 Annealed

Precipitation Hardening 33 Annealed & Double

Stainless Steel Custom 450 aged annealed

Duplex Stainless Steel 31 Annealed

22 Cr-13, Ni-5Mn 28 Hot/cold worked

Nickel Based Alloys

Monel 400 35

Monel K 500 35 No cold working

Incoloy 800 35

Incoloy 825 35 Can be cold worked

Inconel 600 35 No cold working

Inconel X-750 35 No cold working

Inconel X-750 Spring 50 Cold worked & aged

Inconel 625 35 Annealed

Hastelloy GC 35 Can be cold worked

Inconel 718 40 No cold working

MP35N 51 Cold worked and aged

MP35N Spring 55 Cold worked and aged

Elgiloy - Spring 60 Cold worked & aged

Fig. 52. Hardness specifications for alloys suitable for sour service.

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 N-80

J-55 L-80 SOO-95 P-110

CONCENTRATION OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE

100 J-55 C-75 SOO-125 V-150

Mod N-80

10 N, N&T
C-75

SOO-95 SSC Present

1 N-80
(%)

SSC Not Present Q&T

0.1 P-110

0.01

SOO-125

0.001
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

YIELD STRENGTH
(ksi)

Fig. 53. The maximum H2S concentration limit for SSC-free behavior at 100% of yield strength-applied
stress, shown as a function of the material strength..

Note: Concentration of H2S is generally reported as parts Bromide and chloride ions can cause SCC in certain
per million (ppm) or in Mol %. When reported in ppm it corrosion resistant alloys.
should be converted to mol % - 10,000 pm = 1%. Partial
pressure is then calculated as partial pressure of H2S Chlorides by themselves do not attack alloy steel to any
(psi). significant extent. However, combined with H2S and/or
Mol % H2S x Working Pressure (psi) C02 at high temperatures SCC can occur. The resulting
––––––––––––––––––––––––– mixture may cause cracking and/or pitting in stainless
100 steel and higher alloys due to the breaking of protective
films. High nickel and molybdenum alloys provide appro-
Stress Corrosion Cracking priate corrosion resistance in most circumstances.

Stress corrosion cracking results from the combined ef-

fects of chemical and mechanical forces. The failure is
typically a catastrophic failure of a normally ductile mate-
rial.

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 N-80

J-55 L-80 SOO-95 P-110 SOO-140

C-75 SOO-125 V-150

300 V-150

250

NO SSC SOO-125 SOO-140

TEMPERATURE

200 Q&T
(°F)

P-110

150
SSC
C-75 N-80 SOO-95
100 N, N&T

Mod N-80
J-55

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

YIELD STRENGTH
(ksi)

Fig. 54. Minimum temperature for SSC-free behavior at 100% of yield strength-applied stress, shown as a
function of the material strength

Carbon Dioxide Corrosion

• CO2 concentration
Steel can suffer significant weight loss corrosion in CO2
environments. Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid in the • Water/moisture present
presence of water. This reacts with steel to form the
corrosion product iron carbonate. Water is essential in • Fluid pH
this corrosion process and corrosion tendencies increase
with water production. The generalized chemical reaction • Pressure
can be described as:
• Temperature
CO2 + H2O –> H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
• Fluid flow velocity
Fe + H2CO3 –> FeCO3 (corrosion product)
• Presence of scale or other corrosion
It is difficult to predict the likely severity corrosion due to
CO2. The mechanism depends upon several variables. • Presence of O2, chlorides or H2S

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The following yardstick can be used as a guideline, but Laboratory data indicates corrosion rates start increasing
should not replace field experience or sound engineering above 100˚C for 9 Cr-1 Moly Steel and above 150˚C for
judgement (Fig. 55). 12/13 Cr Stainless Steels. However 13 Cr tubulars have
been used successfully up to 375˚F in high CO2 and
Partial Pressure of CO2 Condition chloride environments. Tubulars manufactured from 9
Cr-1 Moly material have been successful in similar condi-
Less than 3 psi Noncorrosive tions at 350˚F. As a general guideline (based on labora-
3-30 psi May be corrosive tory data and field experience) 9 Cr-1 Moly Steels are
Greater than 30 psi Most likely corrosive generally limited to 200 to 250˚F; and 12/13 Cr Steels are
limited to 300 to 350˚F.
Partial pressure (psi) = Mol % x working pressure
100 The most typical form of CO2 attack, initially results in a
uniform weight loss corrosion. However, the corrosion
As the partial pressure of CO2 increases, the corrosion product forms a protective layer which limits the uniform
rate will normally increase. In carbon steel and low alloy attack. Application in which fluid flow prevents the build up
steel such as 4130/4140, the rate of corrosion caused by of corrosion product may experience a significantly higher
CO2 increases at about 100˚C (212˚F); after which it degree of corrosion. Also, as the presence of corrosion
decreases as temperature increases. products increases, localized corrosion becomes more
likely.

1000

600

400

200
CORROSION RATE
(mpy)

100

60

40

20

10
1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 100 0

CO2 Partial Pressure

(psi)
Fig. 55. CO2 corrosio.

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Oxidation barium can complicate this method of oxygen removal.
Precipitation of CaSO4 or BaSO4 are also possibilities, if
Oxygen corrosion (oxidation) in air is common rusting of present. Vacuum deaeration or gas stripping are alterna-
steel which may be accelerated by the presence of an tive methods of oxygen removal. In vacuum deaeration,
electrolyte such as saltwater (chloride ion) or high tem- the drop in pressure decreases the solubility of all gases
perature. Fluids containing dissolved oxygen are poten- allowing them to be removed. In gas stripping, a counter
tially very corrosive. However, dissolved oxygen is not flow (reverse) of natural gas sweeps the oxygen from the
present in formation waters so oxygen corrosion would wellbore through a packed column or tray.
normally only be experienced in injection wells.
Cathodic Protection
Levels of 50 ppb or higher can result in serious oxidation.
However, relatively low levels of oxygen combined with Cathodic protection is effective in many situations except
other corrosive agents (e.g., H2S, CO2) will significantly for H2S corrosion and CO2 corrosion.
accelerate corrosion. Concentration cells, caused by
trapped oxygen reacting with metals, can result in severe Cathodic protection of metals is simply the addition of
legalized corrosion. direct current applied to a metal in reverse of the natural
flow (the anode becomes the cathode, the cathode be-
Oxidation corrosion products vary in structure from a comes the anode). The resulting current (if sufficient)
dense, tightly bound substance to a porous, thick, loosely makes metal loss impossible. The formation of hydrogen
bound substance. The process is described below in gas at the metal surfaces further protects them from
general terms, however, in reality the electrochemical chemical attack. The resulting anode is sacrificed to the
changes are complex. system by migration into the surrounding soils.

Anode reaction: Erosion Corrosion

Fe –> Fe++ + 2e- Produced sand is most commonly associated with ero-
sion of completion and downstream production compo-
Cathode reaction: nents. In highly turbulent flow areas (generally caused by
flow restrictions) the action of produced fluids and solids
O2 + 2H2O + 4e –> 4OH- may gradually wear into component surfaces.

Combining both (generalized): When considered in a corrosion context, even slight

erosion effects can be significant. Some alloys rely on a
4FE + 6H2O + 3O2 –> 4Fe(OH)3 protective oxide film to prevent corrosion. Continuous
erosion of this protective layer over an extended period
Iron + Water + Oxygen –> Ferric Hydroxide will result in higher corrosion than may normally be
expected for the specified material in that application.
Iron oxidation is similar to the reaction of iron with H2S. In
the absence of any moisture, a thin protective film of FeS
or Fe2O3 forms which actually protects the metal. Only
when moisture, high turbulence, extreme temperatures
or pressures are encountered, does this film break and
further chemical attack of the material (steel) occur.

Oxygen is generally removed by chemical scavengers

which react with the oxygen to form a harmless product.
Sodium sulfite or sulfur dioxide plus a catalyst (which
starts and continues the reaction), such as cobalt chlo-
ride, is used to scavenge oxygen. The presence of H2S or

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Elastomers and Plastics completion problems have been attributed to seal failure
and in the event of any anomaly, seals are typically the
In completion engineering, elastomers and plastics are first component suspected in any troubleshooting pro-
common terms given to synthesized organic polymers. cess.
The molecular structure of these compounds is described
as repeating units. The flexibility of the linking bonds Ironically, seals are generally the least expensive part or
between these units gives the materials a flexible prop- component in a tool assembly, but often impose the
erty. greatest limitations in tools performance or operating
range. Consequently, the correct selection of elastomers
Elastomers and plastics are commonly differentiated on and plastics for downhole application is an important
the basis of their elastic properties. An elastomer can be process which should be undertaken by an engineer with
stretched to at least twice its original length and will quickly a thorough understanding of the materials available and
return to its original length (approximately) on release. the specific conditions of the intended installation.
Plastics cannot withstand such strain without permanent
damage. Both materials can be easily moulded and The selection process is further complicated by the avail-
fabricated into a variety of shapes or forms to suit the ability of materials in varying grades which exhibit varying
intended application. operating specifications or tolerances. The general clas-
sification of elastomers and plastics by heat and oil
The primary applications of elastomers and plastics in resistance (ASTM Classification) is shown in Figure xx).
completion components are in sealing applications to
isolate pressures, liquids, gases, or heat. As a general The selection process for downhole elastomers and plas-
rule, elastomers are used for the seal material with plas- tics may be summarized as follows:
tics being used in support or backup functions to prevent
distortion, extrusion and eventual failure of the seal. The • Assess the (wellbore) conditions for the material applica-
elasticity of an elastomer, enables an efficient seal to be tion and identify limiting factors.
achieved as the material deforms against the sealing
surface. Being incompressible, the elastomer can main- • Select an appropriate material class based on:
tain this seal across a range of pressures providing the
material is constrained, e.g., an O-ring groove with appro- (i) operating temperature range
priate extrusion gap(s)
(ii) fluid compatibility (wellbore and treatment fluids)
There is a wide range of elastomers and plastics com-
monly available, each with different inherit qualities. Sev- (iii) gas compatibility (free and dissolved)
eral examples are presented later in this manual section.
Although elastomers generally function well in most • Select material grade based on:
wellbore environments, there can be significant limita-
tions within the following areas. (i) operating pressure range

• Corrosive environments (ii) dimension and configuration of the application

• Chemical compatibility Application (Wellbore) Conditions

• Operating temperature (range and fluctuation) A summary of the principal wellbore conditions and appli-
cation characteristics influencing the selection of an ap-
• Operating pressure propriate elastomer or plastic material are shown in Figure
56.
The seal and associated backup components are crucial
components in any completion equipment or tool. Many Wellbore (Reservoir) Fluids

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 ELASTOMER CLASSIFICATION BY RESISTANCE TO HEAT AND OIL

Group ASTM Ref – Elastomer Class Material Example

1 Non Oil Resistant – General Purpose

NR Natural rubber SMR

IR Synthetic isoprene Natsyn
BR Butadiene rubber Cariflex
SBR Styrene-butadiene rubber

2 Non Oil Resistant - Medium Heat Resistance

IIR Butyl rubber Vistanex

EPM Ethylene-propylene (saturated) Dutral
EPDM Ethylene-propylene-diene (unsaturated Nordel

3 Oil Resistant - Low Temperature

TR Polysulphide Thiokol
AU/EU Polyurethane (ester/ether) Adiprene

4 Oil Resistant - General Purpose

CR Chloroprene Neoprene
NBR Nitrile rubber Buna-N
HNBR Hydrogenated nitrile rubber Therban
CM Chlorinated polyethylene Duralon
CSM Chlorosulphonated polyethylene Hypalon
CO Epichlorohydrin Hydrin-100
ECO Epichlorohydrin copolymer Hydrin-200

5 Oil and Hea Resistant

ACM Polyacrylic Vamac

FCM Tetrafluoroethylene-propylene Aflas
FKM Fluoroelastomer Viton
FFKM Perfluoroelastomer Kalrez

6 Silicone Rubber

SI Silicone rubber
FSI Fluorosilicone rubber

Fig. 56. Elastomer classification.

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 WELLBORE FACTORS EFFECTING ELASTOMER SELECTION

Controlling Factor Comment

Wellbore (Reservoir) Fluid/Gas

Production fluid composition

Hydrocarbons
Aromatics
Water
Gas/oil ratio
Produced gas composition
Hydrocarbons, H2S, CO2

Temperature

Bottom hole temperature BHST and BHFP

Surface temperature Static/flowing cycle frequency
Temperature extremes Maximum/minimum and cycle frequency
Temperature profile

Pressure

Reservoir pressure BHST and BHFP

Wellhead pressure Static/flowing cycle frequency
Pressure profile Variation, frequency, rate

Injected Fluids

Composition/function Inhibitors, corrosion or scale

Control line fluids
Completion fluids
Acids and chemicals
Characteristics Strength,
Exposure Duration, frequency

Fig. 57. Wellbore factors effecting elastomer selection.

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 MATERIAL SELECTION BASED ON TEMPERATURE AND OIL RESISTANCE

ASTM Service Temperature Oil

Ref. Code Material Class Upper Lower Resistance
(°C) (°F) (°C) (°F)
<150° F
NR Natural rubber 65 149 -50 -58 Bad

200 to 250° F

CR Neoprene 100 212 -45 -49 Poor

AE/AU Polyurethane 105 221 -30 -22 Poor
NBR Nitrile rubber 120 248 -30 -22 Good

250 to 300° F

ECO/CO Hydrin 135 275 -40 -40 Good

PVDF Coflon back-up 140 284 -60 -76 Very good
HNBR Therban 150 302 -25 -13 Fair
EPDM Nordel 150 302 -50 -58 Bad

300 to 400° F

SI Silicone 175 347 -55 -67 Bad

FSI Fluorosilicone 190 374 -40 -40 Good
FKM Viton 200 392 -20 -4 Very good
ETFE Tefzel back-up 200 392 -190 -310 Very Good

400 to 500° F

FCM Aflas 230 446 -40 -40 Good

PEEK Victrex back-up 250 482 Very good
EFKM Kalrez 260 500 0 32 Very good

>500° F

PTFE Teflon back-up 290 554 -190 -310 Very good

Fig. 58. Elastomer material resistance to heat and oil.

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 CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMON ELASTOMERS AND PLASTICS
USED IN DOWNHOLE COMPLETION APPLICATIONS

CR AE/AU NBR ECO PVDF HNBR EPDM FKM ETFE FCM PEEK FFKM PTFE
Neoprene Urethane Nitrile Hydrin Coflon Therban Nordel Viton Tefzel Aflas Victrex Kalrez Teflon

Temperature Range
Upper limit (°F) 212 221 248 275 284 302 302 392 392 446 482 500 554
Lower limit (°F) -49 -22 -22 -40 -76 -13 -58 -4 -310 -40 32 -310

Oiland gas
Aliphatic hydrocarbons 2 2 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1
Aromatic hydrocarbons 3 3 2 1 1 3 4 1 1 2 1 1 1
Crude oil (<250°F) 2 2 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 2 1 1 1
Crude oil (>250°F) 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 2 1 2 1 1 1
Sour crude 3 3 2 3 1 2 4 2 1 2 1 2 1
Gas – sour natural gas 3 3 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 2 1

Completion Fluids
CaCl/CaBr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ZnBr 1 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
K2CO3 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Brine – Seawater 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Control Fluids
Mineral oil 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1
Glycol 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Treatment Fluids
Inhibitors (Amines) 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1
Alcohol – methanol 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1
Acid – HCl (<15%) 3 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Acid – HCl (>15%) 4 4 4 3 2 4 3 1 1 1 2 1 1
Acid – HF (<65%, cold) 1 - 3 - 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
Acid – Acetic (hot) 4 4 4 2 2 3 3 4 1 3 2 1 1
Surfractants 2 4 1 - 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Chlorinated solvents 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 1 1 3 1 1 1

Wellbore fluids
Water 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
Steam 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Methane 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1
CO2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1
H2S 2 4 4 4 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 1

Principal Physical Properties

Tear resistance G VG G G G G P G G F VG F G
Abrasion resistance VG VG G G G G G G G F VG F G
Compression set G G VG F n/a G F F n/a F n/a P n/a
Resilience High High Med. Med. n/a Med. Med. Low n/a Low n/a Low n/a
Gas impermeability F G F VG G G G VG G G G VG G

VG – Very Good, G – Good, F – Fair, P – Poor

1 Good Satisfactory performance in a relatively high concentration environment

2 Fair Performance dependent on duration of exposure and concentration
3 Poor Performance dependent on duration of exposure and concentration
4 Bad Low tolerance level – Use not recommended
- No data available

Fig. 59. Compatibility and properties of common elastomers.

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Completion components are generally exposed to crude • Handling – At low temperatures elastomers may become
oil and natural gas or natural gas and condensate. In extremely brittle and difficult to handle. In cold climates
addition, water may also be present. The majority of some materials require special handling procedures
produced fluids are aliphatic hydrocarbons, i.e., contain- during the assembly process to prevent damage before
ing methane. Aromatic hydrocarbons, e.g., containing installation..
benzene ring compounds occur less frequently. This
variation in crude composition plays a significant part in • Excessive temperature range – The differential between
material selection process flowing and static temperatures may be large for some
completion components, e.g., surface or near-surface
Such fluids can effect the characteristics and perfor- components in subsea installations may experience low
mance of elastomers and plastics through: static and high flowing temperatures (e.g., 40 to 320°F).
Such a temperature range may exceed the safe operat-
• Swelling – Some hydrocarbons (e.g., high aromatics) ing range of some materials. For example, applications
can cause swelling of elastomer materials, e.g., natural likely to experience a working temperature range in
rubber, EPMD). excess of 100 to 150°F should be equipped with elas-
tomers having a good compression set resistance over
• Dissolving – Exposure to hydrocarbons under the right the anticipated temperature range.
temperature and pressure conditions may cause some
material to be dissolved Pressure

• Material degradation – Loss of strength or increased The ability of any sealing assembly to withstand a pres-
susceptibility to attack from other agents may result from sure differential is dependent on the design and configu-
exposure of some materials, e.g., H2S, CO2. ration of the seal area and the characteristics of the seal
material. Pressure related factors which should be con-
• Material deformation – Gasses absorbed by the material sidered during material selection include:
under high pressure may cause blistering or cracking of
the material if decompressed rapidly (explosive decom- Mechanical properties – The requirement for backup rings
pression). or assemblies is dependent on the mechanical properties
of the material.
Temperature
Treatment Fluids
Wellbore temperatures, and variations, present several
limitations on the use of elastomers and plastics. In Treatment fluids can effect the performance of elastomers
general terms, heat may effect elastomers in one of two in several ways. Consequently, the selection of an elas-
ways: the material may harden or it may soften. Tempera- tomer and subsequent treatment fluids for the well in
ture related factors can effect the characteristics and question must be mutually compatible. In most cases, the
performance of elastomers and plastics through: duration of exposure will be relatively short and will limit
the extent of damage. However, some reactions are
• Material degradation – High temperatures can cause a aggressive and
reaction of the elastomer material with surrounding
fluids which results in degradation of the material. At The following examples are associated with relatively
high temperatures the elastomer may fail extremely common treatments.
quickly. In addition, higher temperatures generally in-
crease the susceptibility of an elastomer to attack from • Corrosion inhibitors – Some types of corrosion inhibitors
other agents, e.g., chemical. (amine based) can attach common elastomers, e.g.,
Nitriles and Vitons.
• Extrusion – High temperatures will cause some materi-
als to soften, reducing their resistance to extrusion • Completion fluids – High density brines (e.g., ZnBr)
through sealing gaps or component tolerances. cause a hardening of nitrile materials.

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 PREFERRED ELASTOMER PROPERTIES FOR VARIOUS PRESSURE RANGES

Pressure Range
Property Zero to 300 psi 300 to 3000 psi >3000 psi

Hardness (Shore A) 60 to 70A 70 to 85A >85A

Modulus Low Medium High
Tensile strength Low-Med Med-High High
Elongation High Medium Low
Compression set Medium Low Low
Tear strength Low-Med Medium Low-Med
Abrasion resistance Low-Med Medium High
Impact resistance High High Med-Low
Extrusion resistance Low Medium High
Blister resistance Low Medium High

Fig. 60. Preferred elastomer properties.

• Control fluids – some fluids used in hydraulic control • Material degradation

applications, e.g., safety valve, contain chemicals which
require special elastomers to be used. Identifying the failure mechanism of a seal or sealing
assembly is generally the first step in the replacement/
Seal Failure Modes remedial action. The following notes and guidelines are
provided both to encourage proper selection on a first time
The previous section listed some of the many ways how installation and to help determine corrective actions for
the efficiency of a seal can be compromised. These existing installations that have failed.
circumstances may not necessarily lead to a total failure
of the seal. For example, the seal may be distorted or Incorrect assembly
degraded but still hold the required pressure differential.
However, it may fail completely after a pressure cycle, or In spite of their apparent flexibility and resilience, seals
some movement if in a dynamic application. and their associated assemblies, are precision products
that require careful handling and installation to ensure
The following failure mechanisms should be considered in trouble free operation and minimize failure.
the seal design and material selection process.
Some seal configurations require a special tool for instal-
• Incorrect assembly lation of the seal component(s). This, in addition to the
recommended assembly procedure, is often overlooked
• Extrusion for reasons of cost and time saving. In reality, the cost and
time implications of incorrect assembly can be severe.
• Compression setting This should be reinforced with personnel directly involved
with the assembly process.
• Explosive decompression

• Abrasion or wear

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Typical assembly related failures include the following. Extrusion

• Incorrect size of seal or seal component (e.g., backup Extrusion occurs when the seal has been subjected to
ring) – seals, e.g., O-rings, are often supplied in assem- conditions exceeding the operating range of the seal. This
bly packs and contain several sizes which often look is most commonly associated with excessive pressures or
similar and appear to fit well. However, even minor large extrusion gaps, however, a number of other factors
variations in size can reduce the performance of the may ultimately contribute to an extrusion failure.
seal.
• Extreme pressure – if the differential pressure across the
• Cutting or slicing – seals that are forced over sharp edges seal exceeds the operating range the seal is likely to
are in obvious danger of damage during installation. Use extrude and fail.
of the correct assembly procedure, installation tool or
even some lubricant can minimize the risk of damage. • Large clearances – where a large extrusion gap has
Wherever possible, sharp edges on the tool assembly formed, e.g., resulting from component wear, incorrect
should be chamfered during the machining or fabrication assembly or bad design, seal failure can occur at levels
process. significantly below the intended operating range. Badly
aligned or eccentric assemblies may be susceptible to
• Dirt, debris and surface preparation – seals assembled seal extrusion in the enlarged clearance area.
in less than ideal conditions are at risk of failure. In
addition to removing (cleaning) all loose debris from the • Incorrect seal material – higher pressure (and tempera-
seal area and components, the sealing surface should ture) applications require harder seal material, e.g., for
be cleaned and prepared to provide an optimum sealing zero to 300psi applications, 60 to 70A Shore A materials
surface.

Low Moderate
Differential gap
pressure pressure

High Extreme
pressure Leakage
pressure

Pressure Back-up ring

Tee-seal
(elastomer)

Fig. 61. O-ring seal configurations.

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 can be used. For 300 to 3000psi applications, 70 to 85A has been subjected to high forces which have perma-
Shore A hardness materials are required. Applications nently, or in some cases semi-permanently distorted the
in excess of 3000psi should be equipped with materials seal. The inability to return to proper shape may result in
of hardness >85A. failure of the seal through pressure cycling or shearing
damage as the sealing surfaces move.
• Material degradation, seal damage or incorrect seal –
contributory factors which will effect seal performance The elastic properties of an elastomer are determined by
and operating life. composition of the material, operating temperature, oper-
ating environment (chemical compatibility) and the dura-
Vitons and Fluorels provide good sealing qualities for tion of exposure. Seals that are set at low temperature,
moderate temperatures and pressures as static seals. with the operating temperature then rising in excess of
When a proper tolerance is established, the resulting 100 to 150°F are more likely to exhibit some compression
diametrical gap should be <0.015 in. with 10-20% squeeze setting, i.e., the distortion is "cooked into the seal".
on the O-ring. This gap results in <0.007 in. on each side
of the item to be sealed (Fig. 61). Compression setting is a relatively common failure mode
which typically results from:
With Viton O-rings (Fluorels), a maximum differential
pressure across the seal of 6,000 psi at 300˚F is possible. • Incorrect material selection or material degradation
Above these conditions, the O-ring will extrude and flow-
out of the O-ring groove resulting in pressure loss. In • Higher than expected operating temperature range
situations where the seal is on a sliding surface (dynamic
seal), this situation is further aggravated. Static or station- • Excessive deformation in badly designed/assembled
ary O-rings will also flow, but not as easily as a dynamic gland profile
seal.
Explosive decompression
The use of plastic (Ryton and PEEK) backup rings prevent
flowing of seals and provide for higher pressure and Almost all elastomers will absorb some gas under high
temperature ranges in dynamic seals. New technology pressure conditions. The degree of absorption is depen-
elastomers such as Kalrez or Chevraz are quite soft and dent on the composition of the elastomer, gas(es), tem-
should be backed up by plastic seals. perature, pressure and duration of exposure. If the system
pressure is reduced (bled off) quickly, the absorbed gases
Extrusion is the most common type of O-ring failure and is will expand rapidly causing high internal stresses in the
characterized by a "peeling" or "splitting" of the O-ring seal material. Internal damage may not be immediately
surface. In dynamic applications, the O-ring may shear apparent since in time the seal may return to its original
completely since the O-ring is clamped in place by the shape and dimension. The presence of small external
force exerted by differential pressure. Even in static appli- "blisters" may indicate explosive decompression is likely
cations, flexing of components under high pressure may to have occurred. Soluble gases, e.g., CO2 or H2S, can
enable sufficient movement to cause catastrophic failure diffuse into elastomers easily, consequently, the risk of
of the O-ring. explosive decompression should be considered where
such gases are present or suspected.
For high pressure applications (>1500 psi), O-ring backup
rings should be used. T-seals and V- seals are generally Explosive decompression failures of elastomers can be
always used with a backup ring so are less susceptible to reduced by observing the following precautions.
extrusion.
• Avoid sudden decompression of any system or compo-
Compression setting nent.

Compression setting is the term given to elastomer distor- • Optimize the seal cross-sectional area (gas absorption
tion resulting from loss of elastic memory, i.e., the material is a function of the area exposed)

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• Optimize material selection, e.g., high-strength, high- Both processes are accelerated with increased tempera-
modulus and high-hardness materials are less suscep- ture. Therefore, it is important that the elastomer be
tible. Also, special compounds should be considered for selected on both temperature and chemical compatibility.
"at risk" applications.
Elastomers and plastics can be damaged by H2S, ozone,
Abrasion/Wear ultraviolet light, and a number of other factors. Storage of
seals under fluorescent lights should be avoided. In
Abrasion and wear damage are obvious consequences in addition, exposure to ozone, which may be present in the
dynamic seal applications. However, even static seals are surrounding air, should be avoided.
susceptible to some wear from pressure cycles and com-
ponent flexing. Common causes of excessive seal wear Design and Configuration
include the following.
There are several factors associated with the design and
• Poor sealing surface condition – specify an appropriate configuration of a seal that will help determine the most
surface preparation during design or refurbishment. appropriate material. These may be summarized as
follows.
• Inadequate lubrication – provide lubrication channels/
reservoirs or specify a self lubricating seal material. • Seal movement – i.e., dynamic or static applications

• High temperature and pressure (or pulsating pressure) • Seal type – e.g., O-ring, T-seal or V-packing
– Select a seal material with improved performance or
higher specification. Additional factors such as the desired service life also
have some influence though are highly specific to each
• Fluid contamination (solids or chemical) – Provide application (Fig 62).
"scraper rings" or similar to separate particulate materi-
als from the pressure seal area. Seal movement

Material degradation Seals, and their supporting components, are designed for
static or dynamic applications. Static seals have no
All elastomers and seal materials have a finite life. It is movement between the sealing surfaces while the seal is
essential, although not always obvious, that the material energized. For example, the O-ring seals fitted on a tool
life must exceed the intended service life of the applica- housing allows movement between the tool components
tion. The rate of degradation depends on the operating for assembly purposes, but once assembled and in
temperature, operating environment (principally chemical operation little or no sealing surface movement takes
degradation) and the duration of exposure. The degrada- place. Dynamic seals are designed to enable movement
tion may result in a slow loss of performance or a sudden between the sealing surfaces. For example, the extending
catastrophic failure of the seal. mandrel of a service tool.

Two chemical processes are recognized as causing chemi- Each seal application (static or dynamic) has desirable
cal degradation of elastomers in downhole environments. properties for an appropriate elastomer. The properties
listed below should be considered in addition to the basic
• Bond scission causes elastomers to become softer and factors that the material be compatible with the operating
weaker. In extreme cases, the material will degrade to a pressure, temperature, and service (compatibility with
"gummy" mass. wellbore and treatment fluids).

• Crosslinking causes the elastomer to become harder

and more brittle. The material may lose essential elastic
properties causes the seal to fail.

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 O-ring Safety valve Asbestos filled
seat (flapper packer element

Tee-seal Seat packing V-packing

Fig. 62. Seal construction/configuration.

Dynamic seal materials should exhibit resistance to: O-ring and T-seals are examples of radial compression
seals commonly used in completion assemblies. O-rings
• Abrasion and wear are typically used in static applications, while T-seals are
designed to suit dynamic applications, i.e., the T-seal
• Tearing or splitting design limits the tendency of a seal to roll as the internal
surface/component is moved.
• Gas absorption
Packer elements are axial compression seals. The large
• Compression setting/distortion seal surface area is designed to bridge relatively large
extrusion gaps and seal on the casing or liner internal
Static seal materials should exhibit resistance to: surface. This sealing surface is typically of unknown
quality so a large seal area is essential to maintain
• Compression setting/distortion reliability.

Seal Type Pressure energized seals are commonly used in static

and dynamic applications, e.g., V-packing stacks such as
There are three basic types or configuration of seal: used on gas lift valves or tubing locks. Seal stacks can
provide a good option for seals required in widely varying
• Radial compression conditions, i.e., different materials or material properties
can be combined. I such an application, the outer seal
• Axial compression materials may be fitted as sacrificial protection for the
inner seal materials.
• Pressure energized

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In each of the above examples, the composition (class) materials are added to enhance one quality another often
and specification (grade) of the seal will be matched to the suffers (Fig. 64). Consequently, selection of the appropri-
application, service duty and service life of the completion ate material class and grade is often based on a compro-
components (Fig. 63). mise of the desired performance characteristics.

Elastomer Types Elastomers are commonly available in a range of hard-

ness or Durometer ratings. The lower the duro-number,
A wide range of elastomers have been developed to suit the softer the elastomer. The Durometer rating is similar to
the needs of completion applications (e.g., EPMD, nitrile the Rockwell hardness rating system. Generally, high
etc.). Within each type, or class, of material, several Durometer elastomers provide for high extrusion resis-
grades are typically available to provide specific perfor- tance but with poorer sealing qualities. Softer elastomers
mance characteristics. provide poor extrusion resistance but have excellent
sealing qualities.
Materials are added to increase the material strength,
stiffness, oil resistance, temperature resilience (high and
low) and to lower the friction coefficient. However, when

COMMON ELASTOMER APPLICATIONS

Component Common Materials

Mandrel packing Fiber reinforced nitrile

Torque sleeve o-ring Viton

Bearing housing o-ring Viton

Packing gland Fiber reinforced nitrile

Element sleeve Viton Graphite woven wire

Bearing retainer packing Viton Graphite woven wire

Bearing retainer o-ring Viton

Element assembly Nitrile Graphite woven wire

Piston o-ring Viton

Wiper ring Virgin Teflon

Upper cone o-ring Viton

Bottom Sub o-ring Viton

Fig. 63. Common elastomers applications, e.g., hydraulic-set retrievable production packers.

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 CHANGE IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ELASTOMERS WITH INCREASE IN VARI-
OUS STRUCTURE AND COMPOUNDING FACTORS

Property Mol weight Degree Filler Filler Filler

rubber of cure Load surface area structure

Hardness NC Up Up Up Up
Modulus Up Up Up Up Up
Tensile strength Up Max Mqx Up Up
Elongation Up Down Down NC Down
Compression set Down Down Up Up Up
Tear strength Up Max Max Up NC
Fatigue life Up Max Max Down Up
Abrasive resistance Up Max Max Up Up
Impact strength Up Max Max Up Up
Extrusion resistance Up Up Up Up Up
Blister resistance Up Up Up Up Up

NC, No significant change in value – Up, Property increase in value

Down, Property decrease in value – Max, Property goes through a maximum

Fig. 64. Elastomer properties.

High temperatures initially soften elastomers. When high The most common type of elastomer in downhole comple-
differential pressures are also present, flowing and failure tion applications is Nitrile. This substance is also known as
of the seal can result. The gap (extrusion gap) between Buna-N or Hycar (brand name). O-rings used in the
the seal surfaces is critically important at high tempera- manufacture of petroleum equipment are usually made of
tures/ pressures. Viton which is fairly strong and resistant to degradation
from exposure to wellbore fluids (Fig. 67).
The physical properties of all materials change with tem-
perature. Amorphous materials (most polymers), undergo Polymer materials are used as high performance packing
a characteristic transformation known as glass transition, for moderate temperatures, pressures, and corrosion.
i.e., the material changes from a hard glass-like solid to When completion tools must be installed in wells where
flexible state at (Tg) the glass transition temperature (Fig. the temperature is very high, or in an H2S environment,
65). elastomers of fluorocarbons are used. Fluorocarbon elas-
tomers can be compounded with many substances in-
Below the glass transition temperature (Fig. 66), materi- cluding glass and carbon, thereby improving resistance to
als are hard and glassy. At the glass transition tempera- extrusion.
ture the material becomes softer. A polymer heated to a
high enough temperature will soften until it begins to flow. Polymers are classified in several ways, for example:
Consequently materials will have a limited range (tem-
perature) of use. For example, an O-ring seals well while • Composition (elements), e.g., Teflon or silicones –
it is rubbery; however, under Arctic conditions an O-ring siloxane chains comprising silicon and oxygen atoms
loses its ability to seal effectively. The glass transition (alternating).
characteristics of materials used in oil and gas well comple-
tions should be known and understood by the engineers • Monomers, e.g., epoxy resins and epoxy adhesives
specifying their use.

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e.g., O-ring operating
range Extrusion resistance
Blister resistance
Static modulus

High speed
dynamic modulus
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Hardness
(+)

Tensile strength

Tear strength
Fatigue life
(–)

Hysteresis
Compression set
Friction coefficient
(–) (+) Elongation
CROSSLINK DENSITY
(Degree of cure)
Fig. 65. Changing elastomer properties

Glassy e.g., O-ring operating

range
ELASTICITY (log E)

Leathery

Rubbery

Tg

Viscous Flow

TEMPERATURE

Fig. 66. Glass transition.

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 TYPICAL NITRILE RUBBER COMPOUND COMPOSITION

Additive Parts by Additive function

weight

Nitrile N28C50 100 Base rubber (28% acrylonitrile)

Zinc Oxide 5 Activator for sulphur

Stearic acid 1 Lubricant, retarder
Regal SRF (N762) 50 Carbon black filler (semi-reenforcing)
Silica VN3 15 Fine silica filler (for heat resistance)
Flectol H 2 Anti-oxidant

CBS 1.5 Fast cure accelerator

TMT 2.5 Sulphur donor compound
Sulphur MC 0.5 Sulphur accelerator

Dutrex 729 10 Process aid for low temperature

and resilience properties

Fig. 67. Nitrile composition.

• Chain units (that hold the molecule together), e.g., Nitrile Rubber (NBR)
polyamides, such as nylon
This material is most commonly known as nitrile rubber or
• Method of polymerization, e.g., free-radical polymeriza- Buna-N, however, the following trade names may be used
tion and coordination polymerization. or interchanged in product or specification documents.

• Use/application, e.g., fluoroelastomers Breon BP Chemicals Ltd

Hycar BF Goodrich Chemical Co
• Fiber reinforcement , e.g., composite materials that have Krynac Polysar Ltd
a fabric of very strong fibre, such as glass, Kevlar, or Nysyn Copolymer Corpn
carbon, saturated with a cured resin. Perbunan Bayer AG

• Processing method, that is, whether the material is Copolymers of acrylonitrile (ACN) and butadiene (Buna-
thermoplastic or thermosetting. N) were first used as synthetic stocks since the 1930's. In
nitrile rubbers the ACN content may vary from 20 to 50%
A specification and application summary for common (typically 28 to 41%) by weight, dependent on the required
elastomers is provided for the following materials below. performance properties. NBRs are resistant to aliphatic
hydrocarbons, vegetable and mineral oils and greases,
• Nitrile hydraulic fluids, many dilute acids, alkalis, salt solutions
and water.
• Hydrin
Nitrile rubbers are not recommended for service in hydro-
• Viton carbons with a high aromatic content, chlorinated hydro-
carbons, polar solvents such as ketones, acetone, acetic
• Kalrez acid, esters, strong acids or with control fluids based on

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glycols. Zinc bromide brines also have a significant hard- Fluoroelastomers are manufactured/supplied under the
ening effect on nitrile rubbers. following tradenames.

Nitriles are relatively inexpensive and provide a good all- Viton DuPont
round resistance to hydrocarbons and fluids commonly Fluorel 3M Company
associated with oil and gas well applications. Technoflon Montecatini

Epichlorohydrin Homo- and Copolymers (CO and ECO) Fluoroelastomers exhibit excellent chemical and solvent
resistance, including aliphatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated
Both CO and ECO epichlorohydrins are resistant to solvents, animal, vegetable and mineral oils, gasoline,
mineral oils and greases, aliphatic hydrocarbons, silicone kerosene, dilute acids, alkaline media and aqueous inor-
oil, grease and water at room temperature. They are also ganic salt solutions. They also exhibit good weather
resistant to aging and weathering. Their low permeability resistance. Fluoroelastomers retain their physical proper-
to gases make them particularly appropriate for gas well ties well over a wide temperature range and have low gas
applications (Hydrin is the trade name for material pro- permeability and extremely low water absorption rates.
vided by BF Goodrich Co) They typically exhibit good tensile strength and tear resis-
tance.
Epichlorohydrins are not resistant to aromatic and chlori-
nated hydrocarbons, ketones and esters, hydraulic fluids Fluoroelastomers have only fair general resistance to
and glycol based control fluids. alcohol (be careful with methanol dewatering), aldehydes,
ketones, esters and ethers and are not compatible with
Fluoroelastomer (FKM -Viton) polar solvents such as acetone, methylethylketone or
ethyl acetate. Hydraulic fluids based on glycol, super-
There are several different types of Fluoroelastomer. The heated steam and low molecular weight organic acids
Viton group is divided into three main types: A, B and G. (e.g., formic and acetic acids) may also be incompatible.
Organic amine corrosion inhibitors are not compatible
The Viton-A family consists of copolymers of vinylidene with Viton and Fluorel and are not recommended for seals
fluoride and hexafluoropropylene. This general purpose where there is movement.
copolymer family is further subdivided into A, E and
specialty series and includes for instance Viton-AHV, a Amines are effective curing agents for these elastomers.
high molecular weight fluoroelastomer, and Viton-E60, an Further exposure to an amine based corrosion inhibitor
extrusion resistant grade. Viton A types are cured using will continue the curing process until the elastomer hard-
amines and exhibit good resistance to compression set. ens and becomes brittle (this effect is less marked with
The Viton-B family offers improved heat and fluid resis- Viton-GF which is peroxide cured).
tance. However, this comes with some sacrifice to com-
pression set resistance. Perfluoroelastomer (FFKM)

In general, the Viton-G family have improved steam and Perfluoroelastomer compounds have the chemical resis-
acid resistance compared to conventional types of Viton. tance properties of PTFE (Teflon) and the elastic proper-
Viton-GF, a newer addition to this range, has received ties of Vitons. However, the manufacturing process is
much attention in oil field applications due to its improved exceptionally difficult, consequently the cost is much
resistance to hydrocarbons, volume change and property higher (e.g., than fluoroelastomers).
retention.
Perfluoroelastomers are supplied under the following
tradenames.

Kalrez DuPont
Chemraz Greene Tweed

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Kalrez has almost universal chemical resistance. It is A number of new exotic plastics have been developed
resistant to sour petroleum products, acids, bases, steam which show a high degree of resistance to H2S, high
and has excellent oxygen and weathering resistance. pressure, and temperature conditions. A specification and
However, Kalrez has poor strength and should be used application summary for plastics found in completion
with mechanical back up even at low temperatures. The applications is provided for the following materials below.
material is extremely difficult to mold.
• PEEK
Both Kalrez and Chemraz materials are only sold as
fabricated units. The cost of these products typically • PTFE
means they are only used in applications where no other
material will survive. Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)

Plastics PEEK polymers are resistant to virtually all organic and

aqueous chemicals. They exhibit significant chemical
Plastics are often used in the manufacture and assembly resistance and high performance at elevated tempera-
of completion tools and equipment. There are two princi- tures and are tough and highly wear resistant.
pal categories or types of plastic.
PEEK products can be fabricated by conventional melt
• Thermoplastic – A thermoplastic material is normally processing methods such as injection molding, extrusion
processed by heat alone, e.g., components formed by and melt spinning. It may be used in the virgin state or
melting a resin, injecting it into a mould, and letting it cool reinforced with glass or carbon fibers. PEEK materials are
to harden. The term thermoplastic means “flows with supplied under the following tradenames.
heat”. Because it can be remelted, it is reprocessible.
Thermoplastic resins include many engineering resins Victrex ICI Ltd
like Peek and Ryton. Kadel Union Carbide

• Thermosetting plastic – Thermoset systems are pro- A unique combination of properties makes PEEK poly-
cessed by chemical reaction, e.g., vulcanized (rubber), mers attractive in a wide range of demanding applications,
cured (plastics such as epoxy or phenolic resins) or e.g., from casing/housings for logging tools, to support
cross-linked. A thermoset material is not remeltable or rings and anti-extrusion rings for O-ring seals.
reprocessible. Since it is cross-linked, it has less ten-
dency to creep and has better dimensional stability than Fluorocarbon Polymers (FPM)
a thermoplastic. Examples of thermosetting plastics
include Teflon, Loctite, and Eastman 910 (brand names). Primarily used as backup rings for elastomer seals, fluo-
rocarbon polymers exhibit a high degree of chemical
Teflon has probably the greatest oilfield application of the resistance (PTFE, FEP and ETFE can be regarded as
thermosetting plastics. It has a high resistance to both chemically inert for all oilfield applications).
high and low temperature, very low friction, and is inert to
most fluids. Teflon is used to form seal rings. However, to
be efficient they must be mechanically energized with a
spring or a rubber seal ring to make, and maintain, a seal.
For this reason, Teflon seals are usually used as backup
or secondary seals in high pressure applications.

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Fluorocarbon polymers include an extensive range of Ultra-thin coatings are used on polished bores and locking
materials available under the following tradenames. devices where critical clearance is important. Expoxy,
Phenolics, and Teflon are usually applied above 5 mils.
PTFE Care should be taken (especially as an after market
Teflon DuPont process) when coatings are applied to critical clearance
Fluon Allied Chemical Co components.
Halon DuPont
FEP, ETFE Some examples of coating applications and materials
Tefzel DuPont used in oil and gas well completions are shown below.

PFA Thermoset plastic

Teflon DuPont
Phenolic (not for H2S and CO2 applications)
PCTFE Bakelite
Kel-F 3-M Co Epoxy

PVDF Pipe coating materials

Foraflon Atochem
Coflon Coflexip Coal tars
Epoxy
PVDF Phenolics
Furakawa Electric Co Polyethylene
Kynar Pensalt Chemicals Poly Vinyl Chloride
Teflon
Coatings Polyurethane

Several elastomers and plastics can be applied to down-

hole components as a coating. Providing the surface is
not damaged during installation, coatings can provide an
effective means of corrosion control. However, since the
risk of even moderate damage to the coating may lead to
exposure to harmful agents and failure of the component,
coated components are not accepted by many operators.

Coatings are generally listed by their thickness in thou-

sandths (mils) of an inch, e.g.,

Ultra-thin Coating 1 to 2 mils

Average 5 to 8 mils
Thick 8 to 10 mils

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Wellbore Deposits The completion design and component selection pro-
cesses should consider the potential for well bore depos-
There are several conditions or circumstances under its under the following examples.
which material may accumulate within the wellbore im-
pairing the efficiency of production or operation of the Completion or production efficiency
completion equipment. This manual section describes
deposits formed as reaction products and does not • The likelihood of wellbore deposits under current and
include solids that have migrated from the reservoir ma- future reservoir/wellbore conditions
trix, e.g., sand or reservoir fines. The design of treatments
or procedures for the removal or prevention of wellbore • Location of localized buildup points, e.g., placement of
deposits is a complex subject which is only briefly summa- restrictions and completion components
rized in this section.
• Possible interference with completion equipment, e.g.,
Each product should be regarded as a "chemical problem" rod pump drag
which should be avoided rather than cured. In general,
downhole chemical problems are difficult and costly to • Completion designed for flexibility of production, i.e.,
treat and resolve. varying the production characteristics (e.g., WHP) can
resolve or relocate the problem (e.g., point of deposi-
Consideration of the conditions under which deposits may tion)
be formed is an important part of the completion design
process. However, quantifying likely deposits is extreme Completion system maintenance
difficult, so estimating the impact on production may be
more reliant on local experience rather than chemical • Requirement for mechanical intervention, e.g., thru-
analyses. tubing access and internal profiles

The effect of wellbore material build up is greatly depen- • Location of devices away from critical buildup points,
dent on the type and severity of the deposit. However, e.g., nipples and safety valves
wellbore deposits commonly lead to the following condi-
tions which can be categorized as effecting production • Provision of contingency facilities, e.g., additional nipples,
efficiency or wellbore/reservoir maintenance sliding sleeves

Production efficiency Wellbore Deposit Treatments

• Increase flowing pressure loss • Compatibility of treatment fluids with completion compo-
nents, e.g., alloys, elastomers and plastics
• Interfere with the operation of completion components
• Capability for remedial treatment, e.g., through-bore
• Induce formation damage capability, production shutdown/start up

• Restrict (or shut-off) production • Selection of components compatible with preferred

treatments, e.g., injection lines or points
• Increase load/drag in rod pump applications
• Configuration of surface and wellbore components, e.g.,
Wellbore/reservoir maintenance for the later introduction of injection facilities

• Obstruction of wellbore access for wireline or coiled Wellbore deposits can be broadly categorized as shown
tubing operations. below. In many cases, more than one deposit may occur.
This may complicate the identification of the deposit and
• Limitation on wellbore and reservoir treatment options.

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the subsequent design of an appropriate treatment which Scale can be defined as a compound, usually a salt, made
is effective in the removing as much material as is practi- up of metal and a nonmetal group that are not strongly
cable. acidic or strongly basic. The most common types are:

• Inorganic scales • Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

• Wax • Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)

• Asphaltenes • Barium sulfate (BaSO4)

• Hydrates • Sodium chloride (NaCl)

• Emulsions • Strontium sulfate (SrSO4)

These deposits are principally formed as a result of two Scaling generally occurs when the following conditions, or
conditions which are commonly encountered during pro- change in condition exist.
duction or workover operations:
• Temperature or pressure drops causing supersaturation
• Mixing of 'incompatible' fluids – for example, treatments then precipitation of salts.
fluids, formation fluids, injection fluid or waterflood break-
through • Mixing of two dissimilar waters (brine water containing
NaCl and fresh water containing bicarbonate) causing
• Changes in pressure and temperature – the greatest precipitation.
changes in temperature and pressure generally occur in
the upper portion of the wellbore. • Evaporation of a solution

In borderline conditions, relatively small variations in • Agitation

temperature, pressure, fluid composition or fluid flowrate
may mean the difference between deposition/no deposi- • Change in pH which may cause some dissolved salts to
tion. Also, in borderline conditions, minor factors such as precipitate or scale out.
fluid turbulence and the effects of downhole restrictions
may have a significant effect. In general, the slower the scale buildup the thinner, less
porous, and harder the scale becomes. In gas wells that
Scale experience a sudden pressure drop, precipitation can be
quite rapid and may consist of large granular salts. As long
Completion component or material selection will have as dissolved ions (Na+, Ca2+, Ba2+, CO3-2, SO4-2, Cl) stay in
little or no bearing on the build up of well bore scale. solution scaling does not occur. When solubility limits are
However, it may be necessary for completion compo- exceeded (supersaturation) precipitation and the accom-
nents to safely withstand chemical or acid treatments panying scaling of salt compounds occur.
used to remove scale.
The specific type of scale can be identified by either
The main problems associated with scale can be summa- chemical analyses or x-ray defraction.
rized as:
The most effective means of preventing scale is by
• Loss of production due to restriction of flow paths chemical inhibitors, which function at extremely low (thresh-
old) concentrations (in the ppm range).
• Interference with mechanical functions

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 Continuous Continuous injection Batch
injection (total) ( partial) injection
Fig. 68. Scale inhibition methods

There are four types of commonly used inhibitors: method) may have implication on the completion configu-
ration and installation process.
• polyphosphates
Chemical squeeze operations carry an inherent risk of
• phosphate esters formation damage/skin. The treatment volumes and fre-
quencies are dependent on the rock, fluid and reservoir
• phosphonates properties. Typical treatment frequencies vary from 2 to
12 months. A significant advantage exists in this method
• polyacrylates since little, or no modification is required on the comple-
tion system.
Phosphonates are considered to be the more effective in
most applications. Scales (especially CaCO3) tend to form at tubing/conduit
restrictions. Therefore, special consideration should be
There are two methods of applying inhibitors, continuous given to minimizing pressure drops, e.g., in tubing compo-
injection (below or above packer or at wellhead) or by nents and safety valves. Careful cleaning of tubulars can
batch chemical squeezes into the formation (Fig. XX). also reduce scale formation since scale deposition is very
sensitive to surface characteristics.
Continuous injection can be conducted via the annulus or
through an additional conduit, e.g., a macaroni string . Tubing materials and downhole elastomers should be
The key design considerations are the required injection capable of withstanding the chemical and acid treatments
rate and pressures. Continuous injection systems require used in scale removal, e.g., viton and fluorel elastomers
detailed planning at the time of completion design to are hardened by acid inhibitors and nitrile components
enable selection and installation of an appropriate injec- swell in organic solvents.
tion conduit. In addition, the optimum injection point (and

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Wax Critical temperature points associated with wax precipita-
tion are illustrated in Figure. 69. The deposition of wax
Waxes comprise a wide range of high molecular weight often takes place in the upper production conduit where
paraffinic hydrocarbons (predominantly alkanes) which relative temperature and pressure drops are greatest.
precipitate in the crude and adhere to completion compo-
nents. Problems associated with wax formation are com- The wax appearance temperature is the highest tempera-
mon in low flowrate wells, e.g., rod pumped wells. Wax ture at which wax precipitates. Keeping the wellhead
build up may also occur in wellbores where a significant temperature above the appearance temperatures pre-
temperature differential exists, e.g., cold lift gas, low vents wax problems. Conversely, if flooding operations
surface temperatures (permafrost or exposed risers). brings the reservoir temperature below or near the ap-
pearance temperature, wax may cause formation dam-
The deposition typically follows a nucleation process, age, especially when cold stimulation fluids are injected.
whereby a "seed crystal" or similar particle stimulates
rapid growth of a wax crystal within the hydrocarbon fluid. The non-Newtonian onset temperature is the temperature
In time, the crystal will drop from the fluid stream and below which sufficient precipitated wax is present in the
accumulate to form a wax deposit on the production crude to incur non-Newtonian rheology (shear and time
conduit. dependent viscosity). At this point, the accuracy of flow
correlations may be questionable.
Wax precipitation within the liquid crude can aggravate
emulsion tendencies and foam stability. This may cause The pour point is the temperature below which crude gels
a gelling effect which makes restart difficult after a produc- and is measured according to ASTM D97. The pour point
tion shutdown. provides a good guideline for determining the tempera-
ture below which restart may be a problem.

6.0
Pour point
5.0
INSOLUBLE WAX

4.0
(% by weight)

3.0 Non-Newtonian onset

temperature
2.0
Wax appearance
temperature
1.0

0
-10 0 25 50 100 125 150

TEMPERATURE (°F)

Fig. 69. Wax curve.

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Wax deposition is more difficult to asses than precipita- knowledge, wells prone to severe problems can be pro-
tion due to the effect of fluid flow and mass transfer. High duced under varying conditions, altering the location of
production rates, high wellhead temperatures and insula- the bubble point in the wellbore, thereby avoiding exces-
tion are the most effective means of preventing deposition sive buildup in one location.
problems. Mechanical removal by plunger lift, wireline
scrapers/cutters and rod and tubing scrapers are com- Removal of asphaltenes is best achieved through me-
mon and effective wax removal methods. chanical methods since they have a slow dissolution rate
in most treatment fluids (solvents).
Waxes are also easily removed by aromatic solvents,
such as toluene or xylene. However, solvents are a Hydrates
health, environmental and fire hazard, In addition, they
can quickly destroy elastomers, consequently, their use Hydrates are crystalline water structures resembling snow
may be limited in application and volume, e.g., solvent or ice in appearance. The crystal framework (formed from
spearheads ahead of stimulation fluids for treatment of water) is very weak and collapses easily if not supported
wax sensitive reservoirs. by molecules of gas within the cavities. Methane, ethane,
CO2 and H2S molecules are ideally suited to filling the
If wax is identified as a potential problem during comple- lattice cavities.
tion design , the completion should be designed to maxi-
mize wellhead temperature. Special packer fluids, insu- Propane and isobutane can only fill the larger cavities,
lated tubing or a liquid-free annulus are options available while the molecules of butane and heavier hydrocarbons
to maintain the produced fluid temperature. are too large and tend to inhibit hydrate formation.

In differentiating wax from asphaltenes, wax in its pure In oil and gas well systems, hydrates tend to occur when
form will completely melt if heat is applied. Asphaltenes light hydrocarbons (or carbon dioxide) are mixed with
only soften when heated. However, deposits frequently water under the correct temperature and pressure condi-
contain a mixture of wax and asphaltene, so accurate tions.
identification may require more detailed analysis.
Susceptibility to hydrate formation in oil wells is generally
Asphaltenes limited to start-up operations. Gas well hydrates are much
more common and can cause significant problems if
Asphaltenes are heavy aromatics (molecular weight measures are not taken to control their formation. In
>1000) that are found in three forms. "ideal" conditions, hydrates form spontaneously growing
rapidly to restrict or plug conduits completely. At high
• A hard, black sticky deposit pressures, hydrates may form at relatively high tempera-
tures (Fig. 70).
• A black sludge/emulsion with a high solids content
A drop in system pressure is not essential for the formation
• In combination with paraffin wax of hydrates. However, the refrigeration effect from a small
pressure drop (e.g., a small leak) may be sufficient to
Asphaltene deposits are generally less common than produce optimum pressure and temperature conditions
scales and waxes, however, they can present a signifi- which can stimulate rapid growth of a hydrate mass in both
cant problem. This is, in part, due to the difficulty in flowing or static conditions. The first indication of hydrate
predicting their occurrence since the asphaltene content formation is often a drop in flowing wellhead pressure.
of the crude alone is not a reliable indicator of potential
deposition.

Deposits are typically laid down in a relatively localized

area of the wellbore system. This tends to correspond
with the location of the crude oil bubble point. With this

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 100% H2S
80
80% CH4 + 20% H2S

70
95% CH4 + 5% C3H8
100% CH4
60
SYSTEM TEMPERATURE

50
(°F)

CH4 + 20% Methanol

40

30

20 CH4 + 35% Methanol

10

0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
SYSTEM PRESSURE
(psi)

Fig. 70. Conditions under which hydrates are likely to ocurr.

The formation of hydrates is determined by: of the water (altering the freezing point). Inhibitors have a
slow effect on hydrates that have formed, consequently,
• hydrocarbon composition emphases should be on prevention rather than cure.

• water composition Methanol is commonly used to prevent hydrate formation,

e.g., injected in high concentration form through an injec-
• temperature tion line/port or mixed with the test or suspension fluid.
Completion and wellhead valve materials (elastomers
• pressure and plastics) must be compatible with methanol in instal-
lations susceptible to hydrates. Injection points for master
In most cases the hydrocarbon composition cannot be valve (and safety valve) protection may be necessary in
changed so hydrate prevention or removal is undertaken susceptible applications.
by controlling one or more of the other factors, e.g.,
chemical hydrate inhibition by changing the composition

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Emulsions • Measurement

Emulsions can effect the production capability of a well Visual Inspection

due to their high viscosities. If the emulsion is formed in,
or injected into the reservoir matrix severe formation Visual inspection of every tubing joint should be con-
damage may occur. Production problems associated with ducted regardless of the tubing grade, type or history. The
emulsions include, restricted inflow ability, high friction following defects can be detected by visual inspection
pressure effects, slow rod fall and overloaded ESP mo-
tors. • Mill defects (seams, slugs, pits or cracks)

An emulsion is a stable dispersion of two immiscible • Poorly machined threads

liquids (e.g., oil and water), One phase is dispersed as fine
droplets suspended in the other continuous phase. Wa- • Handling damage to pipe body, coupling or threads
ter-in-oil emulsions are more common and problematic
than the oil-in-water emulsions. Pressure Testing

Emulsions are typically formed by fluid mixing and turbu- Hydrostatic pressure tests are often conducted as the
lence, e.g. ,turbulent flow around restrictions or in pumps. string is being run in the hole. Only the connection is tested
The stability of the emulsion is determined by the compo- unless there is a definite indication that there is a leak
nent fluids and the wellbore pressure and temperature within the body of the joint.
conditions which may cause either of the components to
change characteristics. Test pressure is generally 80% of the internal yield strength
value. However, a successful pressure test does not
Appropriate completion practices, e.g., more (sufficient) prove the absence of mill defects. Such defects frequently
perforations, will help prevent the continuous formation of do not appear until the string has experienced a number
downhole emulsions. Emulsion prone production fluids of cycles of temperature and pressure change.
may require downhole chemical injection. The injection
point should ideally be located below the tubing shoe or Electromagnetic Inspection
pump intake to efficiently treat the emulsion.
Modern inspection methods such as electromagnetic
Inspection and Handling search coil inspection and magnetic particle inspection
techniques are employed to detect corrosion pits, trans-
The tubing string and completion components are critical verse defects and longitudinal defects. The operator must
to the efficient production of the reservoir and field. Con- be properly trained before reliable results can be ob-
sequently, each component should be inspected carefully tained.
before it is assembled run into the wellbore. The expense
and inconvenience of pulling the string because of a Drift Inspection
defective joint or coupling makes thorough inspection
imperative. The following inspection methods are com- Before running in the hole for the first time, tubing should
monly undertaken. be drifted with an API drift mandrel to ensure the internal
clearance is within tolerance.
• Visual inspection
All tubing (new, used or reconditioned) should be handled
• Pressure testing with thread protectors fitted. The thread protectors should
not be removed until the tubing is ready to be stabbed.
• Electromagnetic inspection High-strength tubing is particularly susceptible to damage
caused by improper shipping and handling practices.
• Drift inspection

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Measurement d. Make up the tubing coupling to about 300 ft./lbf of
torque. This can be done by using special friction type
When running tubing and completion components, care- tongs to eliminate notching.
ful measurement of each joint or item is essential. Each
measurement is recorded in a tally book against the joint e. Clean the ramp and catwalk of all debris and dirt.
number which should be clearly marked on each joint. The Carefully roll one joint of pipe from the upper tier on the
tape used is divided into feet and decimal fractions, i.e., pipe rack onto wooden sills which have been placed
the reading for 20 ft 6 in. would be read as 20.50 ft. across the catwalk.

Tubing joints (and other string components) are mea- f. With the thread protector in place pick up each joint from
sured from the box end to the beginning of the threads on the catwalk with plaited pick up cable and air hoist or
the pin end. Completion components should be recorded cathead. It is advisable to use a snub row attached to
on a separate sheet of the tally book. The length, OD, the pin end to extend lateral movement to the joint and
grade, and ID are listed (as appropriate) for each compo- minimize contact between the pipe and the ramp.
nent.
g. Once the joint has been held up to a vertical position
When the grade and size of pipe has been chosen details remove the pin end thread protector. Apply a light coat
of the following points should be made known to field of thread compound to clean pin end threads and
personnel. make up the joint. Torque makeup should be mea-
sured by a direct reading Martin Decker or equivalent
• Handling – Tubing, especially high grade tubing (P-105, power tong hydraulic torque gauge.
etc.) must be handled carefully without dropping, denting,
or nicking.

• Torque – Too loose or too tight makeup on a joint

connection can result in failure.

• Record (tally) keeping – Accurate measuring and record-

ing of tubulars and placement of downhole components
is essential. A packer accidentally placed below the
perforated interval is a prime example of mismeasuring
or miscounting tubing joints.

Running the Tubing String

The following outline should be used when preparing

detailed running procedure(s) for tubing strings or comple-
tion components.

a. Remove the protector and clean the threads. A wire

brush and kerosene may be used to ensure that the
threads are properly cleaned.

b. Dry the threads on each joint with a rag or compressed

air and reinstall the thread protectors.

c. Apply thread compound to the male threads at the pin

end of the joint and on the female (box) threads in one
end of each clean coupling.

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Perforating There are two principal problems often associated with
perforated intervals that does not perform as expected.
Note: This manual section provides and overview of the
principal considerations that are associated with perforat- • Incomplete perforation, i.e., an inadequate number of
ing during the design and installation of an oil or gas well perforations functioning effectively. This may result from
completion system. Technical and engineering details of a number of factors including inadequate design, gun
specific perforating systems are contained in Schlumberger failure or perforations plugged (restricted) with debris.
Wireline and testing Perforating Manuals.
• Failure of the perforation tunnel to penetrate through
Perforating is the process of creating a clear channel of formation damaged by drilling or cementing fluids to
communication between the wellbore and the reservoir. reach the undamaged reservoir.
This should be achieved without damaging the inflow
ability of the surrounding formation to ensure that the These conditions can represent a significant restriction or
perforations do not form a restriction on the production impairment to the producing system.
capability of the completion system.
Location of the perforated interval
There are generally several perforating options available
for most completion applications. Selection of the most Identifying the interval(s) to be perforated will typically
appropriate technique will consider specifications of the require the participation of several engineering depart-
completion (e.g., dimensions), reservoir conditions (e.g., ments or disciplines, e.g., reservoir, production, geology.
consolidation compatible with under/over balanced perfo- The design process is generally geared toward the pri-
rating) and local experience. mary objective of maximizing communication with the net
pay zone while minimizing the risk of unwanted fluid influx
Perforation Program Design (e.g., gas or water coning). In addition, providing the ability
to selectively isolate portions of the perforated interval for
The principal considerations for design of a perforating subsequent treatments, is often a major consideration.
program are outlined below. In many cases, local field
experience and the availability of specific perforating The following factors should be considered when plan-
services will determine the preferred program. A simpli- ning the location and extent of perforated interval.
fied diagram illustrating perforating options and design
process is shown in Figure 71. • Cement bond logs should be scrutinized to identify areas
of poor hydraulic isolation.
• Location of the perforated interval
• For good hydraulic isolation leave a minimum
• Shot density unperforated distance of: 15 ft for 9-5/8-in. casing, 10 ft
for 7-in. casing and 5 ft on 5-1/2-in. liner (assuming good
• Perforation phasing bonding).

• Penetration • Leave at least 15 ft between multiple zones – 30 ft if

gravel packing is required.
• Perforating debris
• In thick perforated intervals, leave 5 to 10 ft gaps every
• Gun conveyance method 20 to 40 ft – opposite good cement, shales or tight
streaks if possible. This unperforated section will facili-
• Gun recoverability tate later intervention, e.g., packer or plug setting for
stimulation or shut-off operations.
• Bottom hole perforating pressure

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 Does underbalance Can multiple runs
perforation offer little or no with through-tubing
benefit or represent an Is bottom hole guns achieve No Design for tubing
No No
unacceptable cost or temperature adequate well rates conveyed perforation
operational burden? under 450˚F? despite 0˚ phasing
(Stimulated wells, widely and drawdown
spaced multiple zones) Yes limitations?

Yes Will well kill

itself if Can 2-1/8-in. Estimate perforating
Can through- or larger skin and effect on
No No perforated No No
tubing guns through- deliverability. If
be used? under
drawdown tubing guns acceptable use
without tubing? be used? through-tubing guns

No
Reconsider
options
Consider if
Yes
underbalance
perforating with
casing guns is
acceptable, and
evaluate fluid
damage risks
Can a non damaging during completion
completion fluid be running
formulated to control well Will damage be
Re-evaluate
pressures and losses, No removed by No underbalanced
and be kept adequately stimulation during
perforation
clean in the well? completion
options
operation?

Yes

Is a reservoir a Consider perforating

carbonate that Yes overbalance in acid with
requires casing or through-tubing
acidization? guns
Can effective clean-
up conditions be No No
achieved under
Re-evaluate
normal production Will zone be
No underbalanced Review special
conditions? fracture
perforated perforation requirements
stimulated?
options for fracturing.
(spiral pattern, diversion,
Yes proppant placement)

Yes

Design for overbalance

perforating using wireline
conveyed casing guns

Fig. 71. Perforating selection and design.

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• Consider an accuracy of ±3 ft for planning perforating The following factors should be considered when plan-
operations. This is based on the limited accuracy of ning the shot density of perforated interval.
openhole logs used for correlation.
• The required perforation density may be achieved using
• Shale barriers should be left unperforated to protect more than one perforating run (or set of guns).
against unwanted fluids (especially near oil or water
contacts). • Casing/liner size and the available access (e.g., thru-
tubing limitations) are major factors in selecting the
• Consider the formation vertical permeability and the perforation density.
likelihood of coning when perforating near contacts. Do
not perforate too close to fluid contact areas - always • The most common shot density is 8 SPF. Higher shot
consult with reservoir engineer/geologist if in doubt. densities are desirable where:
- vertical permeability is low (<1% of horizontal permeabil-
• Perforating less than 85%of the net pay height will result ity)
in a partial penetration skin effect (Fig. 72). - there is a risk of sand production
- a gravel pack completion is to be installed
Perforation density - there is a risk of high velocity or turbulence

Perforation, or hot density is the term given to the number • With all perforations open and having penetrated the
of perforations or shots per foot (SPF). Individual perfora- undamaged reservoir formation, a perforation density of
tions expose a relatively small area of reservoir to the 4 SPF exposes approximately 25% of the surface area
wellbore. Consequently, an adequate shot density is that occurs in 8-1/2-in. open hole.
crucial to ensure the perforations do not impose a restric-
tion to production.

Flow characteristics Flow characteristics

with adequate perforation with inadequate perforation

Fig. 72. Partial penetration skin effect.

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• In anisotropic (or layered) formations, greater benefit will magnetic positioning system is generally used to ensure
result from higher perforation densities. the charges are properly located against the casing/liner
wall. Zero degree phased perforating carries two principal
• A regular distribution of perforations is beneficial to flow disadvantages.
or production characteristics and to for maintaining the
strength of the casing/liner section. • At high shot densities (>16 SPF), 0° phasing significantly
weakens the casing or liner. This may cause some
Perforation phasing distortion which restricts access below the perforated
interval.
Perforation phasing describes the angle between the
perforation tunnels (Fig. 73). There are five common gun Note: High shot density using 0° phased perforating
configurations 0°, 60°, 90°, 120° and 180°. The phasing guns is achieved through multiple gun runs (typically 6
options are limited by the type of gun, or gun conveyance SPF is the maximum shot density per run).
system, being used. In general, small diameter guns (e.g.,
thru-tubing guns) enable fewer options due to the limitedly • The near wellbore flow characteristics for 0° phased
space available. perforations presents a restriction to production and can
limit the efficiency of stimulation treatments. For ex-
Zero degree phase guns contain charges aligned in a row. ample, the efficiency of a fracturing operation is signifi-
This gun configuration differs from others in that is desir- cantly increased if the perforations are aligned with the
able to decentralize the gun to minimize the stand off. A plane on which the fracture wings will form.

Perforation phasing Penetration

Stand-off

Stand-off

Penetration

Fig. 73. Perforation phasing.

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 Liner Casing/Liner
Damaged zone
Main explosive charge

Primer and
detonator cord Reservoir
Charge
case Perforating Cement formation
gun body

1. Creating the perforation tunnel

Extremely high- Crushed zone

pressure jet

2. Immediately following firing

Perforation debris

3. Following back flush of the nex perforation

Clean, stable perfora-

tion tunnel

Fig. 74. Perforation charge components and perforating sequence.

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Perforation penetration in vertical wells (and some deviated wells) is often de-
signed to contain large items of perforating debris.
The length (or penetration) of the perforation can be a
critical factor in achieving the desired production re- Smaller debris and crushed rock should be backflushed
sponse. An essential objective in any perforating opera- from the perforation tunnel. A cleanup flow period may be
tion is to connect the reservoir to the wellbore. This necessary to achieve this, especially in critical applica-
involves penetrating through the drilling damage zone to tions such as gravel packing.
access the reservoir (Fig. 73).
Bottomhole perforating pressure
The following factors should be considered in regard to
perforation penetration. There are two basic bottomhole pressure conditions dur-
ing perforating, under or overbalanced, i.e., the wellbore
• The performance and penetration of a perforation charge pressure is less, or greater, than of the reservoir to be
is greatly influenced by gun stand off. perforated.

• Maximizing the perforation penetration is a common • Overbalanced – Perforating with a kill weight fluid
objective. However, in some applications (e.g., gravel column in the wellbore. After the perforation is created,
pack completions), perforation diameter is more crucial the pressure within the wellbore acts to compact the
than perforation length. perforating debris in the damaged zone surrounding the
perforation tunnel. This may cause lasting damage to
Gun Stand Off the perforation (and surrounding zone) conductivity, or
if severe plug the perforation.
Gun stand off is the distance from the exterior surface of
the gun and the target surface for the perforation (Fig. 73). Overbalanced perforating requires less specialized pres-
The efficiency of a perforating charge diminishes with sure control equipment and procedures than is neces-
distance, consequently minimizing gun stand off is ben- sary to support safe underbalanced perforating.
eficial. However, due to the geometry of the wellbore and
gun system, some stand off is inevitable. • Underbalanced – Underbalanced perforating is gener-
ally regarded as the preferred method of creating perfo-
The design and engineering of a perforation operation rations which are clear of debris or damage. The pres-
should consider the following factors. sure differential applied during underbalanced perforat-
ing causes the reservoir fluid to flush out debris and
• The effects of gun stand off are accentuated at high loosened formation immediately after the charge is fired.
bottom hole pressures. The benefits of underbalanced perforating are well ac-
cepted and documented.
• The size of the perforation is effected by gun stand off
(i.e., increasing stand off reduces the perforation diam- The level of underbalance, i.e., pressure differential will
eter. vary for each specific application but typically ranges
from 500 to 4000 psi principally depending on the
Perforating Debris permeability and compressive strength of the formation
being perforated. Controlling the pressure differential in
A small quantity of debris is inevitable from any perforat- effect determines the flowrate through the tunnel after
ing operation. Debris can be left from the charge, the gun perforating. Permeable formations will require less flow
body and the crushed rock. However, some guns sys- (and therefore pressure) to effect adequate cleaning.
tems leave more debris than others, e.g., strip guns may
leave relatively large pieces of debris downhole. Such A number of gun assemblies and perforating systems are
large debris is of concern where it may interfere with now available which permit underbalanced perforating in
downhole completion equipment, production equipment a variety of conditions.
or subsequent wellbore intervention. The rat hole or sump

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Specific perforating requirements and objectives will be The principal components of any perforating gun or sys-
determined by the reservoir characteristics and type of tem include the following items.
completion to be installed. For example, when perforating
in preparation for a sand control (gravel pack) completion, • charge carrier
the basic objectives vary from those associated with
natural completions (Fig 75). • detonator

Perforating Gun Components • detonating cord

Modern perforating operations rely on the accurate place- • shaped charge

ment and reliable detonation of a shaped explosive charge.
When detonated, the shaped charge creates a jet of Charge carrier
extremely high pressure (15 million psi) travelling at high
speed (21,000 ft/sec). This action causes the casing/liner, The charge carrier is the housing within which the gun
cement and formation to flow away from the jet tip and components are placed and connected. A number of
thereby create the perforation, i.e., it is a high pressure carrier configurations are commonly used depending on
process rather than a burning process which creates the the conveyance method selected. There are several
perforation tunnel. factors associated with the charge carrier which should be
understood before final selection.

PERFORATING OBJECTIVES FOR NATURAL AND GRAVEL PACK COMPLETIONS

Natural Completions

1. Adequate perforation density (with open and clean perforations)

2. Removal of perforating debris

3. Penetration beyond the drilling damaged zone.

4. Optimized perforation phasing

Gravel Pack Completions

1(a). Hole dimeter – achieving adequate flow area.

1(b). Shot density – achieving adequate flow area.

2. Removal of perforating debris

3. Optimized perforation phasing

4. Adequate penetration

Fig. 75. Key perforating objectives.

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• recoverability of the charge carrier - i.e., the likelihood of • Main explosive charge - the charge is formed into a
leaving debris in the wellbore conical shape within the case. Selection of the appropri-
ate explosive material is principally based on the re-
• carrier swelling - -in some circumstances the carrier may quired temperature rating since the performance and
swell due to the pressure surges during perforating. reliability of explosives decrease as the temperature
Subsequent recovery of the gun through tubing or increases.
wellbore restrictions may be jeopardized.
• Liner - the liner forms the central area of the charge and
Detonator is crucial to the formation of the perforating jet. Pow-
dered metal mixtures are typically used to form the liner
Detonators are used to initiate the ballistic sequence at since this produces a jet with the desired characteristics
time of perforation. The Two basic types of detonators are and leaves minimal debris in the perforation tunnel.
commonly used: Solid metal liners, most commonly copper, are used in
big hole guns. These charges leave more debris in the
• Electrical detonators – used in applications conducted form of copper slugs, but are used in applications where
on wireline or coiled tubing logging (CTL) equipment. a large perforation size is more important than the effect
of debris on permeability, e.g., gravel packed wells.
• Percussion detonators – designed for tubing conveyed
perforating (TCP) operations. The mechanical action • Primer - the primer provides a link between the detonat-
required to fire the detonator can be controlled by ing cord and the main explosive. Although manufac-
applied pressure (hydraulic actuated) or impact (bar tured from similar materials as the main charge, the
actuated). primer has greater sensitivity to help ensure reliable
detonation of the main charge.
Safety systems to allow perforating guns to be assembled
and deployed safely are typically linked with the detonator Perforating Gun Systems
or detonation system. Such safety systems and proce-
dures are an essential and integral part of all perforating There are several gun assembly designs and configura-
operations. tion intended for different applications or conveyance
methods (Fig 76).
Detonating Cord
Gun Conveyance Method
The detonating cord provides the link between the deto-
nator and each of the shaped charges contained in the • Wireline - Conventional perforating operations are com-
gun assembly. The cord passes in close proximity to the pleted using wireline conveyance.
primer section of the shaped charge which initiates the
main explosive charge. • Tubing conveyed perforating (TCP) - Tubing conveyed
perforating typically utilizes casing guns run on a tubing
Shaped charge string which, since there are no electrical conductors
available, incorporates a mechanical or hydraulic deto-
A shaped perforating charge contains four principal nation or firing system.
components each of which are critically engineered to
provide the desired perforation characteristics and charge • Coiled tubing - CT conveyed perforating operations can
performance. utilize gun systems designed for wireline or TCP appli-
cations depending on whether a wireline is installed in
• Charge case - the case acts as a containment vessel the CT string.
designed to contain and direct the force of detonation
allowing the shaped charge jet to form.

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 PERFORATING GUN SPECIFICATION SUMMARY

Hollow Strip Port Plug HEG Shot by High Density

Carriers Guns Guns Shot HSD
Selectric

(TT) (TT) (CSG)

TBG/CSG Size (in.) 2-3/8 to 4-1/2 2-3/8 to 3-1/2 4-1/2 to 7 4-1/2 to 7 4-1/2 up 4-1/2 to > 9-5/8

Max Temp (˚F) 500 365 500 210 300 0 to 500

Max Pressure (psi) 25,000 20,000 25,000 4,000 8,000 25,000

Debris Containment x x x x x

Selectivity x x x x x

SAFE System x x x x

Underbalance x x x

H2S Compatible x x x x

Fig. 76. Perforating applications summary.

Thru-tubing gun systems • Bottom hole pressure and temperature conditions -

charge performance and reliability deteriorates with
There are several gun configuration options available for temperature and duration of exposure. Hollow charge
thru-tubing perforating applications. Selecting the appro- carriers have pressure restrictions, if these are ex-
priate system will largely depend on the following factors. ceeded gun carrier collapse and autodetination may
occur.
• Drift diameter of the smallest restriction – in most
applications, the largest gun (diameter) size possible is • Desired shot phasing and density - the restrictions
preferred. This allows the best perforation hole size and imposed on the gun assembly OD by wellbore restric-
depth to be achieved for a given application. tions may limit the positioning and quantity of charges in
the gun.
• Wellbore profile (deviation and doglegs) - some gun
assemblies contain charge carriers which are relatively • Desired performance and characteristics of the perforat-
stiff and may not be compatible with severe dogleg ing charge - penetration and hole size is greatly effected
wellbores. by standoff. In through tubing applications standoff and
decentralization issues are typically more significant
due to the restrictions imposed on gun OD

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• Tolerance to perforating debris - exposed gun systems One disadvantage of TCP systems relates to verification
such as strip or pivot guns are designed to be non of gun operation. In retrievable gun systems, misfires can
retrievable and consequently may leave significant be identified easily when the guns are retrieved to surface.
amounts of debris within the wellbore. Some non retrievable TCP gun systems are fitted with
delayed shot devices designed to activate shortly after the
• Wellbore fluid characteristics - exposed gun systems bottom gun has fired. Although this signal indicates the
provide relatively little protection for the detonation cord detonator cord has fired over its entire length it does not
and charges. While these components are sealed or verify firing of all charges.
protected within themselves, aggressive wellbore con-
ditions, especially over extended durations, may com-
promise the efficiency and reliability of the gun or indi-
vidual charges.

Casing gun systems

Casing guns systems were designed for perforating op-

erations which are undertaken before the well is com-
pleted. However, with the increased use of tubing con-
veyed perforating, (including coiled tubing) some casing
gun systems or components are used in thru-tubing and
TCP applications.

Tubing conveyed gun systems

Tubing conveyed perforating systems are run on a tubing

string, typically on the tail-pipe below a packer, allowing
the packer to be set before perforating. Since the guns
deployed by this method are typically larger than through
tubing guns, the resulting perforations are typically larger
and deeper.

Horizontal and highly deviated wells which cannot be

accessed by wireline are obvious candidates for TCP
operations. In addition, the strength and control available
with tubing conveyance makes this an ideal method for
use with long gun assemblies. Intervals in excess of 1700
ft have been perforated using TCP (and coiled tubing
conveyance).

With the packer set, the desired level of underbalance is

achieved by swabbing, nitrogen lifting or by displacement
through a circulating device located in the tubing string.

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