1 PROPERTIES OF FLUID

OVERVIEW:
A bottle would weigh more when filled with water than olive oil. Again, you might have observed that honey flows slower
than water. Fluids differ from one another due to the differences of the inherent properties. In learning mechanics of fluid, it is
important to discuss the different properties of fluid. In this module, the basic properties of fluids are defined and discussed.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Specifically, after learning the module, you are expected to:
1. define fluid mechanics,
2. discuss the characteristics of different fluid types,
3. define the basic concepts of different properties of the fluid, and
4. solve problems related to different properties of the fluid.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
All substances consist of very large number of molecules separated by empty spaces. The intermolecular interaction, depends
to a great extent on the interdistance between them. The difference of the properties of solids, liquids and gases depends mainly
on their molecular structure.
In solids, the molecules can be modeled as being held together by tiny springs that permit them to vibrate about their
equilibrium position. They, almost, do not exchange positions with other molecules. Solids are almost incompressible and they
have, almost, definite volume and shape.
In a liquid, the molecules are also densely packed. They cannot easily escape from one another, but they are free to move with
respect to each other. Molecules continually attract and repel one another so that they move in curved, wavy paths rather than
straight lines. The attraction force between molecules is sufficient to keep the liquid together in a definite volume. Liquids are of
poor compressibility. They have, almost, definite volume but they take the shape of their container and they have a free surface.
In a gas, the molecular activity is very much greater. The space between molecules is large and the intermolecular forces are
negligible. The molecules are free to travel away from each other compared with liquids and solids. Therefore, gases occupy their
container and they are compressible.
SOLID FLUID
definite deformation continuous deformation

GAS LIQUID

Compressible Fluid Incompressible Fluid

variable volume constant volume
Fluid can be defined as a substance that deforms continuously under the action of shear stress. According to the physical form in
which fluids exist, they are classified to gases, vapors, liquids and plasma. Plasma is an ionized fluid.

Fluid mechanics is the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (Fluid statics) and in motion (Fluid Dynamics). Fluid
Statics, is the study of fluids at rest or in equilibrium; ΣF 0.

Fluid Dynamics is the study of fluids in motion,

ΣF= ma
where a = Acceleration, m/s2
F = Force, N
m = Mass, kg
Continuum Assumption.
The continuum is a homogeneous media without voids. Therefore, the properties and behavior can be described by
differential equations; no singular points exist. In many engineering applications, interest lays only in macroscopic behavior of
molecules. The molecular, microscopic, nature of the fluid is ignored. Thus, the fluid is assumed to be a continuum.
Because of continuum assumption, the fluid properties are assumed to have a definite value at any point in the space at
certain time; the fluid properties depend on the position and time. The fluid properties at a point, such as the density, are assumed
to have an average value. The quantities such as velocity, acceleration and the properties of fluid are assumed to vary continuously
from one point to another in the fluid.

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 The continuum assumption fails when the characteristic length of the problem is less than the mean free path of
molecules. For air, at the standard atmospheric conditions (STP), the mean free path is less than 0.013 m.

TYPES OF FLUID
Fluids are generally divided into two categories: ideal fluids and real fluids
 Ideal Fluids
 Assumed to have no viscosity (and hence, no resistance o shear)
 Incompressible
 Have uniform velocity when flowing
 No friction between moving layers of fluid
 No eddy currents or turbulence.
 Real Fluids
 Exhibits infinite viscosities
 Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing
 Compressible
 Experience friction and turbulence in flow
Real fluids are further divided into Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids.

Most fluid problems assume real fluids with Newtonian characteristics for convenience. This assumption is appropriate for water,
air, gases, steam, and other simple fluids like alcohol, gasoline, acid solutions, etc. However, slurries, pastes, gels, suspensions
may not behave according to simple fluid relationships.

Fluids

Ideal Fluids Real Fluids

Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids

ex. gasoline,water,oil, alcohol,glycerin ex. Slurries, suspension, gels, colloids, honey

Pseudoplastic Fluids Delatant Fluids Bingham Fluids

ex.blood ex.thick suspensions of ex.toothpaste, chocolate
particles
Fig. 1 Outline of Fluids

LEARNING TASK # 1 Direction: Write your answer in your required notebook.

Discuss the characteristics of the different type of fluids.

1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUID

The fluid behavior and its effects on the fluid systems depend on its properties. The fluid properties are classified to:
 Physical properties, e.g. density, viscosity, elasticity, …
 Thermal properties, e.g. specific heat, heat transfer coefficient, fire point, …
 Chemical properties, e.g. acidity, compatibility with other materials, …
 Mechanical properties, e.g. lubricity and load carrying capacity, ...
 Biological properties,
 Radioactive properties.

1.2.1 DENSITY
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the substance. It can be expressed in
different forms:

MASS DENSITY, ρ(RHO)

The density of fluid is its mass per unit volume.
dm
ρ= , kg /m 3
dV

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For liquids and homogeneous fluids, the density could be simply written as:

mass of fluid , M
ρ=
volume , V
ρlbm
Units: English: slugs/ft3 Note: ρ slugs=
g
Metric: gram/cm3
SI: kg/m3

The fluid density depends mainly on the pressure and the temperature ρ=f ( p , T ) . The variation of the density with temperature
can be measured by the thermal expansion coefficient (α ). The fluid volume at temperature T can be related to that at reference
temperature To as:
m m
V T =V O ( 1+ α ∆ T ) , ρ T = ∧ρ o=
VT Vo
Then,

ρo
ρT = ≈ ρo ( 1−α ∆ T ) , ∆ T =T −T o
1+ α ∆ T
The densities ρo and ρT are the fluid densities at To and T temperatures respectively where To is the reference temperature.

For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and ideal gas law:
p
ρ=
RT
where: p = absolute pressure of gas in Pa.
R = gas constant, Joule/kg-oK
For air: R = 287 J/kg - oK
R = 1,716 lb-ft/slug-oR
T = absolute temperature in oKelvin
o
K = oC + 273
o
R = oF + 460

Table 1: Approximate Room-Temperature Densities of Common Fluids

Fluid ρ in kg/m3
Air (STP) 1.29
Air (21oF, 1 atm) 1.20
Alcohol 790
Ammonia 602
Gasoline 720
Glycerin 1,260
Mercury 13,600
Water 1,000

The variation of the density with the pressure can be evaluated by considering the fluid elasticity (or compressibility).

SPECIFIC WEIGHT or UNIT WEIGHT 

Specific Weight  is defined as the weight of substance per unit volume.
weight of fluid , W
γ=
volume ,V
  g, N/m3
where g = Gravitational force per unit mass = 9.807 m/s2

Table 1.2 gives the specific weights of some commonly used fluids.

Table 2 Specific weight of common liquids at STP

Specific Weight Specific Weight
Fluid Fluid
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
Water 9.798 Gasoline 6.6
Motor oil 8.5 Ethyl Alcohol 7.76
Kerosene 7.9 Mercury 132.96
Glycerin 12.3 Paraffin Oil 7.85

Units: English: lb.ft3

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 Metric: dyne/cm3
SI: N/m3 or kN/m3

SPECIFIC VOLUME
Specific volume Vs is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.
1
V S=
ρ
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity(s) is a dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s density to some standard reference density. For liquids and solids,
the reference density is water at 4oC(39,2oF).
ρliquid
s=
ρwater
In gases, the standard reference to calculate the specific gravity is the density of air.
ρ gas
s=
ρ air
For water at 4oC:
γ = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 9.81 kN/m3
ρ = 1.94 slugs/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3
s = 1.0

Example Problem 1: A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu.m. Find its (a)
weight, W, (b) unit weight, γ, (c) mass density, ρ, and (d) specific gravity, s.

Solution: a. Weight, W = Mg
= (1,200 kg)(9.81 m/s2)
= 11, 772 kg.m/s2 or N
= 11.772 kN

b. Unit Weight, γ = W/V

= 11.772 kN / 0.952 cu.m
= 12.366 kN/cu.m

c. Density, ρ = M/V
= 1200/0.952
= 1,260.5 kg/cu.m

ρglycerin
d. Specific Gravity, s =
ρ water
1,260.5
=
1000
= 1.26

Example Problem 2: If the specific volume of a certain gas is 0.7848 cu.m/kg, what is its specific weight?
Solution: 1
V s=
ρ
1 1 kg
ρ= = =1.2742
V s 0.7848 cu . m
N
Specific weight, γ = ρ x g=1.2742 x 9.81=12.5
cu . m

Example Problem 3: At 32oC and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a certain gas was 13.7 N/cu.m. Determine
the gas constant of this gas.
Solution: γ 13.7 kg
Density, ρ= = =1.397
g 9.81 cu . m
p
Density, ρ=
RT

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 ( 205+101.325 ) x 10 3
1.397= Note: ρatm =101.325 kPa
R(32+273)
Gas constant, R = 718.87 J/kg-oK

Learning Task # 2 Solve the given problem. Write the problem, solution, and answer in your required notebook.
The specific gravity of certain oil is 0.82. Calculate its (a) specific weight, in lb/cu.ft and
kN/cu.m, and (b) mass density in slugs/ft3 and kg/m3.

Ans: a. 51.168 lb/ft3 ;8.044 kN/m3 b. 1.59 slugs/ft3 ;820 kg/m3

1.2.2 COMPRESSIBILITY AND ELASTICITY

COMPRESSIBILITY
The fluid compressibility(also known as coefficient of compressibility) is the ability of the fluid to change its volume when
its pressure varies. It is measured by the compressibility coefficient β where:
∆V
−
V m2
β= ,( )
∆p N
The negative sign indicates that the volume decreases as the pressure increases, and vice versa.

BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The bulk modulus of fluid, B, is a measure for the ability of fluid to resist changes in its volume when its pressure
varies. It is the inverse of the compressibility coefficient.
1 −∆ p −dp N
B= = ∨B= ,( )
β ∆V dV m2
V V
Where: ∆p = Pressure variation, Pa
∆V = Change in volume due to pressure variation, m3
V = Initial fluid volume, m3
B = Bulk modulus of fluid, N/m2 ,(Pa)
β = Coefficient of compressibility, m2/N, (1/Pa)

The gases are highly compressible while liquids are of very low compressibility. Therefore, liquids are usually assumed
incompressible in many applications.

The bulk modulus of pure liquid is slightly affected by its pressure. Table 3 gives the numerical values of the bulk modulus of pure
water at different working pressures and temperatures. Equation below gives an expression for the effect of the pressure on the
bulk modulus of water, at 20oC.
B = 2.18 x 109 + 6.7p (for p < 100 MPa)

Table 3. Bulk modulus of elasticity for pure water in GPa

Pressure Temperature (oC)
(bar, abs) 0 20 50 93 150
1 2.01 2.21 2.29 2.12
100 2.07 2.28 2.35 2.20 1.71
300 2.19 2.40 2.50 2.33
1000 2.62 2.85 2.94 2.79 2.41
1 bar = 100 kN/m2, standard atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kN/m2

Example Problem 1: Compute the change in pressure that must be applied to water to change its volume by 1.0
percent.
Solution: ∆V
The 1.0 percent volume change indicates that =−0.01. Then, the required change in
V
pressure is:

∆ p=−E ( ∆VV )=(−316000 psi ) (−0.01 )=3,160 psi

Example Problem 1: Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of 116,280
kPa absolute. Using EB= 2.5 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of
water.

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 Solution: −dp
E B=
dV /V
3
9 − ( 116,280−137 ) x 10
2.5 x 10 =
dV
V
dV
=−0.0465∨4.65 % decrease
V

LEARNING TASK # 3 Solve the given problem. Write the problem, solution, and answer in your required notebook.
What pressure is required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6 percent? Bulk modulus of
elasticity of water, EB=2.2 GPa
Ans. p2=13.2 GPa

1.2.3 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is defined as the ability of fluid to resist shear force. Simply, it is a measure of the resistance to flow. It results
from the cohesion and interaction between the molecules. The viscosity of fluids has dominant effects in many applications such as
lubrication, damping and leakage. This section illustrates some of these effects.
Consider the fluid contained between two infinite plates, Fig.1. The lower plate is fixed, while the upper plate is moving at
a steady velocity v. Assuming no-slip between the fluid and plates, a velocity distribution is created. At certain conditions, this
velocity distribution is linear as shown in Fig.1. The upper and lower plates will experience shear (friction) forces. The fluid is
subjected to shear stress  . Newton's law of viscosity is expressed as:
du du
τα ∨τ=μ
dy dy
The proportionality coefficient  is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity;
τ
μ=
du / dy
where:  = Shear stress, N/m2 or kg/ms
μ = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, Ns/m2 .
μ is often expressed in Poise, where 1 Poise = 0.1 Ns/m2 = 1 gm/cm s
u = Fluid velocity, m/s
y = Perpendicular distance to the velocity vector u, m.
du / dy = Velocity gradient or shear strain rate, s-1.

Fig.3 Velocity profile of viscous fluid between two parallel plates.

The fluids, which obey Newton’s law of viscosity, are known as Newtonian fluids. Other fluids are known as non-Newtonian fluids.
The non-Newtonian fluids are of special and complicated behavior. Therefore, there is a branch of the fluid mechanics, known as
Rheology, which deals with the non-Newtonian fluids.

At certain operating shear strain, the coefficient of dynamic viscosity μ is constant for Newtonian fluids. Meanwhile, the viscosity of
Non-Newtonian fluids, changes depending on the shear strain, as shown in Fig. 2. Some non-Newtonian fluids exhibit viscosity
change with time. The ideal fluid is non-viscous; μ = 0.

Kinematic Viscosity υ is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity of fluid to its density.
μ
ν=
ρ
where: ν = kinematic viscosity

The kinematic viscosity ν is often expressed in Stokes, where: 1 St = 1 cm 2/s =10-4 m2 /s, or in cSt, where 1cSt = 1 mm 2/s = 10-6
m2/s. The viscosity may be given in other scales as Redwood (R), Saybolt universal seconds (SUS), or in degree Engler ( oE),
according to the measuring method. These units are no longer used, but conversion tables are available.

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 Fig.4 Viscous behavior of fluids

Example Problem: If the viscosity of water at 70oC is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978. determine
its absolute viscosity in Pa-s and its kinematic viscosity in m2/s and in stokes.

Solution: Absolute viscosity

0.1 Pa−s
μ=0.00402 poise x
1 poise
μ=0.000402 Pa−s
Kinematic viscosity
μ 0.000402
υ= = =4.11 x 10−7 m2 /s
ρ (1000 x 0.978)
m2 1 stoke
υ=4.11 x 10−7 x
s m2
0.0001
s
υ=4.11 x 10−3 stoke

LEARNING TASK # 4 Solve the given problem. Write the problem, solution, and answer in your required notebook.
Calculate the kinematic viscosity of glycerine at 80oF. Use
μ=0.0103lb sec /ft 2∧S=1.26
Ans. 0.00423 sq.ft/sec

1.2.4 SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension is a property of liquids, which is noticed, at the interface (the separating surface) between the liquid and
another fluid or solid. Surface tension is defined as the energy per unit area, or force per unit length, required to form the surface of
separation, Figs.5 & 6.

Fig.5 Surface tension due to cohesive forces between liquid molecules

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 Surface-tension is caused by the attraction between the liquid's molecules. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is
pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero, Fig.5. At the surface of the liquid,
the molecules are pulled inwards by other molecules deeper inside the liquid and are not attracted as intensely by the molecules in
the neighboring medium. Therefore, all of the molecules at the surface are subject to an inward force of molecular attraction which
is balanced only by the liquid's resistance to compression. There is no net inward force. However, there is a driving force to
diminish the surface area, and in this respect a liquid surface looks like a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the liquid squeezes
itself together until it has the locally lowest possible surface area.
A soap bubble is a good example to illustrate the effect of surface tension. How does a soap bubble remain spherical in
shape? The answer is that there is a higher pressure inside the bubble than outside, much like a balloon. The surface tension in the
soap film acts similar to the tension in the skin of a balloon. Consider a soap bubble of an inner radius r with internal pressure p in
and external atmospheric pressure pout. Figure 6 shows a free body diagram of half spherical soap bubble. On the free body
diagram, the sum of all forces must be zero, since the soap film segment is stationary. The surface tension acts along two circular
lines, as shown.
Considering the equilibrium of the half spherical bubble, and neglecting the film thickness relative to radius r, the following
equation is obtained.

Figure 6. Surface tension forces in a soap bubble

π r 2 ( p¿ − pout ) =2 σ (2 πr )
Then
4σ r ( p¿ − pout )
∆ p=p ¿− p out = ∨σ =
r 4
The surface tension is also important at the liquid-gas interface and the liquid-solid interface (Capillary action). For
example, a meniscus occurs when the surface of a liquid touches a solid wall, as noticed when a capillary tube is placed in a liquid.
Consider a glass capillary tube inserted into a liquid, such as water. The water rises up the tube to a height, h, because surface
tension pulls the surface of the water towards the glass, Fig.7. The meniscus is the curved surface at the top of the water column.
The contact angle  is the angle between the tangent to liquid and the solid surface at their contact line, Fig.7. The contact
angle depends on both of the liquid and the solid. For  < 90 , the liquid is said to "wet" the solid and the liquid rises in the capillary
tube. However, for  > 90 , the liquid is repelled by the solid and tries not to "wet" it. Then, the liquid level drops in the capillary tube
(non-wetting). For example, water wets glass, but not wax and mercury does not wet glass, Fig.8. Table 4 gives the surface tension
of typical fluids.

Fig.7 Capillary rise in a tube

To calculate the capillary height, consider a small glass capillary tube inserted into water. The height of the water column
can be found by summing all forces acting on the water column as a free body diagram, Fig.8.
Weight of water column = mg=π r 2 hρg
Surface tension force = 2 πrσ cos
Then,
2 σ cos ϑ
h=
rρg
where: σ = Surface tension, N/m
= Contact angle, rad.
r = Capillary pipe radius, m

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 h = Capillary rise, m

Table 4 Surface tension of some liquids

Surface
Substance N
tension σ ( )
m
Benzene-air 0.029
Water-air 0.073
Mercury-air 0.484
Mercury- 0.375
water

Example Problem 1: Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of a diameter 3 mm. Use σ =
0.0728 N/m and γ = 9810 N/cu.m for water.

Solution: Note: θ=900 for water ∈cleantube

4σ
Capillary rise, h =
γd
4(0.0728)
Capillary rise, h =
9810(0.003)
Capillary rise, h = 0.0099 m = 9.9 mm

Example Problem 2: An atomizer forms water droplet 45 μm in diameter. Determine the excess pressure within
these droplets using σ = 0.0712 N/m

Solution: 4σ
p=
d
4(0.0712)
p= =6,329 Pa
45 x 10−6

LEARNING TASK # 5 Solve the given problem. Write the problem, solution, and answer in your required notebook.
Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm in diameter. Use
σ = 0.514 N/m and θ = 1400
Ans. h=5.9 mm

1.2.5 VAPOR PRESSURE

The saturated vapor pressure is defined as the pressure at which a liquid, enclosed in a closed vessel at certain
temperature, will boil. For pure water, the vapor pressure is one bar (abs) when its temperature reaches 100 o C. The vapor
pressure increases as temperature increases and vice versa, Fig.8. For example, on a high mountain (3,000 m altitude), the
atmospheric pressure is 70.1 kPa. Fig.8 shows that this vapor pressure corresponds to 90 oC. Therefore, at 3000 m of elevation,
water boils at 90oC, rather than the common 100o C at standard sea level pressure. The pressure cooker has the opposite effect. In
these vessels, the pressure increases above the normal atmospheric value. This forces the water to boil at a temperature greater
than 100o C. The pressure reduction below the vapor pressure of the liquid caused intensive evaporation, which leads to the
formation of cavities full of vapors. This may lead to cavitation in hydraulic machines or elements. The cavitation phenomenon is
based upon the formation and collapse of vapor cavities.

Cavitation is not desirable for the following reasons:

 It leads to reduction of the efficiency of pumps.
 The collapse of these cavitation bubbles causes pitting and erosion of blades and other surfaces nearby, due to the
impact pressure.
 It causes noise due to the collapse of cavitation bubbles as they migrate into regions of higher pressure.

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 Fig.8 Variation of saturated vapor pressure of pure water with temperature

LEARNING TASK # 6 Solve the given problem. Write the problem, solution, and answer in your required notebook.
At what pressure will 800C water?
Ans. 47.4 kPa

1.2. 6 COMPRESSION OF GASSES

For perfect gas:
p v n= p 1 v 21 =constant
where: p = absolute pressure
v = specific volume (υ=1/ ρ ¿
n = any non-negative value from zero to infinity, depending upon the process to which the gas is
subjected.
If the process is at constant temperature(isothermal), n=1
pv= p1 v 1
If there is no heat transfer to and from the gas, the process is known as adiabatic.
p1 v = p2 v k2
k
1
cp
A frictionless adiabatic process is called an isentropic process and n is denoted by k, where k = ,the ratio of specific
cv
heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume.

BOYLE’S LAW (Perfect Gas). If the temperature of a given mass of gas remains constant, the absolute pressure of the gas varies
inversely with the volume.
k
p= ∨ pV =k
V
p1 V 1=p 2 V 2
CHARLE’S or GUY-LUSSAC’s LAW (Perfect Gas). If a given of gas can expand or contract with the pressure remaining constant,
the volume V of the gas varies directly as the absolute temperature T, i.e. V/T is constant.

PRESSURE DISTURBANCES. Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or celerity is expressed as:
EB m
c=
√ ( ∨ft /s)
ρ s
where: c = celerity or velocity of pressure wave in m/s or ft/s.
EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid in Pa or lb/ft2

Example Problem 1: If 9 m3 of an ideal gas at 24oC and 150 kPa is compressed to 2 cu.m, (a) what is the
resulting pressure assuming isothermal conditions. (b) what would have been the pressure
and temperature if the process is isentropic. Use k=1.3

Solution: a. For isothermal conditions:

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 p1 V 1=p 2 V 2
150 ( 9 )= p 2 ( 2 )
p2=675 kPa|.|
b. For isentropic process:
p1 V k1= p2 V k2
150 ¿
p2=1,060 kPa|¿|

T2
=¿
T1
T2
=¿
24+273
T 2=466.4 O K or 193.4oC

LEARNING TASK # 7 Solve the given problem. Write the problem, solution, and answer in your required notebook.
What is the resulting pressure when one pound of air at 15 psia and 200 oF is heated at
constant volume to 800oF?
Ans. 28.64 psia

1.2.7 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER

Air and water are the most commonly used fluids in engineering applications; Table 5 and 6 introduces their main physical
properties.
Table 5 Physical properties of air at standard atmospheric pressure

Table 6 Physical properties of water

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PROBLEM SET # 1:
Direction: Solve the following problems. Write the problem and the solution to your notebook.
1. The mass of air in a room which is 3m x 5m x 20 m is known to be 350 kg. Find its density.
2. Calculate the specific weight, specific volume, and density of methane at 100oF and 120 psi absolute.
3. At 90oF and 30.0 psi absolute, the volume per unit weight of a certain gas was 11.4 ft 3/lb. Determine its gas constant and
density.
4. The volume of a gas under standard atmospheric pressure 76 cm Hg is 200 in 3. What is the volume when the pressure is
80 cm Hg, if the temperature is unchanged?
5. A cylinder contains 12.5 cu.ft of air at 120 oF and 40 psi absolute. The air is compressed to 2.50 cu.ft. (a) Assuming
isothermal conditions, what is the pressure at the new volume, and what is the bulk modulus of elasticity? (b) Assuming
adiabatic conditions, what is the final pressure and temperature, and what is the bulk modulus of elasticity?
6. Convert 15.14 poises to ft2/sec if the liquid has specific gravity 0.964.
7. What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop of water 0.3 mm in diameter which is in contact with air if the
pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa?
8. A lead cube has a total mass of 80 kg. What is the length of its side? Sp.gr of lead =11.3.
9. Estimate the height to which water at 70oF will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 0.120 in.
10. Calculate the approximate depression of mercury at 20oC in a capillary tube of radius 1.5 mm. Surface tension for mercury
is 0.514 N/m at 200, and its specific weight is 133.1 kN/m3.

ANSWERS KEY:
1. 1.167 kg/cu.m 2. 0.320 lb/ft3 ; 0.00994 slug/ft3; 101 ft3/slug
3. 89.5 ft/oR; 0.00272 slug/ft3 4. 190 in3
5. a. 2000 psi; b. 533 psi 6. 0.0169 ft2/sec
7. 0.042 N/m 8. 19.2 cm
9. 0.382 in. 10. -0.00394 m or -3.94 m

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 SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS:
Try to answer the following problems:
1. A cylinder of 0.122-m radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 0.128-m radius. Both cylinders are 0.305 m
long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid that fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.881 N-m is required to
maintain an angular velocity of 60 revolutions per minute.
Ans. 0.230 Pa.s
2. A sonar transmitter operates at 2 impulses per second. If the device is held to the surface of fresh water (E B= 2.04 x 109
Pa) and the echo is received midway between impulses, how deep is the water?
Ans. 178.5 m
3. Convert a kinematic viscosity of 510 Saybolt seconds at 600F to ft2/sec.
Ans. 0.001205 sq. ft/sec

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How are you right now? Does it find you difficult in understanding the given topics and learning
tasks? I hope you are gaining knowledge in this module.
Try to look for review books related to the subject, and I assure you that you will gain
strategies in solving problems. Enjoy learning, and let’s dig more and appreciate the mechanics of fluid.

“Never give up. Hard work is worthless for those that don’t believe in themselves” - Naruto

References:

Kundu, Pijush K, Cohen Ira M, & Dowling, David R, (© 2016) Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed.,Elsevier, USA

Gerhart, Philip M, Gerhart, Andrew L. & Hochstein, John I (© 2016), Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, US

Gillesania Diego Inocencio I (© 2015) Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, 4th Ed.,Cebu DGPrint,Inc, Cebu, Philippines

Cengel, Yunus A & Cimbala, John M, (2014) Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, Third Ed.,McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., USA

T. Al-Shemmeri, (2012), Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Al-Shemmeri & Ventus Publishing ApS

Rabie Galal M & Saleh, Ibrahim (2011) Fluid Mechanics for Engineers, Egypt

Janna, William S.(2010) Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 4th Ed.,CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group, US

Mech 413a (MECHANICS OF FLUID)

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