RAILWAY ENGINEERING

Rails

• Rails provide a smooth path for the

movement of trains at high speed.
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Functions of Rails
• The rails provide a level, smooth and
continuous surface for the movement of
trains.
• The friction between the wheels of the
train and the rail is about 20% of the
friction between the pneumatic tyres and
the roads.
• The rail serves as a lateral guide for the
running of wheels.
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Functions of Rails
• The rail bear the stresses developed due
to
– vertical loads transmitted to it through axles
– wheels of the rolling stock, due to braking
forces and thermal stresses.
• The rail transmits the heavy load of the
rolling stock etc. to the larger area of the
formation through sleepers and ballast.
• Distribute the load over wider area of the ballast

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Types of Rail Section
• Double Headed
• Bull Headed
• Flat Footed

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Double Head
• The original rails used were double headed
made of I section or dumb-bell section.
• The idea being that when the top of the double
headed rail was worn, the rail could be inverted
and re-used.
• Such rails are supported in chairs, which rest on
sleepers.
• It was found that the lower head was dented by
the chairs and could not be re-used.

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Double Headed

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Double Headed

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Bull Headed
• The bull headed rails have more metal
added to the head, which permit more
resistance to wear.
• The lower face was of sufficient size to be
able to bear the stresses, which are
induced in it by the moving load.

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Bull Headed

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Bull
Headed

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Flat Footed Rail
• A flat footed rail is of an inverted T shape.
• The advantage of these rails lies in the
fact that they are stronger than the bull
headed rails and no chairs are necessary
and the foot of the rail is spiked direct to
sleeper.

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 Head

FOOT
FLAT FOOTED RAIL
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Comparison of Flat footed and Bull headed
Rail Sections

• Alignment- the B.H rail keeps better

alignment of the track than the F.F rail.
• Lateral Stability – the F.F rails provide
more lateral stability than the B.H rail.
• Cost- F.F rails are less costly.
• Flat footed rails are easier to lay and
require less no. of fastening.

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 Comparison of Flat footed and Bull headed
Rail Sections

• Maintenance of F.F rail is easier.

• The fastenings attached with the F.F rail
have a greater tendency than the B.H rails
to get loose, particularly if they are laid on
wooden sleepers.

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 Weight of the Rail Sections

• A rail is designated by its weight per yard.

Thus, a 90 lbs rail is a rail weighing 90 lbs
per yard of its length.
Weight of the rail is governed by
• Axle loads
• Gauge of the track
• Maximum speed which is permitted
• Sleeper Density
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 Weight of the Rail Sections

• As a rule on a BG track, a rail may be

expected to carry an axle load 560 times
the weight of the rail per yard.
• Heavier sections proved to be economical
in the long run as it has longer life and less
maintenance.
• Stability of heavier sections will be more
and chances of buckling of the track are
less.
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 Weight of the Rail Sections

• Heavier sections result in smooth riding.

• When a loaded wheel moves over the rail,
it depresses the rail and if the rail is light in
weight, then it has to bear the greater load
in depression. The wheel has to be
dragged out continuously of such
depression and as a result power of
locomotive is wasted.

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Length of Rail
• As the rail joint is the weakest part of the
track structure, its strength being about
one half that of rails, so it is desirable to
use as long rails as possible.
• Wear and tear of vehicles is decreased
and comfort of the passengers in
increased by the longer rails (as the
number of blows experienced at the joints
by a moving vehicle are diminished).

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Length of Rail
The length of the rail is however governed by
• Lengths, which can be produced at reasonable
cost by the manufacturer.
• Handling
• Transportation
• If a defect is found in a rail, a much longer length
has to be wasted in renewal than in case of
short rails.

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Length of Rail
• In Pakistan, the length of the rail used is
20’ –42’.
• The standard lengths of rails are 42’ for
BG and 39’ for MG track.
• The shortest length of the rail, which may
be used in the track, is that, which is not
shorter than the distance between two
adjacent axles which is 12 ft.

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Fish Plates
• The function of a fish plate is to hold two
rails together accurately, evenly and firmly
in place with reference to surface and
alignment.
• It absorbs the blows which the ends of
rails receive when the wheel negotiate the
gap at the joints.
• The material used for making the fish
plates is same as that of rails.
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Fish Plates
• The shape of the fish plate is such that
they fit under the side of rail head and on
top of rail foot.
• Fish plates are designed such that it gives
maximum support to the rail ends and also
allow the free expansion and contraction
of the rails.
• For this reason the contact surface of the
fish plate and the rails are cleaned and
lubricated. 24
Fish Plates
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Details of Fish Plate
• The length of the fish plate is 18”.
• Two fish plates are used at each joint, one on
each side of the rail
• Fish plates are usually provided with 4 holes.
• Spring washers are used to prevent the bolts
from getting loose.
• Diameter of 1 bolt,  = 1”
Diameter of hole in fish plate, f = 1” + 1/16”
• Diameter of hole in rail, r = 1” + ¼ ”
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Spring Washer
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 Requirements of Fish Plate
• It should hold the two rails at the same
level and in the same straight line
• It should permit easy change of rail
whenever this may be necessary.
• It should as far as possible has same
strength and same stiffness as that of rail.
• Their shape should be such that free
movement of rail for expansion or
contraction should not be checked.
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FISH PALTES

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Types of Joints
• w.r.t position of joints on track
• w.r.t position of sleepers
Types of joints w.r.t position of joints on
track
• Square Joints
• Staggered Joints

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Square Joint
• When the joint in one rail is exactly
opposite to the joint in the other parallel
rail, it is called square joint.
• It is common in straight tracks.
• On curves, the centrifugal force, tend to
push the track out and at the joint effect is
more, resulting kinks.

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Staggered Joint
• When joint in one rail is not exactly
opposite to the joints of the other parallel
rail, then it is called staggered joint. The
joint of one rail is kept facing the center of
the opposite rail.

• With staggered joints, the number of

hammer blows at the joints are doubled
but the intensity is halved.

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Staggered Joint
• On curves, staggered joints are preferred
since it not only reduces the possibility of
kink formation but also reduces the vertical
movement of wheels at the joints.

• The number of sleepers is also increased

by one in case of staggered joints.

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Types of joints w.r.t position of Sleepers

• Supported Joints
• Suspended Joints
• Bridge Joints

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Supported Joint
• When the joint is directly supported over
the sleeper, it is called supported joint.
• Only one sleeper is supporting the joint.
• Sometimes, an elastic pad is fixed
between the rails and sleepers to absorb
the shocks.

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Supported Joint
• If a long bearing plate 3’6” or 4’ is used,
then three sleepers may be used to
support the joint.
• The objection to this is, if any of outer
sleeper get loose undue load will be on the
central sleeper and if central sleeper get
loose it will be converted into a very weak
suspended joint.

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Supported and Suspended
Joints

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Suspended Joint
• In suspended joints, the ends of the rails
are suspended between the two sleepers.
• The load is distributed equally between the
two sleepers.

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Suspended Joint

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Bridge Joint

• Bridge joint is similar to the suspended

joint but the foot of the rails at the end is
supported on a bridge or length of metal,
which rest on the two sleepers.

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BRIDGE JOINT

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Wear of the Rails
Wear of the rails may be divided into three
categories
• Wear on top or head of rail
• Wear at the ends of rail
• Wear on the sides of head

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Wear on top or Head of Rail

• The top surface of rails gets direct impact

of the load from the wheels and hence
abrasion and corrosion add to the wearing
of surface.
• Sometimes the metal from the top flow
towards the sides and if it projects towards
the gauge end it disturb the gauge.
• A head of the rail becomes worn due to
abrasive action of the moving wheel.
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Wear on top or Head of Rail

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 Wear on Top or Head of Rail
• Impact of the moving load due to which head of
rail gets battered and chipped.
• Grinding action of sand or dust particles
between the wheels and the rails
• During starting or stopping of train. At time if
starting wheel are just slipping, the metal in the
rail head is burnt due to much heat or when
brakes are applied and sliding takes place wear
occurs.
• Wear is also increased by any looseness
between rails and sleeper and also due to loose
packing of ballast.
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 Wear on top or Head of Rail
• Gradient especially with curves the
resistance is very much increased.
• Corrosion of rails on tracks adjoining to
sea and corrosion due to the action of the
acids contained in the refuse falling from
the trains, reduce the section of the rail.
Remedy
• Use special alloy steel.
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Wear on the sides of Head

This type of wear occurs along curved tracks.

• On curves, due to centrifugal force the gauge
end face of the outer rails is rubbed by the
flanges.
• Also the vehicle on the curve, do not bend to the
shape of curvature. The head of the outer rail
bends towards the gauge face therefore is hit by
the flanges of the wheels
• On curve, the outer wheel has to cover more
distance but since wheel are rigidly fixed so
inner wheel slides over the rail causing the wear
of the rail.
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WEAR ON THE SIDE OF HEAD

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Remedies

• Use curves with larger radii if possible.

• Lubricating the side of the rail head
• Exchange of inner and outer rails on the
curves
• If the curves are sharper than 8 degrees in
BG Use check rails and for MG 14
degrees or above. The flange of the wheel
is between the main rail and check rail so
check rail will be worn out.
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Wear at the end of Rails

• This type of wear will be at the joints due to

hammer blows which the end of the rail receives
when the wheel jumps the gap between the two
rails.
• Also the ends of the rails are battered.
• The surface of contact between rails and
sleepers are worn and the effect of blow is
increased.
Remedy
• Proper maintenance of joints
• Make the fitting tight
• Minimize the joints
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Measuring wear of rails
Rail wear is determine by
• By measuring the actual weight and
comparing it with the standard weight.
• Profile of worn out rail is compared with
the standard profile. The reduction in the
cross-sectional area compared to the
original x-sectional area to obtain % loss
of weight.

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Rail Corrugations
• Sometimes due to defects in laying out of the
track or due to poor maintenance of the track, or
due to steep gradient resulting in sudden
application of brakes, the head of the rails
develop a wavy surface. Rails which develop
this defect are called corrugated rails.
• When train passes over such rails a roaring
noise is created and for this reason these rails
are known as roaring rails.

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Locations of Rail Corrugations
These defect generally develop in the following
rails locations
• At starting and termination point of the track due
to braking action.
• In long tunnels due to presence of humidity
• On yielding formations or rails laid on soft
material like brick ballast.
• The only remedy for rail corrugation is to grind
the corrugation with special machines.

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Hogging of Rails
• The battering action of the wheel over the
ends of the rails results in the rails getting
bent and deflected at the ends.
• The loose packing under the joint or the
loose fish plates are primarily responsible
for the development of this defect.

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Hogging of Rails
To rectify this defect any of the following
may be adopted
• Cutting of the end of the rail by power saw.
• Replacing the hogged rail by the new one.
(Uneconomical)
• The worn out ends of the rails may be
improved by welding.
• By use dehogging machine.
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Buckling of Rails

• When the expansion joint is inadequate or the

joint is very tight, free movement of the rails due
to temperature changes is prevented. This result
in the rails gets buckled.
Remedial measures to prevent buckling
• Joint should not prevent expansion and
contraction of rails
• The surface of contact between fish plates and
rails should be lubricated.
• If rails are welded either steel sleepers should
be provided or rails should be properly
anchored.
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Rail Failures
• Horizontal cracks- this defect occurs at the
rail ends where worn out fish plates are
used for joining or the ballast is not
properly packed.
• The crack develops due to shearing
stresses at the critical section. i.e the
junction between rail head and web.

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• Horizontal Fissures- it is caused due to
defective rail head. The rail develop
horizontal crack.

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 Rail Failures
• Split Web- this is horizontal crack between
the bolt holes in the web. It may be
propagated from the strained bolt hole.
The crack may be horizontal or vertical
radiating from the bolt hole.
• Transverse Fissures- this is a
manufacturing defect. It starts from the
centre of head and spread round the head.

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• Flow Metals in head- rail head get
widened as the metal is forced out.

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Rail Failures
• Split Head- this is also a manufacturing
defect indicated by a crack on the top.
• Crushed Head- head get sagged or
flattened. This is due to skidding, slipping
or due to weak end support.
• Square or angular crack- when rail breaks
through a vertical plane, the crack formed
is known as square or angular.

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SPLIT HEAD

SQUARE OR
ANGULAR CRACK
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 Creep of Rails
• Creep is the longitudinal movement of rails
in the track
Causes of Creep
• Wave motion set up in the track by a moving
train.
• Expansion and contraction of the rails due to
temperature.
• Starting, accelerating and slowing down or
stopping of a train. Rails of a track tend to creep
backward, when the train starts. Rails creep in
the forward direction when brakes are applied.

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 Creep due to Wave Motion
• Wave motion set up in the track by a
moving train. Portions of the rail
immediately under the wheels of the train
are depressed slightly due to load on the
wheels.

• As the wheels move, the depression move

with them, the previous depressed portion
springing back to their original level. This
wave motion tends to move the rail
forward with the train.
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 Creep due to Wave Motion
• The pitch and depth of the waves is
governed by the condition of the formation,
the stiffness of the track, the weight of the
rails, the spacing of the sleepers, the
quality and quantity of the ballast, the
condition of drainage and the standard of
maintenance.

• Creep is reduced by increased stiffness of

the track, stability of soil in formation and
angular ballast, which interlocks well and
reduce wave motion. 70
 Factors governing the Magnitude
and Direction of Creep
• Alignment of Track - Creep is found to be greater on
the curves than on straights.
• Grade of Track – Creep is found to be more on the
down grade.
• Direction of the heaviest traffic- For places connected
to seaport, wagons are carrying more load. Creep is
found to be more in the direction heavier wagons are
moving.
• Condition of Formation – Creep is more in the newly
constructed formation.
• Weight of the rail section – Creep is found more in the
lighter section.

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 Factors governing the Magnitude
and Direction of Creep
• Creep is not constant at a point nor it does
vary at a uniform rate
• Nor do the two rails of the track creep by
the same magnitude.
• The direction and magnitude of creep
cannot be predicted, both rails may creep
in one direction or in opposite directions.

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 Results of Creep
• Widening of gaps- at some places the rail
joints open beyond their limits and the
intensity of hammer blows increases
resulting in greater stresses in the fish
plates and bolts. At some places, joints get
jammed preventing the expansion, which
results in the buckling of the rail.
• The sleepers are moved out of square and
out of position and consequently the
gauge and alignment of the track is
disturbed. 73
 Results of Creep
• Points and crossings get distorted and it is
very difficult to keep them back to correct
gauge or to correct alignment.

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 Methods to correct Creep
• Pull Back Method
• Creep Anchors

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 Pull Back Method
• The track to be pulled back is inspected and the
extent of pulling back necessary at various
places is noted. The point from which to start is
also determined; usually the starting point is at
widely opened rail joints.
• Pulling back should be regulated in such a way
that rail joints are made central over the
sleepers. It is not enough obtain only the
necessary expansion gaps but also position of
one rail joint relative to the joint on opposite side
of the rail must also be maintained.
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 Pull Back Method
• Fish plates or fish bolts at one end of the
rail are removed and at the other end are
loosened. Fittings, which hold the rail with
sleepers are also made loose. The rail is
then pushed backed by using a lever rod.

• Mechanical devices are also used for this

purpose.

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Creep Anchors or Anti Creepers
• After pulling back, there is no guarantee that the
rails will not creep again. Infact, they start
creeping immediately after pulling back.
• Creep is prevented or reduced by devices
known as anchors or anti-creepers. Anchors are
fastened to the foot of the rail by means of
spring grip and bear against the side of the
sleepers. When the rails tend to creep, they
have to drag the sleepers also through the
ballast and the ballast offer sufficient resistance
to prevent the creep of rails.
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 Number of Creep Anchors
• Minimum no = 2 in one rail panel
• Maximum no = 2 * No of sleepers in one
rail panel
• Creep anchors should resist the stresses
due to the creep of the rails.

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CREEP ANCHORS

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 Bearing Plates
• They are simply the metallic plates. They
are placed between the foot of the rail and
sleepers, in-order to minimize injury to the
wooden sleeper.
Functions of Bearing Plates
• Protect the wooden sleeper
• Distribute the load over wider area of the
wooden sleeper
• Reduce the maintenance
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 Bearing Plates
• The shape of the bearing plate is
rectangular, made of mild steel, cast iron
or wrought iron.
• The size of the bearing plate is 9” * 10 ” *
3/8”.
• It has 4 holes for spikes.

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