Chapter

APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING

Kaushik K. Shandilya1,, Sheo Prasad Shukla2

and Virendra Pathak2
1
Civil Engineering Department, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH US
2
Civil Engineering Department,
Institute of Engineering and Technology Lucknow

ABSTRACT
Remote sensing technique has emerged as an effective tool for
systematic survey, analysis, and better management of natural resources
(land, soil, water, forests, mountains) along with the monitoring of
desertification, flood, drought, and landform change. It provides a vast
scope to explore, identify, and analyse the natural resources of
undeveloped regions. It documents the dynamic changes in physical
processes and resulting landforms, usually by satellite images. This paper
provides a general overview of remote sensing. While this technique has
been used on beaches, valleys, and other landforms, the main concern of
this paper is its role in geography.

Keywords: Remote Sensing, Geography, Application

 
Corresponding Author: Kaushik K. Shandilya, Civil Engineering Department, The
University of Toledo, Toledo, OH (USA), Email: [email protected]; Phone: 419-464-
1599.
 INTRODUCTION
Despite advances in geographical studies, the methods of traditional
geography have become insufficient to apprehend its reality and complexity,
considering technological and scientific changes that have happened in the last
30 years. However, this does not mean that these changes are not useful for
geographic research. This has become evident now that Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) are developing spatial studies to appeal to such
technologies as remote sensing and computer sciences (MEC, 1999).
This paper focuses on a particular research tool for geographic research
known as remote sensing. This benefits the study of geography in many ways,
especially as a research tool, a tool for collecting high quality data, and a tool
that aids in the reasoning process. It achieves these tasks by virtue of its spatial
and temporal coverage (Rhoads, 2004; Doreen, 2009). Geographers
increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the earth's
land surface, ocean, and atmosphere because it supplies objective information
at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), provides a synoptic view of the
area of interest, allows access to distant/inaccessible sites, provides spectral
information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and
facilitates studies of how features change over time. This data may be analysed
independently or in conjunction with other digital data layers (e.g. in a GIS).

GENERAL OVERVIEW OF REMOTE SENSING

Although this paper is mainly concerned with remote sensing used for
geography, the field of remote sensing is very wide in data acquisition
methods, data processing procedures, and various techniques and applications.
Therefore, it is useful to provide a general overview about several important
topics regarding remote sensing of the surface of the earth. The text also
attempts to give the reader an understanding of the capabilities and limitations
of remote sensing. Very few equations and formulas will be given in the text,
as the focus will be on understanding the basic ideas.
Remote sensing is defined according to certain functions. It involves
acquiring the information of an object’s property by a device not in contact
with that object under study. This involves the utilization at a distance of any
device for gathering information pertinent to the environment, such as
measurements of force fields, electromagnetic radiation, or acoustic energy for
3 Applications Of Remote Sensing

aircraft, space crafts, or ships. The technique employs such devices as a

cameras, lasers, radio frequency receivers, radar systems, sonars,
seismographs, gravimeters, magnetometers, and scintillation counters. Some
examples of remote sensing applications are given in the areas that have
importance for the geographers. Due to the wide scope covered, the subjects
could not be covered in detail and the interested reader should turn to the
relevant literature (Lillesand and Kiefer, 2000; Sabins, 2007; Jenson, 2007;
Longley et. al., 2005; Shukla and Pathak 2009).
As humans, we are intimately familiar with remote sensing in that we rely
on visual perception to provide us with much of the information about our
surroundings. As sensors, however, our eyes are greatly limited by sensitivity
to only the visible range of electromagnetic energy, viewing perspectives
dictated by the location of our bodies, and the inability to form a lasting record
of what we view. Because of these limitations, humans have continuously
sought to develop the technological means to increase our ability to record the
physical properties of our environment.
Beginning with the early use of aerial photography, remote sensing has
been recognized as a valuable tool for viewing, analysing, characterizing, and
making decisions about our environment. In the past few decades, remote
sensing technology has advanced on three fronts: from predominantly military
uses to a variety of environmental analysis applications that relate to land,
ocean, and atmosphere issues; from analogue photographic systems to sensors
that convert energy from many parts of the electromagnetic spectrum to
electronic signals; and from aircraft to satellite platforms.

1.1. Modern Advantages of Remote Sensing

Remote sensing technology is becoming more important in geography due

to attention being paid to the latest information, planning, and management for
public and private interests. It is most useful for natural resource management,
sustainable development, environmental degradation, and disaster
management. Its satellite data are used as basic inputs for the inventory of
natural resources and development processes like agriculture, soil, forestry,
and geology (Chavez et al., 1977). There are other important technologies that
are available to geographers as well, such as maps, aerial photography/
photogrammetry/pictometry, SAR, LiDAR, SONAR, and GIS. The next
section discusses the technologies mentioned above along with the similarities
and differences between them and the field of remote sensing.
4 Kaushik K. Shandilya, Sheo Prasad Shukla and Virendra Pathak

1.1.1. Maps
According to the International Cartographic Union, a map is “a
conventionalised image representing selected features or characteristics of
geographical reality, designed for use when spatial relationships are of primary
importance.” This definition declares that in every map there is scientific
accuracy and a process of selection present (symbolization, abstraction,
generalization). However, the International Cartographic Union adds that “a
map shows us the world as we know it,” and what we know is “a very
complex subject that is comprised of: The limits of matter, technology, and our
measurement tools; what we believe that exists; what we think to be important;
and what we want and aspire to.” Thus, a map is subjective, for we always
decide what to put on it and how to represent it. A remote sensing image, in
contrast, is an objective recording of the electromagnetic reaching the sensor.
Another important difference is that a map is a projection of the earth on paper
without any relief displacements, while in a remote sensing image it is a
projection of relief displacements and geometrical distortions.

1.1.2. Aerial Photography/Photogrammetry/Pictometry

These systems gather data about the upper surface of the earth by
measuring the electromagnetic radiation from airborne systems. The major
differences are detailed below:

 Aerial photos are taken by an analogue instrument (the film of a

photogrammetric camera), then scanned to be transformed to digital
media. The advantage of a film is its high resolution (granularity),
while the advantage of the CCD is that we measure quantitatively the
radiation reaching the sensor (radiance values, instead of a gray-value
scale bar). Thus, remote sensing data can be integrated into physical
equations of energy-balance.
 An aerial photograph is a central projection, with the whole picture
taken at one instance. A remote sensing image is created line after
line, so the geometrical correction is much more complex, with each
pixel needing to be treated as a central projection.
 Aerial photographs usually gather data only in the visible spectrum,
while remote sensing sensors can be designed to measure radiation
along the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Pictometry is the name of a patented aerial image capture process of
the Pictometry International Corp., USA. It produces imagery
5 Applications Of Remote Sensing

showing the fronts and sides of objects and locations on the ground.
Images are captured by low-flying airplanes, depicting up to 12
oblique perspectives as well as an orthogonal view of every location
flown. These perspectives can then be stitched together to create
composite aerial maps that seamlessly cover large areas. Pictometry
imagery can be overlaid with various shape files because every pixel
is georeferenced to its exact location on the earth. This allows
pictometry imagery to be integrated into many existing GIS software
applications for use in many areas. Direct measurements can be made
on pictometry imagery that includes area, distance, height, elevation,
pitch, and bearing (http://www.pictometry.com).

1.1.3. SAR
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) provides imagery during night or in bad
weather as well as during the day. SAR images can be utilized for earth
resource mapping and environmental monitoring, which require broad-area
imaging at high resolutions. Synthetic aperture radar complements
photographic and other optical imaging capabilities because of the minimum
constraints on the time-of-day, atmospheric conditions, and unique responses
of terrain/cultural targets to radar frequencies.
Synthetic aperture radar technology can provide terrain structural
information to geologists for mineral exploration, oil spill boundaries on water
to environmentalists, ice hazard maps to navigators, and reconnaissance-
targeting information to military operations.

1.1.4. LiDAR
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is another technique that offers
several advantages over the conventional methods of topographic data
collection. This technique provides data with higher density, higher accuracy,
less time for data processing, light independence, and minimum ground
control points required.
Due to these characteristics, LiDAR is complementing conventional
techniques in some applications while completely replacing them in several
others. Various applications where LiDAR data are being used are
geomorphology, glacier studies, forest biomass mapping, and generation of the
digital elevation model.
6 Kaushik K. Shandilya, Sheo Prasad Shukla and Virendra Pathak

1.1.5. SONAR
The SONAR can also be considered as remote sensing by studying the
surfaces of the sea (bathymetry and sea bed features) from a distance. The
SONAR is an active type of remote sensing but with sound waves instead of
electromagnetic radiation (like Radar, it does not depend on an external source
of waves). Both systems transmit waves through an interfering medium (water,
air) that adds noise to the data.
For corrections, these must be applied to the raw data collected. In remote
sensing, however, RADAR is considered to be almost weather-independent,
and atmospheric disturbances affect mainly passive remote sensing. To make
these necessary corrections, both systems depend on calibration from field
data (be it salinity, temperature, pressure measured by the ship while
surveying, or measurements of the atmospheric profile parameters by a
meteorological radiosonde).
There are some notable differences between SONARs and RADARs.
SONARs are mainly used to produce the bathymetry of the sea, while remote
sensing techniques focus more on identification of the material’s properties
than on its height. Echo-sounders (single or multi-beam) can be compared to
Airborne Laser Scanning – both of them create point (vector) data containing
X, Y, Z that need to be further processed in order to remove noise (spikes). An
added complexity when dealing with bathymetry (as opposed to topography) is
the need for tide corrections.
Another major difference is that in remote sensing the results of the
analysis can be compared easily to the field (aerial photos, maps, field
measurements), while in SONAR the underlying bottom of the sea is hidden
from us, and we depend totally on the data gathered.

1.1.6. Geographic Information System (GIS)

GIS is a combination of hardware and software that enables: The
collection of spatial data from different sources (remote sensing being one of
them). It relates spatial/tabular data, performs spatial/tabular analysis, and
designs the layout of a map.
A GIS software can handle both vector and raster data. Remote sensing
data belong to the raster type and usually require special data manipulation
procedures that a regular GIS does not offer. However, after a remote sensing
analysis has been done, its results are usually combined within a GIS or into a
database of an area for further analysis (possibly overlaying with other layers).
In the last few years, more and more vector capabilities have been added to
7 Applications Of Remote Sensing

remote sensing software, and some remote sensing functions are inserted into
GIS modules.

1.2. General Remote Sensing Applications

Each application itself has specific demands for spectral resolution, spatial
resolution, and temporal resolution of the satellite sensor. There can be many
applications for remote sensing in different fields. Some of them are described
below.

1.2.1. Agriculture
Agriculture plays a dominant role in the economies of both developed and
undeveloped countries. Satellite and airborne images are used as mapping
tools to classify crops, examine their health, examine their viability, and
monitor farming practices. Agricultural applications of remote sensing include
crop type classification, crop condition assessment, crop yield estimation,
mapping of soil characteristics, mapping of soil management practices, and
compliance monitoring (farming practices).

1.2.2. Forestry
Forests are a valuable resource for providing food, shelter, wildlife habitat,
fuel, and daily supplies (such as medicinal ingredients and paper). Forests play
an important role in balancing the earth's CO2 supply and exchange, acting as
a key link between the atmosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere. Forestry
applications of remote sensing include the following:

 Reconnaissance mapping: Objectives to be met by national

environment agencies include forest cover updating, depletion
monitoring, and measuring biophysical properties of forest stands.
 Commercial forestry: Of importance to commercial forestry
companies and to resource management agencies are inventory and
mapping applications. These include collecting harvest information,
updating inventory information for timber supply, broad forest type,
vegetation density, and biomass measurements.
 Environmental monitoring: Conservation authorities are concerned
with monitoring the quantity, health, and diversity of the earth's
forests.
8 Kaushik K. Shandilya, Sheo Prasad Shukla and Virendra Pathak

1.2.3. Geology
Geology involves the study of landforms, structures, and the subsurface to
understand physical processes that create and modify the earth's crust. It is
most commonly understood as the exploration and exploitation of
mineral/hydrocarbon resources to improve the standard of living in society.
Geological applications of remote sensing include the following: Bedrock
mapping, lithological mapping, structural mapping, sand and gravel
exploration/ exploitation, mineral exploration, hydrocarbon exploration,
environmental geology, geo-botany, baseline infrastructure, sedimentation
monitoring, event/monitoring, geo-hazard mapping, and planetary mapping.

1.2.4. Hydrology
Hydrology is the study of water on the earth's surface, whether flowing
above ground, frozen in ice or snow, or retained by soil. Examples of
hydrological applications include wetlands monitoring, soil moisture
estimation, snow pack monitoring, measuring snow thickness, determining the
snow-water equivalent, ice monitoring, flood monitoring, glacier dynamics
monitoring (surges, ablation), river/delta change detection, drainage basin
mapping, watershed modelling, irrigation canal leakage detection, and
irrigation scheduling.

1.2.5. Sea Ice

Ice covers a substantial part of the earth's surface and is a major factor in
commercial fishing/shipping industries, Coast Guard operations, and global
climate change studies. Examples of sea ice information and applications
include ice concentration, ice type/age/motion, iceberg detection, surface
topographytactical identification of leads, navigation, safe shipping routes,
ice condition, historical ice, iceberg conditions, dynamics for planning
purposes, wildlife habitat, pollution monitoring, and meteorological change
research.

1.2.6. Land Cover and Land Use

Although the terms ‘land cover’ and ‘land uses’ are often used
interchangeably, their actual meanings are quite distinct. Land cover refers to
the surface cover on the ground, while land use refers to the purpose the land
serves. The properties measured with remote sensing techniques relate to land
cover from which land use can be inferred, particularly with ancillary data or a
priori knowledge.
9 Applications Of Remote Sensing

Land use applications of remote sensing include natural resource

management, wildlife habitat protection, baseline mapping for GIS input,
urban expansion, logistics planning for seismic/exploration/resource extraction
activities, damage delineation (tornadoes, flooding, volcanic, seismic, fire),
legal boundaries for tax/property evaluation, target detection, and
identification of landing strips, roads, clearings, bridges, and land/water
interface.

1.2.7. Mapping
Mapping constitutes an integral component of the process of managing
land resources, with mapped information the common product of the analysis
of remotely sensed data. Mapping applications of remote sensing include the
following:

 Planimetry: Land surveying techniques accompanied by the use of a

GPS can be used to meet high accuracy requirements, but limitations
include cost effectiveness and difficulties in attempting to map large
or remote areas. Remote sensing provides a means of identifying
planimetric data in an efficient manner, so imagery is available in
varying scales to meet the requirements of many different users.
Defence applications typify the scope of planimetry applications, such
as extracting transportation route information, building/facilities
locations, urban infrastructure, and general land cover.
 Digital elevation models (DEMs): Generating DEMs from remotely
sensed data can be cost effective and efficient. A variety of sensors
and methodologies to generate such models are available for mapping
applications. Two primary methods of generating elevation data are
stereogrammetry techniques using air photos (photogrammetry), VIR
imagery, radar data (radargrammetry), and radar interferometry.
 Baseline topographic mapping: As a base map, imagery provides
ancillary information to the extracted planimetric detail. Sensitivity to
surface expression makes radar a useful tool for creating base maps
and providing reconnaissance abilities for hydrocarbon/mineralogical
companies involved in exploration activities. This is particularly true
in remote northern regions where vegetation cover does not mask the
micro topography and where information may be sparse.
10 Kaushik K. Shandilya, Sheo Prasad Shukla and Virendra Pathak

1.2.8. Oceans and Coastal Monitoring

The oceans provide valuable food-biophysical resources, serve as
transportation routes, are crucially important in weather system formation and
CO2 storage, and are an important link in the earth's hydrological balance.
Coastlines are environmentally sensitive interfaces between the ocean and
land, and they respond to changes brought about by economic development
and changing land-use patterns. Often coastlines are also biologically diverse
inter-tidal zones and can be highly urbanized. Ocean applications of remote
sensing include the following:

 Ocean pattern identification: Currents, regional circulation

patterns, shears, frontal zones, internal waves, gravity waves,
eddies, upwelling zones, and shallow water bathymetry.
 Storm forecasting: Wind and wave retrieval.
 Fish stock and marine mammal assessment: Water temperature
monitoring, water quality, ocean productivity, phytoplankton
concentration, drift, aquaculture inventory, and monitoring.
 Oil spill: Predicting the oil spill extent and drift, strategic support
for oil spill emergency response decisions, and identification of
natural oil seepage areas for exploration.
 Shipping: Navigation routing, traffic density studies, operational
fisheries surveillance, and near-shore bathymetry mapping.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON REMOTE SENSING

IN GEOGRAPHY

Higgitt and Warburton (1999) have argued that remote sensing techniques
provide fresh insights in geography in four main ways:

 They provide new applications for geography.

 They provide new and improved accuracy of measurement.
 They provide new data that allow the investigation of ideas that
were previously untestable.
 They involve the development of data processing capability.
11 Applications Of Remote Sensing

APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING IN GEOGRAPHY

Geographic applications of remotely sensed data typically take one of four
explanatory forms:

 Remote sensing images have specific uses within various fields of

geographical study.
 Remote sensing data possess advantages over conventional data
and can provide multispectral, multidata, and multisensor
information. This data is very useful in the agricultural fields for
the crop type classification, crop condition assessment, crop yield
estimation, and soil mapping.
 In geology, remote sensing can be applied to analyse large,
remote areas. Remote sensing interpretation also makes it easy for
geologists to identify an area's rock types, geomorphology, and
changes from natural events such as a flood, erosion, or landslide.

The interpretation of remote sensing images allows physical- and bio

geographers, ecologists, agricultural researchers, and foresters to easily detect
what vegetation is present in certain areas, its growth potential, and sometimes
what conditions are conducive to its being there.
Additionally, those studying urban land use applications are also
concerned with remote sensing because it allows them to easily pick out which
land uses are present in an area. This can then be used as data in city planning
applications and in the study of species habitat.

CONCLUSION
Remote sensing data has proven to be an important tool in geography.
Multi-temporal satellite data help to delineate the various change of the earth
surface. Remote sensing has progressively expended applications in various
fields such as urban-regional planning, utilities planning, health planning,
geomorphology, and resource planning. Because of its varied applications and
ability to allow users to collect, interpret, and manipulate data over dangerous
areas, remote sensing has become a useful tool for all geographers, regardless
of their concentration.
12 Kaushik K. Shandilya, Sheo Prasad Shukla and Virendra Pathak

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