Lecture Presentation

Chapter 11

Acids and Bases

Karen C. Timberlake

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Chapter 11 Acids and Bases

Clinical laboratory
technicians prepare
specimens for the detection
of cancerous tumors and
type blood samples for
transfusions. They must
also interpret and analyze
the test results, which are
then passed on to the
physician.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Chapter 11 Readiness

Key Math Skills

• Solving Equations (1.4D)
• Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation (1.4F)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Chapter 11 Readiness

Core Chemistry Skills

• Writing Ionic Formulas (6.2)
• Balancing a Chemical Equation (7.1)
• Using Concentrations as a Conversion Factor (9.4)
• Writing the Equilibrium Constant Expression (10.3)
• Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations (10.4)
• Using Le Châtelier’s Principle (10.5)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Chapter 11 Acids and Bases

A soft drink contains

phosphoric acid
(H3PO4) and carbonic
acid (H2CO3).

Learning Goal Describe and name acids and bases.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Arrhenius Acids

Arrhenius acids
• produce hydrogen ions (H+) when they dissolve in water.
H2O(l)
HCl(g) H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

• are also electrolytes, because they produce H+ in water.

• have a sour taste.
• turn blue litmus red.
• corrode some metals.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Naming Acids

• Acids with a hydrogen ion (H+) and a nonmetal (or CN−) ion
are named with the prefix hydro and end with ic acid.
HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid
• Acids with a hydrogen ion (H+) and a polyatomic ion are
named by changing the end of the name of the polyatomic
ion from
ate to ic acid or ite to ous acid
ClO3− chlorate ClO2− chlorite
HClO3 chloric acid HClO2 chlorous acid

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Select the correct name for each of the following acids:

1. HBr A. bromic acid
B. bromous acid
C. hydrobromic acid

2. H2CO3 A. carbonic acid

B. hydrocarbonic acid
C. carbonous acid

3. HBrO2 A. bromic acid

B. hydrobromous acid
C. bromous acid

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Arrhenius Bases

Arrhenius bases
• produce hydroxide ions (OH−)
in water.
• taste bitter or chalky.
• are also electrolytes, because
they produce hydroxide ions
(OH−) in water.
• feel soapy and slippery.
• turn litmus indicator paper
• blue and phenolphthalein An Arrhenius base produces
indicator pink. cations and OH− anions in an
aqueous solution.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Naming Bases

Typical Arrhenius bases are named as hydroxides.

NaOH sodium hydroxide
KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide
Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide

Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2,

is used in the food industry
to produce beverages, and in
dentistry as a filler for root canals.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Characteristics of Acids and Bases

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Match the formulas of acids and bases with their names.

1. ___ HNO2 A. iodic acid

2. ___ Ca(OH)2 B. sulfuric acid
3. ___ H2SO4 C. sodium hydroxide
4. ___ HIO3 D. nitrous acid
5. ___ NaOH E. calcium hydroxide

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 11.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases

According to the Brønsted–Lowry theory,

• an acid is a substance that donates H+.
• a base is a substance that accepts H+.

Learning Goal Identify conjugate acid–base pairs for

Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases.
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 NH3, a Brønsted–Lowry Base

In the reaction of ammonia and water,

• NH3 acts as the base that accepts H+.
• H2O acts as the acid that donates H+.

Because the nitrogen atom of NH3 has a stronger attraction

for H+ than oxygen, water acts as an acid by donating H+.
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

In each of the following equations, identify the Brønsted–

Lowry acid and base in the reactants:

A. HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + NO3−(aq)

B. HF(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ (aq) + F−(aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Identify each as a characteristic of

A. an acid or B. a base.

____ 1. has a sour taste

____ 2. produces OH− in aqueous solutions
____ 3. has a chalky taste
____ 4. is an electrolyte
____ 5. produces H+ in aqueous solutions

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

In any acid–base reaction, there are two conjugate acid–

base pairs.
• Each pair is related by the loss and gain of H+.
• One pair occurs in the forward direction.
• One pair occurs in the reverse direction.
Acid and conjugate base pair 1

HA + B A− + BH+

Base and conjugate acid pair 2

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

In this acid–base reaction,

• the first conjugate acid–base pair is HF, which donates
H+ to form its conjugate base, F−.
• the other conjugate acid–base pair is H2O, which
accepts H+ to form its conjugate acid, H3O+.
• each pair is related by a loss and gain of H+.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

In the reaction of NH3 and H2O,

• one conjugate acid–base pair is NH3/NH4+.
• the other conjugate acid–base pair is H2O/H3O+.

Core Chemistry Skill Identifying Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

1. Write the conjugate base for each of the following acids:

A. HBr
B. H2S
C. H2CO3

2. Write the conjugate acid of each of the following bases:

A. NO2−
B. NH3
C. OH−

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Identify the sets that contain acid–base conjugate pairs.

1. HNO2, NO2−
2. H2CO3, CO32−
3. HCl, ClO4−
4. HS−, H2S
5. NH3, NH4+

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Amphoteric Substances

Substances that can act as both acids and bases are

amphoteric or amphiprotic.

For water, the most common amphoteric substance, the

acidic or basic behavior depends on the other reactant.
• Water donates H+ when it reacts with a stronger base.
• Water accepts H+ when it reacts with a stronger acid.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Guide to Writing Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in the following

reaction:
HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) NO3−(aq) + NH4+(aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Solution

Identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in the following reaction:

HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) NO3−(aq) + NH4+(aq)

STEP 1 Identify the reactant that loses H+ as the acid.

In the reaction, HNO3 donates H+ to NH3.
STEP 2 Identify the reactant that gains H+ as the base.
In the reaction, NH3 gains H+ to form NH4+. Thus,
• NH3 is the base and NH4+ is its conjugate acid.
• HBr is the acid and Br− is its conjugate base.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Solution

Identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in the following

reaction:
HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) NO3−(aq) + NH4+(aq)

STEP 3 Write the conjugate acid–base pairs.

HBr/Br− is the acid and conjugate base pair.
NH3/NH4+ is the base and conjugate acid pair.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 11.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases

Weak acids only partially

dissociate in water.

Hydrofluoric acid, HF, is

the only halogen that
forms a weak acid.

Learning Goal Write equations for the dissociation of

strong and weak acids; identify the direction of reaction.
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 11.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases

Weak acids only partially

dissociate in water.

Hydrofluoric acid, HF, is

the only halogen that
forms a weak acid.

Learning Goal Write equations for the dissociation of

strong and weak acids; identify the direction of reaction.
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Strong and Weak Acids

A strong acid completely ionizes (100%) in aqueous

solutions.

HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

A weak acid dissociates only slightly in water to form a few

ions in aqueous solutions.

H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HCO3− (aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Strong Acids

In water, the dissolved molecules

of HA, a strong acid,
• dissociate into ions 100%.
• produce large concentrations of
H3O+ and the anion (A−).
The strong acid HCl dissociates
completely into ions:
HCl(g) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Weak Acids

In weak acids, only a few

molecules dissociate.
• Most of the weak acid
remains as the undissociated
(molecular) form of the acid.
• The concentrations of H3O+
and the anion (A−) are small.
H2CO3 is a weak acid:
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + HCO3−(aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Strong and Weak Acid Dissociation

• In an HCl solution,
the strong acid HCl
dissociates 100% to
form H+ and Cl−.

• A solution of the
weak acid HC2H3O2
contains mostly
molecules of
HC2H3O2 and a few
ions of H+ and
C2H3O2−.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Strong and Weak Acid Dissociation

Figure 11.2 ▶ After dissociation in water, (a) the strong acid HI has high
concentrations of H3O+ and I–, and (b) the weak acid HF has a high
–
concentration of HF and low concentrations of H3O+ and F .

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Diprotic Acids: Carbonic Acid

• Some weak acids, such as carbonic acid, are diprotic

acids that have two H+, which dissociate one at a time.
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HCO3−(aq)
• Because HCO3− is also a weak acid, a second dissociation
can take place to produce another hydronium ion and the
carbonate ion, CO32−.
HCO3−(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CO32−(aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Diprotic Acids: Sulfuric Acid

• Some strong acids, such as sulfuric acid, are

diprotic acids that have two H+, which dissociate
one at a time.
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HSO4−(aq)
• Because HSO4− is a weak acid, a second
dissociation can take place to produce another H+
and the sulfate ion, SO42− .
HSO4−(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + SO42−(aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Strong Bases

Strong bases as strong electrolytes

• are formed from metals of
Groups 1A (1) and 2A (2).
• include LiOH, NaOH, KOH,
Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, and Ca(OH)2.
• dissociate completely in water.
KOH(s) K+(aq) + OH−(aq)
• are found in household products
used to remove grease and
unclog drains.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Weak Bases

Weak bases are weak electrolytes

• that are poor acceptors of H+ ions.
• produce very few ions in solution.
• include ammonia.
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Ammonia Ammonium hydroxide

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Strong and Weak Bases

Strong Bases Bases in Household Products

Lithium hydroxide LiOH Weak Bases

Sodium hydroxide NaOH Window cleaner, ammonia, NH3
Potassium hydroxide KOH Bleach, NaOCl
Rubidium hydroxide RbOH Laundry detergent, Na2CO3, Na3PO4
Cesium hydroxide CsOH Toothpaste and baking soda, NaHC3
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2* Baking powder, scouring powder, Na2CO3
Strontium hydroxide Sr(OH) 2* Lime for lawns and agriculture, CaCO3
Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2* Laxatives, antacids, Mg(OH) 2, Al(OH)3
*Low solubility, but they
Strong Bases
dissociate completely
Drain cleaner, oven cleaner, NaOH

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Direction of Reaction

Strong acids have weak conjugate bases that do not readily

accept H+.
• As the strength of the acid decreases, the strength of its
conjugate base increases.

In any acid–base reaction, there are two acids and two bases.
• However, one acid is stronger than the other acid, and one
base is stronger than the other base.
• By comparing their relative strengths, we can determine
the direction of the reaction.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Direction of Reaction: H2SO4

Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is a strong acid that readily gives up H+

to water.

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HSO4−(aq)

Stronger Stronger Weaker Weaker
acid base acid base
• The hydronium ion H3O+ produced is a weaker acid than
H2SO4.
• The conjugate base HSO4− is a weaker base than water.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Direction of Reaction: CO32−

The carbonate ion from carbonic acid, H2CO3, reacts with water.
• Water donates one H+ to carbonate, CO32− to form HCO3−
and OH−.
• From Table 11.3, we see that HCO3− is a stronger acid than H2O.
• We also see that OH− is a stronger base than CO32−.

To reach equilibrium, the strong acid and strong base react in the
direction of the weaker acid and weaker base.

CO32− (aq) + H2O(l) OH−(aq) + HCO3−(aq)

Weaker Weaker Stronger Stronger
acid base base acid

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Identify each of the following as a strong or weak acid

or base:
A. HBr
B. HNO2
C. NaOH
D. H2SO4
E. Cu(OH)2

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Using Table 11.3, identify the stronger acid in each pair.

A. HNO2 or H2S
B. HCO3− or HBr
C. H3PO4 or H3O+

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Karen C. Timberlake
 11.4 Dissociation Constants for
Acids and Bases

HCHO2(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CHO2−(aq)

Learning Goal Write the expression for the dissociation

constant of a weak acid or weak base.
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Dissociation of a Weak Acid

Because the dissociation of strong acids in water is

essentially complete, the reaction is not considered to be an
equilibrium process.
• Weak acids partially dissociate in water as the ion
products reach equilibrium with the undissociated weak
acid molecules.
• Formic acid is a weak acid that dissociates in water to
form hydronium ion, H3O+, and formate ion, CHO2−.

HCHO2 (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CHO2−(aq)

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Writing Dissociation Constants

As with other dissociation expressions,

• the molar concentration of the products is divided by the
molar concentration of the reactants.
• water is a pure liquid with a constant concentration and
is omitted.
• the expression is called acid dissociation constant, Ka.
HCHO2 (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CHO2−(aq)

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Acid Dissociation Constant, Ka

When the value of the Ka

• is small, the equilibrium lies to the left, favoring the
reactants.
• is large, the equilibrium lies to the right, favoring the
products.

Weak acids have small Ka values, while strong acids

have very large Ka values.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Base Dissociation Constant, Kb

When the value of the Kb,

• is small, the equilibrium lies to the left, favoring the reactants.
• is large, the equilibrium lies to the right, favoring the
products.

The stronger the base, the larger the Kb value.

CH3—NH2(aq) + H2O(l) CH3—NH3+(aq) + OH−(aq)

The concentration of water is omitted from the base
dissociation constant expression.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Write the acid dissociation constant expression for nitrous acid,

HNO2.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 11.5 Dissociation of Water

The equilibrium reached between the conjugate acid–base

pairs of water produces both H3O+ and OH−.
+ -
+ +

H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) +

OH−(aq)

Learning Goal Use the water dissociation constant to

calculate the [H3O+] and [OH−] in an aqueous solution.
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Dissociation Constant of Water, Kw

Water is amphoteric—it can act as an acid or a base.

In water,
• H+ is transferred from one H2O molecule to another.
• one water molecule acts as an acid, while another acts as
a base.
• equilibrium is reached between the conjugate acid–base pairs.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Writing the Dissociation Constant, Kw

In the equation for the dissociation of water, there is both a

forward and a reverse reaction.
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Base Acid Conjugate Conjugate
acid base

• In pure water, the concentrations of H3O+ and OH− at 25

°C are each 1.0 × 10−7 M.

[H3O+] = [OH−] = 1.0 × 10–7 M

Kw = [H3O+] [OH−]
Kw = (1.0 × 10−7 M) (1.0 × 10−7 M) = 1.0 × 10–14 at 25 °C
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 Dissociation Constant, Kw

The ion product constant for water, Kw, is defined as

• the product of the concentrations of H3O+ and OH−.
• equal to 1.0 × 10−14 at 25 °C (the concentration units
are omitted).

When
• [H3O+] and [OH−] are equal, the solution is neutral.
• [H3O+] is greater than the [OH−], the solution is acidic.
• [OH−] is greater than the [H3O+], the solution is basic.

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 Using Kw to Calculate [H3O+] and [OH−]

• If we know the [H3O+] of a solution, we can use the

Kw to calculate the [OH−].
• If we know the [OH−] of a solution, we can use the
Kw to calculate the [H3O+].

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Pure Water Is Neutral

In pure water, the ionization of water molecules produces

small but equal quantities of H3O+ and OH− ions.

[H3O+] = 1.0 × 10−7 M

[OH−] = 1.0 × 10−7 M

[H3O+] = [OH−]
Pure water is neutral.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Acidic Solutions

Adding an acid to pure water

• increases the [H3O+].
• causes the [H3O+] to exceed
1.0 × 10−7 M.
• decreases the [OH−].

[H3O+] > [OH−]

The solution is acidic.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Basic Solutions

Adding a base to pure water

• increases the [OH−]
• causes the [OH−] to exceed
1.0 × 10−7 M
• decreases the [H3O+]

[H3O+] < [OH−]

The solution is basic.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Comparison of [H3O+] and [OH−]

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Guide to Calculating [H3O+] and [O–] in
Aqueous Solutions

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Calculating [H3O+]

What is the [H3O+] of a solution if [OH−] is 5.0 × 10−8 M?

STEP 1 State the given and needed quantities.

ANALYZE Given Need Know

THE [OH−] = 5.0 × 10−8 M [H3O+] Kw = [H3O+][OH−]
PROBLEM = 1.0 × 10−14

STEP 2 Write the Kw for water and solve for the

unknown [H3O+].

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Calculating [H3O+]

What is the [H3O+] of a solution if [OH−] is 5.0 × 10−8 M?

STEP 3 Substitute in the known [H3O+] or [OH−] and

calculate.

Because the [H3O+] of 2.0 × 10–7 M is larger than the

[OH−] of 5.0 × 10–8 M, the solution is acidic.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

If lemon juice has [H3O+] of 2.0 × 10–3 M, what is the [OH−] of

the solution?
A. 2.0 × 10−11 M
B. 5.0 × 10−11 M
C. 5.0 × 10−12 M

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 11.6 The pH Scale

The pH scale is used to

describe the acidity of
solutions.

A dipstick is used to
measure the pH of urine.

Learning Goal Calculate the pH from [H3O+]; given the

pH, calculate [H3O+] and [OH−] of a solution.
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 The pH Scale

The pH of a solution
• is used to indicate the acidity of a solution.
• has values that usually range from 0 to 14.
• is acidic when the values are less than 7.
• is neutral at a pH of 7.
• is basic when the values are greater than 7.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 The pH Scale

The pH of a solution is commonly measured using

• a pH meter in the laboratory.
• pH paper, an indicator that turns specific colors at a
specific pH value.
The pH of a solution is found by comparing the colors of
indicator paper to a chart.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 pH Measurement

The pH of a solution can be determined using (a) a pH meter,

(b) pH paper, and (c) indicators that turn different colors
corresponding to different pH values.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 pH of Common Substances

On the pH scale,
values below 7.0
are acidic, a value
of 7.0 is neutral,
and values above
7.0 are basic.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Identify each solution as acidic, basic, or neutral.

A. ___ HCl with a pH = 1.5

B. ___ pancreatic fluid, [H3O+] = 1 × 10−8 M
C. ___ Sprite soft drink, pH = 3.0
D. ___ pH = 7.0
E. ___ [OH−] = 3 × 10−10 M
F. ___ [H3O+ ] = 5 × 10−12

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 Calculating the pH of Solutions

The pH scale
• is a logarithmic scale that corresponds to the [H3O+] of
aqueous solutions.
• is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the [H3O+].
pH = −log[H3O+]
To calculate the pH, the negative powers of 10 in the molar
concentrations are converted to positive numbers. If [H3O+] is
1.0 × 10−2 M,
pH = −log[1.0 × 10−2 ] = −(−2.00) = 2.00

Key Math Skill Calculating pH from [H3O+]

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 pH: Significant Figures

To determine the number of significant figures in the pH value,

• the number of decimal places in the pH value is the same
as the number of significant figures in the coefficient of
[H3O+].
• the number to the left of the decimal point in the pH value is
the power of 10.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 pH Scale and [H3O+]

Because pH is a log scale,

• a change of one pH unit corresponds to a tenfold change
in [H3O+].
• pH decreases as the [H3O+] increases.

pH 2.00 is [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10−2 M

pH 3.00 is [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10−3 M
pH 4.00 is [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10−4 M

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Guide to Calculating pH of Solutions

The pH of a solution is calculated from the [H3O+] by using the

log key in your calculator and changing the sign.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 pH Calculation

Aspirin, which is acetylsalicylic acid, was the first nonsteroidal

anti-inflammatory drug used to alleviate pain and fever. If a
solution of aspirin has a [H3O+] = 1.7 × 10−3 M, what is the pH
of the solution?

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 pH Calculation

If a solution of aspirin has a [H3O+] = 1.7 × 10−3 M, what is

the pH of the solution?

STEP 1 State the given and needed quantities.

ANALYZE Given Need Know

THE [H3O+] = 1.7 × 10−3 M pH of solution pH = −log[H3O+]
PROBLEM

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 pH Calculation

If a solution of aspirin has a [H3O+] = 1.7 × 10−3 M, what is the

pH of the solution?

STEP 2 Enter the [H3O+] into the pH equation and

calculate.
pH = −log[H3O+] = −log[1.7 × 10−3]
Calculator Procedure:
log 1.7 EE or Exp 3 +/− =

Calculator Display: 2.769551079

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Karen C. Timberlake
 pH Calculation

If a solution of aspirin has a [H3O+] = 1.7 × 10−3 M, what is the

pH of the solution?

STEP 3 Adjust the number of SFs on the right of the

decimal point.
Coefficient Power of ten
1.7 × 10–3
Two SFs Exact
pH = −log[1.7 × 10−3] = 2.77

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Find the pH of a solution with a [H3O+] of 4.0 × 10−5.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Calculating [H3O+] from pH

Given the pH of a solution, we can reverse the calculation to

obtain the [H3O+].
• For whole number pH values, the negative pH value is the
power of 10 in the [H3O+] concentration.
[H3O+] = 10−pH
• For pH values that are not whole numbers, the calculation
requires the use of the 10x key, which is usually a 2nd
function key.

Key Math Skill Calculating [H3O+] from pH.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Guide to Calculating [H3O+] from pH

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Determine the [H3O+] for a solution that has a pH

of 3.42.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 11.7 Reactions of Acids and Bases

Gastric acid contains

HCl and is produced by
parietal cells that line the
stomach. When protein
enters the stomach, HCl
is secreted until the pH
reaches 2, the optimum
pH for digestion.

Learning Goal Write balanced equations for reactions of acids

with metals, carbonates, and bases.
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 Reactions of Acids

Acids react with

• metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
• bases to produce a salt and water.
• bicarbonate and carbonate ions to produce carbon
dioxide gas.

A salt is an ionic compound that does not have H+ as the

cation or OH− as the anion.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Acids and Metals

Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas and the salt
of the metal.

2K(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2KCl(aq) + H2(g)

Metal Acid Salt Hydrogen

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Metal Acid Salt Hydrogen

Magnesium reacts
rapidly with acid and
forms H2 gas and a
salt of magnesium.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Acids, Carbonates, and Bicarbonates

Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce

carbon dioxide gas, a salt, and water:

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CO2(g) + CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Acid Carbonate Carbon Salt Water
dioxide

HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(s) CO2(g) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Acid Bicarbonate Carbon Salt Water
dioxide

Core Chemistry Skill Writing Equations for Reactions of Acids

and Bases
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 Acids and Hydroxides: Neutralization

In a neutralization reaction,
• an acid reacts with a base to produce salt and water.
• the salt formed is the anion from the acid and the cation
from the base.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Acid Base Salt Water

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 Acids and Hydroxides: Neutralization

In neutralization reactions, one H+ always reacts with

one OH−.
• If we write the strong acid and strong base as ions,
HCl(aq) + NaCl(aq) NaOH(aq) + H2O(l)
we see that H+ reacts with OH− to form water, leaving the
ions Na+ and Cl− in solution:
H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + H2O(l)
• The overall reaction occurs as the H+ from the acid and OH−
from the base form water:
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) H2O(l) Net ionic equation

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Guide to Balancing an Equation for
Neutralization

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Balancing Neutralization Reactions

Write the balanced equation for the neutralization of solid

magnesium hydroxide and nitric acid.

STEP 1 Write the reactants and products.

Mg(OH)2(s) + HNO3(aq) salt + H2O(l)

STEP 2 Balance the H+ in the acid with the OH− in

the base.

Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) salt + H2O(l)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Balancing Neutralization Reactions

Write the balanced equation for the neutralization of solid

magnesium hydroxide and nitric acid.

STEP 3 Balance the H2O with H+ and the OH−.

Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) salt + 2H2O(l)

STEP 4 Write the salt from the remaining ions.

Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Write a balanced equation for the following reaction:

Mg(OH)2(s) + HBr(aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

Select the correct group of coefficients for each of the

following neutralization equations:
1. HCl(aq) + Al(OH)3(aq) AlCl3(aq) + H2O(l)
A. 1, 3, 3, 1 B. 3, 1, 1, 1 C. 3, 1, 1, 3

2. Ba(OH)2(aq) + H3PO4(aq) Ba3(PO4)2(s) + H2O(l)

A. 3, 2, 2, 2 B. 3, 2, 1, 6 C. 2, 3, 1, 6

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Solution

Select the correct group of coefficients for each of the

following neutralization equations:

STEP 4 Write the salt from the remaining ions.

1. 3HCl(aq) + Al(OH)3(aq) AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
The answer is C, 3, 1, 1, 3.

2. 3Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2H3PO4(aq)
Ba3(PO4)2(s) + 6H2O(l)
The answer is B, 3, 2, 1, 6.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Solution

Select the correct group of coefficients for each of the

following neutralization equations:

STEP 4 Write the salt from the remaining ions.

1. 3HCl(aq) + Al(OH)3(aq) AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
The answer is C, 3, 1, 1, 3.

2. 3Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2H3PO4(aq)
Ba3(PO4)2(s) + 6H2O(l)
The answer is B, 3, 2, 1, 6.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Chemistry Link to Health: Antacids

Antacids are substances that

• are used to neutralize excess stomach acid.
• are made of aluminum hydroxide and magnesium
hydroxide mixtures.

These hydroxides are not

very soluble in water, so
the levels of available OH−
are not damaging to the
intestinal tract.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 11.8 Acid–Base Titration

The titration of an acid. A known volume of an acid is placed in

a flask with an indicator and titrated with a measured volume of
a base solution, such as NaOH, to the neutralization endpoint.

Learning Goal Calculate the molarity or volume of an acid or base

from titration information.
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Karen C. Timberlake
 Acid–Base Titration

Titration
• is a laboratory procedure used to determine the molarity
of an acid.
• uses a base such as NaOH to neutralize a measured
volume of an acid.
• requires a few drops of an indicator such as
phenolphthalein to identify the endpoint.

Core Chemistry Skill Calculating Molarity or Volume of an Acid or

Base in a Titration
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Karen C. Timberlake
 Acid–Base Titration

In the following
titration, a specific
volume of acidic Base
solution is titrated to NaOH
the endpoint with a
known concentration
of NaOH.

Acid
Solution

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 Indicator

The indicator phenolphthalein

• is added to identify the
endpoint.
• turns pink when the solution
is neutralized.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Endpoint of Titration

At the endpoint of the titration,

• the moles of base are equal to the
moles of acid in the solution.
• the concentration of the base is
known.
• the volume of the base used to
reach the endpoint is measured.
• the molarity of the acid is
calculated using the neutralization
equation for the reaction.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Guide to Calculating Boiling Point Elevation,
Freezing Point Lowering

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Acid–Base Titration Calculations

What is the molarity of an HCl solution if 18.5 mL of

0.225 M NaOH is required to neutralize 0.0100 L of HCl?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

STEP 1 State given and needed quantities and

concentrations.

ANALYZE Given Need Equation

THE 18.5 mL of molarity of HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
PROBLEM 0.225 M NaOH HCl solution NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
0.0100 L HCl

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Acid–Base Titration Calculations

What is the molarity of an HCl solution if 18.5 mL of

0.225 M NaOH is required to neutralize 0.0100 L of HCl?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

STEP 2 Write a plan to calculate molarity or volume.

mL NaOH Metric L NaOH moles of

solution factor solution Molarity
NaOH

moles of Mole–Mole moles of Divide by molarity of

NaOH factor HCl liters HCl solution

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Acid–Base Titration Calculations

What is the molarity of an HCl solution if 18.5 mL of 0.225 M

NaOH is required to neutralize 0.0100 L of HCl?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

STEP 3 State equalities and conversion factors including

concentration.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Acid–Base Titration Calculations

What is the molarity of an HCl solution if 18.5 mL of 0.225 M

NaOH is required to neutralize 0.0100 L of HCl?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

STEP 4 Set up the problem to calculate the needed

quantity.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

What is the molarity of an HCl solution if 25.5 mL of 0.438 M

NaOH is required to neutralize 0.0250 L of HCl?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

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Karen C. Timberlake
 11.9 Buffers

A buffer solution maintains the pH by neutralizing small amounts

of added acid or base.
An acid must be present to react with any OH− added, and a
base must be present to react with any H3O+ added.

Learning Goal Describe the role of buffers in maintaining

the pH of a solution; calculate the pH of a buffer.
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 Buffers

When an acid or a base

is added to water, the
pH changes drastically.
In a buffer solution,
the pH is maintained;
pH does not change
when acids or bases
are added.

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 How Buffers Work

Buffers work because

• they resist changes in pH from the addition of an acid or
a base.
• in the body, they absorb H3O+ or OH− from foods and
cellular processes to maintain pH.
• they are important in the proper functioning of cells
and blood.
• they maintain a pH close to 7.4 in blood.

A change in the pH of the blood affects the uptake of

oxygen and cellular processes.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Components of a Buffer

A buffer solution
• contains a combination of acid–base
conjugate pairs, a weak acid and a salt of its
conjugate base, such as
HC2H3O2(aq) and C2H3O2−(aq)

• has equal concentrations of a weak acid and

its salt.

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Karen C. Timberlake
 How Buffers Work

In the buffer with acetic acid (HC2H3O2) and sodium

acetate (NaC2H3O2),
• the salt produces acetate ions and sodium ions.
NaC2H3O2(aq) C2H3O2−(aq) + Na+(aq)
• the salt is added to provide a higher concentration of the
conjugate base C2H3O2− than from the weak acid alone.
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) C2H3O2−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Large amount Large amount

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 Function of a Weak Acid in a Buffer

If a small amount of base is added to this same buffer

solution, it is neutralized by the acetic acid, HC2H3O2,
which shifts the equilibrium in the direction of the products
acetate ion and water.

HC2H3O2(aq) + OH−(aq) C2H3O2−(aq) + H2O(l)

Equilibrium shifts in the direction of the products.

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 Function of Conjugate Base in a Buffer

When a small amount of acid is added, the additional H3O+

combines with the acetate ion, C2H3O2−, causing the equilibrium to
shift in the direction of the reactants, acetic acid and water.

The acetic acid produced contributes to the available weak acid.

HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) C2H3O2− (aq) + H3O+(aq)
Equilibrium shifts in the direction of the reactants.

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 Working Buffers

The buffer described here consists of about equal concentrations of

acetic acid (HC2H3O2) and its conjugate base, acetate ion (C2H3O2−).
• Adding H3O+ to the buffer reacts with the salt, C2H3O2−, whereas
adding OH− neutralizes the acid HC2H3O2.
• The pH of the solution is maintained as long as the added
amounts of acid or base are small compared to the
concentrations of the buffer components.
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Karen C. Timberlake
 Calculating the pH of a Buffer

By rearranging the Ka expression to give [H3O+], we can obtain

the ratio of the acetic acid/acetate buffer and calculate the pH.

Solving for H3O+ gives

Weak acid
Conjugate base

Core Chemistry Skill Calculating the pH of a Buffer

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Karen C. Timberlake
 Study Check

The Ka for acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is 1.8 × 10–5. What is the pH

of a buffer prepared with 1.0 M HC2H3O2 and 1.0 M C2H3O2−?
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) C2H3O2−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Solution

The Ka for acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is 1.8 × 10–5. What is the pH

of a buffer prepared with 1.0 M HC2H3O2 and 1.0 M C2H3O2−?
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) C2H3O2−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

STEP 1 State the given and needed quantities.

ANALYZE Given Need

THE [HC2H3O2] = 1.0 M pH of solution
PROBLEM [C2H3O2−] = 1.0 M
Equation
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) C2H3O2−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Solution

The Ka for acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is 1.8 × 10–5. What is the pH

of a buffer prepared with 1.0 M HC2H3O2 and 1.0 M C2H3O2−?
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) C2H3O2−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

STEP 2 Write the Ka expression and rearrange for [H3O+].

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Solution

The Ka for acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is 1.8 × 10–5. What is the pH

of a buffer prepared with 1.0 M HC2H3O2 and 1.0 M C2H3O2−?
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) C2H3O2−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

STEP 3 Substitute [HA] and [A−] into the Ka expression.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Solution

The Ka for acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is 1.8 × 10–5. What is the pH

of a buffer prepared with 1.0 M HC2H3O2 and 1.0 M C2H3O2−?
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) C2H3O2−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

STEP 4 Use [H3O+] to calculate pH.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Calculating the pH of a Buffer

Because Ka is a constant at a given temperature,

• the [H3O+] is determined by the [HC2H3O2]/[C2H3O2−]
ratio.
• the addition of small amounts of either acid or base
changes the ratio of [HC2H3O2]/[C2H3O2−] only
slightly.
• the changes in [H3O+] will be small and the pH will be
maintained.
• the addition of a large amount of acid or base may
exceed the buffering capacity of the system.

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 Buffers and pH Changes

Buffers can be prepared from conjugate acid–base

pairs such as H2PO4−/HPO42− and HPO42−/PO43−,
HCO3−/CO32−, or NH4+/NH3.

The pH of the buffer solution will depend on the

conjugate acid–base pair chosen.

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 Buffers and pH Changes

Using a common phosphate buffer for biological specimens,

we can look at the effect of using different ratios of
[H2PO4−/HPO42−] on the [H3O+] and pH. The Ka of H2PO4−
is 6.2 × 10−8.

The equation and the [H3O+] are written as follows:

H2PO4−(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HPO42−(aq)

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 Buffers and pH Changes

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 Chemistry Link to Health: Buffers in Blood Plasma

The arterial blood plasma has a normal pH of 7.35 to 7.45. If

changes in H3O+ lower the pH below 6.8 or raise it above 8.0, cells
cannot function properly and death may result.
In our cells, CO2
• is continually produced as an end product of cellular
metabolism.
• is carried to the lungs for elimination, and the rest dissolves in
body fluids such as plasma and saliva, forming carbonic acid,
H2CO3.
As a weak acid, carbonic acid dissociates to give bicarbonate,
HCO3−, and H3O+.

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 Chemistry Link to Health: Buffers in Blood Plasma

Kidneys also supply more of the bicarbonate anion, HCO3−,

setting up an important buffer system in the body fluid:

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) HCO3−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Excess H3O+ entering the body fluids reacts with the HCO3−, and
excess OH− reacts with the carbonic acid.
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) HCO3−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Equilibrium shifts in the direction of the reactants.

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 Chemistry Link to Health: Buffers in Blood Plasma

Kidneys also supply more of the bicarbonate anion, HCO3−,

setting up an important buffer system in the body fluid:

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) HCO3−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

• Excess H3O+ entering the body fluids reacts with the HCO3−:
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) HCO3−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Equilibrium shifts in the direction of the reactants.
• Excess OH– entering the body fluids reacts with the H2CO3:
H2CO3(aq) + OH−(aq) H2O(l) + HCO3−(aq)
Equilibrium shifts in the direction of the products.

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 Chemistry Link to Health: Buffers in Blood Plasma

To maintain the normal blood plasma pH (7.35 to 7.45),

• the ratio of [H2CO3]/[HCO3−] needs to be about 1 to 10.
• concentrations of 0.0024 M H2CO3 and 0.024 M HCO3−
work to maintain that pH.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson
© 2016 PearsonEducation,
Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Chemistry Link to Health: Buffers in Blood Plasma

In the body, the concentration of carbonic acid is closely

associated with the partial pressure of CO2, PCO2.
• If the CO2 level rises, increasing H2CO3, the equilibrium
shifts to produce more H3O+, which lowers the pH. This
condition is called acidosis.
• A lowering of the CO2 level leads to a high blood pH, a
condition called alkalosis.

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson
© 2016 PearsonEducation,
Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake
 Concept Map

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: Structures of Life, 5/e © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Karen C. Timberlake