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UNIT III
SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS
Need for bio-amplifier - differential bio-amplifier, Impedance matching circuit, isolation amplifiers,
Power line interference, Right leg driven ECG amplifier, Band pass filtering

3.1 NEED FOR BIO-AMPLIFIER

Generally, biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude and low frequency. Therefore, to increase
the amplitude level of biosignals amplifiers are designed. The outputs from these amplifiers are used
for further analysis and they appear as ECG, EMG, or any bioelectric waveforms. Such amplifiers are
defined as Bio Amplifiers or Biomedical Amplifiers.
Basic Requirements for Biological Amplifiers
• The biological amplifier should have a high input impedance value. The range of value lies
between 2 MΩ and 10 MΩ depending on the applications. Higher impedance value reduces
distortion of the signal.
• When electrodes pick up biopotentials from the human body, the input circuit should be
protected. Every bio-amplifier should consist of isolation and protection circuits, to prevent
the patients from electrical shocks.
• Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in millivolts or microvolt range, the voltage gain value
of the amplifier should be higher than 100dB.
• Throughout the entire bandwidth range, a constant gain should be maintained.
• A bio-amplifier should have a small output impedance.
• A good bio-amplifier should be free from drift and noise.
• Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) value of amplifier should be greater than 80dB to
reduce the interference from common mode signal.
• The gain of the bio-amplifier should be calibrated for each measurement.

3.2 DIFFERENTIAL BIO AMPLIFIER

Differential Amplifier is a device which is used to amplify the difference between the voltages applied
at its inputs. Such circuits can be of two types viz.,
1. Differential amplifiers built using transistors, either (BJTs) or (FETs)
2. Differential amplifiers built using Op-Amps.

1. Differential Amplifier using BJT

Circuit made of two BJTs (Q1 and Q2) & two power supplies of opposite polarity viz., VCC and –VEE
1 which uses three resistors among which two are the collector resistors, RC1 and RC2 (one for each
transistor) while one is the emitter resistor RE common to both transistors. Here the input signals (V1
and V2) are applied to the base of the transistors while the output is collected across their collector
terminals (Vo1 and Vo2).
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2. Differential amplifiers built using Op-Amps.

On the other hand, an Op-Amp operating in differential mode can readily act as a differential amplifier
as it results in an output voltage given by

V1 and V2 represent the voltages applied at its inverting and non-inverting input terminals.
Ad refers to its differential gain. As per this equation, the output of the Op Amp must be zero when the
voltages applied at its terminals are equal to each other. The mathematical expression for the output
of the differential amplifier can be given as

Where AC is called the common mode gain of the amplifier.

Thus, functionally-good difference amplifiers are expected to exhibit a high common mode rejection
ratio (CMRR) and high impedance. Differential Amplifier circuit is just a combination of inverting and

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non-inverting amplifier. Hence its output voltage will be equal to the sum of the output voltages
produced by the Op-Amp circuit operating as an inverting amplifier and the Op-Amp circuit operating
as a non-inverting amplifier. Thus, one gets,

Now, if R1 = R2 and R3 = Rf, then

Different Modes of Operation

1. Single Ended Mode
If either V1 or V2 is equal to zero the operation of the differential amplifier is known as
Single ended mode of operation

2. Differential Mode
In this mode the two input signals are equal but have opposite polarity at every instant
of time, V1=-V2

This implies that the gain of the differential amplifier circuit shown in Figure is given by
3. Common Mode
The input voltage appearing at the input terminals 1&2 are identical both in amplitude
and phase at every instant of time and the circuit is said to be operating in common mode.
These input signals are called common mode signals
V1=V2=Vcm
4. Common Mode rejection in a differential amplifier
It is the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode voltage gain Ac
CMRR=
It is normally expressed in decibel, CMRR in db=20log CMRR

3.3 IMPEDANCE MATCHING CIRCUIT

In order to minimize the effect of change in the electrode impedances it is necessary to employ
3 preamplifier having high input impedance A low value of input impedance is very high, still in some
cases in hospitals 50Hz artifact can be seen in ECG trace recording or monitors display. A possible
cause of problem is source impedance unbalance that is the impedance of electrodes as seen by the
input of ECG Amplifier is not equal to all legs of the input. This problem creates some of the common

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mode voltage presented at each of the inputs is seen as differential voltage and is amplified by the
differential gain of the amplifier

The above figure shows the equivalent circuit for input of ECG amplifier in which
Vb=Voltage signal generated by heart
Va= unwanted in phase signal picked up from the mains wiring and other sources
ZI=input impedance of the preamplifier
If the amplifier is perfectly balanced by equal in phase voltages Va and Vb at the electrodes would give
rise to zero output signal Here Va and Vb depend on the values of Z1 and Z2. The electrical
interference signal Ve will give rise to same output signal as would a desired signal from the patient of
amplitude

Hence the discrimination will be faster between desired and undesired signals,

Assume and a difference of electrode skin content impedance

If

Thus we see that the impedance unbalance due to electrodes on ECG has reduced the CMRR from
5000 to 1000 only
Further Let us suppose and

It shows high input impedance is very necessary to obtain high CMRR. Also electrode skin resistance
4 should be low.
The CMRR for most op-amps between 60dB and 100dB. One method to increase input impedance of
op-amp is to use FET in the input differential stage. A most Common approach is to use an
instrumentation amplifier in the preamplifier stage.
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3.4 ISOLATION AMPLIFIER

Isolation amplifiers are known as Pre-amplifier isolation circuits. An isolation amplifier

increases the input impedance of a patient monitoring system. It also helps to isolate the patient from
the device. Using the isolation amplifier prevents accidental internal cardiac shock. It provides up to
1012 Ω insulation between the patient and the power line in the hospital.

The electrical signals are obtained with electrodes. The signals received goes to the amplifier block,
where signals amplification occurs. After amplification, the signal enters the modulation block. When
either it goes to the isolation barrier, optical cable or transformer can be used. If in case of optical
cable, modulator output travels to LED. The LED converts electrical signals into light energy. If the
transformer acts an isolation barrier, modulator output connects the primary winding of the
transformer. Energy from primary transfers to the secondary winding based on the mutual induction
principle. At the next stage, secondary output enters the demodulation block. Finally, the amplified
demodulated signal is obtained.
3.4.1 ECG Isolation Amplifier
During ECG measurement, signals generated from all leads are sent to the low pass filter. This
filter is named as Electro surgery filters because it decreases the interference between electrosurgery
and radio frequency. Next block is the high voltage and overvoltage protection that can withstand
large voltage during defibrillation.
5 Proceeding further, it goes to Lead Selector Switch block, which selects the required
configuration. Lead selection output goes to the DC amplifier. We have a transformer, whose primary
winding is connected to the oscillator and secondary to rectifier and filter. ECG signal is modulated
with the Synchronous modulator. The second transformer delivers the output from the synchronous
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modulator to the synchronous demodulator. The output from the demodulator is fed as input to the
power amplifier.

3.5 POWER LINE INTERFERENCE

Abnormal patterns of ECG may be due to pathological status or on occasion that may be due to
artifacts. To diagnose the artifacts few recordings are used.

3.5.1 Interference From Power Lines

It is easily recognizable since interfering voltage in the ECG would have a frequency of 50Hz.
This interference is due to the stray effect of an alternating current on the patient or because of ac
field due to loops in the patient cable. Other reasons of interference are loose contacts on patient
cable as well as direct electrodes. When the machine or patient is not properly grounded, power line
interference may be completely obscure the ECG waveform. Disconnected electrode resulting in a
very strong distributing signal and need quick action. Some times static charges on the synthetic
uniform of the operator may result in random noise on the trace. This noise is very difficult to remove
except in those machines which have very high CMRR. This noise can be reduced by partially
shielding the patient. Electromagnetic Interference from the power lines also results in poor quality
tracings. A practical solution to minimize this problem is physical separation between the
6 interference causing source and the patient.
Electrical power system also induce extremely rapid pulses or spikes on the trace as a result of
switching action. Use of transient suppressor in the mains lead of the machines helps to solve this
problem.
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3.5.2 Shifting of the baseline

The baseline shift is eliminated by ensuring that the patient lies relaxed and the electrodes are
properly attached. Baseline wander is observed immediately after application of electrodes. It is due
to relatively slow establishment of electrochemical equilibrium at the electrode skin interface. This
can be minimized by selecting proper electrode material which will reach equilibrium quickly with a
good electrode jelly.
3.5.3 Muscle Tremor
Irregular trembling of ECG is happening when the patient is not relaxed or in cold. It is generally
found in the case of older patients. For long term monitoring, the electrodes are applied on the chest
and not on the limbs For normal routine ECG recording, the patients must be advised to get warm and
to relax so that muscle tremor from shivering or tension is eliminated. Most critical component of the
ECG recorder is the patient cable. Some manufacturers supply a patient cable mode of silicon rubber
which provides better elasticity over long periods.

3.6 RIGHT LEG DRIVEN ECG AMPLIFIER

It is an electric circuit that is often added to biological signal amplifiers to reduce common-mode
interference. Biological signal amplifiers such as ECG, EEG or EMG circuits measure very small
electrical signals emitted by the body, often as small as several micro-volts (millionths of a volt). The
patient's body can also act as an antenna which picks up electromagnetic interference, especially
50/60 Hz noise from electrical power lines. This interference can obscure the biological signals,
making them very hard to measure. Right leg driver circuitry is used to eliminate interference noise
by actively cancelling the interference.

7 The common mode signal after amplification in a preamplifier are inverted and feedback to the right
leg electrode, reducing the common mode voltage on the input with respect to the floating ground.
The presence of stray capacitance causes Common mode currents to flow in LA and RA, resulting in a
voltage drop at the electrode resistors. An imbalance of stray capacitance or the electrode capacitors
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causes a difference signal. This difference signal can be also eliminated, in that the common mode
current of stray capacitances are not allowed to flow through the electrode resistors but are
neutralized by current delivered to stray capacitances from the common mode rejection amplifier.
The Potentials measured are equalized through in phase component of common mode voltage which
the amplifier delivers. So potentials are kept equal, independent of the imbalance in the electrode
resistors and stray capacitance.

3.7 BAND PASS FILTERING

A band pass filter (also known as a BPF or pass band filter) is defined as a device that allows
frequencies within a specific frequency range and rejects (attenuates) frequencies outside that range.

The low pass filter is used to isolate the signals which have frequencies higher than the cutoff
frequency. Similarly, the high pass filter is used to isolate the signals which have frequencies lower
than the cutoff frequency. By the cascade connection of high pass and low pass filter makes another
filter, which allows the signal with specific frequency range or band and attenuate the signals which
frequencies are outside of this band. This type of filter is known as Band Pass Filter. The Band Pass
Filter has two cutoff frequencies. The first cutoff frequency is from a high pass filter. This will decide
the higher frequency limit of a band that is known as the higher cutoff frequency (fc-high). The second
cutoff frequency is from the low pass filter. This will decide the lower frequency limit of the band and
that is known as lower cutoff frequency (fc-low).
3.7.1 Band Pass Filter Circuit
The band pass filter is a combination of low pass and high pass filters. Therefore, the circuit diagram
8 contains the circuit of high pass and low pass filters. The circuit diagram of the passive RC band pass
filter is as shown in the below figure.

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The first half of the circuit diagram is a passive RC high pass filter. This filter will allow the signals
which have frequencies higher than the lower cutoff frequency (fc-low). And attenuate the signals
which have frequencies lower than (fc-low).

The second half of the circuit diagram is a passive RC low pass filter. This filter will allow the signals
which have frequencies lower than the higher cutoff frequency (fc-high). And it will attenuate the
signals which have frequencies higher than (fc-high).

The band or region of frequency in which the band pass filter allows the signal to pass that is known
as Bandwidth. The bandwidth is a difference between the higher and lower value of cutoff frequency.
Bandwidth=
3.7.2 Band Pass Filter Types

1. Active Band Pass Filter

The active band pass filter is a cascading connection of high pass and low pass filter
with the amplifying component as shown in the below figure.

The circuit diagram of Active Band Pass Filter is divided into three parts. The first part
is for a high pass filter. Then the op-amp is used for the amplification. The last part of the
circuit is the low pass filter. The below figure shows the circuit diagram of Active Band Pass
Filter.

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2. Passive Band Pass Filter

The passive filter used only passive components like resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
Therefore, the passive band pass filter is also used passive components and it does not use the
op-amp for amplification. So, like an active band pass filter, the amplification part is not
present in a passive band pass filter. The passive band pass filter is a combination of passive
high pass and passive low pass filters. Hence, the circuit diagram also contains circuits of high
pass and low pass filters.

The first half of the circuit is for the passive high pass filter. And the second half is for
the passive low pass filter.
3. RL Band Pass Filter
As the name suggests RLC, this band pass filter contains only resistor, inductor and
capacitor. This is also a passive band pass filter. According to the connection of RLC, there are
two circuit configurations of the RLC band pass filter. In the first configuration, the series LC
circuit is connected in series with the load resistor. And the second configuration is parallel LC
circuit is connected in parallel with a load resistor.

The bandwidth for the series and parallel RLC band pass filter is as shown in the below
equations.
Bandwidth for series RLC filter

Bandwidth for parallel RLC filter

4. Wide Band Pass Filter

According to the size of bandwidth, it can divide in wide band pass filter and narrow
band pass filter. If the Q-factor is less than 10, the filter is known as a wide pass filter. As the
10
name suggests, the bandwidth is wide for the wide band pass filter. In this type of filter, the
high pass and low pass filter are different sections as we have seen in the passive band pass
filter. Here, both filters are passive.

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Another circuit arrangement can be done by using an active high pass and an active low
pass filter. The circuit diagram of this filter is as shown in the below figure where the first half
is for active high pass filter and the second half is for active low pass filter. Because of the
different parts of filters, it is easy to design the circuit for a wide range of bandwidth.
5. Narrow Band Pass Filter
The band pass filter which has a quality factor greater than ten. The bandwidth of this
filter is narrow. Therefore, it allows the signal with a small range of frequencies. It has multiple
feedback. This band pass filter uses only one op-amp. This band pass filter is also known as
multiple feedback filter because there are two feedback paths. In this band pass filter, the op-
amp is used in non-inverting mode. The circuit diagram of band pass filter is as shown in the
below figure.

3.7.3 Band Pass Filter Transfer Function

1. First Order Band Pass Filter Transfer Function
A first order band pass filter is not possible, because it has minimum two energy saving
elements (capacitor or inductor). So, the transfer function of second-order band pass filter is
derived as below equations.
2. Second Order Band Pass Filter Transfer Function
A second-order band pass filter transfer function has been shown and derived below.
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The application of band pass filter is as follows,

 Band pass filters are widely used in audio amplifier circuits.
 It is used optics like LASER, LIDARS, etc.
 These filters are used in a communication system for choosing the signals with a
particular bandwidth.
 It is used in audio signal processing.
 It is also used to optimize the signal to noise ratio and sensitivity of the receiver.

3.8 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER(Extra Topic)

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In biomedical applications, high gain and the high input impedance are attained with an instrumentation
amplifier. Usually, a 3-amplifier setup forms the instrumentation amplifier circuit. The output from the
transducer is given as input to the instrumentation amplifier. Before the signal goes to the next stage, a special
amplifier is required with high CMRR, high input impedance and to avoid loading effects. Such a special
amplifier is an instrumentation amplifier, which does all the required process.
To each input of the differential amplifier, the non-inverting amplifier is connected. From the figure, the
amplifier on the left side acts as non-inverting amplifiers. They are combined together to form the input stage
of the instrumentation amplifier. The third op-amp is the difference amplifier, and it is the output of the
instrumentation amplifier. The output from the difference amplifier Vout is the difference between two input
signals given at the input points. VO1 is the output from op-amp 1 and VO2 is the output from op-amp 2.

3.9 CHOPPER AMPLIFIER(Extra Topic)

When recording biopotentials noise and drift are the two problems encountered. Noise is due to the
recording device and by the patient when they move. Drift is a shift in baseline created due to various thermal
effects. A DC amplifier has a shift or sudden peak in the output when the input is zero. Therefore, a chopper
amplifier solves the problems of drift in DC amplifiers. The name Chop means to sample the data. The amplifier
circuit samples the analog signal. So it is known as chopper amplifier.
The general diagram of a chopper amplifier is as shown below. The first block chopper accepts the DC
input signal and converts them to an AC signal. The AC amplifier block amplifies the chopped AC signal.
Next, in the demodulator rectifier block, an amplified chopped AC signal is converted to amplified DC signal.

Chopper amplifier is classified into two types. Mechanical and non-mechanical choppers. The chopper
converts DC or low-frequency signal to high-frequency signal. An AC amplifier amplifies the modulated high-
frequency signal. The amplified signal is demodulated and filtered to obtain the low frequency or DC signal.

3.9.1 Mechanical Chopper Amplifier

13 From the figure, chopper S1 acts as electromagnetically operated switch or relay. ‘A’ is the AC amplifier that has
an input terminal and a ground terminal. ‘Q’ acts as reference term. Chopper acts a switch, so it connects the
amplifier input terminal alternatively to reference term Q. Consider a condition in which chopper S1 is closed.
At this position, the amplifier input terminal connects to Q1.
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mechanical chopper amplifier

The entire circuit is short-circuited, so input voltage is zero. Now, let us consider the reverse operation when
chopper S1 is open. The AC amplifier starts receiving the signal from P terminal. Finally, the amplifier input has
an alternating voltage that varies between zero and input voltage. At this stage, conversion of DC signal to
square wave pulse occurs with amplification. Diode ‘D’ rectifies the chopped signal.
After rectification, the rectified signal is filtered and amplified. At the output terminal M and N, the amplified
DC output signal occurs. Chopping or sampling rate determines the chopper response time.

3.9.2 Non-Mechanical Chopper Amplifier

non mechanical chopper amplifier

In comparison with mechanical type, a non-mechanical chopper uses photodiodes or photoconductors for
modulation (convert DC signals to AC signals) and demodulation (convert AC signals to DC signals). When light
14 is not incident on the photodiode, no current flows through the circuit. However, when light falls on the photo
sensor, the resistance becomes low. So, the current flows through the sensor. This system is similar to a
switching operation.

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From the figure, an oscillator has two neon bulbs, which operates on half cycles of oscillation. PC1, PC2, PC3,
and PC4 are photodiodes. Neon lamp 1 flashes light on PC1 and PC2. Neon lamp 2 flashes light on PC3 and PC4.
When light falls on PC1, its resistance value reduces making the capacitor to charge. Light falls on PC3 making
the input to flow through it when there is no light on PC1. Therefore, the light incidence on PC1 and PC3 takes
place alternatively to generate a square wave pulse across the output capacitor. The generated square wave
pulse is the input for the AC amplifier. The amplifier output is an amplified square wave pulse. The other two
photodiodes PC2 and PC4 are in the output circuit. It recovers DC signal and makes the capacitor fully charged
to the peak value of output voltage. At the final stage, a low pass filter removes the unwanted noise and ripples.
The output is an amplified DC signal.

3.9.3 Differential Chopper Amplifier

Differential chopper amplifier

A type of chopper used for EEG measurement is a differential chopper. It has a transformer. A chopper vibrator
connects the input of the transformer. The center tap of the transformer acts as one of the terminals for the
input connector. The chopper switch acts as another terminal. AC coupled amplifier provides the gain. The
output from this amplifier goes to filter and demodulator block. Finally, an amplified DC output signal is
obtained.

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