DRAFT Handbook for

Code of practice for structural

use of steel 2011
published by the Joint Structural Division,
The Hong Kong Institution of Engineers &
The Hong Kong Institute of Steel Construction

S.L. Chan and S.S.H. Cho

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
J.C.K. Iu
Department of Civil Engineering,
The Queensland University of Technology, Australia

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 Forewords

In 2002, a contract was initiated by the Buildings Department of the Hong Kong SAR
Government to draft a limit state design code for steel structures used in Hong Kong SAR
region. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and Ove Arup and Partners (Hong Kong)
Limited by then jointly formed a joint venture to bid for the project which was awarded in
July of the same year. The first author was involved as one of the principal consultants of this
project and this book is written with an aim of assisting the users of the Code of which the
official name is “Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005/2011” published by the
Buildings Department of the Hong Kong SAR Government. The code can also be
downloaded at web
http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/index_crlist.html.

This book is written for use with the Code of Practice for the Structural Uses of Steel
Hong Kong 2005 and 2011 versions (The HK Code) which are under the direction of a
modern limit state design philosophy, the simulation-based design (SBD) concept which is
actually embedded in the second-order direct and advanced analysis referred in many other
national codes. SBD makes use of the first and second variation of the energy principle for
checking of strength and stability and it encompasses various non-linear analyses but
excludes the first-order linear, rigid plastic and elastic P--only second-order direct analyses.
Undoubtedly, this book is not only a design text, it is also written in the hope as a guidebook
on the use of second-order direct and advanced analysis to any code with provision of second-
order direct analysis. To the authors’ knowledge, a comprehensive design guide on the
codified use of second-order direct analysis is not yet available. When using the SBD, the
simple difference between various codes will be on the use of imperfection factors and
notional forces or other means of disturbance. This argument is based on the fact that full
second-order direct analysis in all codes are to reflect structural behaviour and SBD as a
realistic simulator in second-order effect, practically fit the bill. This feature cannot be
established when the codes are prescriptive and the formulae are empirical.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the supports by the Research Grant Council of
the Hong Kong SAR Government for drafting of this handbook which has incorporated the
valuable comments by the advisory committee of the Joint Structural Division of the Hong
Kong Institution of Engineers in year 2014 to 2016 below:

Ir CHAN Chi-kong, Ir Edward CHAN Sai-cheong, Ir Kenneth CHAN, Ir Jacky CHIONG

Kam–yueng, Ir Prof KUANG Jun-shang, Ir CHAN Siu-tack, Ir Paul LEE Kai-hung, Ir Paul
TSANG Sau-chung, Ir Prof Paul PANG Tat-choi, Ir LAU Chi-kin, Ir Dr Eddie LAM Siu-shu,
Ir Jenny Lau, Ir Paul LEE, Ir Prof Andrew LEUNG, Ir LAM King-kong, Ir Benny LAI Siu-
lun, Ir Ken NG Kin-shing, Mr. Simon Pang, Ir Thomas WONG, Ir Albert LEUNG Wing-
keung, Ir LEUNG Kwok-tung, Ir LUI Yuen-Tat, Ir Johnny SHING, Ir Martin TSOI Wai-tong,
Ir Ben TSE Wai-keung, Ir TSE Kam-leung, Ir Dr. Simon WONG and Ir Prof. Ben YOUNG.

Cover: MGM Spectacular Roof under construction, Macau, 2015.

Developer: MGM Macau ; Main consultant : Siu Yin Wai and Associates ; Contractor : China State
Construction Limited ; Structural steelwork designer : Drs. SL Chan and YP Liu.

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 Table of content
Page
Chapter 1 Introduction to limit state design ................................................. 8
1.1 Background ................................................................................ 8
1.2 Scope of this book ...................................................................... 8
1.3 Aim of structural design .............................................................. 9
1.4 Limit state design...................................................................... 10
1.4.1 Ultimate limit state ............................................................. 11
1.4.2 Serviceability limit state ..................................................... 11
1.5 Load and resistance factors ..................................................... 12
1.6 Structural integrity and robustness ........................................... 13
1.7 Progressive and disproportionate collapse ............................... 13
Chapter 2 Steel as Engineering Material ................................................... 15
2.1 Materials ................................................................................... 15
2.2 Grades of steel ......................................................................... 16
2.3 Designation system .................................................................. 17
2.4 Residual stress ......................................................................... 18
2.5 Chemistry of steel ..................................................................... 19
2.6 Strength .................................................................................... 21
2.7 Resistance to brittle fracture ..................................................... 21
2.8 Ductility ..................................................................................... 22
2.9 Weldability ................................................................................ 22
Chapter 3 Framing and Load Path ............................................................ 24
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 24
3.2 Common types of steel frames ................................................. 24
3.3 Typical lateral force resisting systems ...................................... 25
3.3.1 Simple construction ........................................................... 26
3.3.2 Continuous construction .................................................... 26
3.3.3 Braced frames ................................................................... 26
3.4 Load sharing ............................................................................. 27
3.4.1 Live, dead and wind loads ................................................. 28
3.4.2 Load distribution ..................................................................... 29
Chapter 4 Section Classification and Local Plate Buckling ....................... 35
4.1 Introduction of local plate buckling ........................................... 35
4.2 Cross section classifications ..................................................... 36
4.3 Limiting width-to-thickness ratio ............................................... 38
4.3.1 Effective width method ...................................................... 39
4.3.2 Effective stress method ..................................................... 42
4.3.3 Finite element method ....................................................... 42
4.4 Worked examples ..................................................................... 43
4.4.1 Section classification of rolled universal I-beam ................ 43
4.4.2 Effective width method for hot-rolled RHS under uniform
compression .................................................................................... 44
4.4.3 Effective stress method of slender section ........................ 46
4.4.4 Effective section modulus of rolled H-section .................... 47
Chapter 5 Tension Members ..................................................................... 48
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 48
5.2 Tension capacity....................................................................... 48
5.3 Eccentric connections............................................................... 49
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 5.3.1 Single angle, channel and T-sections................................ 50
5.3.2 Double angles, channels and T-sections ........................... 50
5.4 Non-linear analysis for asymmetric sections ............................ 50
5.5 Worked Examples .................................................................... 51
5.5.1 Tension capacity of plate ................................................... 51
5.5.2 Tension capacity of unequal angle .................................... 52
5.5.3 Tension capacity of angle bracings ................................... 53
5.5.4 Tension member with channel connected by welding ....... 54
Chapter 6 Restrained and Unrestrained beams ............................................. 55
6.1 Introduction and uses of beam member ................................... 55
6.2 In-plane bending of beams ....................................................... 56
6.2.1 In-plane bending of laterally restrained beams .................. 57
6.2.2 In-plane elastic analysis of beams..................................... 59
6.2.3 In-plane plastic moment capacity of beams ...................... 59
6.2.4 Shear capacity of beams ................................................... 61
6.2.5 Interaction between shear and bending ............................ 63
6.2.6 Web bearing, buckling and shear buckling ........................ 63
6.2.7 Serviceability limit state considerations ............................. 64
6.3 Design procedure for in-plane bending of beams ..................... 66
6.4 Worked examples ..................................................................... 69
6.4.1 Simply supported beam under mid-span point load .......... 69
6.4.2 Design of a cantilever ........................................................ 71
6.4.3 Design of beam in two way floor........................................ 73
6.4.4 Design of beam at the one way typical floor system.......... 75
6.5 Design of unrestrained beams .................................................. 77
6.5.1 Elastic Lateral-Torsional buckling of beams ...................... 78
6.5.2 Buckling resistance moment ............................................. 79
6.5.3 Normal and Destabilizing loads ......................................... 80
6.5.4 Effective length in an unrestrained beam .......................... 80
6.5.5 Equivalent uniform moment factor mLT .............................. 82
6.6 Design procedures of unrestrained beams ............................... 84
6.7 Worked examples ..................................................................... 85
6.7.1 Moment resistance of hot-rolled and welded sections ....... 85
6.7.2 Beam under double curvature ........................................... 87
6.7.3 Over-hung Beam ............................................................... 89
6.7.4 I-section beam with intermediate restraints ....................... 92
6.7.5 Cantilever without intermediate restraint ........................... 95
6.7.6 Cantilever with intermediate restraint ................................ 97
6.7.7 Simply support I-beam ...................................................... 98
Chapter 7 Compression Members .......................................................... 100
7.1 Introduction and uses of compression member ...................... 100
7.2 Behaviour of compression members ...................................... 102
7.2.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 102
7.2.2 Buckling of imperfection columns .................................... 105
7.2.3 Perry-Robertson formula for column buckling ................. 108
7.3 Compression strength and buckling curves ............................ 109
7.3.1 Effective length ................................................................ 110
7.3.2 Slenderness ratio ............................................................ 115
7.3.3 Buckling strength pc and buckling resistance Pc ............. 115
7.4 Design procedures of compression member .......................... 116

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 7.5 Worked Examples .................................................................. 118
7.5.1 Compression resistance of restrained column................. 118
7.5.2 Compression resistance of column in the portal frame.... 119
7.5.3 Compression member in the braced multi-storey frame .. 121
7.5.4 Compression member in unbraced multi-storey frame .... 123
7.5.5 Column with circular hollow section in Chinese steel ...... 126
7.5.6 Compression resistance of slender welded column ........ 128
Chapter 8 Beam-columns ....................................................................... 130
8.1 Introduction to beam-columns ................................................ 130
8.2 Behaviour for combined tension and biaxial bending ............. 132
8.2.1 Yield surface of tension members ................................... 132
8.2.2 Design procedures for stocky beam-columns ................. 136
8.3 Worked Examples .................................................................. 137
8.3.1 Combined tension and bending of angle beam ............... 137
8.4 Beam-columns under tension and lateral-torsional buckling .. 139
8.5 Design procedures of unrestrained beam-column .................. 140
8.6 Worked Examples ................................................................. 141
8.6.1 Bending about two axes of an I beam ............................. 141
8.6.2 Cantilever beam bent about two axes ............................. 143
8.7 Sectional strength under compression and bending ............... 146
8.8 Buckling strength under biaxial bending ................................. 148
8.8.1 Cross section capacity .................................................... 148
8.8.2 Overall buckling resistance ............................................. 148
8.9 Design procedures of compression and bending ................... 151
8.10 Worked Examples .................................................................. 153
8.10.1 Column in simple frame ................................................... 153
Chapter 9 Connections ........................................................................... 156
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 156
9.2 Connection behaviour in strength, stiffness and ductility ........ 159
9.3 Welded connection ................................................................. 161
9.3.1 Weld process.................................................................. 161
9.3.2 Electrodes ....................................................................... 162
9.3.3 Types of welds ................................................................ 162
9.3.4 Welding symbols ............................................................. 163
9.3.5 Structural design of fillet welds ........................................ 166
9.4 Worked Examples .................................................................. 174
9.4.1 Simple welded connection ............................................... 174
9.4.2 Bracket connection in typical portal frame ....................... 176
9.5 Bolted connection ................................................................... 178
9.5.1 Bolt grades ...................................................................... 180
9.5.2 Spacing and detailing requirements ................................ 180
9.5.3 Behaviour of bolted connections ..................................... 180
9.5.4 Design of ordinary non-preloaded bolts........................... 186
9.5.5 Design of high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts ........... 190
9.6 Worked Examples .................................................................. 195
9.6.1 Beam-to-beam connection by single fin plate .................. 195
9.6.2 Typical extended plate for beam to column connection... 197
9.7 Base plate .............................................................................. 200
9.7.1 Column base under concentric force ............................... 200
9.7.2 Column base under eccentric force ................................. 201

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 9.7.2.1 Column base under small eccentricity with e  d/6 .. 202
9.7.2.2 Column base under large eccentricity with e>d/6 ..... 203
9.8 Worked Examples .................................................................. 204
9.8.1 Base plate subjected to eccentric load case ................... 205
9.8.2 Column base subjected to different loading conditions ... 206
9.8.2 Connection at base of space frame ................................. 209
9.9 Bearing and buckling of webs ................................................. 212
9.9.1 Bearing capacity .............................................................. 212
9.9.2 Buckling resistance ......................................................... 213
Chapter 10 Second-order Direct and Advanced Analysis of Structures .... 214
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 214
10.2 Background ............................................................................ 214
10.3 Methods of analysis ................................................................ 216
10.3.1 Types of Analysis................................................................ 220
10.3.2 Formulation for Nonlinear Numerical Methods ................ 233
10.3.2.3 .................................................................................. 238
10.3.3 Convergence criteria ....................................................... 241
10.4 Imperfections .......................................................................... 242
10.4.1 Frame imperfections ........................................................ 242
10.4.2 Member imperfections ..................................................... 246
10.5 The effective length method ................................................... 248
10.5.1 Non-sway frame .............................................................. 248
10.5.2 Sway-sensitive frames .................................................... 250
10.5.3 Sway ultra-sensitive frames ............................................ 251
10.6 Examples ................................................................................ 252
10.6.1 Simple benchmark example for testing of software ............ 252
10.6.2 Structural analysis of the portal frame ............................. 256
10.6.3 Sway and non-sway frame .............................................. 259
10.6.4 Leaning column portal ..................................................... 264
10.6.5 Braced and unbraced frames .......................................... 266
10.6.6 3-Dimensional steel building ........................................... 269
10.6.7 Slender frame in practice .................................................... 274
11 References .................................................................................... 276

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Chapter 1 Introduction to limit state design

1.1 Background

Code of Practice for the Structural Uses of Steel Hong Kong (abbreviated as
HK Code in this book) was published and released by the Buildings Department in
replacement of the British Standard BS5950 (1990) used in Hong Kong. This book
describes the use of HK Code but the final interpretation should follow clauses in the
HK Code rather than in this book.

In modern steel structural design, computer software is commonly used even

though we always advocate double-checking by hand as well as analysis method
using physical models to study the structural behaviour for checking, scheming and
framing. In HK Code and this guidebook, the structural analysis and design software
NIDA Version 9 (2015) or above is used, which fullfills the requirements included in
the code. For example, the member imperfection in Table 6.1 of HK Code or Table
5.1 in Eurocode 3 (2005) can be input explicitly in NIDA Version 9 while such option
is not available in most other software available in the market, thus greater caution
should be given if such software is to be used.

1.2 Scope of this book

This book describes the design of hot-rolled steel sections and cold-formed
steel hollow sections. It covers mainly building structures. Other types of structures
and other common structural forms as referenced by other supporting building codes
are also admitted in this guidebook to help the readers achieve a more economical and
safer design.

Structural elements in a steel structure refer to members designed and

constructed to assist the structure in resisting external loads. This book encompasses
the design of steel structures against safety and serviceability or the ultimate and
serviceability limit state design. This book is aimed for a basic guide for engineers
involved in the design and it covers the modern system based design based on second-
order direct nonlinear analysis as well as conventional first-order linear analysis and
design using the effective length method.

A detailed coverage of all topics in steel structure design is not only

impossible in the length of a single book, it also impairs its readibility. Therefore, this
book provides some of the most basic information and guidance on structural design
of hot-rolled steel sections, cold-formed steel hollow sections and structures. A more
in-depth design of various specific and specialist structures may still require the
engineers to carry out research and studies on the topic. For example, the design of
specialist scaffolding system may involve the assessment and subsequent assumption
of joint stiffness of sleeve between scaffolding modules which can be found in other

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design codes such as BS EN 12810 and relevant research papers. They are not within
the scope of this book.

1.3 Aim of structural design

The aim of structural design is to produce a structure of adequate level of

safety and serviceability during its design life with a satisfactorily low probability of
violating the limit states. The structure should be fit for its intended usage during its
design life,which is generally taken as 50 years for “permanent” structures. For
temporary structures and more sensitive structures may respectively require a higher
and lower probability of failure and a shorter and longer length of design lives. For
example, the design life of temporary structures can be much shorter than for
permanent structures because the chance of having a wind speed greater than wind
over 50 year return period is smaller when a structure is only used for, say, 2 years as
temporary structures. Also, the chance of having accidentally large live load is
reduced.

As stated in Clause 1.2.1 of HK Code, the explicit aims of structural design

are made as follows.

a) Overall Stability against overturning, sliding or global buckling under the

design loads.
b) Strength against collapse under normal loads and imposed deformations
and during construction with an acceptable level of safety.
c) Integrity, ductility and robustness against abnormal loads from extreme
events without suffering disproportionate collapse, in which alternative
load paths may be established.
d) Fire resistance.
e) Serviceability under all normal loads and imposed deformations.
f) Durability.
g) Maintainability during its design working life.
h) Buildability.
i) Economy: The structure should fulfill the above requirements in an
economical manner.

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1.4 Limit state design

The limit state design (LSD) was first introduced and became widely used
around early 80’s and it is aimed to make sure the factored resistance greater than
factored design load as,
R   l F (1.1)

in which andl are respectively the resistance and load factors, R is the resistance
of the structure and F is the external load.

It may be useful to make a reference to the older design philosophy. In

contrast to LSD, allowable stress design code (ASD) is an old design code which
controls stress only and it becomes more difficult to apply to large and slender
structures where safety is not controlled solely by stress, but also by stability. As ASD
applies the factor of safety to material yield stress such as multiplying the yield stress
by a material factor, its control of safety in a structure failed predominantly by
buckling becomes complicated and inconsistent. ASD cannot control the variation of
loads in a simple manner and it is becoming less used in practice.

There are mainly two limit states, namely the ultimate and the serviceability
limit states. Ultimate limit state (ULS) is arrived when a structure fails or becomes
incapable of taking the loads. Serviceability limit state (SLS) is a limiting state when
the structure is unfit for use by the users of the structure. For obvious economical
reason, the engineer does not impose the same margin of arriving at a particular limit
state and this margin or factor of safety depends on the consequence of reaching the
limit state. As the consequence for ultimate limit state, which implies structural
failure, the load factors as a means of controlling the safety margin are normally
larger than the factors for serviceability limit state, with the exception that a smaller
load factor is on the favourable side such as overturning. Table 2.1 of HK Code
reproduced below shows various limit states under these two principal categories. The
use of factors of safety as load and material factors is to account for the variation in
different aspects of structural deficiency such as,

Load and material properties variation

Fabrication and erection minor errors in shop and on site
Connection detailing
Design and analysis assumptions and
Rolling and fabrication tolerance

Ultimate limit states (ULS) Serviceability limit states (SLS)

Strength (including general yielding, Deflection
rupture, buckling and forming a
mechanism)
Stability against overturning and Vibration
sway stability
Fire resistance Wind induced oscillation
Brittle fracture and fracture caused Durability
by fatigue
Table 1.1 Limit states

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1.4.1 Ultimate limit state

As its name implies, ultimate limit state (ULS) refers to the ultimate strength
and stability of a structure against failure and thus it adopts a larger factor of safety
through the load factor in the design. Recognizing that loading and material properties
are probabilistic based, the design ensures a smaller probability of violation of the
limit state through the use of larger load factors. Table 4.4 of HK Code indicates
various values of partial load factors used.

1.4.2 Serviceability limit state

A structure becomes unfit for use when one or more limit state is violated. The
common serviceability limit state includes the deflection and deformation, vibration,
repairable damage due to fatigue and corrosion and durability not leading to
immediate collapse.

1.4.2.1 Deflection limit state

Deformation is commonly considered as an intolerable serviceability limit
state. It affects the cracking of finishes, makes occupants uncomfortable and it is also
used as a means of preventing vibration. Normally unfactored live and wind loads are
used for the calculation of deflection. Typical and suggested deflection limits are
given in Table 5.1 of HK Code. Deflection limits of tall buildings are more related to
the comfort of occupants and the following section shows the acceleration limits for
tall buildings.

1.4.2.2 Vibration limit state

Excessive vibration leads to human discomfort. Worst of all, resonance leads
to a structural response in phase with exciting disturbance such as wind or machine
vibration for which the consideration should be under the ultimate limit state. In HK
Code, the table under Section 5.3.4(b) gives recommended limiting peak acceleration
in a high-rise building. Alternatively, the present HK Code provides simple frequency
check whilst the ISO (2003) gives the acceleration limit as a function of the structural
natural frequency which is a more complicated means of assessing human response
due to building vibration.

1.4.2.3 Human-induced vibration

Long span floors and beams may be susceptible to human induced vibration.
A conservative prevention of the occurrence is to design a beam to have a natural
frequency greater than 5 Hertz. The newer version of the HK Code lowers this
requirement to 3 Hertz. For more detailed study of beam vibration, ISO (2003) or
other guides should be referred.

1.4.2.4 Corrosion and durability

Other serviceability limit states include fatigue, corrosion and durability. Steel
will rust and corrode only in the presence of oxygen and water and therefore steel
burry one meter below ground normally has no problem in corrosion because of lack
of oxygen. When under bad environmental condition such as chlorides near sea and
sulphide in industrial area, corrosion is more serious.

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 Careful detailing prevents corrosion in many occasions such as prevention of
ponding and debris trap.

To prevent corrosion leading to early structural defects, the expected design

life is estimated and coating, painting, galvanizing, cathodic protection, coverage by
concrete or use of thicker section plate thickness can be considered. In general,
painting and application of protection measures are best to be done in shop rather than
on-site. However, this may not be possible for some applications such as protection of
corrosion around region of site weld. In assessing the degree of protection, the
environmental exposure condition and the ease of maintenance are required to be
considered. Table 5.2 and Clause 5.5.1.2 of the HK Code provide basic consideration
of these issues. Monitoring is sometimes important in confirming the assumption of
durability in steel members.

When metal is subject to repeated load, fatigue failure may occur. Design
methods for fatigue are based on the S-N curves such as the one indicated in Figure
2.1 of the HK Code.

Failure due to low cycle repeated loads of 10 to 100 cycles happens

occasionally in some structures like cranes and scaffolds. Inspection and scrapping of
old structures or their components may be needed as a management process for
prevention of unexpected failure.

1.4.2.5 Brittle fracture

Brittle fracture for steel may become important under the action of low
temperature, applied tension, thick steel plates and sudden change in stress and their
chance of occurrence may be reduced by proper detailing. The maximum thickness
formulae and tables under Clause 3.2 in the HK Code can be referenced in selecting
the maximun steel thickness.

1.5 Load and resistance factors

In the limit state design, loads are commonly amplified to account for load
variation and as a factor of safety. Load combination will be applied to cater for
various scenarios. The followings are common combined load cases for structural
design and Table 1.2 shows the load factors.

Load combination 1: Dead load, imposed load (and notional horizontal forces)
Load combination 2: Dead load and lateral load
Load combination 3: Dead load, imposed load and lateral load

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Load combination Load Type
(including earth, Dead Imposed Earth Wind Temperature
water and and
temperature loading water
where present) Gk Qk Sn Wk Tk
Adverse Beneficial Adverse Beneficial
1. dead and 1.4 1.0 1.6 0 1.4 - 1.2
imposed
2. dead and 1.4 1.0 - - 1.4 1.4 1.2
lateral
3. dead, lateral 1.2 1.0 1.2 0 1.2 1.2 1.2
and imposed
Table 1.2 Load factors for different load combinations

In the Table, the adverse and beneficial effects refer to a condition where loads
are exacerbating and assisting a structure against failure, such as vertical load at the
centre of a building will be beneficial against overturning.

1.6 Structural integrity and robustness

A new requirement is stipulated in the new codes like the Eurocode 3 (2005)
and the HK Code (2011). The implementation of the clauses here requires engineering
judgment and design experience. In essence, a structure should not have progressive
collapse when a single member fails. This can be done by provision of ties for general
and especially edge columns. Also connections should be designed to take tensile
force such that the failure of a lower column will be compensated by the column
above when the connection is able to take tension. To achieve this, Clause 2.3.4.3 of
HK Code should be referred.

1.7 Progressive and disproportionate collapse

Progressive collapse refers to failure leading to a sequence of element collapse

and disproportionate collapse is defined as collapse to an extent disproportionated to
the cause. In general, the checking should ensure local failure will not lead to global
collapse. A steel and steel-concrete composite structure or any structure should be
designed to avoid this occurrence. The checking should only be conducted using the
second-order direct analysis specified in Clauses 6.8 and 6.9 of the HK Code (2011)
using an authority approved software because of the important consequence of this
type of failue. The load factors could be taken as those recommended in other codes
below. The global collapse can be considered as failure of an area more than 15% of
the floor area or 70 m2 (whichever is less).

0.35 for dead load and 0.4 for live load with 1% of total loads as horizontal notional
force. Wind load is not required to be considered.

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 Tying members should be able to resist 75kN or 1% of the factored vertical
dead and imposed loads of the columns being tied in order to prevent the columns
being separated from the building or structure.

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Chapter 2 Steel as Engineering Material

2.1 Materials

What is steel? Steel is iron added with carbon with content close to 0,
corresponding to very slight amount to 2%. Carbon content has a significant influence
on the characteristics of the metal.

There are two major types of steel as alloy steels and non-alloy steels. Alloy
steel refers to chemical elements other than carbon added to the iron in accordance
with a minimum variable content for each. For example: 0.50% for silicon, 0.08% for
molybdenum, 10.5% for chrome. An alloy of 17% chrome and 8% nickel is used to
create stainless steel.

For iron or what we normally call low-carbon steel to-date, the carbon content
is less than 0.1%. For steel this content is between 0.1% and 2% and between 2.5%
and 6% for cast iron.

Material constitutes a very important component of a steel structure. The HK

Code covers the control of steel material up to 460 N/mm 2, with use of higher grade
steel based on a performance-based approach. Because Hong Kong is an international
city, it accepts steel from various countries of greater population size and reputation in
making quality steel. These countries are Australia, China, Japan, Europe including
Britain and USA. Steel is commonly of type carbon or carbon-manganese steel (mild
steel), high strength low alloy steel and high strength, quenched and tempered alloy.
High strength, quenched and self-tempered alloy steel is not commonly used and will
not be further elaborated. Shown in Figure 2.1 is the common stress vs strain curve of
mild steel.

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 Stress Strain to failure

Strain at ultimate tensile strength

Yield

general necking ductile

elastic
elongation fracture

Strain

Figure 2.1 Stress vs. Strain Relationship for ductile steel

Irrespective of the grade of steel, the Young’s modulus of elasticity, Poisson

ration and coefficient of thermal expansion for all steel grades are the same as
follows.

E = 205 kN/mm2 (Young’s modulus)

 = 0.30 (Poisson’s ratio)
 = 14  10-6 /C (Coefficient of linear thermal expansion)

In accepting or rejecting the use of steel material, the mill certificate is

referred and various contents of chemical are inspected. Many elements must be
controlled below a certain percentage otherwise one or more properties in strength,
weldability, durability or ductility is not warranted.

2.2 Grades of steel

In general, we have the following common grades of steel. The design strength
is normally taken as the strength for the steel plate of thickness 16mm.

Low carbon or carbon-manganese steel (mild steel) like S275 of yield 275 N/mm2
High strength low alloy steels like S355 steel of yield 355 N/mm2
High strength, quenched and self-tempered alloy steel of yield 500 N/mm2
High strength, quenched and tempered alloy plates of yield 690 N/mm2
Alloy bars for tension only of yield 1000 N/mm2
High carbon hard-drawn wire for cables of yield 1700 N/mm2

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 Only the first two types of steel (i.e. Low carbon and High strength low alloy
steels of yield between 275 to 355 N/mm2) are commonly used because other steel
types are brittle, contain too high the carbon content and difficult to weld. These high
strength steels are more commonly used in some applications like bolts.

2.3 Designation system

In HK Code, steel grades from 5 countries are allowed to use but only the
European and the Chinese grade steels are tabulated on their resistance when used in
beams and columns. The commonly used grades like grade 43A and grade 50C are
replaced by S275 and S355J0 steel. Below is the summary of the symbol meaning.

Taking S355J0 as an example in the new system, the symbols (S in S355J0

here) in front of the steel grade are represented by S for structural steel and E for
engineering steel. The following number (355) refers to the minimum yield strength
in N/mm2 at steel plate thickness equal to 16mm. The next following letters refer to
the impact value as JR, J0 and J2 are respectively the longitudinal Charpy V-notch
impacts at 27 J and at 20C, 0C, -20C temperature while K2 refers to impact value of
40J at -200C. For some special steels like thick steel plates under stress in transverse
direction, additional property in the perpendicular direction to the surface is required
and this is specified as Z grade like Z25. The following table represents some of the
common conversions between the old and new system steels.

New Yield Tensile Charpy V-notch in Old

grade (N/mm2) (N/mm2) longitudinal direction grade
Temperature(0C) Energy
(J)
S185 185 290/510 / / /
S235 235 360/510 / / 40A
S235JR 20 27 40B
S235J0 0 27 40C
S235J2 -20 27 40D
S275 275 410/560 / / 43A
S275JR 20 27 43B
S275J0 0 27 43C
S275J2 -20 27 43D
S355 355 470/630 / / 50A
S355JR 20 27 50B
S355J0 0 27 50C
S355J2 -20 27 50D
S355K2 -20 40 50DD
E360 360 650/830 / / /
Note: The strength and energy are referred to steel plate of 16mm thickness.

Table 2.1 Comparison between the new and the old grading systems for steel

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2.4 Residual stress

During a rolling process at 2,300F, the steel section is rolled to a sectional

shape and during cooling, the heat dissipates but at a different rates making the
section to contain a residual stress. The fibre such as those in flanges cools faster will
be in compression when other parts cool slower and exert a contracting tensile force
on the cooled fibre. The residual stresses in a section are in a self-equilibrium state.
As the stress depends on E which is the same for all steel grades, the residual stress
affects lower grade steel than high grade steel. Also, as residual stress makes the steel
material to yield earlier, buckling of columns and beams is more affected by residual
stress and this explains why welded columns are weaker than rolled columns which
have a smaller residual stress. Generally speaking, the thicker a section, the larger its
residual stress and its pattern for rolled and welded I-sections is simplified as follows.

Flange
rc= 0.5py rc = 0.5py

rt = 0.4py

rt = 0.4py

rc = 0.3py Web

rt = 0.4py

Figure 2.2 Residual stress in a rolled I-section

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 Flange

rt = py

Web

Figure 2.3 Residual stresses in a welded I-section

Rolling creates residual stress but local welding also generates residual stress,
which can be a problem in welding of thick sections or flame-cutting of a section. The
pattern of residual stress in a welded section is indicated in Figure 2.3. Pre-heating or
heating in the region after welding in order to allow the zone to cool more uniformly
will reduce the residual stress. This process is necessary for welding of thick sections.

Cold straightening is a process of meeting the straightness requirement in

codes, but it will induce a residual stress in the section and also changing the grain
size of the section, making it to have a higher strength but lower ductility. This
explains why corners in a hollow section normally have higher strength and lower
ductility. Welding should be avoided in the area when cooling work took place.

2.5 Chemistry of steel

Carbon (or carbon-manganese) steel is normally referred to as mild steel. Its

composition is iron, carbon, manganese with restricted amount on phosphorus and
sulphur and their excess of which are detrimental to weldability and/or durability of

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steel. Increasing the content of carbon will improve the yield strength, but will
decrease the weldability and ductility. S275 belongs to this category of steel.

High strength low alloy steel was developed over the past 3 decades and it is
the most widely used steel grade. The strength of this steel material is increased by
lowering carbon but increasing other alloys contents so that the toughness, ductility
and strength can be improved. S355 steel belongs to this category of steel

High strength alloy steel quenched and tempered alloy steel is the commonly
used steel with highest strength. It is commonly available in the form of plates and the
high strength property is achieved by a combined lower carbon content replaced by
alloys and a quenching (rapid cooling) process. The steel is of very fine grain size and
very hard and therefore they are very suitable for making bolts and nuts where
hardness is very important in making rigid connection at the teeth and notch of the
threaded area of bolts and nuts. Tempering and re-heating improve the ductility and
other performance of steel. The steel material is very good for fabrication and
welding.

In control of weldability of steel in HK Code, the content of chemicals,

carbon, sulphur and phosphorus are limited. Carbon equivalent value given in
Equation (2.1) below should be satisfied and the carbon content should not be greater
than 0.24%, the sulphur and the phosphorus content should not be greater than 0.035
individually.

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 Table 2.2 Chemical content requirements in HK Code

2.6 Strength

The design strength shall be the minimum yield strength but not greater than
the ultimate tensile strength divided by 1.2. Steel grade number normally refers to the
approximate or nominal design strength and the alphabet refers to the resistance
against impact Charpy test. Thicker plates normally need a higher resistance against
impact Charpy test.

2.7 Resistance to brittle fracture

The minimum average Charpy V-notch impact test energy at the required
design temperature is specified in Clause 3.2 of HK Code. When thick steel is used or
when it is used in cold weather, the Charpy test will check whether or not the steel
material will exhibit brittle fracture. For example, in Table 3.7 of HK Steel Code, the
maximum thickness is specified as the steel material which can pass a Charpy test of
27J at a specified temperature.

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2.8 Ductility

The elongation on a gauge length of 5.65 S0 is not to be less than 15% where
S 0 is the cross sectional area of the section. Steel of low elongation cannot be used
because of lack of ductility prohibiting stress re-distribution. For example, stress
around an opening has a high stress concentration that steel material needs to
sufficiently ductile.

2.9 Weldability

Carbon increases the yield strength of steel, but reduces its weldability. In HK
Code, the carbon equivalent value (CEV) should not be greater than 0.48% and the
carbon content should not exceed 0.24%. The carbon equivalent value can be
calculated as follows.

Mn Cr  Mo  V Ni  Cu
CEV  C    (2.1)
6 5 15

The design strength py of steel is not constant even for the same grade of steel.
The thicker steel contains lower design strength because of residual stress which is
present when the materials in different locations of a steel section cool at a different
rate resulting in the building up of residual stress. For welded columns with design
strength below 460N/mm2, we need to reduce the design strength by 20N/mm2
because of greater residual stress. This reduction should further be increased to
30N/mm2 for higher steel grade. Web has greater design strength than flanges that
testing of steel strength may be taken from flange rather than from web for more
critical test. Table 2.3 below adopted from Clause 3.1.2 of HK Code shows the design
strength for steel specified in the British system.

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 Thickness less than or equal Design strength
to (mm) py (N/mm2)
S235 16 235
40 225
63 215
80 215
100 215
150 205
S275 16 275
40 265
63 255
80 245
100 235
150 225
S355 16 355
40 345
63 335
80 325
100 315
150 295
S460 16 460
40 440
63 430
80 410
100 400

Table 2.3 Design strength py of steel material

Design strength of steel grades from countries of China, Japan, Australia and
USA should be referred to HK Code.

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Chapter 3 Framing and Load Path

3.1 Introduction

Structures are erected to protect and support people, equipment etc like
buildings and to allow transportation like bridges. Different framing systems are
derived to achieve these aims under the consideration of economy, safety, speed of
construction and environment. The principle of designing a structure is to carry load
from gravity or from wind or seismic motion safely to the foundations. Failures due to
buckling, overturning type of instability, fracture and yielding should be avoided with
additional use of load and material factors to account for unexpected event and
variation in loads and material properties.

3.2 Common types of steel frames

For steel structures, engineers normally adopt the following frame systems.

Braced frames
Frames with shear or core wall
Moment frames like portal frames
Shell structures
Long span trusses systems and
Tension systems

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 Figure 3.1 Typical structural schemes

Depending heavily on the site condition and purpose of use, these systems
have their advantages and limitations. In essence, we need to have a stiffer and high
strength structural system to resist large forces, such as braces and shear walls to
resist wind loads and columns to resist large gravitational force from the weight of the
structure. The load paths should be clearly defined so that we visualize how loads are
transferred from slabs, beams to columns and foundations.

3.3 Typical lateral force resisting systems

A structure can be designed and constructed by using different lateral force

resisting systems. The connection design should follow the design assumption such as
one should design a connection to resist moment if a rigid moment joint assumption is
made in a frame design. On the other hand, the connection should be designed to
resist shear and direct force only if the connection is assumed as pinned. In this case,
the connection should further be designed to allow rotation with minimum moment
resistance.

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3.3.1 Simple construction

The concept of “simple construction” is to design the structure to be composed

of members connected by nominally pinned connections and the lateral forces are
then taken by other structural systems like bracings, shear walls and core walls. The
joints should be assumed not to take the moments in the design and sufficient ductility
is allowed. For example, we should use angle cleat bolted or fin plate connections at
webs to prevent the connection taking too much moment. The lateral force is taken by
a structurally independent system such as bracing system and shear wall so that the
frame is required to take vertical loads only.

3.3.2 Continuous construction

In continuous construction, the frame is to resist lateral force by moment

joints. The vertical and horizontal forces and moments are transferred between
members by moment connections. The disadvantages of this method include high
connection cost and larger member size. Very often, the lateral drift or deflection
quite easily exceeds the deflection limit or the frame is prone to sway. However, it
does not need an independent lateral force resisting system and thus save space and
cost of constructing these systems.

3.3.3 Braced frames

A steel frame can be stiffened laterally by addition of braces which resist the
loads by an efficient axial force system. This type of frames is normally lighter than
the continuous construction using the moment frames, but the frames require braces
which are not welcomed by occupants. Therefore, in many commercial and domestic
buildings, moment frames are preferred. For high framed structures beyond
approximately 10-storey high, the use of moment frames will become too expensive
with the very large member sizes and braced frames or frames with other lateral force
resisting systems like simple construction with shear walls are more commonly used.
The bracing can be replaced by other lateral stiffening systems like shear walls, core
walls and outriggers.

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 Figure 3.2 A braced frame

Either rigid or pinned joints can be assumed in braced frames and this affects
the moment and force distribution. For moment connections, the joints should have
sufficient rotational stiffness and moment capacity to transfer bending moment. For
pinned connections, the joints should be ductile and detailed to avoid taking of
moment. Rotational capacity of joints becomes more important here.

3.4 Load sharing

An important process for structural analysis and design is the assumption of

load sharing. Weight of human beings on a slab will be distributed to the supporting
beams and then transferred to columns and finally to foundation. The planned passing
of load will affect the member size, safety and finally economy of the structure and
therefore a sensible assumption should be made. The ductility of material and
robustness of framing system may assist to distribute load in order to prevent failure
due to local over-load but engineers should also need to assess load sharing. The
mechanism of transferring loads from one part of a structure to another is generally
termed as load path and a good structure normally has a clear load path for load
transfer.

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3.4.1 Live, dead and wind loads

Loads acting on the structural members in a building should be estimated at

the early stage of a structural design process. Very often, the architectural
requirements, locations and functions of the buildings are considered. Load estimation
is an important exercise in a design process for economy and safety.

Realistic and possible loads and load combinations should be considered in the
design life of a structure. In limit state design principle, loads are normally considered
as the maximum load expected to occur in the life span of a structure. In statistical
terms, characteristic loads have 95% probability of not being exceeded in a building
life. However, this statistical value is only an assumption or a concept since record
can hardly be obtained for many buildings which are different in function than those
constructed decades ago.

Structures are designed to take the loads, such as dead, live and wind loads
with a certain degree of confidence. Therefore, load estimation becomes an important
exercise in determining the member size or even the structural schemes. For common
steel buildings, the loads are transferred from slab panels to beam members and to
columns and foundations. For some special framing, the columns can be designed to
be in tension to hang the loads onto trusses at higher levels.

The load associated with the self-weight of the structure and its permanent
elements like concrete floor, self-weight of beam and column member, utilities and
finishes, is classified as dead load. Since dead load depends on the sizes of members
which is not known in advance, its magnitude is an estimation only. If a large
difference exists between the estimated and computed values of dead load, the
designer should revise the design again.

Variable loads that can be applied on or removed from a structure are termed
as live loads. Live loads included the weight of occupants, furniture, machine, and
other equipment. The values of live loads are specified by codes for various types of
buildings and they represent a conservative estimate of the maximum load, occurred
in the expected life of the structure.

Air motion or wind exerts pressure which may damage a structure. Since the
speed and direction of wind are varied, the exact pressure or suction applied by winds
to structures is difficult to assess accurately and they again are obtained by statistics.
Furthermore, the actual effect of wind on a structure depends on the wind velocity,
structure shape and surrounding configuration from ground profile and influence from
adjacent structures. Thus, wind coefficients are available to determine more precisely
the wind effect on structures. Values of wind coefficients for typical buildings are
available in wind codes and structures with special geometry may require a wind
tunnel test to determine accurately the wind coefficients. Wind tunnel test is
sometimes called for assessing the wind load on a structure and on foundations.

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3.4.2 Load distribution

The load w acting on the slab is generally assumed to be uniform, even though
we expect some non-uniformity of load can occur on a floor. However, for some
cases, the loadings can be so concentrated that the assumption is insufficiently
accurate. For instance, the weight of partition wall and machine rest only on a small
area and uniform load assumption is in gross error under this condition.

For uniform load w on slab resting on the supporting beam members, the load
distribution on beams follows the yield line pattern of the slab based on a plastic
collapse mechanism. At plastic collapse of the slab, the loads within the collapsed
portion of slab will be transferred to the connected beam as shown in Figure 3.3.
Therefore, the pattern of yield lines is assumed to be the same as the pattern of
loading shared by the connected beam members. The pattern of yield lines depends on
the types of boundary conditions and geometry of floor slab as shown in Figure 3.3(a)
for a general case. Also shown in Figure 3.3(b) is the deformed shape of floor
constructed from the yield lines of the slab. It can be visualized that beams on the
longer edges of the slab take greater loads as the same deflection at centre of the slab
causes larger moment and force at supports spacing across shorter span.

simply supported simply supported

Floor slab
simply supported
Continuous

Yield lines
Free

simply supported simply supported

a) Yield lines on floor slab for different support conditions b) Collapse mechanism based on yield lines

Figure 3.3 Pattern of yield lines of general cases

For simplicity, the yield line is assumed to be the angle bisector at the corner
of a slab, when assuming the supporting conditions of the floor slab are identical for
load sharing. The effect of actual boundary conditions of floor slab is ignored. For the
case of a one-way slab, the slab spans in one direction and it behaves like a beam
member with larger width. This assumption is normally made when the aspect ratio of
the floor is larger than two in which case the slab is narrow. Obviously, the one-way
slab assumption is made when the connection details or member stiffness vary
significantly, such as the stiffness of a pair of opposite beams is much greater than the
other pair of beams. Apart from this simple condition, a two-way slab is also
commonly assumed and designed as it is more economical and loads are shared by all

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four beams. The loads distributed to the supports are respectively illustrated in Figure
3.4(a) and (b) for one-way and two-way slab.

sup
sup p ort
p ort t
por
Load paths
sup

a) Load path on one-way slab b) Load path on two-way slab

Figure 3.4 Load paths in one-way slab and two-way slab

When the slab is square and supported by four beam members as shown by
solid lines in Figure 3.5, the loadings w (kN/m2) on the triangular collapsed portion of
slab spread to the beam members. Hence the beam is then subjected to a triangularly
distributed load as shown in Figure 3.5. This slab is then a two-way slab, where the
load spreads in both directions. The distribution is based on identical boundary
conditions, the spreading angle at the corner is 45 as indicated by the dotted lines in
Figure 3.5, which is also equivalent to the yield line pattern.

uniform pressure
per unit area, w

L/2
45

L
L
w
2

wL2 wL2
8 8

Figure 3.5 Square floor slab

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 In general, the length and width of floor slab are not equal such that L1  L2,
and the length L2 of floor slab is less than twice of the width L1 as shown in Figure
3.6. The load imposed on shorter beam member should also be triangular, whereas the
loading on longer beam is trapezoidal. The maximum unit distributed load on each
beam should be pressure w times the distance to beam L1/2, as wL1/2 (kN/m) and this
load sharing in a two-way slab is also considered as two way.

L1
w
2
wL12
8

L1

45 wL12
When L1 > L2/2 8
L2
L1/2
L1
w
2

wL1 L 2 wL12 wL1L2 wL12

 
4 8 4 8

Figure 3.6 Rectangular floor slab

Consider the case of a secondary beam dividing the slab discussed above into
two parts as shown in Figure 3.7, the length L2 of each floor slab is not greater than
twice the width L1. The load spreading on main beam along transverse direction still
remains trapezoidal. However, the loading distribution on the main beam in
longitudinal direction will comprise of two triangular distributed loads from the slab
and a point load transmitted by the secondary beam. Maximum distributed load on
each beam should also be wL1/2.

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 wL1
2
Secondary beam wL1 L2 wL12

4 8

L2

wL1 L2 wL12

4 8
L1 L1 When L1 > L2/2
2
wL1 L2 wL
 1

2 4
wL1
2

wL1 L2 wL12 wL1 L2 wL12

 
4 8 4 8

Figure 3.7 Two rectangular floor slabs

When the width L1 of floor slab is very short, which is commonly assumed
when the length L2 is longer than twice of the width L1 as shown in Figure 3.8, the
load is assumed to spread in a shorter direction and there will be no loading
distributed to shorter beam member because the triangular loads on the shorter beams
are small here. The floor slab is regarded as the one-way slab, which is convenient to
design. The yield line is simply a straight line dividing the floor slab into two equal
parts.

Consider another case of a panel being split by two secondary beams to

become three slabs as shown in Figure 3.9. The length L2 of each floor slab is longer
than twice of the width L1. Each slab becomes a one-way slab. In this case, the beam
supporting the dividing beams is considered as being loaded by point loads as shown
in Figure 3.9

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 wL1
2
wL1 L 2
4

L2

wL 1 L 2
4
When L1 < L2/2
L1

Figure 3.8 Floor slab of one-way slab

wL1
2
wL 1 L 2
4

L2

wL 1 L 2
When L1 < L2/2
4
L1 L1 L1
wL 1 L 2 wL1 L2
2 2

wL 1 L 2 wL1 L2
2 2

Figure 3.9 Combined one-way slab

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 The load on the floor is transferred to the beam member and then to column.
Loading on column should be the summation of reactions of the connected beam
members at each floor level. Alternatively, the axial loads on column can be simply
determined from the loaded area multiplied by pressure w as shown in Figure 3.10 for
different cases at various levels. In Figure 3.10, the loaded column is indicated by a
circle and loaded area is shaded. The load area supported by a column should be
obtained according to the load paths of connected beams discussed in the previous
sections.

Figure 3.10 Loading taking by columns in different floor systems

When the beam-column connection is designed as moment connection, the

moments from beam transmitted to the column should be considered. It is convenient
to design a simple structure, which implies all beam-column connections in a
structure are pinned. However, load eccentricity is required to be considered here.
Alternatively, when the moment connection allowing full transfer of moment is
assumed, the moment due to load eccentricity is not required to be considered.

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Chapter 4 Section Classification and Local Plate Buckling

4.1 Introduction of local plate buckling

When thin plates are in compression, local plate buckling may occur. The local
plate buckling resistance depends on the stress distribution along the plate, boundary
condition of the plate, material design strength, presence of ribs, if any, geometry of
the plate (i.e. width-to-thickness ratio) and initial imperfection in plates.

As it is uncommon to use hot rolled members with sections classified as

slender, HK Code only provides effective stress method for the local plate buckling
check and it refers to Chapter 11 for the effective width method. As the application of
the formulae in Chapter 11 is limited to 8mm thick plate, Clause 7.6 of HK Code
further refers to other literatures for the checking by the effective width method and
Eurocode 3 (2005) is considered as one of the literatures appropriate for checking of
hot rolled slender sections by the effective width method for plates thicker than 8mm.

Figure 4.1 Local plate buckling simulated by the NIDA-9, non-linear frame and
shell analysis and design software

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 In the HK Code, two types of elements are generally considered in classifying
for plate boundary condition, namely the internal and outstanding elements. Internal
elements refer to the plate elements or components with both longitudinal edges
supported by other plate elements such as webs of box or I-sections. Outstanding
elements refer to plate elements or components with only one edge supported by other
plate elements such as flanges of an I-section.

Figure 4.2 Internal and outstanding plate elements in an I-section

4.2 Cross section classifications

Plate buckling is controlled and classified by the breadth to thickness ratio

(b/t). Thicker plates or plates with smaller breadth are less likely to buckle than the
thinner plates or plates with larger breadth. Plates with stiffeners will reduce the
breadth by the distance between longitudinal stiffeners and thus increase the buckling
resistance. Transversely placed stiffeners are not effective in reducing the local plate
buckling resistance as they are unable to stiffen the long plate elements unless they
are very closely spaced.

In HK Code, the breadth is generally measured as the width of flange or webs

as in Figure 7.1 of the HK Code. There are 4 types of element class, being Class 1 for
plastic sections, Class 2 for compact sections, Class 3 for semi-compact sections and
Class 4 for slender sections. The graphical representation of the resistance of these 4
classes of element against member rotation is indicated in Figure 4.3.

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Class 1: Plastic Cross Sections
Plastic hinge can be developed with sufficient rotation capacity.

Class 2: Compact Cross section

Full plastic moment capacity can be developed but local buckling will
occur soon after the formation of plastic hinge. Thus, it is allowed to
possess a plastic hinge in an elastic design but it is not allowed to do
so when used in a plastic design. However, all members must be at
least compact cross sections when used in a plastic design.

Class 3: Semi-compact Sections

Extreme fiber may yield but local buckling prevents it from plastic
moment formation. Both Classes 3 and 4 cannot be used in plastic
design.

Class 4: Slender Sections

Sections under compression or bending that do not meet the limits for
Class 3 sections. The section may buckle before extreme fiber yields.

The purpose of the above classification is to calculate the load carrying capacity
of the structural members, which depends on the failure mode (yielding, buckling or
combined elasto-plastic buckling). For slender section in Class 4, the member
sectional properties or design strength shall be reduced to account for the local
buckling effect.
Moment Capacity Mc

Mp
My

Semi-compact Compact Plastic

Slender

Rotation 

Figure 4.3 Local buckling of various classes of plate element in sections

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4.3 Limiting width-to-thickness ratio

There are three main methods for the design of sections against local plate
buckling, namely the effective width method, the effective stress method and the
numerical finite element method. The effective width method is widely adopted in
newer design codes and the width of a section is reduced to an “effective” width. As it
sometimes depends on the stress and thus the load case so it is more tedious in general
applications but it is considered to be more economical. The effective stress method
reduces the design strength to account for local buckling and it is simpler to use. The
numerical finite element method is most exact but sometimes involves analysis expert
for an accurate solution.

The section classification is carried out by the limiting b/T ratio in Table 7.1
for non-RHS and non-CHS sections and Table 7.2 for RHS and CHS (RHS
Rectangular hollow sections and CHS Circular hollow sections). To unifying the use
of the equations to various steel grades, a parameter,   275 p y , is used to factor
the limiting ratio.

In the Tables 7.1 and 7.2, the stress ratio r1 and r2 are the stress ratios given in
Equations (4.1) to (4.4) as,

For typical H-sections with equal flange, r1 and r2 are determined as,
F
r1  c but - 1  r1  1 (4.1)
dtp yw
Fc
r2  (4.2)
Ag p yw

For typical RHS or welded box sections with equal flanges, r1 and r2 are
determined as,
Fc
r1  but - 1  r1  1 (4.3)
2dtp yw
Fc
r2  (4.4)
Ag p yw

where
Ag = gross cross-sectional area
d = web depth
Fc = axial compression (negative for tension)
pyw = design strength of the web (but pyw  pyf)
t = web thickness

For other sections such as unequal flange sections, the code should be referred
and for other complex shape sections, a finite element buckling analysis NIDA-9
(2015) can be used.

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4.3.1 Effective width method

4.3.1.1 Effective width of flange element under uniform compression

If the plate section of member is classified as Class 4 slender section
according to the above mentioned classification method, it represents the local plate
buckling may probably occur on the plate section. The effective section properties
should be evaluated such that the corresponding member resistance, such as section
modulus or cross-section area, can be computed accounting for the local plate
buckling effect.

In the evaluation of section properties for slender section, the effective width
of slender section including flange or web should be determined pursuant to Clause
11.3 of HK Code. There are two types of section. One is section, whose thickness is
between 1mm to 8mm, and the other is sheet profile, whose thickness ranges from
0.5mm to 4mm. When any thickness of the section is greater than 8mm, the effective
width method for such member section should accord to other literature or Eurocode 3
(2005). For hot-rolled member sections, their plate section is most likely classified as
section. In other case, the section type should be sheet profiles for floor decking, roof
and wall cladding commonly.

The type of section is only used in determination of effective width of flat

stiffened flange section under uniform compression. The stiffened and unstiffened
elements are defined by their support conditions. The internal element, which includes
internal flange or web, used in classification Tables 7.1 and 7.2 is same as stiffened
element named in Clauses 11.3 of HK Code. On the other hand, the outstand element,
which comprises outstand flange, should be equivalent to the unstiffened element.

It should be emphasized that the dimension of the plate section in Chapter 11

of HK Code is defined by the mid-line section in the subsequent effective width
method, which is disparate from the dimension of element section used in Section 7 of
HK Code according to Tables 7.1 and 7.2. When the slender hot-rolled section
properties are calculated based on the effective width method, which is a less
conservative approach for hot-rolled section, the dimension of element section should
be according to Tables 7.1 and 7.2 of HK Code.

After classification of section type, the determination of effective width should

also depend on the loading cases including uniform compression case and bending
case. In the following calculations of effective width of element are confined to the
flange element section under uniform compression. The effective width of element
under uniform compression is given as,
be  b (4.5)

where
  1 .0 when   0 .123 (4.6)

 
0.2
  1  14   0.35 
4
when   0.123 (4.7)
 

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and  is the stress ratio as given in Equation (4.8). When the stress ratio  is greater
than 0.123, it indicates the local plate buckling on the plate element is likely to occur.
f
 c (4.8)
pcr

in which fc and pcr are the applied compressive stress in the effective element and the
local buckling strength of the element respectively, in which the local buckling
strength of the element is given as Equation (4.9).
2
t 
pcr  0.904 EK   (4.9)
b

where E is elastic modulus of element, t and b are the net thickness and the width of
the element respectively and K is relevant local buckling coefficient depending on the
support conditions of flange element, such as stiffened and unstiffened element. It
should be noted that the gross section, such the width b and depth d, should be defined
by the mid-line dimension in Clause 11.3.1 of HK Code.

Equation (4.9) is the local buckling strength of the element, which is empirical
formula. For different element section types and support conditions, the local
buckling strength pcr of the element is also different relying on the different value of
relevant local buckling coefficient K. The unstiffened element, which is supported at
one edge, is more vulnerable to the local plate buckling by comparing with the
stiffened element, which is supported by both edges, as the supporting condition can
cater the additional section capacity of the section for post-buckling or load
redistribution effect. Therefore, the buckling coefficient K for stiffened flange element
under uniform compression can be precisely expressed as,
1.4h
K  5.4   0.02h 3 (4.10)
0.6  h

where h is equal to the ratio between depth of web dw and width of flange b, i.e.
h  d w b , dw is the sloping distance between the intersection points of a web and the
two flanges and b is the flat width of the flange. It should be pointed out that the
buckling coefficient K of stiffened flange element for sheet profiles is neglected
herein, because it is uncommon that the thickness of hot-rolled section is less than
4mm. Alternatively, the value of the buckling coefficient K should be conservatively
taken as 4.

When the flange element is restrained at only one edge, the unstiffened flange
element is prone to local plate buckling. The corresponding effective width for the
unstiffened flange element under uniform compression is written as Equation (4.11)
instead of purely basing on Equation (4.5), which allows for the local plate buckling
by means of effective width method.
beu  0.89be  0.11b (4.11)

in which be is equivalent to the effective width as stated in Equation (4.5) and b is flat
width of the flange element. In this circumstance, the buckling coefficient K should be
precisely taken as,

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 0.8h
K  1.28   0.0025h 2 (4.12)
2h

Alternatively, the value of buckling coefficient K should be conservatively taken

as 0.425 for any unstiffened element.

4.3.1.2 Effective width of web element under bending stress

When the element section is subjected to bending stress, the local plate
buckling may not be so easy to occur than those under uniform compression. It is
because compression load deteriorates the stiffness of the slender element section to
cause local plate buckling. On the contrary, the tensile load in a certain extent
eliminates the instability effect from compression load and therefore hinders the
slender element section from plate buckling. Thus, when the web section is fully
under tension, the web is considered as fully effective. Further, if the slenderness ratio
of web, such as depth to thickness ratio d w t is smaller than or equal to 70, the web
section is classified as fully effective.

As a result, the buckling load resistance of the element section differs under
different loading conditions. When the element section is subjected to bending stress,
the local plate buckling load should be determined correspondingly in the following
set of formulae.

For one edge in tension as shown in Figure 4.4(a), the effective width of different
portion are given as,
E
be ,1  0.76t (4.13)
f c ,1
be , 3  1.5be ,1 (4.14)

in which be,1 and be,3 are the portion of the effective width adjacent to the more
compressed edge and tension edge respectively, fc,1 is the larger compressive edge
stress, bt is the portion of web under tension, E is elastic modulus and t is the net
thickness of the steel material. It should be remarked that if the condition of
be ,1  be , 3  bt  d w for web section attains, then the web section is fully effective
against local plate buckling.

For both edges in compression as shown in Figure 4.4(b), the effective width of
different portion are written as,
E
be ,1  0.76t (4.15)
f c ,1
 f c,2 
be , 2  1.5  0.5 be ,1
 (4.16)
 f c ,1 

in which be,1 and be,2 are the portion of the effective width adjacent to the more and
less compressed edge respectively, fc,1 and fc,2 are the larger and smaller compressive
edge stress respectively. Similarly, if the condition of be ,1  be , 2  d w for web section
achieves, the web is classified as fully effective.

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 fc,1 fc,1
be,1
be,1

dw dw
be,3
be,2
bt Neutral Axis

fc,2
a) One edge in tension b) Both edges in compression

Figure 4.4 Stress distributions over effective portions of web element

4.3.2 Effective stress method

The effective width method allows for stress distribution across a section and
it is more accurate in general. The effective stress method is simpler to use by
reducing the design strength. In HK Code, the reduction can carried out using the
following formula.

2
 
p yr   3  p y (4.17)
 

in which  is the value of width-to-thickness ratio that exceeds the limiting values of
.

4.3.3 Finite element method

Possibly second to a direct experimental test, the finite element method is

most accurate. In some cases where the geometry of a plate is irregular, or opening or
ribs exists, the finite element method is the most sensible solution to the design of
slender sections. Care should be taken to assume an appropriate set of initial
imperfection for the plates and a nonlinear incremental-iterative analysis method is
needed to trace the load vs. deflection path to locate the maximum load resistance of
the plated structure. The procedure and concept for the analysis is the same as in the
second-order direct analysis for frames in Chapter 10, while they use different
element types as beam-column and shell elements for the structural model.

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4.4 Worked examples

4.4.1 Section classification of rolled universal I-beam

Determine classification of section of beam of 25410222 UB in steel grade S355.

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  254.0mm , B  101.6mm , t  5.7mm , T  6.8mm , d  225.2mm

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  355 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.88 (Table 7.1 Note b)
355

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 101.6
  7.47  9  0.88  7.92 (Table 7.1)
T 2  6.8
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 225.2
  39.5  80  0.88  70.4 (Table 7.1)
t 5. 7
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

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4.4.2 Effective width method for hot-rolled RHS under uniform

compression

A stocky column of 300×200×6.3 hot-rolled RHS section in steel grade S355 is under
a factored compression force of 1600kN and under a small moment causing negligible
stress gradient. Determine the section properties for compression capacity of the
section.

200

6.3 300

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  300mm , B  200mm , t  6.3mm , A  61.0cm 2

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  355 N / mm 2 for t  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.88 (Table 7.2 Note b)
355
Width of RHS, b  B  3t  200  3  6.3  181 .1mm (Table 7.2 Note a)
Depth of RHS, d  D  3t  300  3  6.3  281 .1mm (Table 7.2 Note a)

Limiting value of b t for flange of a hot-rolled RHS is 40

b 181.1
  28.7  40  0.88  35.2 (Table 7.2)
t 6.3
flange is non-slender

Limiting value of d t for web of a hot-rolled RHS under axial compression is 120 1  2r2 
Fc 1600  10 3
Stress ratio, r2    0.739 (7.6)
Ag p yw 6100  355
d 281.1 120  0.88
  44.6   42.6 (Table 7.2)
t 6. 3 1  2  0.739
web is slender

the section is Class 4 slender

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COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
By effective width method,
K  4 for conservative approach (Clause 11.3.4.4.3)
1600  103
fc   262.3 N mm 2 (Clause 11.3.4.4.1)
6100

For flange,
2 2
t  6.3 
pcr  0.904EK    0.904  205000  4     897.1 N mm
2
(11.11)
b  181.1 
f 262.3
 c   0.292  0.123 (11.10)
pcr 897.1

 
  1  14   0.35 
4 0.2
 
 1  14 0.292  0.35 
4 0.2
 0.996 (11.9b)
 be   b  0.996  181.1  180.4mm (11.8)

For web,
2
 6.3 
p cr  0.904  205000  4     372.3 N mm
2
(11.11)
 281.1 
262.3
  0.705  0.123 (11.10)
372.3
 
  1  14 0.705  0.35 
4 0.2
 0.889 (11.9b)
 be  0.889  281.1  249.9mm (11.8)

Effective Area, Aeff  180.4  249.9  6.3  2  5422 mm 2

Compression Resistance, Pc  Aeff p y  5422  355  1924 .8 kN  Fc (OK)

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4.4.3 Effective stress method of slender section

Determine the reduced design strength of a 305457127 Tee in S275 steel.

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  459.1mm , B  305.5mm , t  17.3mm , T  27.9mm , A  161cm 2

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  265 N / mm 2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)
275
  1.02 (Table 7.1 Note b)
265

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of a T-section is 9

b 305.5
  5.47  9  1.02  9.18 (Table 7.1)
T 2  27.9
flange is plastic

Semi-compact limiting value of D t for stem of a T-section is 18

D 459.1
  26.5  18  1.02  18.4 (Table 7.1)
t 17.3
stem is slender

the section is Class 4 slender

By effective stress method,

2 2
   18.4 
Reduced design strength, p yr   3  p y     265  127 .8 N / mm 2 (7.13)
   26.5 

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4.4.4 Effective section modulus of rolled H-section

Classify beam section of 15215223 UC in Grade S275 steel, which is subjected to

pure bending. And calculate the effective section moduli.

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  152.4mm , B  152.2mm , t  5.8mm , T  6.8mm , d  123 .6mm , Z x  164cm 3 , Z y  52.4cm 3 ,
S x  182cm 3 , S y  80.1cm 3

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Semi-compact limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an H-section is 15

b 152 .2
  11.2  15  1  15 (Table 7.1)
T 2  6 .8
flange is semi-compact

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an H-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 123.6
  21.3  80  1  80 (Table 7.1)
t 5.8
web is plastic

the section is Class 3 semi-compact

EFFECTIVE PLASTIC MODULUS

  
2
   120  2 
  3w   1     1
  d t     21.3 
S x ,eff  Z x  S x  Z x    164  182  164   
  1421 .5cm 3 (7.7)
2 2 
   3w 
  1  
120 
   1 
   100  
  2w  
      15  
 3f   1     1
 b T   11.2  
But S x,eff  Z x  S x  Z x   
  164  182  164  
  176.2cm 3
 (7.9)
   3 f  
 1
 15 
  10   1 
 2 f      
  

 S x,eff  176.2cm 3
   
 3 f   1    15  
   1
 b T  
S y , eff 
 Zy  Sy  Zy     52. 4  80. 1  52. 4     11.2  
  15  
 71.2cm 3 (7.8)
   3 f  
 1
     1 
    10  
 2 f  

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Chapter 5 Tension Members

5.1 Introduction

Tension members are very effective in resisting as they have no buckling

problems. Also, their design is relatively simple. The capacity of a tension member is
limited by the following conditions.

1. Eccentric connection e.g. angles connected in one leg only.

2. Reversed loads making the tension members under compression and then
buckle.
3. Moment due to eccentric loads etc.

5.2 Tension capacity

The tension capacity of a member, Pt, is given by

Pt  p y Ae (5.1)

in which Ae is the effective area of all elements in a cross section. The effective area
of each element, ae, is given by,
ae  K e an but  a g (5.2)

in which Ke is the effective net area coefficient given by,

Ke = 1.2 for grade S275 steel
= 1.1 for grade S355 steel
= 1.0 for grade S460 steel
Us
  1.2 for other steel grades (5.3)
1 .2 p y
an = the net cross sectional area of leg deducted for openings
ag = gross sectional area without deduction for openings
Us = ultimate strength
py = design strength

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5.3 Eccentric connections

Many sections are commonly or unavoidably connected by eccentric

connections as shown in Figure 5.1 for a truss. When the axial tension is applied not
through the centroid of a section, a moment exists and it can be accounted for
explicitly by an application of a moment equal to the product of axial force and
eccentricity and the member should be designed as a beam-column under axial force
and moment. This is a conservative approach for slender members as they will deform
and reduce the amount of moment. An alternative approach in clause of HK Code
available for design of single and double angles is to use the effective area (Ae) for the
area in a cross section to account for eccentric load.

Figure 5.1 Truss with T-sections as chords and angles as webs

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5.3.1 Single angle, channel and T-sections

In bolted connections, Pt  p y  Ae  0.5a 2  (5.4)

In welded connections, Pt  p y  Ae  0.3a 2  (5.5)

in which
a2  gross sectional area of the unconnected element in the section
 Ag  a1 (5.6)
a1  gross sectional area of the connected element in the section
Ag  gross area of the section
Ae  effective area of the section defined in Equation 5.1

5.3.2 Double angles, channels and T-sections

The effect here is less severe that the case for being single.
In bolted connections, Pt  p y  Ae  0.25 a 2  (5.7)
In welded connections, Pt  p y  Ae  0.15 a 2  (5.8)

To qualify for design as double sections here, the sections must be separated
by at least 2 number of solid packing pieces or battens along the combined member
otherwise the combined section is required to be designed as a single section.

5.4 Non-linear analysis for asymmetric sections

The general second-order direct analysis method can be applied to the design
of angle and asymmetric sections, provided that the effects of member imperfections
as well as additional effects due to eccentric connection and sectional asymmetry are
accounted for. Chan and Cho (2005) tested a series of angle trusses and the test
results were compared with the first-order linear, second-order direct elastic and
advanced analysis, indicating a conservative design can be obtained

The eccentric connection effect can be modeled in a robust nonlinear frame

analysis program by rigid links connecting the connecting and off-set nodes. The
section capacity check is carried out until the section yields, no matter whether the
member is in tension or in compression as the presence or absence of P-delta effects
have been considered in computation of moment. Thus, the sectional check as follows
can be carried out as in Equation (10.24). It will be necessary to use a reduced section
capacity in the section capacity check by using the smaller sectional strength in
Equation (5.1), with automatic consideration in computer program of checking the
sectional tensile strength according to the connection type. A detailed discussion on
the rationale is discussed in Chapter 10.

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5.5 Worked Examples

5.5.1 Tension capacity of plate

Determine the design load capacity of a tension member consisted of two

plates of 150×16 cross section and grade S275 steel connected by a single line of 20
mm bolts.

16mm

150mm

Solution
TENSION CAPACITY
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
Gross area of the plate, Ag  150 16  2400 mm 2

Net area of the plate, An  2400  22  16  2048mm 2

Effective net area coefficient, K e  1.2 for S275 (Clause 9.3.4.4)
Effective area of the plate, Ae  K e An  1.2  2048  2458mm  Ag
2
(9.10)
 Ae  Ag  2400mm 2

If the load eccentricity is ignored, the tension capacity Pt is given by

Pt  p y Ae  275  2400  660 kN (8.66)

If the load eccentricity is considered, the tension capacity Pt is given by

Pt 6 Pt e
py  
bd bd 2
Pt 6 Pt  16
275  
150  16 150  16 2

 Pt  94.3kN

This is why use of double plates to reduce moment is better.

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5.5.2 Tension capacity of unequal angle

Determine the design load capacity of an angle 65×50×6 of Grade S275 Steel
connected through the long leg by a single line of 20 mm bolts.

 22mm
65mm

50mm

Unconnected
area a2
Connected
area a1

Solution
TENSION CAPACITY
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for t  16mm (Table 3.2)
Gross area of the angle, Ag  65  50  6   6  654mm 2

 6
Gross area of the connected leg, a1   65    6  372mm 2
 2
Gross area of the unconnected leg, a2  Ag  a1  654  372  282mm 2 (8.69)
Net area of the connected leg, a n  372  22  6  240mm 2
Effective net area coefficient, K e  1.2 for S275 (Clause 9.3.4.4)
Effective area of the connected leg, ae  K e a n  1.2  240  288mm  a g  a1
2
(9.10)
Effective area of the angle, Ae  ae  a 2  288  282  570mm 2

Tension capacity, Pt  p y  Ae  0.5a 2   275  570  0.5  282  118.0kN (8.67)

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5.5.3 Tension capacity of angle bracings

A single angle is used as a tension bracing as shown, which is in S275 steel material
and section is unequal angle 1007510. The section of single angle is shown. The
factored tension force supported by the tension bracing is 200kN. At the end
connection, M18 bolts are used and diameter of bolt holes are then 20mm. Check the
tension capacity of the tension bracing with the single angle section.

10
30
100 30
30 Welded steel plate
10
75

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  100mm , B  75mm , t  10mm , Ag  16.6cm 2

TENSION CAPACITY
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for t  16mm (Table 3.2)
 10 
Gross area of the connected leg, a1  100    10  950 mm 2
 2
Gross area of the unconnected leg, a 2  Ag  a1  1660  950  710mm 2
Net area of the connected leg, a n  950  20  10  2  550mm 2
Effective net area coefficient, K e  1.2 for S275 (Clause 9.3.4.4)
Effective area of the connected leg, ae  K e a n  1.2  550  660mm  a g  a1
2
(9.10)
Effective area of the angle, Ae  ae  a 2  660  710  1370mm 2

Tension capacity, Pt  p y  Ae  0 .5 a 2   275  1370  0.5  710  279.1kN  200 kN (OK) (8.67)

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5.5.4 Tension capacity of channel connected by welding

The channel section acts as a hanger whose section is CH2307526 in Grade

S460 to take 150kN dead load and 500kN imposed load. The cross section of channel
section is shown in following diagram. The hanger is welded to the web of the beam
member, which support the floor slab as displayed. Design the tensile load carrying
capacity of the hanger.

12.5

6.5 75

230

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Factored tension force, Ft  1.4  150  1.6  500  1010kN (Table 4.2)

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  230mm , B  75mm , T  12.5mm , t  6.5mm , Ag  32.7cm 2

TENSION CAPACITY
Design strength, p y  460 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
Gross area of the connected leg, a1  230  6.5  1495mm 2

Gross area of the unconnected legs, a 2  Ag  a1  3270  1495  1775mm 2 (8.69)

Tension capacity, Pt  p y  Ae  0 .3 a 2   460  3270  0.3  1775  1259.3kN  Ft (OK) (8.68)

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Chapter 6 Restrained and Unrestrained beams

6.1 Introduction and uses of beam member

Beam member refers to structural element with loads along its length or under
an action of transverse loads, making the member to be loaded principally by bending
moment. Beam can be defined as a structural member to resist the transverse or lateral
loads. A non-uniform moment will further create a shear along the beam which is then
required to be checked for shear capacity.

In the most steel buildings, beams are used to support floors and they are then
supported by columns. For typical applications, standard hot-rolled sections are used.
Beams can be hot-rolled, cold-formed or fabricated from steel plates which is
generally called plate girders. Hot rolled sections eliminate the need for welding steel
plates but they are less flexible in adapting to various environments. Section
classification system is further employed to make sure local plate buckling does not
occur before the assumed moment capacity of a beam is reached or the local buckling
effect is considered in the design. In some cases, stiffeners are used to reduce the
breadth to thickness ratio for increasing the buckling strength of a plate section. A
common practice is to fabricate stiffeners to locations under concentrated loads and
supports to stiffen and strengthen locally the beam. The first part of this chapter
discusses the design and in-plane behaviour of fully restrained beams with full lateral
restraint and the second part of this chapter discusses the design of unrestrained
beams where lateral-torsional buckling effect is required to be considered.

For beams supporting floor, beams with sufficiently large torsional stiffness
such as beams of hollow sections or they are bent about the minor axis, the lateral
movements are prevented such that lateral-torsional buckling is not a concern. Under
this behavioral assumption, the beam can be designed as a restrained beam.

The common steel sections used in a beam member are shown in Figure 6.1
which include universal beam, compound, channel, tee, hollow, angle and other
sections.

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 UB Compound Section Channel

Tee Hollow Angle

Figure 6.1 Typical sections used as beam members

Composing plate elements in a beam section are under tension, compression

and combined tension and compression which respectively occur in tension flange,
compression flange and web. The section classification system has different formulae
to cater for the effect of boundary conditions on local plate buckling.

6.2 In-plane bending of beams

In-plane bending of beams refers to the condition of displacement of beam

restrained in the loading plane. Thus, restrained beams are not affected by lateral-
torsional buckling in the complete loading stage until failure. This condition can be
achieved by the provision of lateral restraints along the beam that it is not allowed to
deflect significantly out of the loading plane, or the length of beam is sufficiently
short to warrant no out-of-plane displacement. Retrained beams are commonly used in
practice for support of floors and panels which restrain the beams against its out-of-
plane displacement.

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6.2.1 In-plane bending of laterally restrained beams

In design of restrained beams the effect of torsional and lateral-torsional

buckling is ignored and assumed to be restrained by lateral bracing or floors on top of
the beams. The structural adequacy of a restrained beam is checked for section
classification, adequacy of lateral restraints, shear and bending capacities, web
bearing and buckling, deflection and vibration.

The in-plane bending behaviour of a beam is shown in Figure 6.2. The

moment-curvature relationship of the beam is constrained in the loading plane and
contained in the principal axis. Thus, the strength of a steel beam under in-plane
bending is affected by material yielding only, which depends on the section properties
and its yield stress py. The moment capacity of beam can be based on the use of the
plastic or elastic section modulus for classes 1 to 4 sections of the beams. In the HK
Code, the plastic section modulus is allowed for finding the moment capacity of a
plastic or a compact section and the effective plastic section modulus or the elastic
section modulus is used for a semi-compact section. For slender sections, the effective
elastic section modulus shall be used for prevention of local buckling before attaining
the design moment in a section.

M
5

MP
First yield 2
Me 4

Elastic limit Plastic limit Curvature

Figure 6.2 In-plane moment-curvature relationships of a beam

The stress distribution across a section in a beam under an increasing moment

from an elastic stage to a plastic stage is shown in Figure 6.3. The behaviour is a
conceptual and an idealized case assumed for design and the effect of residual stress is
not considered here. The first yield moment My and plastic moment Mp in the beam
section can be determined respectively by the product of elastic and plastic section
modulus and the design strength.

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 py py py py

1 Elastic 2 First yield 3 Elastic-plastic 4 Fully plastic 5 Strain-hardened

Figure 6.3 Stress distributions for the moment-curvature relationships

When a beam is loaded under an increasing bending moment in the elastic

range, the strain and stress are linear before reaching the elastic limit. The elastic
moment My refers to the moment where the extreme fiber of the beam section reaches
its yield stress y or py in general and the moment is then equal to M y  p y Z in
which Z is the elastic section modulus of the beam section. It is indicated by stages ①
and ② in Figure 6.3. If moment is further increased after yielding at the extreme fiber
and no local buckling occurs on the plate section of beam, the plastic moment of the
beam, Mp, will be reached. The value of plastic moment is then equal to the product of
design strength and plastic modulus as M p  p y S in which S is the plastic modulus.
This is referred as stage ④ in Figure 6.3.

The transition from elastic to plastic moment is indicated in curve ③ in Figure

6.2. The rotational capacity of the section is not a concern in elastic design, but it may
be required for checking in plastic design in which structural resistance can be beyond
the first plastic range.

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6.2.2 In-plane elastic analysis of beams

When a beam is under uniform moment, the strain at a fiber with distance y
d
from the centroid is equal to   y where   .
dz

y d 𝑀 = 𝐸𝜀𝑦𝑑𝐴

Mx Mx
-y x dz -y  =y -y  =E
dA dz

a. Cross-section b. Side view of beam c. Linear strain d. Linear stress

of beam (deformed) distribution distribution

Figure 6.4 Stress distribution across a section by the elastic beam theory

The elastic stress can be obtained from the bending moment and the elastic modulus
as,
M y M
  x max  x (6.1)
Ix Zx

where Zx is the elastic section modulus and Mx is the bending moment about the major
principal axis.

The moment capacity, Mcx, for a section is given by,

M cx  p y Z x (6.2)

Similarly, for bending about minor axis,

M cy  p y Z y (6.3)

in which Mcx and Mcy are respectively the moment capacity about the major x- and y-
axes, py is the design strength and Z is the elastic section modulus.

6.2.3 In-plane plastic moment capacity of beams

When applied moment is increased further, the maximum moment capacity

will be obtained from the completely yielded condition for the beam section, with half
area yielded in tension and half in compression. Once the longitudinal strains of the
fiber across a steel beam section exceeds the yield strain y equal to py/E at elastic
limit, the stress distribution is no longer linear under further loading but varies across
the beam section as indicated in stage ③ in Figure 6.3. The section becomes elasto-

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plastic when resultant moment M exceeds the first yield moment as M y  p y Z and
inelastic bending stress distribution will occur. The section becomes fully plastic
when the moment resultant M is equal to the full plastic moment. As no local buckling
has been assumed when reaching the plastic moment capacity and therefore only
plastic and compact sections are allowed to adopt the plastic modulus in calculation
for the moment capacity. The plastic moment at fully yielded section can be written
as,
M p  pyS (6.4)

in which S is the plastic section modulus about the centroid axis shown in Figure 6.5,
which divides the cross-section into two equal areas. This plastic neutral axis can be
taken as the centroidal axis of cross-section in the absence of axial force. Equation
(6.4) is derived from the force equilibrium of the fully plastic stress distribution over
the section as shown in Equation (6.5). Force equilibrium is achieved so that the
compression and tension on the beam section are same, which leads to the moment
resultant Mp of the fully plastic stress distribution.
M p   p y  Ai yi tension   p y  Ai yi compressio n  p y S (6.5)
i i

in which Ai and yi are the area of cross-section and its corresponding distance from
centroid to plastic neutral axis respectively.  Ai y i is the first moment of area
calculated using the centroidal axis of equal area of the section, which is the same as
the plastic section modulus S.

p p p p

Compression Compression

Tension Tension

Figure 6.5 Stress distribution on symmetric beam section

Summarizing the moment capacities for sections affected and unaffected by local
buckling and under low shear load condition that shear does not have interaction with
the moment capacity of beams, we have the following expressions of moment
capacities.
M cx  p y S x  1.2 p y Z x for Class 1 plastic and Class 2 compact sections
 p y Z x or p y S x ,eff for Class 3 semi-compact sections (6.6)
 p y Z x ,eff or p yr Z x for Class 4 slender sections

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Similarly, for bending about minor axis,
M cy  p y S y  1.2 p y Z y for Class 1 plastic and Class 2 compact sections
 p y Z y or p y S y , eff for Class 3 semi-compact sections (6.7)
 p y Z y , eff or p yr Z y for Class 4 slender sections

in which Mcx and Mcy are respectively the moment capacity about the x- and y-axes. In
the effective stress method, py should be reduced to pyr to account for the local plate
buckling effect.

6.2.4 Shear capacity of beams

Shear force Fv across a section transverse to the longitudinal x-axis of a beam

creates shear stresses. The distribution of the vertical shear stresses can be determined
by considering the horizontal force equilibrium of an infinitesimal element of the
beam in longitudinal direction shown in Figure 6.6. The horizontal shear stress zy is
in equilibrium with the horizontal change in bending stress . Assuming an
infinitesimal length for the section with x being small, the force equilibrium is
obtained by equating the horizontal force to zero.

𝜏𝑣 𝑏𝛿𝑥
𝜎𝑏 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑦

𝛿𝑥 (𝜎 + 𝛿𝜎)𝑏 𝑑𝑦

Figure 6.6 Horizontal force equilibrium of an element

 v bx    b dy (6.8)
M bydy VAy
x  bI
v   (6.9)
bI

in which Ay is first moment of area for the area above the considered sectional cut, b
is the width of the considered section cut and I is the second moment of area of the
complete cross section.

Steel structural members are mostly made of thin-walled sections with

thickness t much smaller than other dimensions like width B and depth D. As can be
seen in Equation (6.9), shear stress increases significantly at the web zone, because of

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the smaller thickness of web when compared with the width of flanges in a typical I-
section. Also, the first moment of area above the section is larger when the section cut
for shear is close to the centroid. It is therefore a good approximation to assume the
web to take shear with the flanges to take moment. This assumption is sufficiently
accurate with great simplification in computation. With an additional simplification
made for the uniformity of shear stress across the web that the design shear stress is
simply taken as the shear force divided by the web area (d×t or D×t, depending on
whether the section is welded or rolled section) as,
F
v  v (6.10)
Dt

where t is the thickness of web and D is the overall depth of the I-section beam. This
expression is a basis of the design formula of shear capacity of the web element.

For simplicity in design, flanges are assumed to take moment and web resists shear.

For shear areas of other sections, the following expressions from Clause 8.2.1 of HK
Code can be used.

Rolled I, H and channels sections tD

Welded I-sections td
Rolled and welded rectangular hollow section 2td
Rolled and welded T-sections t (D  T )
Circular hollow sections 0.6 A
Solid rectangular sections 0.9 A
Others 0.9 AO

in which A is the cross-sectional area, AO is the area of the rectilinear element in the
cross-section with largest dimension parallel to the design shear force direction, B is
the overall breadth, D is the overall depth, d is the depth of the web, T is the flange
thickness, t is the web thickness.

The web in the thin-walled section behaves elastically in shear until first yielding
py 1
occurs at  v  . The factor here is derived from the von Mises yield criterion
3 3
for metal as  x2   y2   x y  3 2   2 , in which x, y and v are respectively the
normal stress in x- and y-axes and shear stress. Therefore, the yield stress in shear 
can be determined from the yield stress in tension, py for design approach. Thus, using
the design yield strength and shear area, we have the shear capacity Vc of a section as,
p y Av
Vc  (6.11)
3

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6.2.5 Interaction between shear and bending

Interaction between shear can be ignored when the external shear force is not
greater than 0.6 of the shear capacity (i.e. V  0.6Vc ) and Equations (6.6) and (6.7)
can be used. When the condition of low shear load is violated, the bending capacity of
the beam shall be reduced using the following equations.

For Class 1 plastic and Class 2 compact sections:

M c  p y ( S   S v )  1 . 2 p y ( Z   S v / 1 .5 ) (6.12)

For Class 3 semi-compact sections:

M c  p y ( Z   S v / 1 . 5) (6.13)
or M c  p y ( S eff  S v / 1.5) (6.14)

For Class 4 slender sections:

M c  p y ( Z eff  S v / 1.5) (6.15)

in which
SV is the plastic modulus of shear area AV
2
 2F 
 is given by  v  1
 Vc 
Vc is the shear capacity;
Fv is the design shear.

When the web slenderness d t is larger than 70 for hot-rolled sections, or 62 for
welded sections, the web section should be checked for web shear buckling.

6.2.6 Web bearing, buckling and shear buckling

For typical beams under dominant bending, thickness of flanges is normally

much greater than webs in order to economically put material away from the centre of
the section to increase the second moment of area under the same weight. However,
capacity of webs normally of smaller thickness should be ensured to avoid failure in
taking shear loads. Webs shall be designed against four major modes of failure as
shear buckling, web buckling under concentrated compressive loads or at supports,
web bearing and crushing. A thorough discussion of web design should be referred to
Chapter 9.

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6.2.7 Serviceability limit state considerations

In addition to checking to the ultimate limit state for safety, a beam shall also
be checked to satisfy the serviceability limit state to avoid unsatisfactory functional
use. Deflection and vibration serviceability limit states are two common criteria for
ensuring the stiffness of the beam will not hinder its serviceable use.

Excessive deflection leads to human discomfort and cracking of finishes. A

typical value for control under normal use is span/360 and Table 5.1 in the HK Code
should be referred for other cases. In general, only unfactored live load is required to
consider in calculation of deflection. Pre-cambering during fabrication of a beam to
introduce an initial upward deflection can be exercised to reduce deflection from dead
load to avoid ponding. Table 6.1 below shows typical maximum deflection of a beam
under different load cases and conditions.

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 Deflection Msag Mhog
F
L/2 L/2
FL3 FL
0
48 EI 4
L
F
a b
FL3  3a a 
3
Fab
  4   0
48 EI  L  L   L
L

w 5L4 L2
0
384 EI 8
L

a
w
b c b
384 EI
8L 3
 4b 2 L  b 3    b b 
2

 a    c    a 2  0
2  L2  
L if a  c
a b a
a 2 a 2
w
16a 2
 20ab  5b 2  0
120 EI 3
L

w
L4 L2
0
120EI 12
L/2 L/2
L/2 L/2

L4 L2
w w
0
146.28EI 16
L

w L4  L2
0 
8EI 2
L
F
L/2 L/2
FL3 FL FL

192EI 8 8
L

w L4 L2  L2

384 EI 24 12
L

F
a b
2 Fa 2 b 3 2 Fa 2 b 2 Fab 2

3EI 3L  2a 
2

L
L3 L2
a b a
b
w

384 EI

L3  2 L2 a  4 La 2  8a 3  b
3L 2
 3bL  b 2  
b
3L 2
 b2 
24 L 24 L
L

a b a
a 3 a 3 a 2
w
15L  16a   4 L  3a 
480 EI 4L 12 L
L
w
0.7L4 L2 5L2

L/2 L/2
384 EI 32 96

Table 6.1 Deflections and moments under different loading cases

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 Apart from serviceability check against deflection, vibration and natural
frequency shall be checked and determined. A nominal minimum vibration frequency
of 5 hertz is required to avoid excessive human induced vibration but other values of
vibration frequency can be used with justifications. For structures under wind, a
minimum 1 hertz is normally taken to ensure the structural vibration frequency is not
sensitive to wind excitation.

6.3 Design procedure for in-plane bending of beams

The following steps I to VII is a typical procedure for design of beams with
full lateral restraints. The steps IVa and IVb refer to two conditions of low and high
shear loads.

I STEEL GRADE AND SECTION CLASSIFICATION

A beam section is classified and a reduced section property in the effective width
method and the reduced stress in the effective stress method may be adopted to limit
the sectional strength due to local plate buckling before reaching the designed
capacity of the beam.

II LATERAL RESTRAINT
To prevent torsional and lateral movement of a beam, the compression flange of the
beam should be restrained laterally while the vertical movement of the beam is
permitted. The adequacy of a restraining member required in the HK Code is that the
restraining member is capable of taking 2.5% of the force in the compression flange
of the beam. The compression force in flange can be determined simply by dividing
the maximum moment of the beam by the distance between the top and bottom
flanges as,
M
Fres  max (6.16)
D T

in which Fres is the force in flange used for designing the restraining members or ties,
Mmax is the maximum bending moment in the beam under the factored load, D and T
are the depth and flange thickness of the beam.

III SHEAR CAPACITY

The shear capacity of the section shall be checked to be larger than or equal to the
external shear as,
p A
Vc  y v  Fv (6.17)
3
1
in which py is design strength in shear of the steel material which is equal to of the
3
design strength in tension py and Av is shear area normally taken as the web area.

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IVa MOMENT CAPACITY UNDER LOW SHEAR LOAD
When the applied shear is equal to or less than 60% of the permissible shear in a
beam, i.e.
Fv  0.6Vc (6.18)

the low shear condition applies and the interaction between shear and moment can be
ignored.

For plastic or compact section of beam, the plastic analysis, the moment capacity Mc
for plastic and compact section are given as,
M c  p y S  1 .2 p y Z (6.19)

For semi-compact section, the full plastic moment capacity cannot be developed on
beam. The moment capacity Mc should be based on elastic modulus or effective
plastic modulus and expressed as,
M c  p y Z or M c  p y S eff (6.20)

For slender section, two approaches are also allowed to deal with this effect. One is
the effective stress and the other is the effective section approach. Thus the moment
capacity Mc is written as,
M c  p y Z eff (6.21)
M c  p yr Z (6.22)

in which Zeff and pyr are effective elastic section modulus and reduced yield stress
respectively. The effective section approach is more economical but involves more
complex calculation for different load cases.

IVb MOMENT CAPACITY UNDER HIGH SHEAR LOAD

When the shear force is higher than 0.6Vc and not satisfying Equation (6.18) at a
section, the moment capacity is lower due to interaction of shear and moment. The
reduced moment capacity can be obtained from a reduction of plastic section modulus
from S to S  S v  for plastic section as,
M c  p y S   S v   1 . 2 p y Z   S v 1 . 5  (6.23)

For semi-compact section, the reduced moment capacities are determined as,
M c  p y Z   S v 1 . 5  (6.24)
M c  p y S eff   S v 1.5  (6.25)

For slender section, the reduction moment capacity is given by,

M c  p y Z eff  S v 1 .5  (6.26)

VI WEB BEARING AND BUCKLING

At support and at location of a concentrated load, the web bearing capacity and
buckling resistance should be checked. If no stiffeners are added, slenderness of webs
should not be greater than 62 and 70 for welded and rolled sections respectively.

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Webs shall also be checked against bearing and buckling due to concentrated loads to
Chapter 9.

VII ADDITIONAL CHECKS TO OTHER LIMIT STATES

The serviceability of the beam is checked against relevant serviceability limit states to
avoid non-functional use.

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6.4 Worked examples

6.4.1 Simply supported beam under mid-span point load

Check the adequacy of a beam under an unfactored imposed load of 100kN and an
unfactored dead load of 50kN at mid-span. The beam is simply supported of span 6m.
The beam is a 45715260 UB of Grade S275 steel.

DL=50kN & LL=100kN

457 152 60 UB

6000

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Factored point load, P  1.4  50  1.6  100  230 kN (Table 4.2)
230
Maximum shear, V   115kN
2
230  6
Maximum moment, M x   345kNm
4

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  454.6mm , B  152.9mm , t  8.1mm , T  13.3mm , d  407.6mm , I x  25500cm 4 ,
Z x  1120cm3 , S x  1290cm 3

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 152.9
  5.75  9 1  9 (Table 7.1)
T 2 13.3
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis with mid-depth is 80
d 407.6
  50.3  80  1  80 (Table 7.1)
t 8.1
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

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SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  8.1 454.6  3682mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 275  3682
Shear capacity, V c    584.6kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
V  115kN  0.6Vc  350.8kN
it is low shear condition (Clause 8.2.2.1)

Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x (8.2)

 275  1290  10  1.2  275  1120  10
3 3

 354 .8kNm  369 .6kNm

 M x (OK)

DEFLECTION
Unfactored imposed load, P  100 kN
Maximum deflection due to imposed load,
PL3 L
  (Table 5.1)
48EI x 360
100  103  60003 6000
 4 
48  205000 25500 10 360
 8.6mm  16.7 mm (OK)

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6.4.2 Design of a cantilever

Check the adequacy of a cantilever of 2.5m under an unfactored dead load of 5kN/m
and an unfactored imposed load of 10kN/m along the member. The cantilever is a
25410225 UB of Grade S275 steel.

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Factored point load,   1.4  5  1.6  10  23 kN m (Table 4.2)
Maximum shear, V  23  2.5  57.5kN
1
Maximum moment, M x   23  2.5 2  71.9kNm
2

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  257.2mm , B  101.9mm , t  6.0mm , T  8.4mm , d  225.2mm , I x  3410cm 4 , Z x  266cm3 ,
S x  306cm 3

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 101.9
  6.07  9 1  9 (Table 7.1)
T 2  8.4
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis with mid-depth is 80
d 225.2
  37.5  80  1  80 (Table 7.1)
t 6
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  6  257.2  1543mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 275  1543
Shear capacity, V c    245.0kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
V  57.5kN  0.6V c  147.0kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
it is low shear condition

Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1.2 p y Z x (8.2)

 275  306  10  1.2  275  266  10
3 3

 84.2 kNm  87.8kNm

 M x (OK)

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DEFLECTION
Unfactored imposed load,   10 kN m
Maximum deflection due to imposed load,
L4 L
  (Table 5.1)
8 EI x 180
10  2500 4 2500
 
8  205000  3410  10 4 180
 7.0mm  13.9mm (OK)

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6.4.3 Design of beam in two way floor

The concrete floor system is supported by the primary and secondary steel beams as
shown below. The primary beam at gridline Ⓑ is under consideration. The spread of
load to the designed beam member is assumed two-way as shown. Simple
connections are used to allow sufficient rotations and ductility. The design loads are
given below. Design the primary beam in gridline Ⓑ using the section 686254140
UB of Grade S355 steel to the ultimate and serviceability limit states.

Dead load,  Q  6 kPa

Imposed load,  G  7.5kPa

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Factored distributed load on floor, p  1.4  6  1.6  7.5  20.4kPa (Table 4.2)
Maximum factored distributed load on beam, w  20.4  4  81.6 kN m

Factored point load from secondary beam, P  20.4 

3  1  2  4  326.4kN
2
1 1
Maximum shear, V   81.6  4   326.4  326.4kN
2 2
1 1
Maximum moment, M x   81.6  8 2   326.4  8  979.2kNm
16 4

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  683.5mm , B  253.7 mm , t  12.4mm , T  19.0mm , d  615 .1mm , I x  136300cm 4 ,
Z x  3990cm 3 , S x  4560cm 3

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SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  345 N / mm 2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.89 (Table 7.1 Note b)
345

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 253.7
  6.68  9  0.89  8.01 (Table 7.1)
T 2 19
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 615.1
  49.6  80  0.89  71.2 (Table 7.1)
t 12.4
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  12.4  683.5  8475mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 345  8475
Shear capacity, Vc    1688.1kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
V  326.4kN  0.6Vc  1012.9kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
it is low shear condition

Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x (8.2)

 345  4560  10  1.2  345  3990  10
3 3

 1573 .2kNm  1651 .9kNm

 M x (OK)

The beam supports the floor slab, which provides a full lateral restraint to the beam. Thus, the beam is
not required to be checked for lateral-torsional buckling.

DEFLECTION
Maximum unfactored imposed load,   7.5  4  30 kN m

Unfactored imposed point load from secondary beam, P  7.5 

3  1  2  4  120kN
2
Maximum deflection due to imposed load,
PL3 L4 L
   (Table 5.1)
48EI x 146.28EI x 360
120  10 3  8000 3 30  8000 4 8000
  
48  205000  136000  10 4
146.28  205000  136000  10 4 360
 7.6mm  22.2mm (OK)

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6.4.4 Design of beam at the one way typical floor system

An one-way floor system is illustrated in the figure below. A 12m long primary beam
of section 45715252 UB of Grade S275 is simply supported in gridline ②. Check
the structural adequacy of the primary beam. When the aspect ratio of concrete slab is
more than 3, the loading from slab spreads to the beam member can be considered in
one direction only. The loading applied including self weight of beam member on the
floor system are tabulated as follows:

Services load 0.6kPa

Imposed load 3.0kPa
Finish load 0.6kPa
Dead load 0.5kPa
Wind load 1.2kPa

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Load combination 1,
  1.4 Q  1.6 G  1.4  0.5  0.6  0.6   1.6  3  2  14 .36 kN m (Table 4.2)
Load combination 2,
  1.4 Q  1.4 L  1.4  0.5  0.6  0.6   1.4  1.2  2  8.12 kN m (Table 4.2)
Load combination 3,
  1 .2 Q  1 .2 G  1 .2 W  1 .2  0 .5  0 .6  0 .6  3  1 .2   2  14 .16 kN m (Table 4.2)
load combination 1 is critical

1
Maximum shear force, V   14.36  12  86.2kN
2
1
Maximum bending moment, M x   14.36  12 2  258.5kNm
8

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  449.8mm , B  152.4mm , t  7.6mm , T  10.9mm , d  407.6mm , I x  21400cm 4 ,
Z x  950cm 3 , S x  1100cm 3

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 152.4
  7.99  9 1  9 (Table 7.1)
T 2 10.9
flange is plastic

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Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 407.6
  53.6  80  1  80 (Table 7.1)
t 7. 6
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  7.6  449.8  3418mm2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 275  3418
Shear capacity, Vc    542.7 kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
V  86.2kN  0.6Vc  325.6kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
it is low shear condition

Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x (8.2)

 275  1100  10  1.2  275  950  10
3 3

 302 .5kNm  313 .5 kNm

 M x (OK)

As the floor slab provides a full lateral restraint to the beam, thus there is no lateral-torsional buckling.

DEFLECTION
Unfactored uniform imposed load,   3  2  6 kN / m
Maximum deflection due to imposed load,
5 L4 L
  (Table 5.1)
384 EI x 360
5 6.0  12000 4
 
384 205000  21400  10 4
12000
 36.9mm   33.3mm (Not OK)
360

Loading acting on this primary beam is relatively low, and the beam section is
adequate to resist all bending moment and shear force. However, the design of beam
is inadequate in deflection in serviceability limit state. Therefore, another section is
chosen for deflection check. Try 45715260 UB.

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  454.6mm, B  152.9mm , t  8.1mm, T  13.3mm, d  407.6mm , I x  25500cm 4 ,
Z x  1120cm3 , S x  1290cm3

DEFLECTION
From the above result, maximum deflection due to imposed load,
21400 L
  36.9   (Table 5.1)
25500 360
12000
 31.0mm   33.33mm (OK)
360

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6.5 Design of unrestrained beams

When a beam member is under lateral load or moment without full lateral
restraints along its length, it is then considered as a not fully restrained or simply an
unrestrained beam. It is necessary to check the beam resistance with allowance for
buckling effects. The lateral-torsional buckling behaviour of unrestrained beam can be
viewed as the compression flange of the beam deflects out-of-plane due to
compression induced from the bending moment. This phenomenon leads to the
compression flange to buckle like a column with restraints provided by the lateral and
twisting stiffness of the member. The buckling mode of a beam can be seen in Figure
6.7. As can be seen in the figure the failure of the beam is due to a combined action of
twisting and lateral bending.

The design of an unrestrained beam member considers the segment of a beam

as the portion lying between two lateral restraints for the compression flanges, so the
length of beam can be considered as equal to distance between lateral restraints. The
strength required for the lateral restraints is minimum 2.5% of the maximum force in
the compression flanges.

m
y
-u
A O B z
D -u 
A1 B1 x
O
n -v
y
O
z
m

Me Me

O z

L n

Figure 6.7 Lateral-torsional buckling of a beam member

The basic requirement for ensuring the structural adequacy of an unrestrained

beam is to satisfy the following Equation (6.28) as,
m LT M x  M b (6.28)

in which mLT is the equivalent uniform moment factor to account for moment
variation along a beam or a beam segment, Mx is the maximum bending moment
about major x-axis and Mb is the buckling resistance moment accounting for the
effects of initial imperfection, material strength and lateral-torsional buckling effect.

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6.5.1 Elastic Lateral-Torsional buckling of beams

In Section 6.3, the restrained beam is assumed to deform in the loading plane
until it fails. In this Section, there are the cases of unrestrained beam in which a
member buckles either by twisting or by a combination of bending laterally and
twisting. This buckling mode is therefore named as lateral-torsional or flexural-
torsional buckling. The member resistance of an unrestrained beam can be
substantially less than its in-plane load carrying capacity. This lateral-torsional
buckling is of importance in the design of beams without full lateral restraints along
its member length.

For a simply supported elastic beam under uniform moment, the buckling
moment can be obtained numerically by the finite element method or analytically by
solving differential equation obtained as,
 2 EI y  2 EI w
M cr  GJ  (6.29)
L2 L2

in which Mcr is the elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment, Iy is the second moment
of area about the minor axis, J is the torsional constant, I w is the warping constant,
and L is the span of the simply supported beam. For beams under other boundary
condition, the effective length LE should be used in place of L.

It can be seen from Equation (6.29) that the buckling resistance of a beam
depends on the following factors.

1 The effective length factor from the boundary condition and the span L,
2 The sectional properties as torsional constant J and second moment of area about
the minor axis Iy,
3 The load height above shear center which affects the buckling resistance and its
effect is considered by increasing the effective length in the HK Code,
4 The varying pattern of bending moment of the beam under consideration and,
5 The material design strength which is not included in Equation (6.29) for elastic
flexural-torsional buckling moment.

The effects from point 1 to 3 are considered in a single term as the equivalent
slenderness LT and the influence of point 4 above is allowed for in the equivalent
uniform moment factor mLT. Detailing at connection affects the effective length and
Figure 6.8 shows typical connections in beams.

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 Floor slab provides Secondary beam provides
Torsional restraint
full lateral restraint lateral restraint
free to rotate in plan

Figure 6.8 Different kinds of restraints for unrestrained beam member

6.5.2 Buckling resistance moment

The determination of buckling resistance moment, Mb in Equation (6.28), can

be carried out with the information in the section tables. The equivalent slenderness
LT can be obtained as,
 LT  uv  W (6.30)

in which u can be obtained from section design tables or taken as 0.9 conservatively, v
is the slenderness factor obtained as,
1
v
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
 (6.31)

where x is a torsional constant available from the section table or taken conservatively
as D/T for I-beams with equal flanges,  is the slenderness ratio equal to LE/ry, LE is
the effective length, ry is the radius of gyration about minor axis of a section and w is
section modulus ratio given by the followings.

 w  1.0 for Class 1 plastic section and Class 2 compact section,

Zx S
w  or x ,eff for Class 3 semi-compact sections and, (6.32)
Sx Sx
Z
 w  x ,eff for Class 4 slender sections (6.33)
Sx

With the use of LT and the design strength py, the buckling strength pb can be
obtained from Table 8.3 of HK Code. When the effective stress method is used, w
can be taken as 1.0 as the local buckling effect has been accounted for in the use of
reduced design strength pyr. The buckling resistance moment, Mb, is then equal to
M b  pb S x for Classes 1 and 2 plastic and compact sections, M b  pb Z x or p b S x ,eff
p yr
for Class 3 semi-compact sections and M b  p b Z x ,eff or pb Z x for Class 4 slender
py
sections.

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6.5.3 Normal and Destabilizing loads

The formulae in the HK Code are based on the case of loads applied at the
level of shear centre of the beam. If the load is applied above the shear centre of the
beam and when the beam deflects laterally as shown in Figure 6.9, an additional
torsional moment will be generated and makes the beam to buckle at a lower load
than when the load is at the shear centre. The effect of destabilizing loading condition
is considered in the HK Code by using a larger effective length factor as indicated in
Clause 8.3.4.1(d) of HK Code.

Fv Fv
Fv
  
 After
buckling
Before
buckling

L/2 L/2 Addition torsion

Additional =
Torsion

Section at mid-span
Elevation

Figure 6.9 Destabilizing load in a beam

6.5.4 Effective length in an unrestrained beam

A stocky beam fails by action of moment attaining its plastic moment. On the
other hand, a slender beam is failed by the action of moment closer to its elastic
buckling moment. For beams of intermediate slenderness, the moment resistance is
due to an elasto-plastic buckling by having part of the material in a section yields,
leading to a reduction in effective sectional properties and also flexural-torsional
buckling. Figure 6.10 shows the effect of buckling over a range of beam slenderness.

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 Strain
hardening
Maximum
moment
capacity
M Me
c

MP

Fully Plastic Elastic

plastic buckling buckling
Member
0 length L

Figure 6.10 Moment capacity of beam with various member lengths

In Figure 6.10, the solid line is plotted by using Equation (6.29) for elastic
lateral-torsional buckling of beams and the dotted line indicates the inelastic buckling
moment of the beam with varying slenderness. It can be seen that both buckling and
material yielding can affect the moment resistance of an unrestrained beam. A reduced
bending buckling strength pb is used to account for the lateral buckling effect of a
rolled and a welded sections. For a very short beam, the moment capacity can be
higher than plastic moment Mp due to the effect of strain-hardening and it is indicated
in line ⑤ in Figure 6.2.

The typical values of effective length factor for beams without intermediate
restraints, or the effective length ratio LE/LLT are given in Table 6.2 below where LLT is
the distance between supports. For unrestrained beams with intermediate restraints,
the effective length LE can be taken as the member length between the lateral
restraints, which should be increased to 1.2LE for destabilizing loading condition. The
minimum resistance of the intermediate restraints should be taken as 2.5% of the
maximum force in compression flanges which can be reduced by a factor
1
k r  0.2  with Nr equal to the number of restraining members sharing a
Nr
common restraint.

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 Support condition Normal load Destabilising load
i. Lateral restraint,
ii. Free to rotate on plan, LE=LLT LE=1.2LLT
iii. Torsional restraint.
i. Lateral restraint,
ii. Not free to rotate on plan, LE=0.8LLT LE=1.2 (0.8LLT)
iii. Torsional restraint.
i. No lateral restraint,
ii. Free to rotate on plan, LE=1.2LLT+2D LE=1.2 (1.2LLT+2D)
iii. Partial torsional restraint.
Table 6.2 Effective length of typical unrestrained beams

In most practical applications, it is generally considered adequate that the

effective length of a cantilever is taken as twice the member length and of beam the
same as member length. When the load is destabilizing, a factor of 1.2 should be
multiplied to the effective length.

6.5.5 Equivalent uniform moment factor mLT

The formulae in the beam buckling check in the HK Code are based on the
assumption of uniform moment causing the beam or beam segment under uniform
compression on a flange. When a simply supported elastic beam is subjected to
unequal end moments M and M as shown in Table 6.3, the moment resistance of the
unrestrained beam can be increased. The buckling resistance of unrestrained beam is
determined by the formulae under uniform bending case causing uniform stress on
compression flange. When the moment is non-uniform, the buckling resistance in
terms of maximum bending moment can be increased, as part of the beams is not
under the maximum moment. This effect can be considered by the use of the
equivalent uniform moment factor mLT which accounts for the effect of the non-
uniform moment distribution along the major axis. The end moment ratio  varies
from 1 (single curvature bending) to -1 (double curvature bending). The ratio for the
end moments  and the equivalent uniform moment factor mLT can be approximated
and shown in Table 8.4 of the HK Code reproduced below.

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 Segment with end moment only (values of mLT from the formula for the general case)  mLT
 positive 1.0 1.00
0.9 0.96
0.8 0.92
0.7 0.88
0.6 0.84
0.5 0.80
0.4 0.76
0.3 0.72
X lateral 0.2 0.68
restraint
0.1 0.64
 negative 0.0 0.60
-0.1 0.56
-0.2 0.52
-0.3 0.48
-0.4 0.46
-0.5 0.44
-0.6 0.44
-0.7 0.44
-0.8 0.44
-0.9 0.44
-1.0 0.44

Special case (no intermediate lateral restraint)

Table 6.3 Equivalent uniform moment factor mLT for unrestrained beams under end
moments and typical loads

For general case and suitable for use in computer program, the following
formula can be used for evaluation of equivalent uniform moment factor.as given in
Equation (6.34).
0.15M 2  0.5M 3  0.15M 4
m LT  0.2   0.44 (6.34)
M max

in which M2 and M4 are moments at quarter points of the beam or the segment of a
beam, M3 is the moment at mid-span and Mmax is the maximum bending moment

The equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT, is taken as 1 for cantilever and
the HKCode allows the same mLT for normal and destabilizing loads. It is non-similar
to the BS5950(2000) which assumes mLT as 1 for destabilizing load. This use of unity
mLT implies a non-uniform factor of safety for beams under uniform and non-uniform

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moments and also an inconsistency with the case for beams under normal loads. The
buckling design of unsymmetrical beams can be referred a non-linear finite element
package for buckling analysis to determine the buckling moment.

6.6 Design procedures of unrestrained beams

The procedure for design of unrestrained beams can be summarized as follows.

I SECTION CLASSIFICATION AND DETERMINATION OF DESIGN

STRENGTH py
The basic design strength is determined according to the steel grade and thickness of
plates in the section. A selected section is classified to Class 1, 2, 3 or 4. The design
strength or section properties for Class 4 sections are revised as necessary.

II EFFECTIVE LENGTH AND SLENDERNESS RATIO

The boundary conditions of end supports or intermediate lateral restraints are
L
assessed. The effective length LE and slenderness ratio   E are then calculated.
ry

III EQUIVALENT SLENDERNESS RATIO

The equivalent slenderness ratio LT is calculated as LT  uv  w . In conjunction
with the design strength py, the buckling strength pb is determined and moment
resistance is calculated as M b  p b S x for Classes 1 and 2 sections, M b  pb Z x or
p yr
pb S x ,eff for Classes 3 sections and M b  pb Z x for Class 4 sections ( pb Z x ,eff may
py
be used alternatively when the effective width method is used).

IV BUCKLING STRENGTH CHECK

The moment resistance Mb should be checked to be not less than mLTMx and the
moment capacity Mc should also be not less than than Mx.

V WEB BEARING AND BUCKLING

Checking for web against bearing, shear buckling and compression buckling should
be carried out as for restrained beams. The discussion should be referred to Chapter 9.

VI OTHER LIMIT STATES

Other limit states such as the deflection and vibration limit states shall also be
checked.

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6.7 Worked examples

6.7.1 Moment resistance of hot-rolled and welded sections

Determine the factored design uniform bending capacity of a 457×152×60 UB in

S275 steel, simply supported a span of 3.0 m. Assume both the cases for hot-rolled
and welded sections and under normal load.

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  454.6mm , B  152.9mm , t  8.1mm , T  13.3mm , d  407.6mm , r y  3.23cm , Z x  1120cm 3 ,
S x  1290cm 3 , x  37.5

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 8

b 152 .9
  5.75  8 1  8 (Table 7.1)
T 2  13.3
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 407 .6
  50.3  80  1  80 (Table 7.1)
t 8.1
web is plastic

the section is class 1 plastic

MOMENT CAPACITY
It is low shear condition (Clause 8.2.2.1)
Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x (8.2)
 275  1290  103  1.2  275  1120  103
 354 .8kNm  369 .6 kNm

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Effective length, LE  LLT  3.0m for normal load (Clause 8.3.4.1(a))
L 3000
Slenderness ratio,   E   92.9 (8.26)
ry 32.3
1 1
v   0.935
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.0592.9 37.5 
2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1.0 for class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

For hot-rolled section

u  0.9 for conservative approach (Clause 8.3.5.3)

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Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.9  0 .935  92 .9  1  78 .2 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  169.0 N / mm 2
(Table 8.3a)
Buckling resistance moment, M b  pb S x  169  1290  103  218 .0 kNm (8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT  1.0 for uniform moment (Table 8.4a)
mLT M x  M b (8.18)
M
 M x  b  218.0kNm  M cx (8.19)
mLT

Therefore, the factored design uniform bending capacity for hot-rolled section is 218.0kNm.

For welded section

u  1.0 (Clause 8.3.5.3)
Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  1  0.935  92 .9  1  86 .9 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  138.1N / mm2 (Table 8.3b)
Buckling resistance moment, M b  pb S x  138.1  1290  10  178 .1kNm
3
(8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT  1.0 for uniform moment (Table 8.4a)
mLT M x  M b (8.18)
Mb
 Mx   178.1kNm  M cx (8.19)
m LT

Therefore, the factored design uniform bending capacity for welded section is 178.1kNm.

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6.7.2 Beam under double curvature

A simply supported 203×203×60 UC section beam of S355 steel has a span of 3.5 m
and end moments M and 0.4 M which cause double curvature bending. Determine the
maximum design value of M.

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  209.6mm , B  205.8mm , t  9.4mm , T  14.2mm , d  160 .8mm , r y  5 .20 cm , Z x  584cm3 ,
S x  656cm3 , u  0.846 , x  14.1

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  355 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.88 (Table 7.1 Note b)
355

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an H-section is 9

b 205 .8
  7.25  9  0.88  7.92 (Table 7.1)
T 2  14.2
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an H-seciton with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 160.8
  17.1  80  0.88  70.4 (Table 7.1)
t 9. 4
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

MOMENT CAPACITY
Low shear condition is assumed (Clause 8.2.2.1)
Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1.2 p y Z x (8.2)
 355  656  103  1.2  355  584  103
 232 .9 kNm  248 .8kNm

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
It is normal loading condition (Clause 8.3.3)
Effective length, LE  LLT  3.5m for normal load (Clause 8.3.4.1(a))
L 3500
Slenderness ratio,   E   67.3 (8.26)
ry 52
u  0.9 conservatively for hot-rolled section (Clause 8.3.5.3)
1 1
v   0.827
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.0567.3 14.1 
2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.846  0 .827  67 .3  1  47 .1 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  301.9 N / mm 2
(Table 8.3a)
Buckling resistance moment, M b  pb S x  301.9  656 10  198.0kNm 3
(8.20)
0.4M
Equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT  0.46 for     0.4 (Table 8.4a)
M

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mLT M x  M b (8.18)
M 198.0
 Mx  b   430.4kNm but  M cx (8.19)
mLT 0.46

Therefore, the maximum design moment is 232.9kNm.

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6.7.3 Over-hung Beam

A 203×203×60 UC section beam of S355 steel is simply supported at A, continuous

over a support at C and free at D. AB = BC = CD = 3.0 m. The beam is torsionally
restrained with and its compression flange restrained against lateral movement but
free to rotate on plan at A and torsionally and laterally restrained at C. Downwards
loads of 4F at B and F at D act at the top flange and are free to deflect laterally.
Determine the maximum design value of F.

4F F

A B C D

3m 3m 3m
Solution
DESIGN LOAD
By moment equilibrium at C, R A  6  4 F  3  F  3  0 ,  R A  1.5 F
By force equilibrium, R A  RC  4 F  F ,  RC  3.5 F
Maximum shear at B, V B  1.5 F  4 F  2.5 F
Maximum shear at C, VC  F
Maximum sagging moment at B, M B  R A  3  4.5 F
Maximum hogging moment at C, M C   F  3  3F

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  209.6mm , B  205.8mm , t  9.4mm , T  14.2mm , d  160 .8mm , r y  5.20 cm , Z x  584cm3 ,
S x  656cm3 , u  0.846 , x  14.1

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  355 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.88 (Table 7.1 Note b)
355

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 205.8
  7.25  9  0.88  7.92 (Table 7.1)
T 2  14.2
flange is plastic

Limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 160.8
  17.1  80  0.88  70.4 (Table 7.1)
t 9.4
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

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SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  9.4  209.6  1970mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 355  1970
Shear capacity, Vc    403.8kN (8.1)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
Low shear condition is assumed (Clause 8.2.2.1)
Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x (8.2)
 355  656  10 3  1.2  355  584
 232.9kNm  248.8kNm

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
For segment AC,
Destabilizing loading condition is assumed (Clause 8.3.3)
Effective length, L E  1.2 L LT  1.2  6  7.2m (Clause 8.3.4.1(d))
LE 7200
Slenderness ratio,     138.5 (8.26)
ry 52
u  0.9 conservatively for hot-rolled section (Clause 8.3.5.3)
1 1
v   0.644
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.05  138.5 14.1 
2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.9  0.644  138 .5  1  80 .3 (8.25)

Buckling strength, pb  189.1 N mm 2 (Table 8.3a)

Buckling resistance moment, M b  p b S x  189.1  656  10 3  124.0kNm (8.20)

Equivalent uniform moment factor is given by
0.15M 2  0.5M 3  0.15M 4
m LT  0.2  (Table 8.4b)
M max
M 2  2.25 F , M 3  M max  4.5 F , M 4  0.75 F
0.15  2.25  0.5  4.5  0.15  0.75
m LT  0.2   0.8  0.44
4. 5
m LT M x  M b (8.18)
0.8  4.5F  124
 F  34.4kN

For segment CD,

Destabilizing loading condition is assumed (Clause 8.3.3)
Effective length, L E  2.5L LT  2.5  3  7.5m (Table 8.1)
LE 7500
Slenderness ratio,     144.2 (8.26)
ry 52
u  0.9 conservatively for hot-rolled section (Clause 8.3.5.3)
1 1
v   0.633
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.05  144.2 14.1 
2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0 .9  0.633  144 .2  1  82 .2 (8.25)

Buckling strength, pb  183.4 N mm 2 (Table 8.3a)

Buckling resistance moment, M b  p b S x  183.4  656  10  120.3kNm 3 (8.20)

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Equivalent uniform moment factor, m LT  1.0 for cantilever (Clause 8.3.5.2)
m LT M x  M b (8.18)
1  3F  120.3
 F  40.1kN

Therefore, the maximum design value of F is 34.4kN.

Maximum shear at B is given by VB  2.5F  86.0kN , which is smaller than 0.6Vc  242.3kN .
Therefore, it is low shear condition. (Clause 8.2.2.1)

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6.7.4 I-section beam with intermediate restraints

An I-section beam of 45719189 UB in S275 steel of span 9m and with rigid

connection to columns (not free to rotate on plan). The beam further supports two
secondary beams as shown. The end supports of the beam provide adequate lateral
and torsional restraint with compression flange fully restrained against rotation on
plan, whereas intermediate lateral restraint prevents the compression flange of the
beam from lateral movement but rotations are free at these intermediate restraint
locations. The unfactored dead load of 60kN and imposed load of 100kN are
transferred from the secondary beams to the I-section beam. Check the member
capacities of the steel beam.

244kN 244kN

A B C D

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Factored point load, P  1 .4 PQ  1 .6 PG  1 .4  60  1 .6  100  244 kN
Maximum shear, V  244 kN
2 PL
Maximum hogging moment, M hog    488kNm
9
PL
Maximum sagging moment, M sag   244 kNm
9

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  463.4mm , B  191.9mm , t  10.5mm , T  17.7mm , d  407.6mm , ry  4.29 cm ,
Z x  1770cm3 , S x  2010cm3 , u  0.880 , x  28.3

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  265N / mm2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)
275
  1.02 (Table 7.1 Note b)
265

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Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9
b 191.9
  5.42  9  1.02  9.18 (Table 7.1)
T 2  17.7
 flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 407.6
  38.8  80  1.02  81.6 (Table 7.1)
t 10.5
 web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  10.5  463.4  4866mm2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 265  4866
Shear capacity, Vc    744 .5kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
V  244kN  0.6Vc  446.7 kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
 It is low shear condition
Moment capacity, M c  p y S x  1.2 p y Z x (8.2)
 265  2010  10  1.2  265  1770  10
3 3

 532 .7 kNm  562 .9 kNm

 M hog (OK)

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Destabilizing loading condition is assumed as the load is at top flange (Clause 8.3.3)
Segment AB
Effective length, LE  1.2  0.9  LLT  3.24m (Clauses 8.3.4.1 & 8.3.4.2)
L 3240
Slenderness ratio,   E   75.5 (8.26)
ry 42.9
1 1
v   0.927
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.0575.5 28.3 
2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.88  0.927  75 .5  1  61 .6 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  203.5 N mm2 (Table 8.3a)
Bucling resistance moment, M b  pb S x  203.5  2010  103  409.0kNm (8.20)
244
Equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT  0.44 for     0.5 (Table 8.4a)
488
mLT M x  0.44  488  214.7kNm  M b (OK) (8.18)

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Segment BC
Effective length, LE  1.2 LLT  3.6m (Clauses 8.3.4.2)
L 3600
Slenderness ratio,   E   83.9 (8.26)
ry 42.9
1 1
v   0.913
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.0583.9 28.3 
2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.88  0.913  83 .9  1  67 .4 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  190.2 N mm2 (Table 8.3a)
Bucling resistance moment, M b  pb S x  190.2  2010  10  382.3kNm3
(8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT  1 for   1 (Table 8.4a)
mLT M x  244kNm  M b (OK) (8.18)

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6.7.5 Cantilever without intermediate restraint

A cantilever of span 5m supports an imposed point load of 30kN at 2.5m from a

beam. The beam is of section 40617854 UB in S275 steel. As shown in the figure
below, the cantilever beam is restrained with partial torsional restraint at the end
support and is free at the tip. It is further subjected to a downward uniformly
distributed wind load of 5kN/m. The load is applied as normal load condition.

30kN

5kN/m

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Maximum shear, V  1.2  30  1.2  5  5  66 kN
52
Maximum moment, M x  1.2  30  2.5  1.2  5   165kNm
2

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  402.6mm , B  177.7mm , t  7.7mm , T  10.9mm , d  360.4mm , r y  3.85 cm , Z x  930cm 3 ,
S x  1050m 3 , u  0.871 , x  38.3

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275N / mm2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 177.1
  8.15  9  1  9 (Table 3.2)
T 2  10.9
 flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 360.4
  46.8  80  1  80 (Table 3.2)
t 7 .7
 web is plastic

 the section is Class 1 Plastic

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SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  7.7  402.6  3100mm2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 275  3100
Shear capacity, Vc    492.2kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
V  66kN  0.6Vc  295.3kN
 it is low shear condition (Clause 8.2.2.1)
Moment capacity, M c  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x (8.2)
 275  1050  103  1.2  275  930  103
 288 .8kNm  306 .9 kNm
 M x (OK)

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Normal loading condition is assumed (Clause 8.3.3)
Effective length, LE  2 LLT  2  5  10m (Table 8.1)
L 10000
Slenderness ratio,   E   259.7 (8.26)
ry 38.5
1 1
v   0.742
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.05259.7 38.3 
2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.871  0.742  259 .7  1  167 .8 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  55.3N / mm 2
(Table 8.3a)
Buckling resistance moment, M b  pb S x  55.3  1050  10  58.1kNm 3
(8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT  1 for cantilever (Clause 8.3.5.2)
m LT M x  165kNm  M b (Not OK) (8.18)

A subsequent worked example repeats the same design procedure again by

considering a tie beam as intermediate restraint to the cantilever.

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6.7.6 Cantilever with intermediate restraint

For the cantilever under the same load in Example 6.7.5, the imposed load is applied
to the cantilever beam at the same location as the steel angle in the transverse
direction as shown in the figure below. This steel angle can be treated as an internal
tie and provides an intermediate lateral and torsional restraint to the cantilever beam
such that the segment length is equal to 2.5m.

30kN
A 5kN/m B C

Solution
For the same cantilever beam, the shear and moment capacities of this beam member
are sufficient to resist applied shear forces and bending moments. However, the
lateral-torsional buckling resistance of the cantilever with the same section size in the
previous example is inadequate. The effective length about minor axis in this case is
reduced, when the angle connects to the cantilever as lateral and torsional restraint.

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Segment AB
Normal loading condition is assumed (Clause 8.3.3)
Effective length, LE  1.4 LLT  1.4  2.5  3.5m (Table 8.1)
L 3500
Slenderness ratio,   E   90.9 (8.26)
ry 38.5
1 1
v   0.940
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.0590.9 38.3 
2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0 .871  0 .94  90 .9  1  74 .4 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  177.4 N / mm 2
(Table 8.3a)
Buckling resistance moment, M b  pb S x  177.4 1050 10  186.3kNm 3
(8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT  1 for cantilever (Clause 8.3.5.2)
mLT M x  165kNm  M b (OK) (8.18)

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6.7.7 Simply supported I-beam

A simply supported beam of 8m length is under a uniformly distributed destabilizing

live load of 30kN/m and dead load of 15kN/m. At end supports, the compression
flanges of the beam are laterally restrained and fully restrained against torsion with
both flanges free to rotate on plan such that the effective length of the beam against
flexural-torsional buckling is the same as its physical length. Check the adequacy of
the hot-rolled beam 610305149 UB of grade S355.

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Factored distributed load,   1.4  15  1.6  30  69 kN m
69  8
Maximum shear, V   276 kN
2
69  8 2
Maximum moment, M   552kNm
8

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  612.4mm , B  304.8mm , t  11.8mm , T  19.7mm , d  540mm , I x  126000cm 4 ,
r y  7 .00 cm , Z x  4110cm , S x  4590cm , u  0.886 , x  32.7
3 3

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  345N / mm 2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.89 (Table 7.1 Note b)
345

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 304.8
  7.74  9  0.89  8.01 (Table 7.1)
T 2  19.7
 flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 540
  45.8  80  0.89  71.2 (Table 7.1)
t 11.8
 web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  11.8  612.4  7226mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 345  7226
Shear capacity, Vc    1439 .3.kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

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MOMENT CAPACITY
V  0.6Vc  863.6kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
 It is low shear condition
Moment capacity, M c  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x (8.2)
 345  4590  10  1.2  345  4110  10
3 3

 1583 .6kNm  1701 .5kNm

 M (OK)

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
For destabilizing loading condition:
Effective length, L E  1.2 L LT  1.2  8  9.6m (Clauses 8.3.4.1 & 8.3.4.2)
L 9600
Slenderness ratio,   E   137.1 (8.26)
ry 70
1 1
v   0.854
1  0.05 x  
2 0.25
1  0.05137.1 32.7 
2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.886  0.854  137 .1  1  103 .7 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  130.3N / mm 2
(Table 8.3a)
Bucling resistance moment, M b  pb S x  130.3  4590 10  598.1kNm 3
(8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, m LT  0.93 (Table 8.4a)
m LT M x  0.93  552  513.4kNm  M b (OK) (8.18)

DEFLECTION
Unfactored uniform imposed load,   30 kN / m
Maximum deflection due to imposed load,
5 L4 L
  (Table 5.1)
384 EI x 360
5 30  8000 4 8000
  
384 205000  126000  10 4 360
 6 . 2 mm  22 . 2 mm (OK)

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Chapter 7 Compression Members

7.1 Introduction and uses of compression member

Compression member refers to structural element taking loads principally by

its axial resistance, which includes column, strut and stanchion. The compression
resistance of compression member is governed either by the material strength, the
buckling resistance or their combination. The buckling resistance of compression
members is generally controlled by class of section and its properties, material
strength and member slenderness. Columns are normally vertical structural elements
to transfer the loads from superstructure to foundation and they are commonly used to
support horizontal members, such as beams, trusses and lattice girders. Common
forms of compression member in the building structures are shown in Figure 7.1.
Rolled or welded H-section and box section shown in Figure 7.2(a) are commonly
used for columns of which the large second moments of area are employed to increase
their resistance against buckling. Some other lighter duty compression members used
as struts are made of the rolled angle or channel section as shown in Figure 7.2(b).
These light duty compression members are widely used as bracings of framed
structures and as structural members in lattice structures and transmission line towers.

Bracing strut

Roof Roof

Wind Wind Wind

Floor Floor

Wall Wall

Building
columns

Elevation Elevation
Multi-storey building

C Wind Roof

A B Floors
Column

Plan Wall
Column in multi-storey buildings Elevation

Rigid frame buildings

Figure 7.1 Compression members in different types of building structures

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 Universal Built-up Welded
column H-section box column

a) Compression member of column

Angle Double Square hollow

T-section Circular hollow
angle section
section

b) Bracing and strut for trusses, lattices, girders and bracing

Figure 7.2 Different sections for compression member

The load capacity of a short compression member can be obtained as the

section strength allowing for local buckling effects, as depicted in Figure 7.3. For long
compression member, the member is susceptible to compression or column buckling.
The buckling resistance of slender columns is controlled by the cross sectional
properties and slenderness detailed in Section 7.3. As shown in Figure 7.3, the
buckling resistance of a column is normally a fraction of its tension capacity which is
not affected by the member buckling. Therefore it is common but not always possible
to derive a framing system to allow vertical members in tension to avoid their strength
being controlled by buckling. Nevertheless, it is sometimes unavoidable to have all
axially loaded columns in compression.

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 N Y = Af y

Tension member,
and very stocky
compression member

Axial load
Slender
compression
member

f y L/E
Change in length

Figure 7.3 Strength of tension member and compression member

The effective length method is adopted as an alternative method in the HK

Code for designing compression members with allowance for buckling effects. The
method of effective length is based on an imaginary buckling length of a member to
estimate its compression resistance. The accuracy, economy and reliability of the
method very much depend on the effective length factor (LE/L). An undesirable
scenario will be that one can fine tune his derived compression resistance of a
member by assuming an incorrect value of effective length factor. In spite of its
shortcoming, the method is still widely used in design of steel structures due to its
simplicity.

7.2 Behaviour of compression members

7.2.1 Introduction

Except for some very stocky members where the member load capacity is
unaffected by the boundary condition and effective length, most compression
members resist external forces under the influence of buckling. It was first recognized
in the end of 18th century that the ultimate compression capacity of the compression
member depends on its geometry, such as member length. When the member length
increases, the geometric second-order effects, namely the P-Δ and P- effects,
exaggerate rapidly and decrease the ultimate compression resistance of the column.
The P- effect is referred to as the second-order effect due to deflection or bowing
along a member, whereas the P-Δ effect is caused by the lateral movement or
displacement at member ends to create an additional moment, which depends on
displacement or sway of frame. This sway-dependent moment is termed as the P-Δ
moment and can deteriorate the stiffness of the framed structures. Consideration of

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these two effects (i.e. P-Δ- effects) together with their initial imperfections will lead
to a design output superior to the effective length method as the former eliminates the
need to classify a frame. This method is termed as second-order direct elastic and
plastic analysis and it is called the direct analysis in North America. Since the P-Δ
and P- effects cannot be accurately and automatically taken into account by effective
length method, hand calculation is therefore required to check the buckling strength of
every member under different load cases of which the procedure is tedious and
inconvenient. Unfortunately, most structural analysis or design programs have not
been programmed to consider both these two effects and, of equal importance, their
initial imperfections and therefore the method is not widely used in the industry at the
time of writing this book. Note that most software considers only the P- effect which
is much easier to program by adding displacements to the nodal coordinates. Chapter
10 gives a more detailed account on the use of the new and advanced analysis and
design method.

P
P

Le

L


Figure 7.4 P-∆ and P- effect on compression members

The phenomenon of buckling of a column can be viewed as the equilibrium

states shown in Figure 7.5 below. When the axial force acting on a simply supported
elastic slender column is small and less than the elastic buckling load (Pcr) of the
 2 EI
column equal to Pcr  in which EI is the flexural constant and LE is the effective
L2E
length, the column is in a state of stable equilibrium such that the column deflects
more only when the axial force is increased. The behaviour of compression member is
no longer in a state of stable equilibrium with a further increase in applied force. The
column will eventually become unstable with increase in displacement under a
constant axial force. When the column is further loaded, it comes to an unstable
equilibrium state that the displacement increases even when the applied force is
infinitesimal.

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 Original Original Original
position position position

Stable Neutral Unstable

Figure 7.5 Different types of equilibrium

The resistance of a compression member depends on the member length or

more precisely the effective length taking into account the boundary condition of the
member. The method based on the effective length of a compression column for
determination of the buckling resistance of a column is a simple but approximate
method for estimation of buckling resistance, as the correct value of effective length
of compression member may not be obvious in many real structures. In view of this,
most codes including the HK Code do not allow the use of the method when a
structure is susceptible to sway or when a slender structure is designed. The buckling
problem is quantified by the elastic critical load factor being equal to the ratio of
Pcr
elastic buckling load to the design load (cr  ) . The expression of Pcr was first
Fc
derived by Euler (1759) and has been used as a reference and upper bound buckling
load for centuries. When calculating the elastic critical load factor cr, one needs not
consider the deflection of a member and therefore member imperfection, frame
imperfection and load eccentricity are not required in the computation. The method of
eigen-buckling analysis cannot calculate deflection as it assumes no deflection
perpendicular to the load until the deflection become infinite and the structure
becomes unstable. The eigen-buckling analysis relies on the condition of vanishing of
the tangent stiffness of a structure which implies the attainment of the condition of
elastic buckling.

In the HK Code, the effective length method should not be used when cr is
less than 5 (i.e. cr < 5), and a more accurate second-order direct analysis should be
employed for the design. Under this condition, the frame is termed as sway ultra-
sensitive frame. When cr is between 5 and 10 (i.e. 5  cr < 10), the frame is
classified as sway and the P-Δ effect is important and must be considered in design.
When cr is greater than 10 (i.e.cr  10), the frame is considered as non-sway and
sway P-moment can be ignored but P- effect should always be considered unless
LE
the slenderness ratio is less than around 15. Determination of cr can be carried
r
out by an option of eigen-buckling analysis as in software like NIDA Ver. 9 (2015) or
by the following empirical displacement method. A more detailed discussion of frame
stability will be given in the Chapter 10.

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 FN h
cr  (7.1)
FV  N

in which
FV is the factored dead plus live loads on the floor considered.
FN is the notional horizontal force taken typically as 0.5% of FV for building
frames;
h is the storey height and
N is the notional horizontal deflection of the upper storey relative to the
lower storey due to the notional horizontal force FN .

7.2.2 Buckling of imperfection columns

When a practical member is under compression load, it deflects laterally as

shown in Figure 7.6. It deflects in pace with the applied load because of the
unavoidable member imperfection and load eccentricity.
P

Initial position
(P = 0)
L/2
e0

L/2
z u
uo

Figure 7.6 Deflection of compression member

(e0 and u0 are initial imperfections)

Based on the Timoshenko’s beam-column theory with negligible shear

deformation, the force equilibrium equation for a compression member is given in
Equation (7.2). In this case, the applied bending moment M is replaced with Pu as
shown in Equation (7.2) in which P is axially compressive force and u is lateral
deflection. When using the eigen-buckling analysis, a perfectly straight and elastic
compression member is considered and the boundary conditions of the compression
member are regarded as frictionless pinned.
d 2u
EI   Pu (7.2)
dz 2

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where E and I are respectively the Young’s modulus and second moment of inertia.
Pu is an additional moment due to deflection, namely as the P- moment, induced by
the lateral deflection and the axial force as shown in Figure 7.6. Using the simply
supported boundary conditions, the force equilibrium equation of Equation (7.2) is
solved and the buckling load for this simply supported case or the Euler buckling load
PE is obtained as Equation (7.3) and shown in Figure 7.7(a).
 2 EI
PE  2  p y A (7.3)
L

in which L is the member length and A is cross-section area of the member. The Euler
buckling load PE can therefore be seen as depending on member length. The Euler
buckling load PE and squash load (Py = py A) of a column represent two upper bound
failure loads of a member in all range of member slenderness.

PE   2 EI L2 PE  4 2 EI L2 PE  4 2 EI L2 PE  2 2 EI L2 PE   2 EI 4L 2
PE
PE PE PE PE

LE L
LE
L LE L L L LE

LE

a) LE = L b) LE = L/2 c) LE = L/2 d) LE = 0.7L e) LE = 2L

Figure 7.7 Effective lengths of compression members

The Euler buckling load PE varies with different boundary conditions. For
example, when both ends are fixed, the Euler buckling load PE is increased by 4 times
with an equivalent use of effective length LE half of the actual length of the column as
shown in Figure 7.7(b). For a cantilever, the effective length is equal to 2L as shown
in Figure 7.7(e) and the elastic buckling load depends on the square of the effective
length such that an error in approximating an effective length will lead to a quadratic
increase in the error in the computed elastic buckling load. The effective length
factors for other support conditions are indicated in Figure 7.7(c) and (d) which
requires a careful determination of effective length to correctly approximate the
buckling resistance of a practical column which unfortunately seldom has such an
idealized boundary condition as in Figure 7.7.

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 Rearranging the terms for Euler buckling load as a function of slenderness
ratio , we have,
 2 EA  2 EA
PE   (7.4)
LE r 2 2

in which LE is the effective length of the compression member, LE r is the

I
slenderness ratio , r is radius of gyration equal to . Using Equation (7.4), the
A
strength of a compression member depends on the member slenderness ratio  and
Py L py
axial constant EA. When the non-dimensional slenderness ratio    E
PE r  2E
is less than 1, failure of the column is more controlled by material yielding or the
squash load as indicated in Figure 7.3. Conversely, the member with a non-
dimensional slenderness ratio greater than 1, it is then considered as a slender member
with its strength more controlled by buckling. The solid line in Figure 7.8 indicates
inelastic compression buckling curve for imperfect columns in practice.

Figure 7.8 Elastic and inelastic buckling of compression member

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7.2.3 Perry-Robertson formula for column buckling

Perfectly straight steel columns or columns free from residual stress are not
available in practice. Member initial crookedness or curvature and residual stresses
are present in all practical steel members and frames. Consequently, a realistic
buckling resistance of a column must take into account these imperfections.

For the compression members with both ends pinned and with an initial
  z 
imperfection u0 where u0   0 sin   as illustrated in Figure 7.6, the equilibrium
 L 
equation is similar to Equation (7.2) but with an additional term for initial curvature
d 2 u0
given by Equation (7.5) as,
dz 2
d 2u d 2 u0
EI 2   Pu  EI (7.5)
dz dz 2

Solving Equation (7.5) using the simply supported boundary condition, the
maximum lateral deflection is obtained as,
 P
u max  0 E (7.6)
PE  P 
in which umax and  0 are respectively the maximum and initial imperfections at mid-
span.

Therefore, the critical P- moment induced by initial imperfection on the

compression member is given by,
 PP
M  Pu max  0 E (7.7)
PE  P 
Based on the simple beam bending theory, the maximum compressive stress
due to combined bending and compressive load can be expressed in Equation (7.8).
Setting the maximum compressive stress equal to the material design strength py of
the member in Equation (7.8), the compression load Pc causing the cross section of a
member to yield is given by,
 PP y P p E p c
py  0 E c   c  p (7.8)
PE  Pc  I A p E  pc c
in which py is the maximum stress attained on the member or yield stress, pc and pE
are respectively the compressive design strength on the member and Euler buckling
 2E  y
stress as ,  is the Perry factor equal to 02 , and y is the distance from the
 LE / r  2
r
centroid to the extreme location in the cross-section. Rearranging Equation (7.8), the
Perry-Robertson formula is obtained as follows.
 p E  p c   p y  p c   p E p c (7.9)

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 The different buckling curves of the compression member with various initial
imperfections are plotted in Figure 7.9. The elastic buckling load with initial
imperfection is determined from the smaller root of Equation (7.9). The buckling
loads of imperfect members can be seen to be lower than the Euler load or elastic
buckling curve. When the initial imperfection 0 is near zero, compressive stress pc is
very close either to Euler buckling design strength pE or to the yield stress py. Thus,
the formula is useful in computing the buckling strength allowing for buckling and
material yielding.

The discrepancy in buckling resistance of members under the 4 buckling

curves depicted in Figure 7.9 are due to the difference in use of the Perry factor  in
Equation (7.9) as,
     0  1000  0 (7.10)

in which  is the Robertson constant, which can be adjusted for types of sections,  is
LE  2E
the slenderness ratio as , 0 is limit slenderness ratio and equal to 0.2 .
r py
When the slenderness ratio  of the compression member is less than the limiting
slenderness ratio 0 , compression buckling is considered not to occur in the member.
For a general section not belonging to one of the typical sectional types, Equation
(7.9) can be adjusted by matching the buckling curve from the test results which
include the effects of initial imperfection and residual stress due to welding or other
manufacturing processes.

7.3 Compression strength and buckling curves

The safety check of a compression member requires information on its

bucking strength, pc in the HK Code. Totally five buckling curves are given in the
Code with each of them used to represent a particular section type and manufacturing
process. Also the effects of geometrical imperfection, which is normally in the order
of 0.1% of the member length, as well as the effect of residual stress are considered as
the equivalent initial imperfection of a column. Typical plots of residual stress across
a hot-rolled and a welded section are shown in Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3 of this book.
Table 6.1 of the HK Code gives the imperfections for various types of sections and
Appendix 8.4 provides details on the use of Perry constant in constructing the
buckling curves of a section. In line with these parameters, software NIDA contains
the set of imperfections and a minimum default imperfection of 0.1% in order to
disallow use of imperfection less than the geometrical imperfection.

The buckling curves are initially prepared for hot-rolled sections as shown in
Figure 7.9. For use by welded columns and struts, their design strength is required to
be reduced by 20N/mm2 for the more serious effect of residual stress. A buckling
curve new in 2011 version of the HK Code for top quality annealed sections, the a0
curve, is not shown in Figure below.

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 1.20

Reduction factor Pc/Py

1.00
curve "a"
0.80
"b"
0.60 "c"
0.40
"d"
0.20

0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

slenderness ratio 
Figure 7.9 The 4 buckling curves

7.3.1 Effective length

As illustrated above, the effective length is an important parameter for

determination of buckling resistance of an axial compression member. In the HK
Code, there are several approaches for dealing with the problem of buckling strength
check with different levels of accuracy.

7.3.1.1 Column in a simple or single storey frame

For simple one-storey structures or a compression member designed with
idealized support conditions, the effective length factor in Table 8.6 in the HK Code
can be referred as follows.

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 Flexural Buckling
Buckled shape of
column shown by
dashed line

Theoretical K
0.5 0.7 1.0 1.0 2.0 /
value
Recommended K
value when ideal
0.70 0.85 1.20 1.00 2.10 1.5
conditions are
approximated
End condition Rotation fixed. Transition fixed.
code
Rotation free. Transition fixed.

Rotation fixed. Transition free.

Rotation free. Transition free.

Rotation partially restrained. Transition free.

Table 7.1 Effective length of idealised columns

For restraining supports, the minimum force required in the restraining

members should not be less than 1% of the force in the member being restrained.

7.3.1.2 Column in a multi-storey frame

For columns in the sub-frame of a multi-storey frames shown in Figure 7.10, a more
rigorous method considering the boundary conditions and the interaction with the
restraining beams is available. Figure 6.4 in HK Code is used to approximate the
effective length factor ( LE L ) of a column in a multi-storey frame. For frames with
elastic critical load factor not less than 10 ( i.e. cr  10), the frame is considered as
non-sway or braced, and Figure 6.5a in HK Code should be used for finding the
effective length factor. For frames with elastic critical load factor less than 10 (i.e. cr
< 10), the frame is sway or unbraced, and Figure 6.5b in HK Code should be used for
finding of the effective length factor. The distinction between these two classes of
frames is essential as we can see the range of effective length factor ( LE L ) is from
0.5 to 1.0 for non-sway frames and 1.0 to infinity for sway frames. cr can be obtained
from Equation (7.1) of this chapter or from Clause 6.3.2.2 in HK Code.

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 K1
K11 k1 K12

column-length being designed Kc

K21 K22
k2
K2

Figure 7.10 Column in a sub-frame

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 Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned

Figure 7.11(a) Effective length factor of sway frames

Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned

Figure 7.11(b) Effective length factor for non-sway frames

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 The non-dimensional parameters k1 and k2 can be found by finding the ratio of
the column under consideration and the connecting beam stiffness as,
K c  K1
k1  (7.11)
K c  K 1  K 11  K 12
Kc  K2
k2  (7.12)
K c  K 2  K 21  K 22

where
K1 and K2 are the values of stiffness for the adjacent column lengths;
K11, K12, K21 and K22 are the values of stiffness for the adjacent beams.

In order to cater for the restraining effect of beam stiffness under sway and
non-sway frames and frames supporting concrete slab, the factors K11, K12, K21 and
K22 are required to be modified to respectively 1.5, 0.5 and 1.0 time flexural constant
EI
of the beam (i.e. for these three cases and when the beams are principally under
L
end moments. For case where the beam is principally under load along its span, the
modification factors should be changed to 1.0, 0.75 and 1.0 respectively for the three
cases.

7.3.1.3 Compression members in general

Effective length of members in other types of structures like triangulated
trusses and frames is mainly empirical with the recommended effective length given
in Clause 8.7.9 in the HK Code. A safe, economical and more reliable design for this
type of structures should take into account the effect of eccentric connections via the
eccentric moment in the conventional design. For complex and advanced structural
systems like domes as shown in Figure 7.12, the effective length is more difficult to
assess and resort must be made to second-order elastic or inelastic (advanced)
analysis. Great care should be taken here for checking of effective length under snap-
through buckling or other modes in these special structural systems.

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 Figure 7.12 Inapplicability of the effective length method in design of
the chords which have a slenderness ratio greater than 250

7.3.2 Slenderness ratio

With a value of effective length ( LE ) for a member, the slenderness ratio can
be determined as,
L
 E for Classes 1, 2 and 3 non-slender sections and (7.13)
r
L Aeff
 E for Class 4 slender sections (7.14)
r Ag

in which Aeff is the effective area of the section and Ag is the gross sectional area.

7.3.3 Buckling strength pc and buckling resistance Pc

The buckling strength pc can be found from Table 8.8 of the HK Code and the
buckling resistance of the column can be determined as follows.

For non-slender section including Class 1 plastic, Class 2 compact and Class 3 semi-
compact cross sections,
Pc  A g p c (7.15)

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For Class 4 slender cross-sections,
Pc  Aeff p cs (7.16)

in which:
Aeff is the effective cross-sectional area in Clause 7.6;
A g is the sum of gross sectional area in Clause 9.3.4.1;
p c is the compressive strength in Clause 8.7.6;
Aeff
p cs is the value of pc obtained using a reduced slenderness of  where  is the
Ag
slenderness ratio calculated from the radius of gyration of the gross sectional area and
member length.

For welded I, H or box section, design strength py should be reduced by

20N/mm2 and pc should then be determined from this reduced value of py.

In design of simple structures, all beams are assumed simply supported on

columns. The bending behaviour on the compression member in a simple steel
building frame should account for load eccentricity as indicated in Clause 8.7.8 in HK
Code. The equivalent moment factor mLT in columns should be taken as unity with
effective length for column buckling taken in Clause 6.6.3 and the equivalent
slenderness ratio for lateral-torsional buckling is calculated as follows.
0.5L
 LT  (7.17)
ry

7.4 Design procedures of compression member

The procedure for design of a compression member can be summarized a follows.

1. Section and steel grade selection

2. Selection of design strength from Tables 3.2 to 3.6, HK Code
3. Section classification
4. If the section is Class 4 slender, reduce the design strength py by the effective
stress method or calculate the effective area by the effective width method.
For welded sections, reduce the design strength by 20 N/mm2.
5. Classify the frame as non-sway, sway or sway ultra-sensitive frame by finding
F h
of cr by formula as cr  N or by computer software.
FV  N
6. Determine the effective length assuming the frame is simple one storey or
typical multi-storey frame.

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7. Calculate the slenderness ratio about the two principal axes as,
L
 E for Classes 1, 2 and 3 non-slender sections and
r
L Aeff
 E for Class 4 slender sections
r Ag
8. Use appropriate clauses for other sections like channel, angle and T sections
9. Select a suitable buckling curve from a0, a, b, c and d curves for the section
10. Determine the buckling strength pc from Table 8.8 in HK Code.
11. Calculate the compression resistance Pc as Pc  p c Ag for Classes 1, 2 and 3
sections or Pc  p cs Aeff or Class 4 section.

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7.5 Worked Examples

7.5.1 Compression resistance of restrained column

A 3m high H-section steel column of section 25425473 UC in S275 steel material,

supports a factored compression load of 1000kN. The column is assumed to be pinned
at the base support and at top of column as shown in figure below. Check the
adequacy of compression resistance of the column.

Solution Fc = 1000kN
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  254 . 1mm , B  254 . 6 mm , t  8 .6 mm , T  14 . 2 mm , d  200 .3mm ,
ry  6.48cm , A  93.1cm 2

3m
SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N mm for T  16 mm
2
(Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Limiting value of b/T for outstand flange of an H-section is 13

b 254.6
  8.96  13 1  13 (Table 7.1)
T 2 14.2
flange is non-slender

Limiting value of d/t for web of an H-section under axial compression is 120 1  2r2 
Fc 1000  103
Stress ratio, r2    0.391 (7.2)
Ag p yw 9310  275
d 200.3 120 120
  23.3    67.3  40  1  40 (Table 7.1)
t 8.6 1  2r2 1  2  0.391
web is non-slender

the section is non-slender

COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
Buckling about minor axis is more critical
Effective length, L E  1.0 L  3m (Table 8.6)
LE 3000
Slenderness ratio,     46.3 (Clause 8.7.4)
ry 64.8

Compressive strength for rolled H-section with maximum thickness ≤40mm bending about y-y axis
should be obtained from buckling curve (c) (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, p c  227.4 N / mm 2 (Table 8.8(c))

Compression resistance, Pc  Ag p c  9310  227 .4  2117 .1kN  Fc (OK) (8.73)

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7.5.2 Compression resistance of column in the portal frame

(1) Determine the design compression resistance of 20320360 UC of Grade

S355 steel with effective length LE 3.5m.
(2) Determine the design compression resistance of the columns of the rigid-
jointed frame as shown in the following figure if L is equal to 3.5m and the
beam load is zero by assuming that
(a) frame is fully braced against sidesway and no out-of-plane buckling,
and
(b) frame is unbraced against sidesway and no out-of-plane buckling.

2EI
k1 k1

EI EI L

k2 k2
2L

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  209 .6 mm , B  205 . 8 mm , t  9 . 4 mm , T  14 .2 mm , d  160 .8mm , rx  8.96cm , ry  5.20cm ,
A  76.4cm 2

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  355 N / mm 2 for T  16 mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.88 (Table 7.1 Note b)
355

Limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an H-section is 13

b 205.8
  7.25  13  0.88  11.4 (Table 7.1)
T 2 14.2
flange is non-slender

Limiting value of d t for web of an H-section under axial compression is 40

d 160.8
  17.1  40  0.88  35.2 (Table 7.1)
t 9.4
web is non-slender

the section is non-slender

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(1) COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
Buckling about minor axis is more critical in this case
Effective length, L E  3.5m
LE 3500
Slenderness ratio,     67.3 (Clause 8.7.4)
ry 52

Compressive strength for rolled H-section with maximum thickness less than 40mm bending about y-y
axis should be obtained from buckling curve c (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, pc  225.1 N mm 2 (Table 8.8(c))

Compressive resistance, Pc  p c A g  225 .1  7640  1719 .8 kN (8.73)

(2) COMPRESSION RESISTANCE

a) When the frame is classified as non-sway, beam stiffness should be taken as 0.5 I L (Table 6.2)
K c  K1 I L
k1    0.67 (Figure 6.4)
K c  K 1  K 11  K 12 I L  0.5  2 I 2 L
k 2  1 for pinned end
Effective length, LE  0.88L  0.88  3.5  3.08m (Figure 6.5b)
L 3080
Slenderness ratio,   E   34.4 (Clause 8.7.4)
rx 89.6

Compressive strength for rolled H-section with maximum thickness less than 40mm bending about x-x
axis should be obtained from buckling curve b (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, pc  328.0 N mm2 (Table 8.8(b))

Compressive resistance, Pc  p c A g  328 .0  7640  2505 .9 kN (8.73)

b) When the frame is classified as sway, beam stiffness should be taken as 1.5 I L (Table 6.2)
K c  K1 I L
k1    0.4 (Figure 6.4)
K c  K 1  K 11  K 12 I L  1.5  2 I 2 L
k 2  1 for pinned end
Effective length, LE  2.34 L  2.34  3.5  8.19m (Figure 6.5a)
L 8190 L 8190
Slenderness ratio,   E   91.4   E   177.5 N mm 2 (Clause 8.7.4)
rx 89.6 rx 89.6
Compressive strength, pc  177.5 N mm2 (Table 8.8(b))
Compressive resistance, Pc  p c Ag  177 .5  7640  1356 .1kN (8.73)

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7.5.3 Compression member in the braced multi-storey frame

A 3-storey composite frame shown in the figure below has been classified as non-
sway. A plan view of the frame is shown with a floor system. A 7m high column
support the I-beams, which carry concrete slab floor. The connection detail between
column and beams is also shown in the figure below. Thus the top end condition of
column is rigidly held in position without rotational restraints as indicated and the
column base is designed as pinned end. The dead load on the concrete floor slab is
4kN/m2 (including the self-weight of floor slab and finishes) and the imposed load is
4.5kN/m2. The column section is 356368153 UC in S275 steel material. The
loading on the roof level is 4kN/m2 dead load. Check the structural adequacy of the
H-column at gridlines ② & Ⓑ.
A B C

4m

2 356 x 127 x 33 UB

4m

3
356 x 368 x 153 UB

6m 6m

3m

3m

7m

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Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Factored distributed load on floor, 1  1.4  4  1.6  4.5  12.8kN / m 2 (Table 4.2)
Factored distributed load on roof,  2  1.4  4  5.6kN / m 2

Compression force on column, Fc  12.8  2  5.6   24  748.8kN

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  362.0mm , B  370.5mm , t  12.3mm , T  20.7mm , d  290 .2mm , I x  48600cm 4 ,
I y  17600cm 4 , rx  15.8cm , r y  9 .49 cm , A  195cm 2

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  265 N mm 2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)
275
  1.02 (Table 7.1 Note b)
265

Limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an H-section is 13

b 370.5
  8.95  13  1.02  13.3 (Table 7.1)
T 2  20.7
flange is non-slender

Limiting value of d t for web of an H-section under axial compression is 120 1  2r2 
Fc 748.8  10 3
Stress ratio, r2    0.145 (7.2)
Ag p yw 19500  265
d 290.2 120  1.02
  23.6   94.9 (Table 7.1)
t 12.3 1  2  0.145
web is non-slender

the section is non-slender

COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
Buckling about minor axis is more critical
Effective length, LE  1.0 L  7m (Table 8.6)
L 7000
Slenderness ratio,   E   73.8 (Clause 8.7.4)
ry 94.9

Compressive strength for rolled H-section with maximum thickness less than 40mm bending about y-y
axis should be obtained from buckling curve c (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, pc  169.3 N mm 2 (Table 8.8(c))

Compressive resistance, Pc  A g p c  19500  169 .3  3301 .4 kN  Fc (OK) (8.73)

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7.5.4 Compression member in unbraced multi-storey frame

The 3-storey frame of steel grade S275 and columns of 356368153 UC and beams
of 35612733 UB is a moment frame with rigid member connections and pinned
bases. Check the compression resistance of the column. Dead load is 2kN/m2 and
Live load is 4.5kN/m2.

3m 3m

3m 3m

7m 7m

6m 4m

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Factored distributed load on floor,   1.4  2  1.6  4.5  10 kN m 2 (Table 4.2)
Compression force on column, Fc  10  6  4  2  480 kN

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  362 .0 mm , B  370 .5 mm , t  12 . 3 mm , T  20 . 7 mm , d  290 .2 mm , I x  48600cm ,
4

I y  17600cm 4 , rx  15.8cm , ry  9.49cm , A  195cm2

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  265 N mm 2 for 16 mm  T  40 mm (Table 3.2)
275
  1.02 (Table 7.1 Note b)
265

Limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an H-section is 13

b 370.5
  8 . 95  13  1 . 02  13 . 3 (Table 7.1)
T 2  20.7
flange is non-slender

Limiting value of d t for web of an H-section under axial compression is 120 1  2r2 
Fc 480  10 3
Stress ratio, r2    0.093 (7.2)
Ag p yw 19500  265

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d 290.2 120  1.02
  23.6   103.2 (Table 7.1)
t 12.3 1  2  0.093
web is non-slender

the section is non-slender

FRAME CLASSIFICATION
The notional horizontal force applied at the centre node due to factored total load is 101240.5=
2.4kN in both directions. The notional force applied at the end node is 2.4/2 = 1.2kN in both directions.
From linear analysis by NIDA, the deflections about major and minor of the column under
consideration are 3.24mm and 5.97mm respectively.

About major axis,

Elastic critical load factor, cr  FN h  1  7000  10.8 (6.1)
Fv  N 200 3.24
cr  10 (6.2)
 it is a non-sway frame (Clause 6.3.3)

About minor axis,

Elastic critical load factor, cr  FN h  1  7000  5.86 (6.1)
Fv  N 200 5.97
10   cr  5 (6.4)
 it is a sway frame (Clause 6.3.4)

COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
The boundary condition of the interior column should be assessed by considering it as a column in a
sub-frame, while the stiffness of the connected beam contributing to the effective length of interior
column is taken into account in the frame. Thus the determination of effective length of the interior
column allows for the effect of restraining beam stiffness here.

The second moment of inertia of connecting beam (35612733 UB) is 8250cm4

About major axis,

I
Beam stiffness in non-sway mode should be taken as 0.75 (Table 6.2)
L
I x 48600
Kc    69.43cm3
Lc 700
I x 48600
K1    162cm 3
L1 300
I bx 8250
K 11  K 12    13.75cm 3
Lb 600
K c  K1 69.43  162
k1    0.92 (Figure 6.4)
K c  K1  K11  K12 69.43  162  0.75  13.75  2
k 2  1 for pinned end
Effective length, LE  0.97L  0.97  7  6.79m (Figure 6.5b)
Slenderness ratio,   LE  6790  43.0 (Clause 8.7.4)
rx 158

Compressive strength for rolled H-section with maximum thickness less than 40mm bending about x-x
axis should be obtained from buckling curve b (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, p c  238.0 N mm 2 (Table 8.8(b))

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About minor axis,
I
Beam stiffness in sway mode should be taken as 1.0 (Table 6.2)
L
Iy 17600
Kc    25.14cm 3
Lc 700
Iy 17600
K1    58.67cm3
L1 300
I bx 8250
K 11  K 12    20.63cm 3
Lb 400
K c  K1 25.14  58 .67
k1    0.67 (Figure 6.4)
K c  K 1  K 11  K 12 25 .14  58.67  20.63  2
k 2  1 for pinned end
Effective length, LE  2.9L  2.9  7  20.3m (Figure 6.5a)
Slenderness ratio,   LE  20300  213.9 (Clause 8.7.4)
ry 94.9

Compressive strength for rolled H-section with maximum thickness less than 40mm bending about y-y
axis should be obtained from buckling curve c (Table 8.8(c))
Compressive strength, pc  36.8 N mm2

buckling about minor axis is more critical

Compression resistance, Pc  pc Ag  36.8  19500  717.6kN  Fc (OK) (8.73)

The compression resistance of the column in the frame is greatly reduced when the frame is changed
from the non-sway mode to the sway mode, because of the P- effect.

The above represents one load case with maximum axial force and minimum moment since wind load
and loads on alternative bays are not considered. Other load cases should also be considered.

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7.5.5 Column with circular hollow section in Chinese steel
Part of a truss system with rigid lateral restraint is supported by a circular tube column
of CHS 21916 grade Q345 steel and 8m length as shown in the figure below. The
column is under a factored load of 1000kN. And the base of circular tube column is
assumed pinned to the ground and the upper column is pined to the truss. Check the
buckling resistance of the tube column.

8m

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  219 . 1mm , t  16 mm , A  102cm , I  5300cm , r  7.20 cm , Z  483cm , S  661cm
2 4 3 3

SECTION CLASSIFIACTION
Design strength, p y  310 N / mm 2 for t  16 mm (Table 3.3)
275
2   0.89 (Table 7.2 Note b)
310

Limiting value of D t for circular hollow section under axial compression is 80 2
D 219.1
  13.7  80  0.89  71.2 (Table 7.2)
t 16
the section is non-slender

COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
Effective length, LE  L  8m (Table 8.6)
L 8000
Slenderness ratio,   E   111.1 (Clause 8.7.4)
r 72

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Compressive strength for hot-finihsed structural hollow section should be otained from buckling
curve a (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, pc  138.3 N mm2 (Table 8.8e)

Compressive resistance, Pc  Ag pc  10200  138.3  1410.7kN  Fc (OK) (8.73)

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7.5.6 Compression resistance of slender welded column

A 2.5m high column with both ends pinned and subjected to 1000kN factored load is
to be designed. The section is welded box section with dimensions shown in the
adjacent figure. All plate elements of the welded box section are S355 steel and of
thickness 5mm.
220
Solution
SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Width of section, b  220  2  10  2  5  190 mm (Figure 7.1)
Depth of section, d  200 mm 5 200

Design strength, p y  355 N mm 2 (Table 3.2)

275
  0.88 (Table 7.1 Note b)
355 5
10
Limiting value of bo T for outstand flange of a box section under axial compression is 13
bo 10
  2  13  0.88  11.4 (Table 7.1)
T 5
outstand flange is non-slender

Limiting value of b T for internal flange of a box section under axial compression is 40
b 190
  38  40  0 .88  35 .2 (Table 7.2)
T 5
internal flange is slender

Limiting value of d t for web of a box section under axial compression is 120 1  2r2 
Gross area, Ag  220  200   5  2  4200 mm 2
Fc 1000  10 3
Stress ratio, r2    0.671 (7.6)
Ag p yw 4200  355
d 200 120  0.88
  40   45.1 (Table 7.1)
t 5 1  2  0.671
web is non-slender

the section is slender

Assume the outstand flange is ignored, by the effective width method,

A  190  200  5  2  3900mm2
K  4 for conservative approach (Clause 11.3.4.4.3)
1000  103
fc   256.4 N mm 2 (Clause 11.3.4.4.1)
3900

For flange,
2 2
t  5 
pcr  0.904EK    0.904  205000  4     513.4 N mm
2
(11.11)
b  190 
f 256.4
 c   0.499  0.123 (11.10)
pcr 513.4

 
  1  14   0.35 
4 0.2
 
 1  14 0.499  0.35 
4 0.2
 0.960 (11.9b)
be  b  0.96  190  182.4mm (11.8)

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For web,
2
 5 
pcr  0.904  205000  4     463.3 N mm
2

 200 
f 256.4
 c   0.553  0.123 (11.10)
pcr 463.3

 
  1  14 0.553  0.35 
4 0.2
 0.944 (11.9b)
be   b  0.944  200  188.8mm (11.8)

Effective Area, Aeff  182.4  188.8  5  2  3712 mm 2

For welded sections under axial compression buckling, p y should be reduced by 20 N/mm2
p y  355  20  335 N mm 2 (Clause 8.7.6)

Compressive strength for welded box section with thickness less than 40mm bending about both axes
should be obtained from buckling curve b (Table 8.7)

 5  200 3 220  53 
I x     220  5  102.5 2   2  2.979  10 7 mm 4
 12 12 
 220  53 200  53 
I y     200  5  97.5 2   2  2.789  10 7 mm 4
 12 12 
Iy 2.789  107
ry    81.5
A 4200

LE 2500
Slenderness ratio,     30.7 (Clause 8.7.4)
ry 81.5
Aeff 3712
Reduced slenderness,   30.7  28.9 (Clause 8.7.5)
Ag 4200
Compressive strength, pc  317.5 N mm 2 (Table 8.8b)
Compressive resistance, Pc  Aeff p cs  3712  317 .5  1178 .6 kN  Fc (OK) (8.74)

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Chapter 8 Beam-columns

8.1 Introduction to beam-columns

Columns and beams are strictly speaking idealized structural members under
pure axial force or pure bending moment since all members are subjected to
unavoidable small forces and moments. In the design context, we may consider beams
or columns are structural elements with dominant axial force and bending moment.
When a structural member is not under a single action of axial force or bending
moment, the design should include their interaction behaviour. Columns are
commonly under eccentric axial force that the ignorance of bending moment is on the
non-conservative side. Many practical structural elements in steel building structures
are under the simultaneous action of bending moment and axial force and they are
termed as beam-columns. The design of beam-columns is based on both beam and
column design and it is relatively complex. The structural behaviour on beam-
columns is summarized in Figure 8.1, in which the first case is the member under
tension and bending about two axes, the second case is under bending about two
principal axes free from axial force and the third case is the column under a combined
action of axial compression and bending about two principal axes.

For beam-columns in practical range, both the material nonlinear and

geometric nonlinear effects play roles in the behaviour of beam-columns. For material
nonlinear effects, the load carrying capacity of beam-column member can be based on
the plastic design. Geometrically nonlinear effects on beam-column member comprise
of local plate buckling, compression buckling, lateral-torsional buckling and axial-
torsional buckling. According to the HK Code, the member resistance of beam-
column member should be checked against cross-section capacity considering the
material strength and member buckling resistance, which allows for both the
geometric buckling and material yielding effects.

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 z z
 yM y  yM y  yM y
P z P
xM x  xM x  xM x

L L

My My My
y y y

Mx Mx Mx
x x x
P P

a) tension and biaxial bending b) biaxial bending c) compression and biaxial bending

Figure 8.1 Interaction effects on beam-column member

Nearly all sections can be used as beam-columns. The choice of a particular

member section depends not only on the structural resistance and strength, but also
the ease of fabrication which constitutes a high proportion of construction cost in steel
structures.

In general, the structural check of a beam-column requires the checking on

 Local capacity and resistance check
 Cross section capacity check and
 Overall buckling check

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8.2 Behaviour for combined tension and biaxial bending

8.2.1 Yield surface of tension members

Steel structures exist in three-dimensional space. For members under biaxial

bending Mx and My, the normal stresses is equal to the bending stress b about both x-
and y-axes shown in Figure 8.2.

 bx
My Compression
Y

Mx Mx
X X X X

My  bx
Y Tension
Vertical bending
stresses
Y
 by
 by
Y
Horizontal bending
stresses

Figure 8.2 Bending stress distribution across section under biaxial bending

The combined stress formula under the elastic assumption is expressed in

Equation (8.1). For more general elastic or plastic analysis, it can be re-written as
Equation (8.2) for section capacity check. The conceptual considerations for the two
equations can be significantly different, especially when the plastic moment capacity (
p y S ) in place of the elastic moment capacity ( p y Z ) of the section is used for the
interactive function in Equation (8.2). Also, research is currently carried out on
refining a more economical and yet safe yield function for governing the condition of
forming a plastic hinge in a beam-column element in an elastic-plastic analysis (Chan
and Chen 1995).

The member shown in Figure 8.1(a) resists tension load Ft and biaxial bending
moments Mx and My. Unless the compressive stress created by bending moment is
larger than the stress by tension force, the section is not controlled by compression
buckling. The combined stress under tension load and bending moments can be
determined by simple combined stress formula. However, in the HK Code, the case
for having favourable tension force in a section should be checked by ignoring the
presence of tension force unless the moment is directly due to eccentric tension force
in which case the absence of moment implies the disappearance of axial force. For

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general cases, the favourable effect of tension force in a beam bent about its major
principal axis should be ignored for beam lateral-torsional buckling check.

When a section is loaded under moments about two principal axes, the stresses
induced on the beam-column member section is made up of normal tensile stress t
and bending stress b about principal x- and y-axes. The resulting stress should be
checked to be not greater than the material design strength py for structural adequacy
when using the simplest linear interactive equation. Equation (8.1) is the elastic
combined stress formula.
F M My
 t   bx   by  t  x   py (8.1)
Ag Zx Zy

in which Ft is tension load, Mx and My are respectively bending moment about x- and
y-axes, Ag is the gross section area and it should be replaced by the sectional net area
(Anet) at the section with bolt opening, Zx and Zy are the elastic section modulus about
the principal axes. Equation (8.1) can be normalized and refined as below.
Ft Mx My F M My
   t  x  1 (8.2)
p y Ag p y Z x p y Z y Pt M cx M cy

in which Pt is the tension load capacity, Mcx and Mcy are respectively the moment
capacities about x- and y-axes. For plastic sections, the moment capacities Mcx and
Mcy are revised to the plastic section capacity as pySx and pySy, where Sx and Sy are the
plastic section moduli about the respective axes. The use of plastic section modulus is
based on a concept of section capacity strength rather than focusing on the stress in
elastic stage.

The interaction between tension and bending is plotted in Figure 8.3. When a
stress point lies outside the yield surface under the combined actions of force and
moments, the beam-column member is considered as failed and the structure is
considered to be inadequate when using the first plastic hinge design method or the
member is not allowed to be further loaded. For simplicity and conservative design,
the linear interaction surface represented by the dotted lines in Figure 8.3 is
commonly adopted.

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 Tension
Ft
Pt
1.0
A more accurate curved
yield surface

Moment Mx
X-X axis M cx

My 1.0 1.0
M cy
Moment A conservative yield surface
Y-Y axis
made of straight line

Figure 8.3 Actual and linearised yield surfaces of a section

under tension and bending

The actual yield condition under bending moment and axial force involves
shift of neutral axis. Its interaction with residual stress and local buckling makes the
exact analysis or design complicated and unsuitable for practical uses. The simplified
assumption of yield surface to control the combined axial force and moment makes
the structural checking direct and convenient. For illustration, the two dimensional
yield surfaces under the linear and non-linear interaction are shown in Figure 8.4.
When a load point lies inside the linear failure surface at ‘B’, the summation of the
tensile direct stress as ‘BC’ and bending stress as ‘AB’ is equal to unity in Figure 8.4
and indicated by Equation (8.2). Under such condition, the member is considered as
structural adequate and safe. For a more accurate prediction of the section strength,
the Von Mises-Hencky yield function can be used. Clauses 8.8 and 8.9 in the HK
Code allow the use of both the approaches of linear interaction and an assumption of
axial force taken by central core area of the section around web with the bending
moment taken by the remaining area. This approximation leads to a more economical
design based on a curved yield surface with little additional computational effort in
computer (Chan and Chui, 1997). The illustration can be seen in Figure 8.5 that the
solid core at web is assigned to take the axial force.

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 Ft
Convex more economical
Pt
failure surface
1.0

Linear more conservative

failure surface

A B

M
x
0 C 1.0 M cx

Figure 8.4 Interaction of tension force and bending moments

This part of material is

used to resist axial force

The remaining material is

used to resist moment

Figure 8.5 Sectional strength analysis under axial force and moment

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8.2.2 Design procedures for stocky beam-columns

A section capable of resisting axial force and bending moment alone may
become inadequate when the force and moment act simultaneously. The checking is
covered in the HK Code.

Using the linear interaction between force and moments in Equation (8.2) with
the complexity of shift of neutral axis ignored. The linearised interaction between the
axial force and moments can be written as,
Ft M x My
  1 (8.3)
Pt M cx M cy

in which Ft, Mx and My are the applied tension force and bending moment about the x-
and y-axes, Pt is the tension capacity of the member under pure tension and it is equal
to pyAe, where Ae is the effective area of the section to resist tension force and py is
design strength, Mcx and Mcy are the moment capacity of beam member about x- and
y-axes respectively and these moment capacities are discussed in Chapter 6 for beams
and in Clause 8.2.2 in HK Code.

For Class 1 plastic and Class 2 compact sections, the moment capacity Mc is
taken as the plastic moment of the section equal to pyS. For Class 3 semi-compact
sections, the moment capacity Mc is taken as the elastic moment capacity as pyZ.
Moment capacity Mc for Class 4 slender sections should be pyZeff or pyrZ to allow for
the effects of local plate buckling. The simplified linear failure surface in Equation
(8.3) to account the interaction effect is a conservative design approach.

The reduction of bending resistance of member in the presence of tension load

is considered by inclusion of the term of Ft/Pt in Equation (8.3). If this tension effect
is considered directly in the computation of moment capacity of section (i.e. the
moment capacity of the cross section is reduced in the presence of axial force shown
in Figure 8.5), the term Ft/Pt tension should be omitted in the interaction Equation
(8.3). This is a more economical and exact design approach using the convex failure
surface in Figure 8.3.

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8.3 Worked Examples

8.3.1 Combined tension and bending of angle beam

An angle tie with both ends pinned is subjected to a factored tension of 100kN and a
factored distributed load of 8kN/m. The tie spans 5.5m and it is made of 20020016
equal angle in S275 steel. Check the adequacy of the tension tie under combined
actions.

Simply Supported Ends

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
8  5. 5
Maximum shear, V   22.0kN
2
8  5.5 2
Maximum moment, M x   30.3kNm
8

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  200 mm , B  200 mm , t  16 mm , A  61 .8cm , I x  2340cm , Z x  162cm
2 4 3

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for t  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Semi-compact limiting value of b t , d t for angle in compression due to bending is 15

b d 200
   12.5  15  1  15 (Table 7.1)
t t 16
the section is Class 3 semi-compact

SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  0.9 A0  0.9  200  16  2880mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 275  2880
Shear capacity, Vc    457.3kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

TENSION CAPACITY
Tension capacity, Pt  p y Ae  275 6180  1699.5kN (8.66)

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MOMENT CAPACITY
V  22kN  0.6Vc  274.4kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
It is low shear condition
Moment capacity,
M cx  p y Z x  275  162  103  44.6 Nm (8.3)
Buckling resistance moment,
M b  0.8 p y Z x  0.8  275  162  10 3  35.6 Nm  M x (OK) (8.64)

CROSS-SECTION CAPACITY
Ft M 100 30.3
 x    0.74  1 (OK) (8.77)
Pt M cx 1699.5 44.6

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8.4 Beam-columns under tension and lateral-torsional buckling

When a slender beam-column in under tension force and bending moment

about the major principal axis, it is required to be checked for resistance against
lateral-torsional buckling. Similar to the case for biaxial bending of short beams, the
slender beam has a failure yield surface under bending about two principal axes as
shown in Figure 8.6.

Mx
1.0
Mb

My
M cy

1.0

Figure 8.6 Buckling in beams under bending about two principal axes

Under this case where the lateral-torsional buckling governs, the member
resistance about major axis is limited to the buckling resistance moment or the lateral
torsional buckling moment Mb. As the tension force assists the member to resist
buckling, the checking may ignore the favourable effect of tension force and also the
equivalent uniform moment factor mLT is allowed to consider the effect of the non-
uniform bending moment distribution on beams in Chapter 6. The equation for
checking of failure under biaxial bending allowing for lateral torsional buckling effect
on this basis can be written as,
m LT M x m y M y
 1 (8.4)
Mb M cy

in which Mb is member resistance against lateral-torsional buckling based on Clause

8.3.5.2 in HK Code for different sections, Mx is the maximum design moment about
major principal x-axis governing Mb, mLT is equivalent uniform moment factor in
Table 8.4 of HK Code, My is maximum design moment about the minor y-axis.

In addition to Equation (8.4) for buckling check, tension members should be

checked against sectional strength in Equation (8.3).

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8.5 Design procedures of unrestrained beam-column

The procedure for design of unrestrained beams can be summarized as

follows.

I CHECK IF THE SECTION IS COMPLETELY IN TENSION AND

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Use the combined stress formula to check whether or not there is any compressive
stress in the cross section. If compression is found in the cross section, section
classification is required.

II DETERMINE THE MOMENT CAPACITY AND BUCKLING MOMENT

RESISTANCE
If the beam-column is slender and susceptible to beam buckling, the procedure for
finding the buckling resistance moment in Chapter 6 is applied. For stocky beams, the
moment capacity is determined as elastic or plastic moment.

III INTERACTION EQUATION CHECK

Check the moment resistance of the member by the interactive equation as,
m LT M x m y M y
  1 for beam buckling
Mb M cy
Ft M x My
   1 for sectional capacity
Pt M cx M cy

A more refined and economical formula can be used for the checking by assuming the
core area near web takes the tension axial force and the remaining area resists the
moments about the two axes.

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8.6 Worked Examples

8.6.1 Bending about two axes of an I beam

An I-section beam of span 5.5m and section 35617145 UB is simply supported on

a sloping roof as shown. The factored design load is 10kN/m vertically and it is
applied to the top flange of the I-beam as a destabilizing load. Check the adequacy of
the I-section beam of Grade S275 steel material.

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
10  5.5
Maximum shear, V   27.5kN
2
10  5.5 2
Maximum moment, M max   37.8kNm
8
Maximum shear along minor axis, V y  27 .5 cos 20   25 .8 kN
Maximum shear along major axis, V x  27.5 sin 20  9.4kN
Maximum moment about major axis, M x  37.8 cos 20  35.5kNm
Maximum moment about minor axis, M y  37 .8 sin 20   12 .9 kNm

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  351.4mm , B  171.1mm , t  7.0mm , T  9.7 mm , d  311.6mm , Z x  687cm3 , Z y  94.8cm 3 ,
S x  775cm3 , S y  147cm 3 , r y  3 .76 cm , u  0.874 , x  36.8 , A  57.3cm 2

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 171.1
  8.82  9  1  9 (Table 7.1)
T 2  9.7
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section with neutral axis at mid-depth is 80
d 311.6
  44.5  80  1  80 (Table 7.1)
t 7
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

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SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Avy  tD  7  351.4  2460 mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
Avx  0.9  2  BT  0.9  2  171.1 9.7  2987mm 2

p y Avy 275  2460

Shear capacity, Vcy    390.6kN  V y (OK) (8.1)
3 3
p y Avx 275  2987
Vcx    474.2kN  V x (OK)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
V y  25.8kN  0.6Vcy  234.4kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
V x  9.4kN  0.6V cx  284.5kN
it is low shear condition
Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1.2 p y Z x (8.2)
 275  775  10  1.2  275  687  10
3 3

 213 .1kNm  226 .7 kNm

 M x (OK)
M cy  p y S y  1 .2 p y Z y (8.2)
 275  147  10  40.4kNm
3

but  1.2  275  94.8  10 3  31.3kNm

 M cy  31 .3kNm  M y (OK)

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
It is destabilizing loading condition as given (Clause 8.3.3)
Effective length, L E  1.2 L LT  1.2  5.5  6.6m (Clause 8.3.4.1(d))
LE 6600
Slenderness ratio,     175.5 (8.26)
ry 37.6
1 1
v   0.827
1  0.05 x  2 0.25
1  0.05  175.5 36.8  2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1.0 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.874  0.827  175 .5  1  126 .9 (8.25)
Buckling strength, p b  87.7 N mm 2
(Table 8.3a)
Buckling resistance, M b  p b S x  87.7  775  10  68.0kNm 3
(8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, m LT  0.93 (Table 8.4a)
m LT M x  0.93  35.5  33.0kNm  M b (OK) (8.18)

CROSS-SECTION CAPACITY
Mx My 35.5 12.9
    0.58  1 (OK) (8.78)
M cx M cy 213.1 31.3

MEMBER BUCKLING RESISTANCE

Equivalent moment factor, m y  0.95 (Table 8.9)
m LT M x my M y
0.93  35.5 0.95  12.9
    0.96  1 (OK) (8.81)
Mb pyZ y 68 275  94.8  10 3

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8.6.2 Cantilever beam bent about two axes

A cantilever beam of channel section supports an advertisement board as shown in

figure below. The loading from the advertisement board contains 2.5kN/m lateral
wind load and 12kN/m vertical dead load. The channel section of the cantilever beam
is [2009030 in S275 steel. Determine the adequacy of the member under combined
interaction of bending about two axes.

Solution
DESIGN LOAD
Factored dead load,  G  1.4  12  16.8 kN m (Table 4.2)
Factored wind load,  w  1.4  2.5  3.5 kN m
Maximum shear along minor axis, V y  16.8  2  33.6kN
Maximum shear along major axis, V x  3.5  2  7.0kN
1
Maximum moment about major axis, M x   16.8  2 2  33.6kNm
2
1
Maximum moment about minor axis, M y   3.5  2 2  7.0kNm
2

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  200mm , B  90mm , t  7.0mm , T  14.0mm , d  148 mm , Z x  252cm 3 , Z y  53.4cm 3 ,
S x  291cm 3 , S y  94.5cm 3 , r y  2 .88cm , u  0.952 , x  12.9 , A  37.9cm 2

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

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Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of a channel is 9
b 90
  6.43  9  1  9 (Table 7.1)
T 14
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of a channel with neutral axis at mid-depth is 40
d 148
  21.1  40  1  40 (Table 7.1)
t 7
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Avy  tD  7  200  1400 mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
Avy  0.9  2  BT  0.9  2  90  14  2268mm 2

p y Avy 275  1400

Shear capacity, Vcy    222.3kN  V y (OK) (8.1)
3 3
p y Avx 275  2268
Vcx    360.1kN  V x (OK)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
Vy  0.6Vcy  133.4kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
V x  0.6Vcx  216.1kN
it is low shear condition
Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x (8.2)
 275  291  10  1.2  275  252  10
3 3

 80 .0 kNm  83 .2 kNm
 M x (OK)
M cy  p y S y  1 .2 p y Z y (8.2)
 275  94.5  10  26.0kNm
3

but  1.2  275  53.4  10 3  17.6kNm

 M cy  17 .6 kNm  M y (OK)

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
It is normal loading condition (Clause 8.3.3)
Effective length, L E  0.8L LT  0.8  2  1.6m (Table 8.1)
LE 1600
Slenderness ratio,     55.6 (8.26)
ry 28.8
1 1
v   0.849
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.05  55.6 12.9  2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1.0 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.952  0.849  55 .6  1  44 .9 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  250.2 N mm 2
(Table 8.3a)
Buckling resistance, M b  p b S x  250.2  291  10  72.8kNm 3
(8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT  1 for cantilever (Table 8.4b)
m LT M x  1  33.6  33.6kNm  M b (OK) (8.18)

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CROSS-SECTION CAPACITY
Mx M y 33.6 7
    0.82  1 (OK) (8.78)
M cx M cy 80 17.6

MEMBER BUCKLING RESISTANCE

m y  1 .0
m LT M x m y M y 1  33.6 1 7
    0.94  1 (OK) (8.81)
Mb pyZ y 72.8 275  53.4  10 3

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8.7 Sectional strength under compression and bending

For stocky members under compressive axial force and bending moments
about two axes, both the capacity and buckling strength of the members are required
for checking. When a member is under compression force Fc and biaxial bending
moments Mx and My, the induced stresses on the member section will comprise
compressive stress due to force and bending moments about x- and y-axes as shown in
Figure 8.7.

Y
c  bx

X X

Y
 bx
Eccentricities in Axial
cross section stress
Bending stress about
X-X axis
by
 by
Bending stress
about Y-Y axis
p y   max   ( c   bx   by )

Figure 8.7 Stress distribution across a section under the action of axial force and
bending moments

For elastic design, the combined stress on the section should not be greater
than the material design strength py. The strength check of the member should follow
Equation (8.5), which is based on an elastic analysis superimposing the components
of compression and bending stresses as,
F M My
 c   bx   by  c  x   py (8.5)
Ag Zx Zy

in which Fc, Mx and My are the axial force and bending moments for the critical
section along a beam-column. The section capacity check for the interaction can be
rewritten as Equation (8.6) in a section capacity format beyond the elastic limit as,
Fc Mx My Fc M My
    x  1 (8.6)
p y Ag p y Z x p y Z y p y Ag M cx M cy

where Ag is the gross area of member section. Mcx and Mcy are respectively the
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member capacity about x-axis and y-axis. For plastic analysis allowing for the entire
section fully yielded, the moment capacities Mcx and Mcy can be taken as the plastic
section capacity pyS. The reduction of moment capacities due to compression load
takes into account the three-dimensional failure surface in Figure 8.8.

Fc
Pc
1.0

Mx
B
M cx
My 1.0
M cu
1.0

Figure 8.8 Failure surface of sectional strength under biaxial bending

The plastic failure surface is convex in space as shown by solid lines in Figure
8.8. The conservative linear failure surface under combined axial compression and
biaxial bending are also plotted in dotted lines in Figure 8.8. For any loaded point
lying inside or on the failure surface such as stress point “A” in Figure 8.8, the
member is considered as structurally adequate and capable of resisting the loads and
bending moments. When the axial force is released, the stress point drops to stress
point “B” at the yield surface with zero axial force and the section is allowed to take
greater moments because of this removal of axial force.

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8.8 Buckling strength under biaxial bending

The structural check of compression member under axial force and bending
moments should include the section capacity check and the overall buckling check.
The sectional capacity check and the buckling resistance checks are detailed
respectively in Clauses 8.9.1 and 8.9.2 of the HK Code. The section capacity check is
to ensure no section in the beam-column will be loaded beyond the failure yield
surface of the section. The overall member buckling resistance check is to ascertain
the member will not buckle under the combined action of axial force and moments.

8.8.1 Cross section capacity

The yield surface for a compression member is similar to the case for a tension
member and the simple linear interaction equation is used in the HK Code as follows.

For non-slender sections,

Fc M My
 x  1 (8.7)
p y A M cx M cy

For slender sections,

Fc M My
 x  1 (8.8)
p y Aeff M cx M cy

in which Aeff is the effective cross sectional area allowing for local buckling. The
external moments and force should be selected for the most critical section in a
member. More exact method allowing the inclusion of axial force effect into the
bending moment resistance is allowed in the HK Code. The method is based on the
core area around web taking the axial force with the remaining areas taking the
moments.

8.8.2 Overall buckling resistance

The buckling check in the HK Code involves (1) the checking for column
buckling with prolonged effective buckling length, (2) the amplified moment due to
sway and displacement in the frame and (3) the lateral-torsional buckling interacted
with the axial force and flexural buckling about the minor axis. The interaction
relation between the force and the moment is shown in Figure 8.9 below, which
indicates that the failure surface is dependent not only on the cross sectional
capacities, but also on the effective length of the member. In the figure, when the
slenderness ratio  of the member increases, the allowed axial compression resistance
and moment resistance about major axis decrease.

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 Fc
Py
1
Limiting slenderness  = 15

 = 100
Mx
1 Mcx

My
Mcy
1

Figure 8.9 Failure surfaces of compression members under combined actions

The HK Code is different from most other design codes in the checking of
beam-columns. In some steel design codes like Eurocode 3 (2005), either the moment
amplification method or the buckling effective length method is needed for checking
of buckling resistance of a beam-column. Below is an argument that the options are
not always equivalent and they may produce considerably different design loads.
Thus, it is one reason for not accepting the effective length method when the elastic
critical load factor cr is less than 5.

When the moment in a beam-column is small such as a concentrated load

acting directly on top of a beam-column, the design of the beam-column is not
controlled by the part for bending moment and the amplified moment remains small
even the amplification factor is large. The failure of the beam-column here is
dominated by column flexural buckling mode and Equation (8.79) of Clause 8.9.2 of
HK Code should be applied to check this mode of failure. On the other hand, when
the moment on the beam-column is large such as the beam-column is under large end
moment or moment along its length, the column flexural buckling is not in control of
the member capacity and the amplified moment becomes dominant in member
strength check. In this case Equation (8.80) of Clause 8.9.2 of HK Code checks the
resistance of the member against this scenario of failure. The remaining equation in
the same clause obviously checks the case for the beam-column against lateral-
torsional buckling. Thus, 3 equations are required to be checked when using the HK
Code at least for consistency in design.

8.8.2.1 Member buckling check

The buckling of the member in the column flexural buckling mode is
considered in this clause here. When the bending moment is small such that the
amplified moment is moderate even the sway amplification factor is large, the flexural
buckling is more critical and this checking is to prevent the failure case for column
buckling mainly due to P- effect which is coupled with member buckling. The

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bending moment action reduces the buckling resistance of the beam column
susceptible to column flexural buckling and the checking can be expressed as follows.
Fc m x M x m y M y
  1 (8.9)
Pc M cx M cy

in which Pc is the buckling resistance of the member using the effective length
determined in Chapter 7, mx and my are the uniform moment equivalent factors, M x
and M y are the design moments which are not required for amplification as the effect
may be doubly considered after using the prolonged effective length for finding the
Pc. Mcx and Mcy are the resistance moment of the cross section. It can be seen great
uncertainty exists in estimating Pc which further depends on the stiffness and sway
amplitude of the whole frame and this is the disadvantage of the effective length
method.

8.8.2.2 Sway amplified moment

When the beam-column in a frame sways considerably that the increase in
effective length in the above section cannot cater for the amplified sway moment
reliably, the checking in the following Equation (8.10) prevents this mode of failure.
However, as the sway moment cannot be applied to the amplifying buckling effect of
beam-column along its length, an effective length equal to the member length is still
required to be assumed. The equation for the checking is given in the following
equation.
Fc m x M x m y M y
  1 (8.10)
Pc M cx M cy

in which Pc is the buckling resistance of the beam-column assuming the effective

length equal to the member length, mx and my are the equivalent uniform moment
factors about the x- and y-axes. Mx and My are the amplified bending moments using
the amplification factors in Equations (8.11) and (8.12) below.
 cr
Mx  Mx (8.11)
 cr  1

M y  cr M y (8.12)
cr  1

 cr
where is the greater of following Equations (8.13) and (8.14).
cr  1
cr 1
 or
cr  1 FV  N (8.13)
1
FN h
 cr 1

 cr  1 F L2 (8.14)
1  c2 E
 EI

in which cr is the elastic critical load factor equal to the elastic buckling load divided

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by the design load of a perfect (no imperfection) structural system, M x and M y are
the bending moment without amplification and obtained directly from a
linearanalysis. FV and FN are the vertical and notional horizontal forces acting on a
floor. Fc is the axial force in the member being designed and LE is the effective length.
Further details of the concept of second-order nonlinear buckling analysis can be
found in Chapter 10.

Equations (8.11) and (8.12) are to account for amplified effect from sway of
frame and Equation (8.13) and (8.14) are for the amplification from column buckling.
As only the P- effect is required for consideration in sway frames, the use of
Equations (8.13) is needed only for sway frames.

The amplification factor in Equation (8.13) is for the amplified moment effect
when a frame sways, such that the induced moment becomes axial force times the
lateral deflection. Equation (8.14) on the other hand is due to the effect of amplified
moment resulted from deflection bowing and axial force.

8.8.2.3 Lateral-torisional buckling

When the beam column is bent about the major axis with a possibility of
buckling about the minor axis, the following interaction equation is needed to ensure
the member does not fail in this combined buckling mode for flexural and lateral-
torsional buckling. Here the flexural buckling resistance Pcy about the minor axis is
used as the concern is on the buckling about the minor axis, but not about the major
principal axis.
Fc m LT M LT m y M y
  1 (8.15)
Pcy Mb M cy

in which Pcy is the buckling resistance about the minor axis of the section, mLT is the
uniform equivalent moment factor for lateral-torsional buckling of beams, MLT is the
amplified bending moment about x-axis governing Mb.

In Equation (8.15), as Pcy is obtained from sway effective length, we need not
amplified the My which is about the same y-axis. However, MLT is about the major
axis and the effective length about this major axis has not been considered and thus
we need to amplify MLT.

8.9 Design procedures of compression and bending

The procedure for design of an unrestrained beam column can be summarized

as follows.

I SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Classify the sectional type into Class 1, 2, 3 or 4. The design strength or cross
sectional area for Class 4 sections should be reduced.

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II SECTIONAL CAPACITY CHECK
Determine the most critical section containing the greatest stress due to bending
moments about the two axes. Apply Equations (8.7) and (8.8) for sectional strength
check.

III MEMBER BUCKLING CHECK

Compute the buckling resistance moment of a beam-column to Chapter 6 and the
 cr
buckling resistance against axial buckling in Chapter 7. Amplified factor
 cr  1
should be applied. Check the member to Equations (8.9) to (8.15) which are adopted
from Clauses 8.9.2 in HK Code.

IV OTHER LOCAL EFFECTS AND WEB BEARING AND BUCKLING

CHECK
As for beam and column design, checking for web against bearing, shear buckling and
compression buckling should be carried out as for restrained beams. The discussion
should be referred to Chapter 9.

V OTHER LIMIT STATES

Other limit states such as the deflection and vibration limit states shall also be
checked.

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8.10 Worked Examples

8.10.1 Column in simple frame

A steel stanchion of 203203100 UC of length 8m and grade S355 grade of steel in

a multi-storey building frame is under a factored concentric axial force of 250 kN, a
factored reaction from beam of 100 kN with nominal eccentricities of 100mm from
the face of the web and another factored reaction from beam of 150 kN of 100mm
nominal eccentricity from the face of the flange. Check the adequacy of the
stanchion. The effective length for flexural column buckling is 1.0 of its physical
length and the effective length for lateral-torsional beam buckling is 0.5 of its physical
length.

Solution
SECTION PROPERTIES
D  228.6mm , B  210.3mm , t  14.5mm , T  23.7mm , d  160.8mm , I x  11300cm 4 ,
I y  3680cm 4 , rx  9.44 cm , r y  5.39 cm , Z x  988cm3 , Z y  350cm 3 , S x  1150cm 3 ,
S y  534cm 3 , u  0.852 , x  9.02 , A  127cm 2

DESIGN LOAD
Axial load, Fc  250  100  150  500kN
Moment about major axis, M x  150  ( 228.6 2  100)  103  32.1kNm
Moment about minor axis, M x  100  (14.5 2  100)  103  10.7kNm

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  345 N / mm 2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.89 (Table 7.1 Note b)
345

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an H-section is 9

b 210.3
  4.44  9  0.89  8.01 (Table 7.1)
T 2  23.7
 flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an H-section under both axial compression and bending is
80 1  r1 
Fc 500  10 3
Stress ratio, r1    0.622  1 (7.1)
dtp yw 160.8  14.5  345
d 160.8 80  0.89
  11.1   43.9
t 14.5 1  0.622
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

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MOMENT CAPACITY
Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x
 345  1150  10 3  1.2  345  988  10 3
 396 .8kNm  409 .0 kNm
 M x (OK)
M cy  p y S y  1 .2 p y Z y

 345  534  10 3  184.2kNm

but  1.2  345  350  10 3  144.9kNm
 M cy  144 .9 kNm  M y (OK)

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Effective length, LE  0.5LLT  0.5  8  4m
LE 4000
Slenderness ratio,     74.2 (8.26)
ry 53.9
1 1
v   0.691
1  0.05 x 
2 0.25
1  0.05  74.2 9.02  2 0.25 (8.27)

 w  1.0 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)

Equivalent slenderness,  LT  uv   w  0.852  0.691  74 .2  1  43 .7 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb  305.9 N mm 2 (Table 8.3a)
Buckling resistance, M b  p b S x  305.9  1150  10  351.8kNm 3
(8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, m LT  1.0 (Table 8.4a)
m LT M x  1.0  32.7  32.7 kNm  M b (OK) (8.18)

COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
Bending about minor axis is more critical
Effective length, LE  L  8m
LE 8000
Slenderness ratio,     148.4 (Clause 8.7.4)
ry 53.9

The compressive strength for rolled H-section bending about minor axis should be obtained from
buckling curve c. (Table 8.7)
Compressive strength, pc  73.6 N mm2 (Table 8.8(c))
Compressive resistance, Pc  Ag p c  12700  73 .6  934 .7 kN  Fc (OK) (8.73)

CROSS-SECTION CAPACITY
Fc M My 500  103 32.1 10.7
 x      0.27  1 (OK) (8.78)
Ag p y M cx M cy 12700  345 396.8 144.9

MEMBER BUCKLING RESISTANCE

Equivalent moment factor, mx  m y  mLT  1 for simple construction (Clause 8.7.8)

Moment amplification factor about major axis,

cr 1 1
   1.163
cr  1 Fc L2E 500  8 2 (8.82)
1 2 1 2
 EI x   2.05  11300

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Moment amplification factor about minor axis,
cr 1 1
   1.754
cr  1 Fc L2E 500  8 2 (8.82)
1 2 1 2
 EI y   2.05  3680

Fc mx M x m y M y 500 1.163  32.1  103 1.754  10.7  103

      0.80  1 (8.80)
Pc M cx M cy 934.7 345  988 345  350
Fc m LT M LT m y M y 500 1.163  32 .1 10 .7  10 3
      0.73  1 (8.81)
Pcy Mb M cy 934 .7 351 .8 345  350

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Chapter 9 Connections

9.1 Introduction

Connections play an important role in the steel structure; they link individual
members together and transfer loads from one member to another. The cost of
connection can be 20 to 30% of the total construction cost of a steel structure. Details
of connection can also affect the speed of construction, cost and safety of the
complete structure. In some occasions, the appearance of connections is also
controlled by architectural requirements.

The major consideration for connections is, apart from structural strength and
safety, the ease of fabrication which indirectly relates to the cost. The design aspect
requiring special consideration will be of the lack of ductility for most, especially the
welded connections. It has been reported that failure of many steel structures occurs at
connection and the strength and ductility of connections need to be considered and
analysed

Figure 9.1 Semi-rigid bolted connection with computer simulation

In general, a connection is either designed as a pinned connection transferring

only shear or a rigid connection transferring both shear and moment. The former
connection type of pinned connections is more widely used in simple construction
and the latter type of rigid connections is used in continuous construction. The newest
development is the semi-rigid connections which allow transfer of shear with partial
transfer of moment (see Figure 9.1 shows a finite element model of a semi-rigid
bolted connection used in a green hoarding system designed by second-order direct
plastic analysis in Hong Kong). When transferring moment through a connection, the
strength is of paramount importance and when only shear is transferred with release
of moment, the rotational capacity becomes the principal consideration. Designer
details the pinned connection to be flexible in releasing moment and transferring

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shear only whereas the rigid connections are detailed to have sufficient strength to
transfer moment as well as shear. Semi-rigid connections are designed to have both
the capability of transferring moment and allowing rotations.

In structural design of steel structures, the assumption for connection

characteristics should be consistent in detailing, strength calculation and in connection
fixity used in computer modeling for structural frame analysis. As a general rule, bolt
connections should be used on site and welded connections should be adopted in
shop, because of ease of quality control. In some cold areas, site welding is not
feasible during the winter or even not permitted. However, local practice in Hong
Kong may prefer site welding for easy fabrication and greater tolerance for fixing of
connections.

The aim of connections is to transmit the load from one member to another.
Different forms of joining members should be referred to connections with different
names, such as beam-to-beam connection, column splice, truss joints, beam-column
connection and column base shown in Figure 9.2(a). These connections may perform
different functions such as transfer of moment and shear, or shear only with adequate
rotation capacity as shown in Figure 9.2(b). When load is transferred from one plate
element to another, lap joints shown in Figure 9.2(c) can be used. Fabrication and
erection procedures may be simplified by standardizing a number of common
connection details and arrangements for common connections.

Beam to beam connection Column splices Truss joints

Beam to column joint Column base

Figure 9.2(a) Types of member connections

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 Moment connection Pinned connection

Figure 9.2(b) Moment connection and pinned connection

Lap joint by bolts Welded joint to form built-up element

Figure 9.2(c) Connections jointing the plate elements by bolts or welds

Figure 9.2 Typical connections

The common composing elements or components in different types of

connection are of bolts, pins, welds, seats, cleats and end plates. Riveted connections
are uncommon in modern construction and therefore not further discussed here. The
key elements of component in connection for direct load transfer are bolts and welds.

Bolting contains two types. They are non-preloaded ordinary bolts in standard
clearance or oversize holes and preloaded or high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolt.
Welding includes mainly fillet and butt welds.

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9.2 Connection behaviour in strength, stiffness and ductility

Connections are commonly assumed to be either perfectly rigid or ideally

pinned. The assumption of joint stiffness should be sufficiently accurate to prevent
unfavorable effect on frame behavior. A rigid frame or a frame with rigid connections
assumes all connections to be rigid and the moment can be all transferred from one
member to another. On the other hand, no moment is transferred through the pinned
connection; the stiffness of pinned connection is equal to zero. However, pin
connection must be able to transmit shear and to possess sufficient ductility for
rotation as pinned connection. While all connections of a structure are idealized as
pinned, the structure is called simple structure. It is convenient and simple for
structural analysis and design of the structure. Strictly speaking, these two extreme
cases can seldom exist in reality and the widely used assumption of perfectly rigid and
frictionless pinned connection is practically unattainable. A more realistic and
possibly more economical design is to allow for a certain degree of connection
stiffness at the connection as shown in beam-column connection in Figure 9.3. The
corresponding moment-rotation curves are illustrated in Figure 9.4. A certain degree
of rotational deformation is allowed with part of the fixed end moment is transferred.

The behavior of semi-rigid connection influences the global structural

behavior such as the classification of frame into sway or non-sway mode. And it also
affects the connection design. However, this degree of connection stiffness caused by
local behavior of the connection is not to be discussed here.

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 a. Single Web Angle b. Double Web Angle

c. Bottom Flange and Web Angle

d. Top and Seat Angle

e. Web Side Plate f. Header Plate

g. Extended End Plate h. Flush End Plate

Figure 9.3 Different types of beam column connections

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 Moment, M
Perfectly Rigid Joint

Se
m
Extended End-Plate

i-R
ig
id
Jo
in
ts
Flush End-Plate

Top and Seat Angle

Header Plate
Double Web Angle
Single Web Angle

0 Rotation 
Ideally Pinned Joint

Figure 9.4 Moment-rotation curves for corresponding beam column connections

9.3 Welded connection

9.3.1 Weld process

Welding is a process of fusing two pieces of steel materials together through

the use of heat. The required heat is produced by electric current or gas heat through
electrode such that the metal in the electrode melts, fuses and cools to form a single
piece of metal with the parent metals which refer to the pieces of metals intended for
joining. Welded connections are widely used in steel construction to date and they
provide great flexibility in connecting members. Lesser construction tolerance
requirement is especially attractive on site construction. However, most welded
connections are relatively less ductile than ordinary clearance bolts and they introduce
high residual stress leading to cracking if the welding process is not carefully
monitored.

There are two main types of welds, namely the fillet weld and the butt weld in
Figures 9.5 and 9.6. Fillet weld is roughly triangular in its cross section formed at the
re-entrant corners of a joint. The strength of weld is developed as the shear capacity of
the weld across the size or throat of weld. The size of weld is defined as the width of
throat which is called the leg length of weld discussed in Section 9.3.5.1.

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 The butt weld refers to the weld lying within the surface of the joining plates.
The welding process commonly used is the metal arc welding and gas welding. Metal
arc welding is carried out by fusion of metal accomplished by the heat of an electric
arc. In gas welding, a filler material or bare electrode is used to supply material which
is melted by high heat of gas like oxygen-acetylene flame. Shielding gas is used to
shield the molten weld zone from the atmosphere. In metal inert-gas process (MIG), a
bare wire electrode is used whereas in tungsten inert-gas process (TIG), tungsten
electrode is used.

Welding may cause the region near to the weld to become relatively brittle.
When a crack is formed due to brittle material in that region, it is easily propagated at
a high stress concentration. This problem is particularly serious under lower
temperature. Further, the welding induces residual stress and strain in the component
of connection, which deteriorates the structural strength of connection in most cases.

9.3.2 Electrodes

The combined use of weldable steel, welding strength, welding condition and
welding position requires the specification of electrode in terms on strength, welding
position and supply of current to the electrode. In the HK Code, both the BS EN and
the Chinese standards for electrodes are listed for fillet welds. Electrode classification
of 35, 42 and 50 for BS EN standards and E43, E50 and E55 for Chinese GB
standards are used and listed in Table 9.2 of the HK Code.

9.3.3 Types of welds

The common welding types include fillet weld and butt weld. Fillet weld is
that the weld metal is generally lying outside the profile of the connected elements as
shown in Figure 9.5 while butt weld is that the weld metal is deposited with the
profile of the connected elements as shown in Figure 9.6.

Double fillet weld Single fillet weld Fillet weld for lap joint

Figure 9.5 Different types of fillet welds

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 Double V butt weld Single V butt weld Single bevel butt weld

Figure 9.6 Different types of butt welds

9.3.3.1 Butt weld

Butt weld is classified into two catalogs of full penetration weld and partial
penetration weld, which influence the strength of weld depending on the depth of
penetration of weld. It normally requires 100% test and as the welding involves more
number of welding passes, it is more expensive and less common unless it is strictly
necessary to ensure the welded part will not fail earlier than the parent material.

9.3.3.2 Fillet weld

Fillet weld is relatively less expensive, when no preparation is required before
welding process. It is more commonly used for fillet the corner reentrance of two
pieces of metals. During welding, the electrode bisects its angle with the two pieces of
metals. The size of fillet welds is measured as its leg length. The minimum size used
in the HK Code is 3mm while the common size can be 6mm to 12mm or higher.

9.3.4 Welding symbols

In shop drawings and erection plan, the welds are shown on its type, size,
length and locations on the connected parts. This information is indicated in form of
symbols. Table 9.1 shows the common types of weld and the commonly used symbols
are indicated in Table 9.2 below.

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 Weld type Single Double
Square

Bevel

Vee
Groove

Table 9.1 Common types of butt weld

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Notes:
The side of the joint to which the arrow points is the arrow or near side and the
opposite side of the joint is the other or far side.
All welds are continuous except otherwise stated. Arrow only points to the member
grooved.
Dimensions of weld sizes, length and spacing are in millimeters.
`

Table 9.2 Typical welding symbols

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9.3.5 Structural design of fillet welds

9.3.5.1 Strength of weld and leg length

The design strength of weld depends on the size of weld, such as leg length s,
which is the size of fusion face on unprepared surface of parent metal as shown in
Figure 9.7. Also the strength pw of weld is based on the material used in the welding
electrode and strength of parent metal. Further, the throat thickness a, which is the
perpendicular distance from inclined surface of weld to root of weld illustrated in
Figure 9.7, is determined from the leg length s.

weld surface

a s a s a s
s s s
fusion faces root of weld

Figure 9.7 Equal leg length of typical fillet welds

For more complex connections, the throat size can be determined from
engineering assessment and below are some of the examples for locating the throat
size. In Figure 9.8(a), the throat thickness a is taken as the shortest distance from the
root of weld to the fusion surface and s1 and s2 denote the leg lengths on both sides
parallel to the parent metals. The throat thickness a for butt weld can be taken as
perpendicular distance from root of weld as indicated in Figure 9.8(b). In the cases of
deep fillet weld, throat thickness a is also taken shortest distance from root of weld as
shown in Figure 9.8(c). For design calculation and drawing preparation, leg length
with equal magnitude on two sides is normally specified.

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 S2
a S2 a a
a
S1 S1 S1 S1
S1 S1
Obtuse Acute

Partial penetration weld Full penetration weld

a S2 S2 b) Butt welds
a
S1 S1
Convex Concave S2 S2
a
a

a S1
a S2 S1 S1
S1 S1
Equal leg Unequal leg

a) Fillet welds c) Deep fillet welds

Figure 9.8 Definitions of sizes of fillet weld and butt weld

The strength pw of fillet weld depends not only on the strength of parent metal,
but also the material used in the welding electrode. The strength of different weld
grades can be found in Table 9.2 of the HK Code.

When two different grades of parent materials are joined by fillet welds, the
lower grade should be considered in design. The design strength pw of fillet weld for
standard steel grade and common electrode type are tabulated in the Table 9.3 below.

Steel grade Electrode classification

35 (N/mm2) 42 (N/mm2) 50 (N/mm2)
S275 220 220 220
S355 220 250 250
S460 220 250 280
Table 9.3 Design strength of fillet welds pw to BS EN standards

When the effective length be of weld is less than 40mm, the weld length is so
small that it cannot be assumed to take any load. Also, the section properties of
welded connection should be based on the effective section obtained from the
effective length section.

In addition to the design calculation, fillet weld is required to be returned

around corners for at least twice of the leg length and the lap length in a lap joint
should not be less than 4 times the thickness of the thinner plates.

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9.3.5.2 Directional method for capacity of fillet weld
In general, the failure surface of weld is approximately at the throat section
under longitudinal and transverse forces as shown in Figure 9.9(a). The strength of
fillet weld of length L and throat thickness a is illustrated in Figure 9.9(b).

s2
FTy FT
Failure surface s1
FTx
L
wLa

wLa
a FL
Throat section
a) Failure surface at throat section b) Resultant stresses on throat section

Figure 9.9 Resultant stresses acting on the fillet weld of throat section

The force on a particular weld due to moment and shear in a connection can be
resolved into the directions parallel and perpendicular to the weld and then checked
against the design capacities of the weld in these two directions as follows. The
longitudinal design capacity per unit length of weld PL is given by the following
expression.
PL  pw a (9.1)

in which pw is the design strength of weld obtained from Table 9.2 in the HK Code
and a is the throat size of the weld.

The capacity per unit length of the weld in the transverse direction PT is given by,
PT  KPL (9.2)

in which PL is design capacity per unit length of weld and K is a coefficient given by,
1.5
K  1.25 (9.3)
1  cos 2 

in which  is the angle between the resultant and the line bisecting the area of the
weld as shown in Figure 9.10(c).

The external force acting on the weld can be resolved into the components in the
longitudinal and transverse directions of the weld as shown in Figure 9.10(a) and (b)
and determined as FL and FT where FT  FTx2  FTy2 as shown in Figure 9.9(b).

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The structural adequacy of the weld can be checked by the conditions as,
PL  FL (9.4)
PT  FT (9.5)
2 2
 FL   FT 
      1 (9.6)
 PL   PT 

2FT

FL
FT FT

FL FT
FT

a) Welds subject to longitudinal shear b) Welds subject to transverse shear

FT
a
Throat of 
the weld

c) Resultant transverse force on weld

Figure 9.10 Directional approach for capacity of fillet weld

9.3.5.3 The simplified method

This is a simpler but less economical approach of finding the resultant stress acting on
weld and checking of this resultant stress against the design strength of weld as,
PL  FR (9.7)

in which FR is the vector resultant stress equal to Fx2  F y2  Fz2 on the weld.

9.3.6 Stress analysis in a welded connection

Before the application of stress check on weld, the stress induced by external
loads must first be determined. The stress analysis can be carried out from the first
principle and two common connections are adopted for demonstration of the stress
analysis of weld group under torsion and shear and under bending and shear.

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9.3.6.1 Weld group under torsion and shear
The weld group shown in Figure 9.11(a) is under torsion and vertical shear.
Assuming a unit leg length for the weld, the direct shear can be written as,
P P
FS   (9.8)
length of weld 2 x  2 y

Figure 9.11(a) Torsion and vertical shear

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 e b

D d x x

Figure 9.11(b) Bending and vertical shear

Figure 9.11 Connection group subjected to torsion, vertical shear and bending

Shear due to torsion is given by,

Per
FT  (9.9)
IP

in which
1 2
r x  y2 (9.10)
2
y 3 xy 2 x 3 x 2 y
IP  Ix  I y     (9.11)
6 2 6 2

The resulting shear stress on weld of unit leg length is then given by the
resultant of the shear due to vertical force and torsion as FR  FS2  FT2  2FS FT cos
in which is the angle between the two vectors for vertical shear and torsional shear.
FR
The required leg length is then equal to s  in which s is the leg length and pw
0 .7 p w
is the design strength of weld. The factor 0.7 is used for common ratio of leg length to
the throat length and it should be varied for special weld geometry.

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9.3.6.2 Weld group under bending and shear
For the other common connection shown in Figure 9.11(b) with weld under
shear and tension due to bending moment, the shear force on unit leg length of weld
can be obtained as follows.
P
Shear on weld due to vertical load is FS  (9.12)
L
M d Pe d
Tension on weld due to bending is FT   (9.13)
Ix 2 Ix 2

The resultant stress on weld with unit leg length = FR  FS2  FT2 (9.14)

in which FS is the induced shear stress, FT is the induced tension stress, M is the
moment at connection, L is the total weld length, D is the distance between the two
welds equal to the depth of the I-beam and Ix is the second moment of area about the
horizontal x-axis.

The leg length of weld can be obtained similarly as for torsion and shear case as
FR
s .
0 .7 p w

9.3.5.5 Welded connections to unstiffened flanges

Owing to the flexibility of connecting plates, the weld length should be
reduced in unstiffened plate elements. When the welds connected to the unstiffened
plate element of an I-, H- or a box section, a reduced effective length be should be
used when the effect of weld is also accounted for. For a rolled I- or H-section, the
effective length be of weld should be as follows.
be  t c  2rc  5Tc (9.15)
T 2  p yc 
but be  t c  2rc  5 c   (9.16)
t  p 
 p  yp 

in which tc and Tc are the thickness of web and flange of rolled I- or H-section
member, respectively, as shown in Figure 9.12(a), rc is root radius of rolled I- or H-
section member, tp is the thickness of connected plate as shown in Figure 9.12(b), pyc
and pyp are respectively design strength of rolled I- or H-column or structural
members and connected plate.

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 rolled I- or H-section connected plate box section connected plate
Tc
Tc

tc 0.5be
tc
be

rc 0.5be

a) plan veiw of welded connection of c) plan veiw of welded connection of

rolled I- or H-section box-section

tp tp

b) elevation veiw of welded connection of d) elevation veiw of welded connection of

rolled I- or H-section box-section

Figure 9.12 Effective length of weld connected to unstiffened plate element

For a box section in Figure 9.12(c) and 9.12(d), the effective length be of weld
is taken as,

be  2t c  5Tc (9.17)
T 2  p yc 
But be  2t c  5 c   (9.18)
t  p 
 p  yp 

where tc and Tc are the thickness of web and flange of a box section respectively, as
shown in Figure 9.12(c) and tp is the thickness of connected plate as shown in Figure
9.12(d).

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9.4 Worked Examples

9.4.1 Simple welded connection

The connection is formed by joining two plates together by butt weld as

shown. The parent metal is in grade S460. They are used to transfer tension only,
which are 200kN and 1520kN for case (a) and case (b), respectively. The sizes of butt
weld are also given in the figure. The electrode of weld is both E50. Length of
connections for both cases in longitudinal direction is 300mm.
Ft

40

0
a=3

Ft 16 Ft 0.5F t 0.5F t
25 20 35

100
a) Partial penetration weld b) Full penetration weld

Solution
a) Partial penetration weld
TENSION CAPACITY
Design strength of parent metal, p y  440 N mm 2 for 16 mm  T  40 mm (Table 3.2)
Throat size, a  16 mm (Clause 9.2.5.2.2)
16
Eccentricity, e  10   4.67 mm
3
F F  e 200  103 200 10 3  4.67
Stress,   t  t    114.6 N mm 2  p y (OK)
A Z 300  16 300  16 2 6

50.21 16
25 39.79

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b) Full penetration weld
TENSION CAPACITY
Design strength of parent metal, p y  440 N mm 2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)
Effective area of vertical plate element, Ae  300  40  12000mm 2

Tension capacity of vertical plate element, Pt  p y Ae  440  12000  5280 kN  Ft (OK) (8.66)

30
a=
3 31

35

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9.4.2 Bracket connection in typical portal frame

The crane beam in the simple portal frame is supported by bracket connection welded
to the steel column. Two gusset plates are welded to the flanges of the steel column to
form the bracket connection as shown in the figure. The 20mm thick gusset plate is
made of grade S275 steel material. The welded connection is used as this rigid
moment connection. The electrode of weld is E35 for the welded connection. Design
the size of fillet weld in the bracket connection to enable to take factored shear force
of 500kN from crane beam.

y e
264.5 P
220 100 100

250
254 254 167 UB
x 450
x

end
return
420 x
254 254 167 UB

y
Solution
The bracket connection is supported to take point load P and the eccentric moment Pe. The three side
fillet welds are used to withstand the in-plane shear due to both point load and eccentric moment. The
structural adequacy of the most outer side weld should be checked.

DESIGN LOAD
Vertical shear, P  500 kN
For unit leg length,
Area of weld, L w  450  220  2  890mm
450  220  220  110  2
Distance to centroid, x   165.6mm
890
r  165.6 2  225 2  279.4mm
Eccentricity of load, e  165.6  100  265.6mm

Second moment of inertia about x-x axis,

450 3
Ix   220  225 2  2  2.987  10 7 mm 3
12
Second moment of inertia about y-y axis,
 220 3 2
 220  165.6  110   2  450  220  165.6   4.467  10 6 mm 3
2
Iy  
 12 
Polar moment of inertia about z-z axis,
I z  I x  I y  2.987  10  4.467  10  3.434  10 mm
7 6 7 3

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 P 500  10 3
Direct shear, Fs    561.8 N mm
Lw 890
500  10 3  265.6  279.4
Shear due to torsion, FM   1080.5 N mm
3.434  10 7

CAPACITY OF WELD
 225 
  tan 1    53.6
 165.6 
Resultant load, FR  FS2  FM2  2 FS FM cos

 561.8 2  1080.5 2  2  561.8  1080.5  cos 53.6  1484.4 N mm


r FM 225
FS

165.6

Design strength of weld, pw  220 N mm2 (Table 9.2a)

1484.4
Minimum Leg length required, s   9.6mm (Clause 9.2.5.1.6(a))
0.7  220
 use 10mm weld

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9.5 Bolted connection

Bolt or fastener is one of the most common methods of connecting two or

more members. The advantages of using bolts in place of weld include the easy
fabrication on site, avoidance of residual stress for weld, less on-site quality control
problem and easy dismantling and re-fabrication of connections. However, bolting on
site requires careful planning and positioning and therefore they are less flexible,
which is particularly true for construction in Hong Kong where a project is normally
executed within a short period of time.

Bolts transfer loads mainly by the actions shown in Figure 9.13 and
accordingly the strength of bolts is required to be checked against these actions.
 Tension in thread of bolt
 Shear in bolt shrank or thread
 Bearing of plates containing bolt hole on bolt shrank
 Friction between bolt and clamped plates

Shear connection Tension connection

Figure 9.13 Bolted connection under shear and tension

It is uncommon to allow bolt to be bent about its own principal axis because of
its small second moment of area about its own principal axis.

Steel bolts are required to be adequate not only on their strength, but also on
the hardness because insufficiently hard bolts may deform under stress, especially at
their thread area leading to slipping of thread and separation of bolts and nuts.
Hardness can also be a measure of bolt quality and uniformity. The thread tolerance in
bolts is important in making sure no slipping between the thread of bolts and nuts.
Mixed use of bolts and nuts from two manufacturing sources should be avoided as
their tolerances may not be compatible. The Vickers hardness and Brinell and
Rockwell tests are commonly used in bolt standards for measurement of hardness.

There are two major types of bolts as ordinary bolt and high strength friction
grip (HSFG) bolt. The ordinary bolt is commonly used because of easy fabrication
and simple mechanism in taking loads. It has the advantage of greater ductility. On the
other hand, preloaded high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolt normally has a greater

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strength of the pretension force action and it is normally made of high steel grade.
HSFG bolt resists shear by friction between bolts and bearing plates and tension by
the pre-loading force.

In the HK Code, bolt grades of 4.6, 8.8 and 10.9 are recommended. The first
number for the bolt grade refers to the minimum ultimate strength in hundred N/mm2
and the second number, after dividing by 10, represents the ratio of yield to ultimate
stress. For example, grade 8.8 bolt has an ultimate strength of 800N/mm2 and the
design yield strength as 0.8×800 = 640N/mm2. However, the design strength needs to
be not greater than 0.7×Ub or 560 N/mm2 here. The Code does not recommended the
use of grade 12.9 bolts, which are occasionally used, because of their nominally lower
ultimate strain and lack of ductility.

The size of bolts in thread area cannot be directly calculated from their
nominal diameters and Table 9.4 shows the size of common bolt grades of M12 to
M36 bolts. M indicates the dimension is in metric unit.

Bolt Size Nominal Shrank area Tensile stress or

diameter thread area
(mm) (mm2) (mm2)
M12 12 113 84.3
M16 16 201 157
M20 20 314 245
M22 22 380 303
M24 24 452 358
M27 27 572 459
M30 30 706 561
M33 33 855 694
M36 36 1017 817
Table 9.4 Sizes of bolts of common bolt grades

The tensile strength of the bolt can then be equal to the product of the tensile
stress area and the design strength. For example, M22 grade 4.6 bolt has the capacity
equal to 400×0.6×303 = 72.7kN.

The size of bolt opening is slightly greater than bolt size in order to allow bolt
installation. As an approximation, for standard hole, bolt diameter greater than 24mm
should have a bolt hole with diameter greater than the bolt nominal diameter by 3mm
and those bolts with nominal diameter less than or equal to 24mm should have bolt
opening 2mm greater than the bolt size.

Tightening of bolts requires sufficient torque but not too high to cause fracture
in the bolt or its components. For bolt with faces normal to bolt axes and length not
greater than 4 times the diameter, the torque turn should be 1/3 about the bolt axis.
For bolt length between 4 and 8 diameters, the angle of turn should be 1/2 turn and for
longer bolt length, the angle of turn should be 2/3 turn.

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9.5.1 Bolt grades

The most commonly used grades of bolts are grade 4.6, 8.8 and 10.9 bolts.
Other grades of bolts are 4.8, 5.6, 5.8, 6.8, and 12.9. Bolt strength outside the range of
400 and 1000 should not be used unless test confirms the applicability. Both ordinary
clearance bolts and high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts are also widely used.

Grade 4.6 bolts made of low carbon high strength steel are used normally for
medium and light duty connections such as purlins or sheeting. Holding down bolts
also commonly use grade 4.6 bolts because of preferred ductility not only on bolts,
but also on base plate of which the design strength is not allowed to be greater than
275N/mm2.

Grade 8.8 bolts or higher grade bolts made of high strength alloy should be
used for heavy duty connections. HSFG bolts should be used in the load reversal
condition and in case when the controlled deflection is very much relying on the
connection stiffness, like fixed end in a cantilever beam or moment joints in eave of
portals.

9.5.2 Spacing and detailing requirements

Bolts are commonly arranged as a group and positioned in a series of rows. In

order to utilize the bolt strength, the spacing and edge distance must be controlled
within a certain dimension. Below are some of the common criteria.

9.5.2.1 Maximum spacing

To ensure the load is reasonably shared between the bolts in a group, the
spacing cannot be too large. For connection under compression, the spacing should
not exceed 12t and 150mm where t is the thickness of the thinner plates in the
connection.

9.5.2.2 Minimum spacing

If spacing is insufficient, the material between bolts may be over-stressed. The
HK Code has a requirement for control of minimum spacing. The minimum spacing
parallel to the load direction is 2.5 times the hole diameter and 3.0 times the hole
diameter in the direction perpendicular to the load direction.

9.5.2.3 Minimum edge distance

The end distance e for a bolt measured as the distance between the centre of
the opening to the edge of the connecting plate should be referred to Table 9.3 of the
Code.

9.5.3 Behaviour of bolted connections

Appreciation of local behaviour of bolted connection in beam-to-column or

beam-to-beam connections is important in detailing. The understanding of load path,

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which should depend on the arrangement of the components at connection, for
transfer of force and moment between members is important in connection design and
detailing. When the deformation and stress distribution in the structural component
are known, the strength of structural component at the connection should be designed
and checked. This section describes the typical behaviour and failure mechanism for
beam-to-column and beam-to-beam connections.

9.5.3.1 Beam-to-column connection

An example of the load path for an extended end plate connection showing the
behaviour of a bolt group is indicated in Figure 9.14. The connection is used to
transmit the vertical shear and moment from beam to column. The point of rotation is
assumed at the base of bottom flange of beam member as shown in Figure 9.14. The
corresponding deformations at the connection are caused by the loadings of moment
and shear transferred from beam member and finally to induce different structural
effects, which are tabulated in Table 9.5.

8 9
1
15 12 7
Ft 10

4
3
16 Fv
6
17 Fv
2 M
Fc 13
5

18 19
11
14

Extended End plate connection

Figure 9.14 Behaviour of different components at beam-to-column connection

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Components at connection Notations Structural effects
Bolt ① Yielding due to tension
② Yielding due to vertical bearing
③ Shear failure
Weld ④ Tear off failure
⑤ Compression failure
⑥ Shear out failure
End plate ⑦ Prying force due to bending
⑧ Yielding due to vertical bearing
⑨ Shear out failure
Flange of beam ⑩ Yielding due to tension on top flange
⑪ Local buckling on bottom flange
Flange of column ⑫ Prying force due to bending
⑬ Yielding due to shear and compression
⑭ Local buckling due to vertical load
Web of column ⑮ Web fracture due to tension
⑯ Yielding due to shear
⑰ Shear web buckling
⑱ Web crushing due to compression
⑲ Web buckling
Table 9.5 Structural failures at beam column connection

In Table 9.5, there are 19 principal failure modes at the connection to be

checked for the components of bolt, weld, end plate, beam member and column. In
this chapter, the behaviour of components of bolt, weld or end plate is studied for
design. Other structural components, such as column and beam, related to the
behaviour at connection should be referred to previous relevant chapters. The
interaction effects on bolt and weld are neglected in Table 9.5 but their interactive use
to share a load is not recommended because of their different ductility performance.
In general, the principal behaviour of these components at connection is similar. In
addition, some local effects are also ignored in Table 9.5 and these local effects make
connection behaviour more complex and variable. They include the geometric
imperfections arising from welding distortion and misalignment of clearance and
residual stress and strain due to lack of fits and welding shrinkage. Actually, these
local effects are considered in the material strength of weld or bolt. Therefore, the
structural design can be carried out according to the behaviour of connection or
failure mode at connection as listed in Table 9.5, which is adequate for structural
design.

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9.5.3.2 Beam-to-beam connections
Secondary beams are commonly connected to primary beams through simple
supports indicated in Figure 9.15. In the connection vertical shear load is required to
be transferred. In Figure 9.15, the point of rotation is assumed to be at the base of the
secondary beam member. The common modes of local failure are tabulated in Table
9.6.

6
1 4 2

11 8
5
12
3
7

10
14
13
9

Figure 9.15 Behaviour of different components at beam to beam connection

In Table 9.6, there can be 14 local failure modes at the connection to be

checked in design for the components of bolt, weld, end plate, secondary and main
beams.

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Components at connection Notations Structural effects
Bolt ① Yielding due to tension
② Yielding due to vertical bearing
③ Shear failure
Weld ④ Tear off failure
⑤ Shear out failure
Connected plate ⑥ Prying force due to bending
⑦ Yielding due to vertical bearing
⑧ Shear out failure
Web of main beam ⑨ Crushing due to compression
⑩ Shear web buckling
⑪ Web crushing due to vertical shear
Web of secondary beam ⑫ Block shear failure
Flange of secondary beam ⑬ Local buckling due to compression
⑭ Yielding due to compression
Table 9.6 Structural failures at beam to beam connection

The behaviour of a group of bolts in a connection is relatively more complex

than those of a single bolt as discussed above. The in-plane or out-of-plane loads
shared by a group of bolts is non-uniform. In a long shear bolted connection, the force
at end bolt may be high and up to the material yielding stress. The load on such bolts
is to redistribute to other bolts near the centre of connection. Also for bolts in tension
connection, the tension loads distribution may not be necessarily uniformly shared by
each tension bolt. For simplicity, it is commonly assumed that equal size bolts share
equally the load in in-plane and out-of-plane shears. To satisfy this condition, the
connection plate is assumed to behave rigidly and elastically and the bolts behave
elastically and in a ductile manner in order to shear loads.

9.5.3.3 Prying effect in bolted connection

For bolted connection subjected to external tension Ft, the flexible
deformations at unstiffened plate element, such as flange or connected plate, induce
additional tensile force in addition to axial force in bolt Fbt. This additional tensile
force is termed the prying force Q as shown in Figure 9.16 due to deflection of
unstiffened plate component. The prying force Q develops because unstiffened plate
of member is in contact with the connection. The contact area under compression and
at the end of unstiffened plate shown in Figure 9.16 produces an additional force in
bolt.

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 2F t

Unstiffened plate
Contact area
Fbt Fbt

Lb tp

Q Connection Q
bp ap

Figure 9.16 Prying force on bolt due to flexural deformation on unstiffened plate

For thicker connected plate where the bending stiffness of the connecting plate
is high, the magnitude of prying force is insignificant and vice versa. The prying force
for ordinary or pre-loaded bolt for simple bolted arrangement can be derived as
follows. Considering symmetrical half of the connection, by the method of virtual
work, the displacement at x  a p is given by,

b 
1  ap
0 Qx   xdx  a
EI  p

a p b p

Ft  Q a p  Ft x  a p dx

(9.19)

in which Q is the prying force shown in Figure 9.16, EI is the flexural constant of the
connecting plate, Ft is half of the applied tension and ap is the distance from the edge
of plate for the prying force to the bolt centre and bp is the distance from the bolt
centre to 20% distance into the end plate weld or the root radius as shown in Figure
9.16.

After integrating the above equation, b is given by,

b 
1
6 EI
 
3Ft a p b p2  2Qa 2p a p  3b p  (9.20)

On the other hand, the bolt axial deformation due to the bolt tension force
including prying force is given by,
F  Q  Fbs Lb
b  t (9.21)
EAs

in which As is the cross section area of bolt, Lb is grip or total length of the bolt, Fbs is
the preloaded force on HSFG bolt, if any. For ordinary bolt, the Fbs in Equation (9.21)
should be set to zero. Substituting b in Equation (9.21) into Equation (9.20), the
prying force Q for ordinary bolt can be obtained as follows.

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  6 ILb 
Ft  3a p b p2  
 A s 
Q (9.22)
2a p a p  3b p  
2 6 ILb
As

9.5.4 Design of ordinary non-preloaded bolts

In simple design where all joints are pinned, connections are required to be
designed to take direct forces only and moment are not considered. In other cases
moments are unavoidable due to eccentricities of connections, the effect of moment
should be considered in finding of bolt forces. The pinned connections should be
detailed to allow full rotational ductility.

In design for moment frames where full rotational continuity at connections is

assumed, shear, axial forces and moments between members are needed for
consideration in finding the forces in bolts. Further, detailing should attempt to
provide adequate stiffness at joints. HSFG bolts are recommended when strict control
of slipping in joints is required.

In design for semi-rigid connections, partial continuity is assumed between

members and connections are required to have adequate strength with sufficient
rotational capacity. The moment-rotation characteristics of the connection details are
consistently used both in the analysis of the framework and the design of the
connections. At present, due to the lack of data in connection stiffness, semi-rigid
connection design is uncommon, but it can be included in design and analysis directly
and easily when the moment vs. rotation curve such as the ones in Figure 9.4 is
available.

9.5.4.1 Shear capacity of ordinary bolts

The ISO hexagon head non-preloaded ordinary bolt shown in Figure 9.17 with washer
is most commonly used. The size of bolt hole against the size of bolts is specified in
the HK Code.

Washer

Thread

Shank

nominal diameter diameter for

(Bearing) effective section
(Shear & Tension)

Figure 9.17 Different parts of ordinary bolt and preloaded bolt

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 When the shear surface is at the thread area, the shear area As of ordinary bolt
should be taken as the section shown in Figure 9.18. If the shear surface occurs at the
shrank, the cross sectional area of the shrank can be used. Table 9.4 shows the area at
these locations. With the value of shear area, the shear capacity Ps of an ordinary bolt
is then given by Equation (9.23) as,
Ps  ps As (9.23)

in which ps is the design shear strength of the bolt given in Table 9.5 of the HK Code.

For long joints, a reduction factor L is required and the determination of this
reduction factor is given in Clause 9.3.6.1.4 of the HK Code.

When the shear action is on two or more surfaces, the shear capacity should be
increased by multiplying the single surface shear capacity by the number of shear
areas. Figure 9.18 shows the condition of single and double shear capacity in joints.

0.5Fs
double shear Fs
0.5Fs

single shear Fs
Fs

Figure 9.18 Double shear and single shear capacity of ordinary bolt

Apart from the shear failure occurring on a bolt, the block shear failure of a
group of bolts is required to be checked. The shear failure surface will be constructed
by assuming the minimum length for shearing off of the bolt group shown in Figure
9.19 and the checking eliminates the failure of tearing off in thin plates at
connections.

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 cope

Ft Ft
Lt

Lv Lv

Lv

Lt Lt
Ft

Lv
Lt
Ft

Figure 9.19 Block shear failure through on a group of bolt holes

The combined block shear capacity for both the shear and tension edges or
faces in a shear joint shown in Figure 9.19 is given by,
1
Pr  p y t Lv  K e Lt  kDt  (9.24)
3

in which py and t are the design strength and thickness of web of beam or bracket,
respectively, Lv and Lt are respectively the length of shear face and tension face shown
in Figure 9.19, Ke is the effective net area coefficient in Clause 9.3.4.4 of HK Code
and previously discussed, Dt is the diameter of bolt hole along tension face,
respectively and k is a factor equal to 0.5 for single row of bolts and to 2.5 for double
row of bolts.

If block shear check is not satisfactory, increasing the plate thickness, welding
of an additional plate or increasing the length of the failure surface can be considered.

9.5.4.2 Bearing capacity of ordinary bolts

Another possibility of failure of bolts is due to bearing failure of bolts and on
bearing plates. The bearing capacity Pbb of an ordinary bolt should be taken from
Equation (9.25) as,
Pbb  dt p p bb (9.25)

in which d is the nominal diameter of bolt, tp is the thickness of thinner connected

plate and pbb is the bearing strength of bolt for different grade of bolts indicated in
Table 9.6 of the HK Code.

The bearing capacity Pbs of the connected parts should be taken as the least of
the followings.

Pbs  k bs dt p p bs (bearing on edge of hole) (9.26)

Pbs  0.5k ps et p p bs (tearing out of connected plate) (9.27)

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in which pbs is the design bearing strength of the plates, kbs is the hole coefficient for
different hole types given in Clause 9.3.6.1.3 in HK Code and e is the edge distance
measured between the centre of the hole and the edge and along the direction of
applied force. Figure 9.20 shows the mode of failure for insufficient edge distance.

Figure 9.20 Different failure modes of bolted connection subjected to shear

9.5.4.3 Tension capacity of ordinary bolts

Bolts take tension in common connections. For the non-preloaded bolted
connection, the tension capacity Pt is written as,
Pt  At pt (9.28)

in which At is tensile stress area and pt is tension strength given by Table 9.8 in Clause
9.3.7.1 of HK Code.

The effect of prying action has been discussed in Section 9.5.3.3 of this
chapter. For bolted connections satisfying the requirements in Clause 9.3.7.2 of HK
Code, the effect of prying force Q should be taken into account in calculating the
reduced tension capacity Pnom as,
Pnom  0.8 At pt (9.29)

When the condition of using Equation (9.29) is not satisfied, the prying force
is required to be calculated explicitly to Section 9.5.3.3 of this chapter. The total
applied force Ftot in the bolt can be determined as,
Ftot  Ft  Q  Pt (9.30)

in which Ft is applied tension force required for transmission by bolted connection

and Q is the prying force calculated in Section 9.5.3.3 of this chapter and Pt is the
design tension capacity of the bolt.

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9.5.4.4 Interaction of shear and tension in ordinary bolts
When a bolt is to transfer both shear and tension, the interaction effect of the
bolt should be checked, in addition to the separated satisfaction in tension and shear
capacity. The additional interaction check can be carried out as follows for the case of
no explicit consideration of prying force.
Fs F
 t  1.4 (9.31)
Ps Pnom

in which Fs is shear force on each bolt and Ft is tension force in the bolt. If the prying
force Q is calculated explicitly, the condition of interaction effect is given by,
Fs Ftot
  1.4 (9.32)
Ps Pt

9.5.5 Design of high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts

High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts or the pre-loaded bolts are commonly
used for heavily duty connections and they action of resisting tension and shear are
very much different from the ordinary bolts.

9.5.5.1 Shear capacity of HSFG bolts

HK Code considers the design of HSFG to the ultimate load without slipping.
In other design codes, the serviceability limit state conditions can be considered
alternatively. The design shear capacity of preloaded bolts is given by,
PSL  0.9 K s P0 (9.33)

in which Ks is a coefficient allowing for different types of hole stated in the HK Code,
 is the slip resistance factor between connected parts for different surface conditions
given in Clause 9.3.6.2 in the HK Code, P0 is minimum shank tension listed in Table
9.7 below for different size of bolts.

Bolt size (mm) Minimum shank tension P0 (kN)

M12 49
M16 91
M20 142
M22 176
M24 205
M30 326
M36 475
Table 9.7 Design capacity for preloaded HSFG bolt

It should be noted that the bolt grade of higher than or equal to grade 8.8
should be used for preloaded HSFG bolt. Moreover, for larger hole size and less skin
friction factor, the shear capacity PSL of preloaded HSFG bolt is generally lower, as
the slip is allowed for in the bolted connection.

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 For preloaded HSFG bolted connection, the slip is not allowed in the
preloaded bolt connection under factored load such that the preloaded HSFG bolt
cannot be in contact with the connected plate. Therefore, the bearing capacity of
HSFG bolt is then not critical and it is unnecessary to check the HSFG bolt for
bearing failure for the condition under factored loads.

Similar to ordinary bolts, the shear capacity PSL of preloaded HSFG bolt can
be double, when there are two interfaces among connected plates in the preloaded
bolted connection as shown in Figure 9.21. It implies that the skin friction in this
bolted connection among connected plates becomes double. Otherwise, the shear
capacity PSL of preloaded HSFG should be same as the value in Equation (9.33).

0.5F s
double shear Fs
0.5F s

single shear Fs
Fs

Figure 9.21 Double shear and single shear capacity of preloaded HSFG bolt

9.5.5.2 Tension capacity of HSFG bolts

For the design of tension capacity of preloaded HSFG bolt, the tension capacity Pt of
each HSFG bolt should be taken as Equation (9.34) under factored load, when the
preloaded force in the HSFG bolt is considered.
Pt  0.9 P0 (9.34)

in which P0 is minimum shank tension as listed in Table 9.7.

9.5.5.3 Interaction of shear and tension in HSFG bolts

The interaction check for preloaded HSFG bolts can be written as,
Fs F
 tot  1 (9.35)
PSL 0.9 P0

in which PSL is slip resistance of each preloaded bolt, Fs is shear force distributed on
each preloaded HSFG bolt and Ftot is the total tension force including prying force Q.

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9.5.6 Stress analysis in bolts

Before the application of the above formulae in checking of bolt strength, the
load on each bolt should be determined and the principle of structural mechanics can
be applied here. Two common types of connections for bolt group under torsion and
shear and under bending and shear are selected for illustration of the application of
structural mechanics in determination of force in bolts.

9.5.6.1 Bolt under torsion and shear

As shown in Figure 9.22, the bolt group is under torsional moment and shear.
The vertical shear for each bolt is given by the simple division as,

FV
FS  (9.36)
No. of bolts

rmax Fmax = FT


FV

Assumed centre of rotation

Figure 9.22 Bolt group under torsional moment and shear

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 The assumption of shear force being proportional to the distance from centre
of rotation taken as the centroid of the bolt group is made. For equilibrium, the sum of
torsional moment from the shear forces Fi in bolts is equal to the applied torsional
moment MT as,
F F F F
M T  FV e   Fi ri   max ri 2  max  ri 2 as max  i
rmax rmax rmax ri

in which Fmax and rmax are respectively the maximum bolt force and the maximum
distance of this bolt from the centre of rotation of the bolt group. Noting from
geometry that ri 2  xi2  yi2 , the maximum bolt force can be obtained as,
M T  rmax
FT  (9.37)
 xi2   yi2
The resultant force in the bolt under maximum shear can be obtained by the
cosine rule for the resultant of shear and torsion forces as,
FR  FT2  FS2  2 Ft FS cos   PS (9.38)

in which PS is the design shear in bolt.

9.5.6.2 Bolts under bending and shear

Bolts can be under direct shear and tension induced by external moment or
forces as shown in Figure 9.23. This section shows the typical structural adequacy
check for bolts under tension and shear.

FT
FT y2 /y1
y1
y2 FT y3 /y1
y3

Assumed centre of rotation b)

a) Joint b) Bolt
Bolt forces
forces

Figure 9.23 Connection group subjected to bending moment and shear

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Considering equilibrium against external moment, the tension force induced in the
bolt is given by,
F F F F
M   Fi y i   T y i2  T  y i as T  i
2
(9.39)
y max y max y max yi

in which ymax and yi are respectively the maximum and the individual distance of the
bolt from centre of rotation and FT is the maximum bolt force.

The shear due to vertical load can be calculated directly to Equation (9.36).

In addition to the separated requirements as PsFs and PTFT, the two force
components are required to satisfy the force interaction equation as,
FS FT
  1. 4 (9.40)
PS PT

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9.6 Worked Examples

9.6.1 Beam-to-beam connection by single fin plate

A secondary beam is connected to a main beam. The secondary beam is connected by

a single fin plate which is welded to the main beam as shown. Only vertical load is
transmitted from secondary beam to main beam through a beam-to-beam connection.
The factored vertical load is 450kN. The beam-to-beam connection is designed as
pinned connection, for which only shear is transferred. And the sections of main and
secondary beams are shown in the figure. Steel grade of both main and secondary
beams is S275. The bolts in the connection are M20 in grade 8.8 and fillet welds of
connection are made of E35 electrode.

210.1 30

50
610 305 101 UB 50 533 210 101 UB
50
50
50 602.2
50
50
50
10 50 50
10.9
17.4 10.6
14.8
227.6

Solution
The beam-to-beam connection is assumed as a pinned connection and the bending effect in the bolted
connection is neglected.

As a good practice in detailing, the size of fin plate should be at least half of the depth of beam to
provide sufficient torsional restraint against twist and the fin plate should be placed near the top flange
in order to provide lateral restraint to the top flange.

SHEAR CAPACITY OF BOLT

Fv 450
Shear force on each bolt, Fs    64.3kN
n 7
From Table 9.4, the shear area of an M20 bolt, As  245mm 2
Shear strength of bolt, ps  375 N mm2 (Table 9.5)
Shear capacity of bolt, Ps  ps As  245  375  91.9kN  Fs (OK) (9.15)

BEARING CAPACITY OF BOLT

Thickness of thinner connected plate, t p  10 mm
Nominal bolt diameter, d  20 mm
Bearing strength of bolt, p bb  1000 N / mm 2 (Table 9.6)
Bearing capacity of bolt, Pbb  dt p p bb  20  10  1000  200 kN  Fs (OK) (9.16)

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BEARING CAPACITY OF CONNECTED PARTS
Bearing strength of connected parts, pbs  460 N / mm2 (Clause 9.3.6.1.3)
End distance, e  50 mm
Hole coefficient for standard holes, k bs  1.0 (Clause 9.3.6.1.3)
Bearing capacity of connected parts,
Pbs  kbs dt p pbs  1 20  10  460  92kN  Fs (OK) (9.17)
Pbs  0.5kbs et p pbs  0.5  1  50  10  460  115kN  Fs (OK) (9.18)

BLOCK SHEAR CAPACITY

Standard bolt hole of M20, D t  22mm (Table 9.4)

Length of shear force, Lv  50  7  350mm
Length of tension force, L t  50 mm
Coefficient of row number of bolts, k  0.5 (Clause 9.3.5)
Effective area coefficient, K e  1.2 (Clause 9.3.4.4)
Effective shear area, Av , eff  t L v  K e L t  kD t  (9.14)
 10  350  1.2  50  0.5  22  3968mm 2

1 1
Block shear capacity, Pr  p y Av ,eff   275  3968  630.0kN  Fv (OK) (9.13)
3 3

SHEAR CAPACITY OF WELD

A leg length of 6mm is assumed
Design strength of weld, pw  220 N mm2 (Table 9.2a)
Effective length of weld, L w  400  2  6   2  388  2  776mm (Clause 9.2.5.1.3)
3
388
Second moment of area of weld, I w   2  9.735  10 6 mm 3
12
F 450  10 3
Shear force per unit width, Fs  v   579.9 N mm
Lw 776
Mymax 450  103  50  388 2
Tension force per unit width, Ft    448.4 N mm
Iw 9.735  106
Resultant force per unit width,
FR  Fs2  Ft 2  579.9 2  448.4 2  733.0 N mm
Fs 733
Minimum leg length required, s    4.8mm  6mm (Clause 9.2.5.1.6(a))
0.7 p w 0.7  220
6mm weld is adequate

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9.6.2 Typical extended plate for beam to column connection

An extended end plate connection under both shear force and moment about major
axis is shown in Figure below. The factored shear force is 200kN and moment is
35kNm. The configuration of beam column connection and the section of the
members are also indicated in the figure. The beam member is welded to the end plate
which is then bolted to the column. For welded connection, 6mm fillet weld is used in
flange web as shown in the figure below. The end plate and members are in S275 steel
material and the bolts are M16 in grade 8.8 and the electrode used for welding is E35.

30510233UB

254254107UC

Solution
The connection is under the action of shear and moment and the bolts and welds are under the action of
both shear and tension. The prying action and bearing due to vertical shear on connected plate should
be checked here.

CAPACITY OF FILLET WELD

Assume the centre of rotation at the centroid of the connection group and the connected plate is
assumed to be stiffened.
Effective length of weld at flange, be  102.4  2  6  90.4mm (Clause 9.2.5.1.3)
Effective length of weld at web, be  275.9  2  6  263.9mm
For unit length of weld,
Area of weld, Lw  90.4  275.9  2  708.6mm
 263.9 3  312.7  
2

Second moment of inertia, I w    90.4      2  7.483  10 mm

6 3

 12  2  

Fv 200  10 3
Average shear force on horizontal weld, Fs    282.2 N mm
Lw 708.6
M x  D 2 35  10 6  312.7 2
Maximum tension on horizontal weld, Ft    731.3 N mm
Iw 7.483  10 6

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Simplified method
Design strength of weld, pw  220 N mm2 (Table 9.2a)

Resultant force on horizontal weld, FR  F  Ft  282.2  731.3  783.9 N mm

s
2 2 2 2

FR 783.9
Minimum required leg length, s    5.1mm  6mm (OK) (Clause 9.2.5.1.6(a))
0.7 p w 0.7  220
6mm weld is ok

Directional Method
PL  pwa  220  6  0.7  924 N mm (9.4)
731.3
  tan 1  45  23.9
282.2
1.5 1.5
K  1.25  1.25  1.130 (9.6)
1  cos 2  1  cos2 23.9
PT  KPL  1.13  0.92  1.04 kN mm  FR (OK) (9.5)
6mm weld is ok

(It should be noted that the simplified method is more conservative than the directional method.)

SHEAR CAPACITY OF BOLT

Fv 200
Shear force on each bolt, Fs    25kN
n 8

From Table 9.4, As  157mm2

Shear strength of bolt, p s  375N / mm 2 (Table 9.5)
Shear capacity of bolt, Ps  p s As  375 157  58.9kN  Fs (OK) (9.15)

BEARING CAPACITY OF BOLT

Thickness of thinner connected part, t p  20 mm
Nominal diameter of bolt, d  16 mm
Bearing strength of bolt, p bb  1000N / mm 2 (Table 9.6)
Bearing capacity of bolt, Pbb  dt p p bb  16  20  1000  320kN  Fs (OK) (9.16)

BEARING CAPACITY OF CONNECTED PLATE

Hole coefficient, k bs  1 for standard hole (Clause 9.3.6.1.3)
Bearing strength, p bb  460 N / mm 2 for grade S275
Pbs  k bs dt p pbs  1  16  20  460  147 .2 kN (9.17)
Pbs  0 .5 k bs et p pbs  0 .5  1  40  20  460  184 kN (9.18)
 Pbs  147.2kN  Fs (OK)

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TENSION CAPACITY OF BOLT
 y  140
2
i
2

 280 2  420 2  2  5.488  10 5 mm 2

Maximum tension force on bolt,

M y 35  10 6  420
Ft  x max   26 .8kN
yi
2
5.488  10 5

Tensile strength of bolt, pt  560N / mm2 (Table 9.8)

Tensile capacity of bolt, Pt  pt As  560  157  87.9kN  Ft (OK) (9.25)

PRYING FORCE ON BOLT

Width of connected plate, B  200mm
Distance between centerline of bolts, G  100mm  0.55B  110mm
Tension capacity of bolt, Pnom  0.8 At pt  0.8  157  560  70.3kN  Ft (OK) (9.26)
design against prying force is not required (Clause 9.3.7.2)

INTERACTION BETWEEN TENSION AND SHEAR OF BOLT

Fs F 25 26.8
 t    0.81  1.4 (OK) (9.28)
Ps Pnom 58.9 70.3

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9.7 Base plate

Column base is commonly used to transfer shear, compression and moment

from the superstructure to the foundation, as indicated in Figure 9.24. The base plate
should be designed with sufficient strength and ductility and the supporting concrete
foundation and base should be designed against concrete crushing and yielding in
steel plate. Overturning leading to the base taking tension caused by uplift is also
required to be considered in the design.
Fc

M
305x305x198UC

Tension
bolt steel
plate

Concrete foundation

Figure 9.24 Typical column base with steel column, base plate and concrete block

The maximum bearing pressure of the concrete due to both compression and
moment should be limited to 0.6fcu in which fcu is the 28 day concrete cube strength.
The allowable bending stress on the steel base plate should not exceed the design
strength py of steel plate. In the design, the stress distribution under the base plate is
assumed to be linear in practical design.

9.7.1 Column base under concentric force

When the base plate is only under pure compression, the size of base plate
should be sufficiently large to carry whole compression force. The effective area
method is used for design under concentric axial forces. Figure 9.25 illustrates the
effective area as shaded area in order to spread the compressive stress to the design
stress. In the construction of effective area the dimension c is the largest perpendicular
distance from the face of the column for finding the effective area under concentric
force.

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 2c + t

2c + T

2c + t Stiffener

Figure 9.25 Effective areas of different typical base plates

c is determined from the effective area method, which sets equivalent area as shaded
area in Figure 9.25 to be equal to Fc/ for equilibrium under pure compression. Thus,
the shaded area times 0.6 of concrete cube strength is set equal to the axial force and
the parameter “c” is determined from this equivalent equation. The thickness tp of the
c 2 t 2p
base plate can be obtained directly from being stress analysis as M   p yp as,
2 6
3
tp  c (9.41)
p yp

in which  is uniform compressive stress, which is assumed as uniform distribution

over entire effective portion but limited to 0.6fcu and pyp is the design strength of steel
base plate.

9.7.2 Column base under eccentric force

When a base plate is subjected to both compression and moment, the effective
area method is inapplicable and the linear elastic design is used. The eccentricity e of
loading, which is determined from Equation (9.43), should be used to classify whether
the tension zone occurring on base plate or not. When e is greater than d/6, part of the
area will be in tension and holding down bolts are required to prevent lifting of steel
base plate from concrete foundation. The bearing pressure distribution should be
determined by an alternative approximate method based on the different assumption
and load intensity. There are four different available methods dealing with the design
of base plate under eccentric loading.

The checking of the presence or absence of the tension zone under a base plate
requires the determination of eccentricity. According to the simple combined stress
formula, the condition for no-tension under rectangular base plate of length d and
width b is given by,

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F M F 6 Fe
   0 (9.42)
A Z bd bd 2
M d
e  (9.43)
F 6

When e is not larger than d/6, the base plate is under compression thoroughly
and the design can be as follows.

9.7.2.1 Column base under small eccentricity with e  d/6

This condition applies to the loading case where the base plate on concrete is
under compression only but the pressure is not uniform.

The length of base plate is larger than 6e, where 'e' is the eccentricity given by
Equation (9.43).

According to the linear non-uniform stress distribution under small eccentric

force, the maximum stress is given by,

Fc 6 Fc e
  0.6 f cu (9.44)
bd bd 2

and the minimum width of base plate b is given by,

 1 6e 
Fc   2 
d d  (9.45)
b 
0.6 f cu

The maximum and minimum pressure are then derived by the following equations,
F 6F e
pmax  c  c2 (9.46)
bd bd
F 6F e
pmin  c  c2 (9.47)
bd bd

The bending moment on a 1mm wide strip on the base plate is given by,
p a2 p a2
M  o  max (9.48)
6 3

The maximum moment M should not exceed 1.2 p yp Z x , where the design
strength of base plate p yp  275N / mm2 . Compression will be assumed to transmit
direct bearing provided that the bearing contact is tight. Welds or fasteners should be
provided to transmit shear or tension due to the factored loads.

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9.7.2.2 Column base under large eccentricity with e>d/6

When e is larger than d/6, the following method can be used.

The method assumes that the base plate has a linear strain distribution between
concrete c and steel bolts s as shown in Figure 9.26(a). The modular ratio m equal
to Es/Ec is used in the design method of composite structure. The linear strain
distribution is expressed as Equation (9.49). Layout of the column base is shown in
Figure 9.26(b). In this case, the maximum design strengths in the concrete fc and bolts
ft are assumed to occur simultaneously.

Linear strain distribution relationship,

E y ft (9.49)
m  s 
Ec d e  y f c
 m fc (9.50)
y d
 m fc  ft e

Moment equilibrium about the centre of the tension bolt, see Figure 9.25(c),
M '  M  Fc a (9.51)

Compression force in concrete C is given by,

M'
C (9.52)
z

in which z is the lever arm equal to the distance between the centroid of concrete
stress block and the centre of the tension bolt as z  d e  y 3

Stress in concrete is then determined as,

2F
fc  c (9.53)
b y

in which B is the breadth of the base plate and determined to set the concrete
stress fc not greater than 0.6fcu.

The total force in tension bolts, T, is determined from equilibrium of force as,
T  C  Fc (9.54)

The capacity of tension bolts is required to be not less than the required tension force
and the total area of tension bolts required is then equal to As  T pt .

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 de

b
s

c
b) Plan view of column base

Fc
a) Linear strain distribution a e

fc
Asft byfc/2

c) Actual stress distribution

Figure 9.26 Bearing pressure and layout of column base

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9.8 Worked Examples

9.8.1 Base plate subjected to eccentric load

A column base plate is under moment of 55kNm and downward compressive force of
780kN. The column size is 25425489 UC. The base plate is made of Grade S275
steel. And the allowable compressive concrete stress fcu is 30N/mm2. Design the
dimension of column base plate under eccentric load case.

Solution
Try 450×350×35
Design strength of base plate, p yp  265 N / mm 2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)

Eccentricity of load,
M 55  106 Lp
e   70.5mm   75mm
P 780  10 3
6
 whole base plate is under compression

Maximum and minimum bearing pressure,

780 103 55  106
p max  
350  450 350  450 2 6
 4.95  4.66  9.61N / mm2  0.6 f cu  18N / mm2 (OK) (Clause 9.4.1)
pmin  4.95  4.66  0.29 N / mm 2

Edge distance from the column face,

450  260.3
a  94.9mm
2

Bearing pressure at the column flange is given by,

9.61  0.29
P  9.61   94.9  7.64 N / mm 2
450

Maximum moment due to bearing pressure per unit width is given by,
9.61  94.9 2 7.64  94.9 2
M max    40317 Nmm
3 6

Plastic modulus per unit width is given by,

t 2p 352
S  1.2    245mm 2
6 5

Therefore, the moment capacity of the base plate per unit width is given by,
M c  265  245  64925 Nmm  M max (OK)

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9.8.2 Column base subjected to different loading conditions

The column shown below is to transmit a factored axial compression and bending
moment about its major axis to column base, which is then subjected to three critical
loading cases. One is concentric load, and the others are respectively eccentric load
with and without tensile bearing stress under base plate. The column base is then
designed to be grouted to the ground by bolted connection as shown. The section of
column is 356368129 UC in grade S275 steel and the base plate is also made of
S275 steel. The compressive stress of base concrete is 20N/mm2 for the first two cases
and 40N/mm2 for the last case. The bolt size is selected to be M24 in grade 8.8. The
size of the base plate is 600600. Design the thickness of the base plate for the
column base when subjected to concentric loading case by considering compression
only and eccentric loading case comprised of both compression and moment.

Case Axial force (kN) Bending moment (kN-m) Concrete cube strength(N/mm2)
1 1200 0 20
2 1200 100 20
3 1200 400 40

356x368x129UC
50
50
355.6

10.4

368.6
17.5

Solution
Case 1: Try 60060015
Design strength of base plate, p yp  275 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
Fc 1200  10
3
Required area, Areq    105 mm2
 12
Effective area, Aeff  2 2 c  T 2 c  B   D  2T  2 c t  2 c 
 22c  17.52c  368.6  320.6  2c 10.4  2c 
  
 2 4c 2  772.2c  6450.5  3334.24  620.4  4c 2 
 4c  2164.8c  16235.24
2

Set effective area equal to required area

10 5  4c 2  2164.8c  16235.24
4c 2  2164.8c  83764.76  0
 c  36.3mm

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Length of base plate, L p  D  2c  355 .6  2  36 .3  428 .2 mm  600 mm (OK)
Width of base plate, B p  B  2 c  368 .6  2  36 .3  441 .2  600 mm (OK)
3w 3  0.6  20
Plate thickness, t p  c  36 .3  13.1mm  15mm (OK) (9.37)
p yp 275

The base plate is subjected to concentric compression and the tension bolts here are nominal or to
transmit shear only

Case 2: Try 600×600×35

Design strength of base plate, p yp  265 N / mm 2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)

M 100  106 Lp
Eccentricity of load, e    83.3mm   100mm
Fc 1200  10 3
6
 whole base plate is under compression and the tension bolts are nominal or to transmit shear only

Maximum bearing pressure,

1200  103 100  10 6  6
pmax  
600  600 600  600 2
 3.33  2.78  6.11 N mm 2  0.6 f cu  12 N mm 2 (OK) (Clause 9.4.1)

Minimum bearing pressure,

p min  3.33  2.78  0.55 N mm 2

Edge distance from the column face,

600  355.6
a  122.2mm
2

Bearing pressure at the column flange,

6.11  0.55 2
p  6.11   122.2  4.98 N mm
600

Maximum moment due to bearing pressure per unit width,

6.11 122.2 2 4.98  122.2 2
M max    42807 Nmm
3 6

Moment capacity per unit width of base plate,

t 2p 352
M c  p yp   265   64925 Nmm  M max (OK)
5 5

Case 3: Try 600×600×55

Design strength of base plate, p yp  255 N / mm 2 for 40mm  T  63mm (Table 3.2)

M 400  10 6 Lp
Eccentricity of load, e    333.3mm   100mm
Fc 1200  10 3
6
 part of the base is in tension and holding down bolts are required to resist tension caused by uplift

The eccentric effect due to bending is carried by both compression and tension, for which the
compression is taken by bearing pressure of concrete and tension is resisted through holding down
tension bolts. The bearing stress distribution assumes to be linear for the method for elastic behavior.

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Modular ratio,  m  15

Distance from the centerline of the bolts in tension to the edge of the base plate in compression,
d e  600  50  550mm

Depth of the neutral axis,

  m fc  15  24 
y   d e   550  215.2mm
  m fc  ft   15  24  560 

Take moments about the centerline of the bolts in tension,

M   400  1200  0.25  700 kNm

Lever arm,
y
z  d e   550  215.2 / 3  478.3mm
3

Compressive force in the concrete

M 700  10 3
C   1463.5kN
z 478.3

Maximum bearing pressure in the concrete,

2C 2  1463.5  10 3
p max    22.7 N / mm 2  0.6 f cu  24 N / mm 2 (OK) (Clause 9.4.1)
b y 600  215.2

Tensile force for holding down bolts,

T  C  Fc  1463.5  1200  263.5 N

Use 2 nos. of M24 bolts, As  358mm2

263.5
Tension force per bolt, Ft   131.8kN
2
Design tensile strength of bolt, pt  560 N mm2 (Table 9.8)
Tension capacity of bolt, Pt  As pt  358  560  200.5kN  Ft (OK) (9.25)

Bearing pressure at the column flange,

215.2  122.2
p  22.7   9.81 N mm2
215.2

Maximum moment due to bearing pressure per unit width,

22.7  122.2 2 9.81 122.2 2
M max    137407Nmm
3 6

Maximum moment due to bolt tension per unit width,

131.8  122.2  50   10 3
M max   54360 Nmm
122.2  50 tan 60  50
Therefore, bending due to bearing pressure is more critical.

Moment capacity of base plate per unit width,

552
M c  255   154275 Nmm  M max (OK)
5

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9.8.3 Connection at base of space frame

The pinned connection shown in figure below is under an axial compression force of
200 kN live load and 150 kN dead load in the H-column inclined 30 to the horizontal
direction.

(a) Determine the size of the pin required.

(b) Check the adequacy of the base plate of width 300mm and depth 400mm
(c) Determine size of bolts required for the base plate and
(d) Determine the thickness of the base plate required.

Use Grade 8.8 for bolts, S355 for pin and pin plates and S275 for base plate. The
concrete grade is C35.

D 3
The elastic modulus of pin is Z  .
32
3 0°

25 THK PL

A A
150

2 NOS 20 THK PL

200
50
200

Unit : mm
50

50 300 50

Solution
DESIGN FORCE OF PIN
Factored compression force, Fc  1.4  150  1.6  200  530kN (Table 4.2)

(a) Determine the size of the pin

SHEAR CAPACITY OF PIN
Assume 40mm  D  63mm
p yp  335 N mm 2 (Table 3.2)

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The pin is in double shear,
530
Fs   265kN
2
Ps  0.6 p yp A (9.31)
D 2
Fs  0.6 p yp
4
4Fs 4  265 103
D   41.0mm
0.6p yp 0.6    335
 try 50 mm pin

BEARING CAPACITY OF PIN

p b  1.5 p y dt  1.5  335  50  25  628.1kN  Fc (OK) (9.33)

MOMENT CAPACITY OF PIN

530  0.045
M   5.96kNm
4
  503
M c  1.5 p yp Z  1.5  335   6.17kNm  M (OK) (9.35)
32
 50 mm pin is adequate

(b) Check the adequacy of the base plate

Design force
FV  530 sin 30  265.0kN
FH  530 cos 30  459.0kN
M  459  0.15  68.9kNm
M 68.9  103 L 400
e   260.0mm    66.7 mm
P 265 6 6
 the holding-down bolts are in tension

Distance from the centerline of the bolts in tension to the edge of the base plate in compression,
d e  400  50  350 mm

Depth to the neutral axis,

f c m 21 15
y de   350  126mm
f c m  f t 21 15  560

Take moments about the centerline of the bolts in tension,

M   68 .9  265  0.15  108 .7 kNm

Lever arm, z  d e  y 3  350  126 3  308mm

Compression force in concrete,

M  108.7  103
C   352.9kN
z 308

Maximum bearing pressure in the concrete,

2C 2  352.9  10 3
p max    18.7 N / mm 2  0.6 f cu  21N / mm 2 (OK) (Clause 9.4.1)
b y 300  126
 300 mm × 400 mm base plate is adequate.

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(c) Determine the bolt size
Tensile force per each holding down bolt,
C  FV 352.9  265
Ft    44.0kN
2 2

Shear force per each holding down bolt,

459
Fs   114.8kN
4

Try M24 bolts,

Design tensile strength of bolt, pt  560 N mm2 (Table 9.8)
Tension capacity of bolt, Pt  As pt  353  560  197.7 kN  Ft (OK) (9.26)
Design shear strength of bolt, ps  375 N mm 2
(Table 9.5)
Shear capacity of bolt, Ps  As pt  353  375  132.4kN  Fs (OK) (9.15)
Combined shear and tension,
2 2 2 2
 V   Ft   114.8   44 
           0.8  1 (OK) (9.40)
 Vc   Pt   132.4   197.7 
 Use M24 bolt.

(d) Determine the thickness of the base plate

Edge distance from the pin plate,
400  200
a  100mm
2

Bearing pressure at the edge of pin plate,

126  100
p  18.7   3.86 N mm 2
126

Maximum bending due to bearing pressure per unit width,

18.7 1002 3.86 1002
M max    68767 Nmm
3 6

Maximum bending due to bolt tension per unit width,

44  10 3  50
M max   16105Nmm
50 tan 60  50

Therefore, bending due to bearing pressure is more critical.

Moment capacity of base plate per unit width,

t 2p
M c  p yp 
5

Assume 16mm  t p  40mm ,

Design strength, p yp  265 N / mm 2 (Table 3.2)

5M 5  68767
tp    36.0mm
p yp 265
 use 40mm thk base plate

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9.9 Bearing and buckling of webs

When a web in a beam is under a concentrated or point load, the web needs to
be checked against crushing and buckling. The stiff bearing lengths of webs are
indicated in Figure 9.27 below. The stiff bearing length is defined as the length which
does not deform appreciably when under bending. Below is the recommended stiff
bearing length.

t t b1 g

T r T s g b1

s t
b1 b1 r T
t
Dc
b1 = t + 1.6r + 2T b1 = t + 1.6s + 2T b1 = t + T + 0.8r – g b1 = 0.5Dc + t + 0.8s – g

Figure 9.27 Stiff bearing length

9.9.1 Bearing capacity

The bearing capacity of web can be calculated as,

Pbw  (b1  nk )tp yw (9.55)

The value of n is given by:

at the ends of a member:

n  2  0.6be / k but n  5 (9.56)
at other locations
n5 (9.57)

For rolled I- or H-sections: k  T  r (9.58)

For welded I- or H-sections: k  T (9.59)

where
b1 is the stiff bearing length, see Figure 9.27
be is the distance to the nearer end of the member from the end of the stiff
bearing;
p yw is the design strength of the web;
r is the root radius;
T is the flange thickness;
t is the web thickness.

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9.9.2 Buckling resistance

The buckling resistance of web Px should be greater than the external point
load otherwise stiffeners should be added. Px is given by the following.

When the flange through which the load or reaction is applied is effectively
restrained against both:
a) rotation relative to the web;
b) lateral movement relative to the other flange;
then provided that the distance ae from the load or reaction to the nearer end of the
member is at least 0.7d, the buckling resistance of the unstiffened web should be
taken as Px below:
25t
Px  Pbw (9.60)
(b1  nk )d

where
d is the depth of the web;
Pbw is the bearing capacity of the unstiffened web at the web-to-flange connection
from Clause 8.4.10.5.1.

When the distance ae from the load or reaction to the nearer end of the
member is less than 0.7d , the buckling resistance Px of the web should be taken as:
ae  0.7d 25  t
Px  Pbw (9.61)
1.4d (b1  nk )d

When the condition a) or b) is not met, the buckling resistance of the web
should be reduced to Pxr given by:
0 .7 d
Pxr  Px (9.62)
LE

in which LE is the effective length of the web, acting as a compression member or a

part of a compression member.

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Chapter 10 Second-order Direct and Advanced Analysis
of Structures

10.1 Introduction

The second-order direct analysis is a revolutionary approach to the design of

not only steel structures, but also any other type of structures including steel-concrete
composite, reinforced concrete and other structures including bamboo and pre-
tensioned steel truss systems. The basic underlying principle is very different from the
first-order linear analysis using the effective length. In the new method, the structure
is designed by a simulation process, a truly performance-based approach that the
safety is directly checked by the section capacity along the length of every member.
The section capacity check approach is used for design of steel and concrete members
via the elastic modulus with triangular stress blocks, the plastic modulus with
rectangular stress blocks or other functions of modulus used with other stress block
assumptions.

Unlike the conventional design method, the P- and the P- effects are
considered during a second-order direct analysis so there is no need to assume any
effective length to account for the second-order effects. Despite its convenience,
many structural engineers are reluctant to switch to this new design method. One
major reason is that it requires engineers to learn and get familiar with the new design
method. Another major reason is the convenience of using this method is rarely
demonstrated. The aim of this chapter is to compare the new design method with the
conventional effective length method. Design examples are carried out which include
1. simple columns to demonstrate the analysis with second-order P- and P- effects
taken into account; 2. two-dimensional frames to illustrate the procedures of
conventional design and design using second-order direct analysis; 3. three-
dimensional large-scaled structures to demonstrate the advantages of design using
second-order direct analysis over conventional analysis and 4. a very slender structure
which second-order direct analysis must be used.

The second-order direct analysis method of design is a unified and an

integrated design and analysis approach that the effect of fire or elevated temperature
effects, seismic, effects of accidental member damage and progress collapse can all be
modelled in the design process which integrates with the analysis process. However,
this chapter is addressed to the conventional and widely exercised design against
static loads. While the concept of the method is essentially the same for all
applications under various scenarios, they may require different parameters which
will be statutory in future. These parameters include member and frame imperfections
under these conditions.

10.2 Background

There exists the P- and P- effects in real structures which are due to the
global displacement of the structure and the lateral displacement of the member

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respectively. The consequence of these secondary effects is additional stresses in the
member are induced and thus the structure is weakened. A rational design should
consider both the P- and P- effects. The conventional limit state design method has
been used extensively over the past decades. The philosophy of a limit state design
can be expressed as follows.

 l F  R (10.1)

in which l is the load factor, F is the applied load,  is the resistance factor and R is
the resistance of the structure. Traditionally, F is obtained from the first-order linear
analysis in which both geometrical and material nonlinearities are not taken into
account while R is calculated based on the specifications so that the second-order P-
and P- effects and material yielding are considered. Although the analysis procedure
is speeded up by the recent rapid development of personal computers, there are still
some unavoidable hand calculation processes during the design stage such as
calculating the effective length of a compressive column and the amplifications
factors for the linear moments. The reliability of the conventional design method
depends very much on the accuracy of the assumptions of effective length factors.

In recent years, design method using second-order direct analysis has been
developed in which the second-order effects are considered directly during the
analysis. There are two major types of second-order analysis, namely second-order
elastic analysis and second-order inelastic analysis. The first type does not consider
the effect of material yielding therefore section capacity check per member is required
to locate the load causing the first plastic moment or first yield moment of the
structure. The second type considers the effect of material yielding so the maximum
failure load can be directly located by the load deflection plot. The section capacity
check is therefore used for assessing the condition of plastic hinge formation. A
second-order direct analysis not only facilitates structural design but it also plays a
very important role on structural stability problems.

To date, both conventional design method and second-order direct analysis

design method are allowed in many national design codes such as Eurocode 3 (2005),
Code of Practice for Structural Uses of Steel and AS4100(2000). However, despite
the convenience of the latter approach, the majority of structural engineers are
reluctant to step forward to this state-of-the-art approach. One major reason is most
software is programmed for P--only analysis and extensive manual checking effort
is still required. Another major reason is its convenience is rarely illustrated through
practical design examples.

Despite this reluctance, the second-order inelastic analysis, or the advanced

analysis, will be the major trend in structural design in the future while the second-
order elastic analysis can be regarded as a transition from the conventional method to
the advanced analysis method. This chapter has two main objectives. The first one is
to deliver the idea of how a design can be performed without any effective length. The
second objective is to compare the new design method with the conventional method.
Design examples are carried out in the hope that through these design examples,
engineers will find the merits of design using second-order direct analysis without
using effective length and will switch to it.

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10.3 Methods of analysis

In the HK Code, both the first-order linear and second-order non-linear

analysis methods can be used. However, the effects of change of deformed geometry
shall be considered in the design with the elastic critical load factor cr not less than 5
otherwise the second-order direct analysis must be used.

Load factor  in Figure 10.1 represents a scalar multiplied to the set of design
load in a particular combined load case. To understand the method, one must first
appreciate the behaviour of a structure under an increasing load. Various methods
provide an answer of the collapse load under its assumptions, such as plastic collapse
load which does not consider any buckling effect and P--only second-order indirect
analysis does not consider member imperfection and member buckling.

The results of these methods are compared with the true collapse or ultimate
load of a structure, u in the Figure 10.1 below.

Load factor
λ 2 2
Elastic Buckling Load=π EI/L =λcrP
λcr P

Second-order elastic analysis

First-order linear
analysis

λpP Plastic collapse load=pyA=λpP

Design resistance or collapse load
λUP by Second-order Plastic Analysis
λP λP
λyP
where P=design load
Design resistance by
"First-plastic-hinge"

δ Deflection

Figure 10.1 Design methods

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 Some common terms in first-order analysis and second-order analysis are
explained as follows.

Elastic critical load factor cr is a factor multiplied to the design load to cause the
structure to buckle elastically. The deflection before buckling, large deflection and
material yielding effects are not considered here and the factor is an upper bound
solution that cannot be used directly for design. cr can be used to measure the
instability stage of a frame against sway and buckling.

Plastic collapse load factor p is a load factor multiplied to the design load to cause
the structure to collapse plastically but buckling and second-order effects are not
considered. Because of the ignorance of buckling effects,p cannot be used for direct
design and it is an upper bound solution to the true collapse load of the structure.
This load factor was widely used in the past for plastic design because of its simplicity
to determine.

P-delta effects refer to the second-order effects. There are two types, being P- and
P- as shown in Figure 10.2.

P- effect is second-order effect due to change of geometry of the structure

P- effect is second-order effect due to member curvature and change of member
stiffness under load. A member under tension is stiffer than under compression.

Second-order analysis and design method is a better design method than the effective
length method. The method determines the P- effect and the P- effect with initial
imperfections so that effective length need not be assumed.

P P


Figure 10.2 The P- and P- effects

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Linear analysis or first-order linear analysis is an analysis assuming the deflection
and stress are proportional to load. It does not consider buckling nor material
yielding.

Notional horizontal force is a small force applied horizontally to a structure to

simulate lack of verticality and imperfection as illustrated in Figure 10.3. It can also
be used to measure the lateral stiffness so that the elastic critical factor can be
determined.

P P P P
P

Figure 10.3 Simulation of out-of-plumbness by the notional force

Second-order P--only analysis for plotting bending moment is an analysis used to

plot the bending moment and force diagrams based on the deformed nodal
coordinates. It does not consider member curvature or the P- effect. This method is
commonly used in software because of its simplicity. In fact, most software can only
do this P--only analysis which is not qualified for a full second-order analysis
accounting for P- and P- effects with imperfections at frame and member levels.

Second-order analysis with section capacity check is an analysis which allows for P-
 effect and the P- effect and stops at first plastic hinge. It need not assume an
effective length for the buckling strength check, but imperfection must be allowed for.

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 The physical meaning of cr, named as elastic critical load factor, can be
illustrated by the buckling load of a simply supported column as shown in Figure 10.4
of Young’s modulus E, second-moment of area I and length L.

Pcr

Figure 10.4 Buckling of a pin-pin column

The Euler buckling load is

 2 EI
Pcr  2 (10.2)
L

If the calculated buckling load from Equation (10.2) is 100kN and the factored
design load from self-weight, live, wind and dead load is 20 kN, cr is then equal to
100/20=5. It should be note that cr is not for direct design since it does not consider
imperfection and material yielding effects. cr is only an indicator of stability stage,
for calculating effective length factor ( LE L ) or used for amplification as discussed
in Chapter 8.

When using NIDA*, one only needs to use the function of Eigen-Buckling
Analysis and select the number of mode as 1 or more but only the first buckling mode
is used in NIDA. For higher accuracy, we can just select all members and divide them
to 2 elements since NIDA uses cubic element to find the buckling load factor. This
division is not needed for second-order analysis in NIDA which use curved element to
cater for the P- effect and imperfections.
* NIDA is a software approved by the Buildings Department for nonlinear and second-order
direct analysis to Code of Practice to Structural Uses of Steel, Hong Kong.

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10.3.1 Types of Analysis

10.3.1.1 Finite element analysis for structural instability

The principle of minimum potential energy can be used to solve a buckling

problem.

The vanishing of the first variation of the total potential energy functional
implies the satisfaction of the equilibrium condition. The vanishing of the second
variation of the energy functional means the structural system is in the state of neutral
equilibrium. Figure 10.5 illustrates the concept of three different types of equilibrium.

Neutral equilibrium Unstable equilibrium Stable equilibrium

Figure 10.5 Concept of different types of equilibrium

 =0 for equilibrium (10.3)

>0 for stable equilibirum

 
2
=0 for neutal equilibirum (10.4)
<0 for unstable equilibirum

It should be noted that, after minimisation, the solution cannot be obtained

directly. Instead, a set of equations governing the instability condition will be otained

To derive the Euler buckling load of a column, the energy functional of the
column can be written as (Tension +ve),

1 L   d 2v   dv  
2 2

    EI  2   P  dx (10.5)
2 0   dx   dx  


In the case of a simply supported column, the assumption of a half sine curve
as in Equation (10.6) will satisfy the deflected shape of the column.
 x 
v =  sin   (10.6)
 L

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 Thus, Equation (10.6) is put into Equation (10.5) and after differentiation and
integration, the exact value for the Euler buckling load is obtained as in previous case.
That is,
EI 2 4 P 2 2
  (10.7)
4 L3 4L
EI 2
 2  2  P  0 (10.8)
L

Therefore,
 2 EI
P 2 (Compression) (10.9)
L

The steps to develop a finite element for buckling analysis are as follows:

1. Write down the energy functional for the particular type of member. For
example, for a general beam-column element as shown in Figure 6, the energy
terms corresponding to bending are expressed as,
1   d 2v   dv  
L 2 2

    EI  2   P  dx  M 11  M 2 2  F1v1  F2 v2 (10.10)

2 0   dx   dx  
 

Figure 10.6 Beam-column

2. Depending on the nodal degree of freedom for an element, write down a

polynomial for the deflection of the element. If there are 4 degrees of freedom,
a cubic polynomial which has also 4 coefficients is used so that the
coefficients can be solved. Thus,
v  a 0  a1 x  a 2 x 2  a3 x 3 (10.11)

dv
For x  0 , v  v1 ,  1 (10.12)
dx

Therefore,
a 0  v1 (10.13)
a1  1 (10.14)

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 dv
For x  L , v  v2 ,  2 (10.15)
dx

Therefore,
3 v1  v2  21   2
a2   (10.16)
L2 L

2 v v 
a3  1 3 2  1 2 2
 
(10.17)
L L

And, after solving,

 v1 
 
 3x 2
2x 3
  2x2
x  3
 3x
2
2x   x
3
x  2 3
v  1  2  3   x   2   2  3     2   1 
 L L   L L   L L   L L   v 2 
 
 2 
(10.18)

3. Substituting the displacement function, v, in terms of the nodal degree of

freedom into the energy functional, we obtain the functional in terms of the
nodal degree of freedom. After differentiating the functional with respect to
the degree of freedom two by two, we obtain the stiffness matrix as follows,

 12 6 12 6   6L 1 6L 1 
  5 
 L3 L2 L3 L2 
10 5 10 
 6 4 6 2   1 2L 1 L
 2  2     
k L  kG   EI  L12 L
6
L
12
L   P  10
6
15 10 30 
  2  2  6 L 
1 6L
 
1
 L3 L L3 L   5 10 5 10 
 6 2 6 4   1 L 1 2L 
 2  2     
 L L L L   10 30 10 15 
(10.19)

Note that the coefficients are given by,

 2
kij  k ji  (10.20)
xi x j
in which x i and x j are the nodal degrees of freedom.

4. The condition for the structural system to become unstable is the vanishing of
the determinant of the matrix. That is,
k L  cr k G  0 (10.21)

To this, NIDA has been developed to calculate the value of the load factor, cr,
as shown in Figure 10.7, for the semi-indefinite condition of the eigenvalue.

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 Because the cubic Hermite function for lateral deflection represents the exact
linear solution for the bending for a beam, i.e.
d 2v  x x
EI 2  M 1 1    M 2 (10.22)
dx  L L

some researchers do not consider the beam-column element as a finite element which
implies that the exact expression for the deflection cannot be obtained but
approximated by a series of approximate functions such as cubic polynomial.
Moreover, in the present studies of buckling problems, it can be easily seen that the
nonlinear solution, which is the half sine curve for a simply supported strut, is far
from cubic and therefore the use of several elements per member is needed to obtain
an accurate solution.

Figure 10.7 The option of buckling and vibration in NIDA

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 Alternatively, cr can be obtained by hand calculation by Equation (10.23),
provided that the structure is regular portal frame of shallow roof or building frame.
For a multi-storey building frame, the formula is applied for each storey and the
minimum cr is taken as the controlling elastic critical load factor.
F h
cr  N (10.23)
FV  N

where FV is the factored dead plus live loads on the floor considered
FN is the notional horizontal force taken typically as 0.5% of FV for
building frames
h is the storey height and
N is the notional horizontal deflection of the upper storey relative to
the lower storey due to the notional horizontal force FN

10.3.1.2 First-order linear analysis

The method is a conventional method using effective length in Chapter 6 of

the HK Code. It assumes a linear relationship between force and displacement. It
cannot check buckling or material yielding and therefore the output force and moment
must be checked to ensure the member is safe. However, the stress due to second-
order effects and buckling and stress distribution after yielding are not considered
here.

In the first-order linear analysis, the effects of imperfection on member design

(i.e. the P- effect) shall be incorporated by using appropriate buckling formulae.
Curves a0, a, b, c and d represent different values of member imperfections and Table
8.7 of the HK Code classifies various types of sections into one of these a0-d curves.

It can be observed that the linear analysis currently used by most engineers in
Hong Kong has already considered imperfection indirectly via uses of curves a0 to d.
Software claiming to have the ability to do the second order analysis without
codified way of considering imperfection is therefore unacceptable.

The P- sway effect is considered by multiplying the moment from linear
cr
analysis by the amplification factor . However, the P- effect still needs to be
cr  1
considered by assuming the effective length equal to the member length for checking.

This linear analysis method cannot be used when the structural is irregular or
cr is less than 5.

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10.3.1.3 Second-order P--only elastic analysis
(Second-order indirectly analysis)

This analysis method considers the changes in nodal coordinate and sway such
that the P-Δ effect is accounted for. The effect of member bowing (P-δ) is not
considered here and should be allowed for separately. Member resistance check for P-
δ effect to Clause 8.7 of the HK Code is required and this P-Δ-only method of
analysis and design is under the same limitations of use as the linear analysis.

10.3.1.4 Second-order direct analysis

(Second-order P-- elastic analysis)

In this method, both the P-Δ and P-δ and imperfections effects are accounted
for in the computation of bending moment. Checking the buckling resistance of a
structure to Clause 6.8.3 is sufficient and member check to Clause 8.9.2 is not needed.
The direct analysis here allows an accurate determination of structural response under
loads via the inclusion of the effects of geometric imperfections and stiffness changes
directly in the structural analysis and Equations (6.12) to (6.14) of the HK Code for
section capacity check in the structural analysis are sufficient for structural resistance
design.

This method considers both the P- and P- effects such that effective length
method for member buckling strength check is not required. This implies significant
saving in time as well as improvement in safety.

When the full second-order or P-- analysis is used, we use the appropriate
imperfections in Table 6.1. In this method, one need not consider individual stability
check nor effective length at all. Cross section capacity check in Equation (10.24)
below is sufficient in checking the stability strength of members as,
P ( M y  P y  P y ) ( M z  P z  P z )
   1 (10.24)
py A M cy M cz

where
 = nodal displacement due to out-of-plumbness frame imperfections plus
sway induced by loads in the frame
 = displacement due to member curvature / bowing due to initial
imperfection plus load at ends and along member length of a member.
This is calculated using a curved member proposed by Chan and Zhou
(1995)
A = cross sectional area
py = design strength
Mcy, Mcz = yield moments about principal y- and z-axes (i.e. Mc=py Z); plastic
moments can be used by replacing Z by plastic modulus, S
My, Mz = external moments about principal y- and z-axes
 = section capacity factor. If  >1, member fails in section capacity check.
In software NIDA, different values of  are indicated by different
colours.

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For slender sections, the effective area and moduli should be used in Equation
(10.24). For some members influenced by the beam lateral-torsional buckling, the
beam buckling moment Mb should be used in place of Mcz in Equation (10.24) (see
Section 6.5).

Values of global initial imperfection  are taken as 0.5% of height or span.

Values of member initial imperfection should be taken from Table 6.1 of the HK
Code reproduced below.

Buckling curves
e0
referenced in to be used in Second-order P-- elastic analysis
Table 8.7 L
a0 1/550
a 1/500
b 1/400
c 1/300
d 1/200

Table 10.1 Values of member initial bow imperfection used in design

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 The curve selection should follow Table 8.7 of the HK Code reproduced
below.

Table 10.2 Designation of buckling curves for different section types

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 For first plastic hinge design, the design capacity is considered to have been
reached when  of any member reaches 1. The design capacity is taken as the load
causing the formation of the first plastic hinge for members with plastic (Class 1) or
compact (Class 2) sections or first yield for member of semi-compact or slender
section which further required reduction of cross-sectional area and moduli. If the
sections are not class 1 or 2, their ductility can be obtained by a nonlinear finite
element plastic analysis and used in a second-order direct analysis. Figure 10.8 shows
the option in NIDA of second-order P-- elastic analysis.

Figure 10.8 The option of second-order P-- elastic analysis

(note the deactivated “Enable Plastic Advanced Analysis” icon)

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10.3.1.5 Second-order analysis allowing for beam buckling

For beams, especially open section beams, under moment about major
principal axis, it will have a tendency to buckle laterally as shown in Figure 10.9
below. A reduction in moment resistance is needed for this type of unrestrained
beams. However, the HK Code does not adopt a similar P-delta analysis as for
columns in beam buckling check. In fact, the HK Code also does not allow for the P-
delta analysis for local buckling check as well. This practice is found not only in the
HK Code, but also in other codes.

The reason why normally a P-delta type of analysis for frames with beam
buckling is not considered is that, unlike column buckling, the effective length does
not rely on the sway sensitivity of the frame and therefore one need not worry too
much about the accuracy of effective length which can be directly determined from
the boundary conditions.

In HK Code, the following equation is used for second-order direct analysis

allowing for beam buckling check.
Fc Mx My Fc m LT [ M x  Fc (  x   x )] m y [ M y  Fc ( y   y )]
     1
Ag p y M cx M cy Ag p y Mb M cy
(10.25)

in which Mb is the beam buckling moment determined from Equations (8.20) to (8.24)
of the HK Code as an additional checking equation (see Trahair and Chan, 2005).

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 Figure 10.9 Lateral-torsional buckling of beam
(Courtesy of Professor N.S. Trahair of Sydney University)

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10.3.1.6 Advanced analysis and Plastic Analysis

For advanced analysis or second-order plastic analysis, one or two members

yield with = 1 do not necessarily indicate structural failure if the structure does not
collapse. In Eurocode 3 (2005), plastic analysis can only be used the members are of
sufficient rotational capacity to enable redistribution of bending moment. Under
Section 5.6(2), this requirement is assumed when plastic (Class 1) section is used and
the shear is not larger than 10% of the shear resistance otherwise web stiffeners
should be added within a distance h/2 from the plastic hinge location where h is the
depth of the cross section.

Plastic strength reserve of steel material is significant as minimum elongation

at breakage of 15% is imposed for qualified steel. Elastic design can be considered as
an over-conservative in some cases, especially for highly redundant structures.

According to the limit state design, the ultimate design load of a structure
should be smaller than the actual load resistance or computed collapse load of the
structure which can allow for plastic yielding in some members. A safe and yet
economical design should allow no yielding under working load in order to prevent
accumulation of strain energy and no collapse at ultimate load using the ultimate load
factors.

For collapse load analysis, a plastic hinge will then be inserted into the
member end when Equation (10.24) is satisfied and the analysis continues until a
plastic collapse mechanism is formed (see Figure 10.1). The members possessing the
plastic hinge must have sufficient rotational capacity which can be insured by plastic
(Class 1) and doubly symmetric cross section and all members in the whole frame
must be compact (Class 2) or plastic (Class 1). The location behind plastic hinges
must be adequately restrained against lateral buckling after formation of plastic
hinges. Figure 10.10 shows the option in NIDA of Second-order P-- plastic
analysis using “plastic hinge” method.

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 Figure 10.10 Second-order P-- plastic analysis using “plastic hinge” method
(note the activated “Enable Plastic Advanced analysis” icon)

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10.3.2 Formulation for Nonlinear Numerical Methods

Every nonlinear numerical method has its own merits and limitations. None of
them is remarkably superior to others in all cases. Their selection for a particular
problem depends heavily on the type and constraint of the problem and the objective of
study. For example, to determine the displacement of a structure under specified applied
loads as required in most practical design, a load-control scheme should be chosen. If a
prescribed displacement is imposed, a displacement-control scheme should be adopted.
However, these two methods may not achieve convergence in tracing the snap-through
curve or the snap-back curve. To select an appropriate nonlinear numerical method, the
user should therefore have a general understanding on the characteristics of these
methods. The properties and formulations of some commonly used schemes are briefly
described in this section. In Section 10.3.4, a comparison among the schemes is made.

In general, the incremental-iterative equilibrium equation of a system, which is

not necessarily controlled by the load, can be written as,
    
F   ki  F  K T u  ik  u (10.26)

in which F  and u are respectively the out-of-balance forces and the
   
corresponding displacement increments in the system;  F and u are respectively
the reference load vector and the resulting displacements; and   ki is a control
parameter to be determined according to various imposed constrained conditions. The
superscript k refers to the number of load cycle while the subscript i represents the
number of equilibrium iteration within a load cycle. By selecting a suitable numerical
scheme for a particular problem considered, the above incremental-iterative equation can
used to trace the nonlinear load-deformation curve of the structure. If the selected
numerical scheme is successful, the load limit or load-carrying capacity of the structure
can be determined from the curve. Furthermore, the structural response for the post-
buckling range can also be obtained.

In software NIDA, to use the nonlinear numerical methods, a nonlinear analysis

case must be set up first by clicking the <Analysis>  <Set Analysis Cases …> in top
tool bar and the following template is popped,

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 To use various numerical methods, click <Add>, followed by <Nonlinear Analysis>
and the following template is popped up.

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The choices of the numerical methods include Newton-Raphson method, single
displacement control method and arc length method + minimum residual displacement
method. To select one of the numerical methods, go to the <Numerical Method>
selection.

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10.3.2.1 The Pure Incremental Method

The pure incremental method for nonlinear analysis is simple and is the earliest
nonlinear solution method. Its basic procedure is to divide the total load into a number of
small load increments. In each load step, the stiffness of a structure is determined first
from the last known structure geometry and the loading state. It is then used to predict
the next displacement increment. The sign of the determinant of the updated stiffness
matrix will govern the direction of subsequent load step. The linearized displacement
increment is calculated by solving the tangent stiffness matrix and the load increment.
Once the displacement increment is obtained, the coordinates of structure are updated
and then the process is repeated until the desired load level is reached.

In general, this approach is capable of handling both the snap-through and the
snap-back problems because it does not require any iteration and thus does not have
divergence problem. However, as no equilibrium check or iteration is carried out,
unavoidable drift-off error is accumulated in each increment and the error after a number
of load steps may make the solution greatly deviated from the true equilibrium path. This
drift-off error cannot be estimated and thus the accuracy of the resulting load-deflection
curve cannot be assessed. The method to minimize this error is to employ a smaller load
step of which the magnitude is, unfortunately, quite difficult to assess. Indeed, there is no
guideline suggested for each load step. More importantly, the pure incremental method
usually over-estimates the ultimate capacity or the limit load of a structure. This is
unsafe and undesirable in practical design. Nevertheless, this simple method is still
widely used for nonlinear analysis, especially in commercial packages for nonlinear
analyses.

Drift-off Error
Linearized Path
Load, F

in Displacement
F

True Equilibrium Path

Drift-off Error
F

in Force
F
F

Displacement, u

Figure 11 Pure Incremental Method

with Constant Load Increments
Figure 10.11 Pure incremental method with constant load increment

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10.3.2.2 The Newton-Raphson Method

Only the Newton-Raphson method gives the response of a structure at the input
load in terms of buckling strength and therefore it should be use when the engineers
want to check whether or not a structure is adequate when under a set of factored design
loads. In t method, iteration is activated to obtain the equilibrium condition between the
applied forces and the internal structural resistance within a load step. Unlike the pure
incremental method in which no equilibrium check is performed, the unbalanced force is
dissipated via the iterative procedure and can therefore be eliminated by this method.
Being free from the drift-off error, the solution is more accurate but the computational
time is increased when compared with the pure incremental method.

Conventional Newton-Raphson Method

Modified Newton-Raphson Method

Figure 10.12 The Newton Raphson method

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10.3.2.3 The Displacement Control Method

Unlike the load control methods previously described, a constraint equation for
displacement is imposed in this approach. This method simultanesouly possesses the
capacity of traversing the limit point without destroying the symmetrical property of the
tangent stiffness method. A single degree of freedom is chosen to be the steering
displacement degree of freedom for control of the advance of the solution for
equilibrium path, and the magnitude for each increment must be decided.

Figure 10.13 The displacement control method

The constant displacement method does not exhibit any difficulty in passing the
snap-through limit point but fails to converge in snap-back problems. Thus, it is usually
used in conjunction with other solution schemes in order to solve general nonlinear
problems.

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10.3.2.4 The Arc-Length Method

The basic concept of the spherical arc-length method is to constrain the load
increment so that the dot product of displacement along the iteration path remains
constant in the 2-dimensional plane of load versus deformation.

The procedure of the spherical arc-length method is illustrated below. Owing to

its accuracy, reliability and satisfactory rate of convergence, it is probably the most
popular method for nonlinear analysis and it was noted to be robust and stable for pre-
and post-buckling analysis.

Figure 10.14 The arc-length method

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10.3.2.5 The Minimum Residual Displacement Method

The basic idea of this method originally proposed by the author of this book
(Chan, 1988) is to minimize the norm of residual displacement in each iteration.

The graphical representation of the procedure is demonstrated below. From

Figure 10.15, it can be seen that this constraint condition enforces the iteration path to
follow a path normal to the load-deformation curve. It adopts the shortest path to arrive
at the solution path by error minimization and thus is considered to be an optimum
solution. In addition, the procedure is much simpler to use than the arc-length method.
Generally speaking, owing to its efficiency and effectiveness in tracing the equilibrium
path, the minimum residual displacement method is usually chosen to perform the
iterative procedure and combined with the part for load size determination in the first
iteration by the arc-length method.

Figure 10.15 The minimum residual displacement method

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10.3.3 Convergence criteria

In an effective incremental-iterative method, some criteria should be pre-

determined for termination or continuation of iterations. If a tight tolerance is selected,
excessive computation effort is spent on unnecessary accuracy. If the tolerance is set too
loose, the equilibrium error may be excessive and inaccurate solutions resulted. Further
to this, the question of whether the equilibrium tolerance should be set on the unbalanced
forces or displacements is debatable.

Through a number of nonlinear analyses by the authors, it was found that a

slightly loose tolerance imposed on both the displacement and force error is preferable to
a tight tolerance for either the displacement or the force error norm. To this, 0.1%
equilibrium error is allowed for each of the maximum unbalanced displacement and
force norms. Equilibrium is only assumed when both of the equilibrium checks are
satisfied.

Mathematically, the convergence criteria for force and displacement are

expressed respectively as,
F T F   TOL (10.27a)
F T F 
uT u  TOL (10.27b)
uT u
in which Fand uare the accumulated force and displacement vectors respectively.
TOL is the tolerance for equilibrium condition and is set to 0.1% for the present study.

10.3.4 Comparison among the numerical algorithms

Although the load control Newton-Raphson method is slower in convergence

when compared to the arc-length or the minimum residual displacement method or even
diverge near the limit point, it is the only solution scheme which allows the analyst to
specify an exact load level at which the stresses and deflections are studied.
Consequently it is particularly suitable for design of a practical structure allowing for
various nonlinearities and under a set of fixed loads, such as the design loads. In
addition, since the exciting dynamic load is prescribed as an input data in a nonlinear
dynamic analysis, the load control Newton-Raphson method is very suitable for
analyzing a structure subjected to cyclic loads.

The displacement control method performs satisfactorily when handling snap-

through problems, but it fails at a snap-back point. Moreover, it may be very difficult, in
some cases, to select a suitable displacement degree of freedom as the control parameter.
Nevertheless, as the user can specify an exact value of displacement in advance, it can be
used in the analysis when a specified displacement is required. One example is a
structure under differential settlements, in which specified displacements at settled
supports are assumed to calculate the settlement effect on the overall structural
behaviour.

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 The arc-length and the minimum residual displacement methods are capable of
tracing the nonlinear load-deformation curve with snap-through and snap-back
phenomena. It has been generally observed that the minimum residual displacement
method gives the most rapid rate of convergence and the highest reliability among these
three methods. Better performance may be achieved when the minimum residual
displacement iterative scheme is used in conjunction with the arc-length load increment
for nonlinear static analysis.

Combining the element stiffness matrix method and the aforementioned

numerical schemes, a computer program NIDA capable of handling the large deflection
analysis of thin-walled members and frames has been written.

10.4 Imperfections

Unlike the first-order linear analysis, imperfections must be considered in any

second-order direct analysis since no real structure is perfect and possesses no
residual stress and initial crookedness.

In HK Code and Eurocode 3 (2005), a special feature is about the

consideration of frame and member imperfections which are not so explicitly
expressed in most other codes.

The effects of imperfections shall be taken into account for two conditions.
Global analysis: P- effect
Member design: P- effect

10.4.1 Frame imperfections

The effects of imperfections for typical structures shall be incorporated in

frame analysis using an equivalent geometric imperfection in Equation (10.28) based
on the lowest global elastic buckling mode(s) or the notional horizontal force of 0.5%
for permanent structures. While the approach of using lowest global elastic critical
mode as imperfection mode can be applied to all cases, the notional horizontal force
should only be used in rectilinear building frames because of the uncertainty in setting
these notional forces in irregular frames. The load case with least elastic critical load
factor should consider the two modes with lowest elastic critical load factors as two
independent load cases to prevent slender members from under-designing.
h
 (10.28)
200

where
h is the storey height;
is the initial deformation or out-of-plumbness deflection.

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The shape of imperfection may be determined using the notional horizontal force for a
regular frame or from the elastic critical mode. For regular multi-floor building
frames, the shape may be simply taken as an inclined straight line.

10.4.1.1 Elastic critical mode

As an alternative to notional horizontal force in Clause 2.5.8, the elastic

buckling mode can be used to simulate the global imperfections. The amplitude of
such global imperfection can be taken as building height/200 for permanent structures
or height/100 for temporary structures. The lowest elastic buckling global mode
should be used and at least the two lowest elastic buckling global modes should be
used as two load separated load cases for the load case with the lowest elastic critical
load factor cr. Local member buckling mode should not be used in place of the global
buckling mode.

10.4.1.2 Method of notional horizontal force

For regular frames where the buckling mode is in a sway mode and obvious to
engineers, a 0.5% of the vertical load should be applied horizontally to a frame which
is basically regular in order to simulate imperfection as demonstrated in Figure 10.16.
For structures used for other functions and durations, a varied value of notional force
is used.

Figure 10.16 Application of horizontal notional forces

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10.4.1.3 Imperfection mode as buckling mode

In many structures, the buckling mode shape is not obvious and we need to
use computer program to determine the buckling mode. We can use the buckling
mode as imperfection mode as the worst scenario as follows. In software, we can
specify this eigen-buckling mode option and a magnitude equal to 0.5% multiplied by
the height or the longest span or an expected value of imperfection for a particular
type of structures. 1% imperfection deflection or notional force is needed for
temporary structures and 3% may be needed for structures under demolition.

Figure 10.17 Use of buckling mode as imperfection mode

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 These initial sway imperfections should be applied in all unfavourable
horizontal directions, but need only be considered in one direction at a time. For
temporary works such as scaffolding, initial deformation should be taken as
  h 100 . For demolition works, initial deformation equivalent to notional force
should be used.

The simulation of out-of-plumbness with notional horizontal force is indicated

in Figure 10.18.

P P P P P P

3P

2wL 2wL

P
P

Figure 10.18 Notional horizontal force to simulate out-of-plumbness

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10.4.2 Member imperfections

For practical members, initial bow and residual stress are unavoidable and
must be considered in the buckling strength determination. Table 6.1 in the HK Code
shows the equivalent imperfection for these two sources of imperfections and they are
the equivalent imperfection. The value of these imperfections cannot be measured
from the initial bow or crookedness of the member but it can be determined by a
curve-fitting procedure against the buckling strength vs. slenderness curve. In other
words, we can try different values of imperfections to obtain a curve giving a 5%
lower bound curve to the experimental curve. Alternatively or more directly, we can
calculate the imperfection using the available Perry Robertson constants (Cho and
Chan, 2002). For a compression member, the equivalent initial bow imperfection
specified in Table 6.1 of the HK Code may be used in a second order analysis of the
member.

Figure 10.19 Input of member initial imperfections in NIDA

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Important Note
The directions of imperfections should be the same as eigen-buckling mode which
depends on the loads and thus it varies with different load cases. Thus, it is practically
not feasible to use an approach of modelling a member by several elements to
simulate imperfect geometry even for a moderate structure for a hundred load cases,
because we will then need a hundred data files containing different initial geometries.

The effects of imperfections can be considered in member design when using the
effective length method and the moment amplification method. This is the reason we
have different buckling curves in the HK Code.

Instead of using different curves, the second-order direct analysis uses different
imperfections in Table 6.1 of the HK Code (2011) or Table 5.1 of Eurocode 3 (2005).
For P--only analysis, member bucking check based on curves a0 to d is still
necessary. Note that these imperfections cannot be measured directly since they are
“equivalent” imperfections considering geometrical initial curvature and residual
stress. The geometrical initial curvature is measured to be around L/1000 to L/1500
which is much less than the equivalent initial imperfection allowing for residual stress
and geometrical crookedness.

1.20
Reduction Factor pc/py

1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0 100 200 300
Slenderness Ratio 

curve a0 curve a curve b curve c curve d

Figure 10.20 Simulation of member imperfection by specifying or using coded

values

As can be seen above, a curved member is needed for the simulation. Although the
Eurocode 3 (2005) suggests to use equivalent load along a member to simulate the
effect, there will be an additional stress induced by this fictitious load which should
not exist and it is therefore not allowed in the HK Code which uses the direct method
of curved member.

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10.5 The effective length method

In the first-order linear analysis, the analysis finds the load in the columns and
the buckling strength is unknown. Unlike the second-order P-- analysis which
considers the increase in stress due to the second-order and buckling effect, the first-
order linear analysis needs to reduce the resistance of the columns when taking the
load without considering second-order moment. To calculate the effective length
other than making an assumption, we have the following method.

Calculate cr by one of the following methods

1. Apply notional horizontal force. cr can be determined by Equation (10.23)
2. Use computer programme to find cr

For multi-storey frames, the maximum cr among all stories should be used to
obtain the minimum elastic critical load factor.

cr is defined as the factor multiplied to the design load causing the frame to
buckle elastically.

Notional force is (1) to simulate lack of verticality of frames and taken as

0.5% of the factored dead and imposed loads applied horizontally to the structure; (2)
to calculate the elastic critical load factor cr to Equation (10.23). This percentage of
notional force may vary for other types of structures like scaffolding where
imperfections are expected to be more serious and (3) to classify the frame as non-
sway, sway and sway-ultra sensitive frames.

The following section describes the method of using chart to determine the
effective length of a member in a regular frame.

10.5.1 Non-sway frame

When cr 10, the frame is considered as non-sway. P- effect can be ignored
here and only P- effect is needed to be considered. The effective length of members
in frames can be designed by chart in Figure 6.5b of HK Code or conservatively taken
as member length here.

For a sub-frame in a multi-storey frame in Figure 10.21, the distribution

factors, k1 and k2, are required to be determined as,

Total stiffness of the columns at the joint

k
Total stiffness of all the members at the joint
K c  K1
k1  (10.29)
K c  K1  K11  K12
Kc  K2
k2  (10.30)
K c  K 2  K 21  K 22
and the stiffness coefficients for beams should follow Table 6.2 of Hong Kong Code.

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 To calculate the load resistance of the column Pc  Ag pc , its effective length is
needed to be determined from k1 and k2 above with the chart in Figure 10.22.

K1
K 11
k1 K12

column-length being designed Kc

K21 K22
k2
K2

Figure 10.21 Restraint coefficients in a sub-frame

Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Fixed k2
Pinned

Figure 10.22 Effective length chart for non-sway frame

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10.5.2 Sway-sensitive frames

When 10 > cr  5, it is a sway frame.

The following chart is used to find the effective length factor. k1 and k2 are calculated
similarly to the above.

Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned

Figure 10.23 Effective length chart for sway frame

Member buckling check to Equation (8.79) in HK Code

Using effective length greater than member length to find the Pc is first carried out
and the moment is not required to be amplified here because only member buckling
check is considered.
Fc mx M x m y M y
  1 (10.31)
Pc M cx M cy

Amplification moment check to Equation (8.80) in HK Code

Additionally, moment amplification factor should be used to enlarge the moment due
to sway effect as the second checking as
Fc mx M x m y M y
  1 (10.32)
Pc M cx M cy

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Here the buckling resistance P c (note the bar at top while Equation (8.79) has no bar
at Pc) is determined using effective length equal to member length (i.e. LE L  1 ), but
Mx and My are needed to be amplified as follows.
cr
M M (10.33)
cr  1

Also, the amplified moment should be used for connection design.

As the above considers the P- effect such that the effective length of the column is
then taken as its member length or from Figure 10.23.

When the beam may experience beam lateral-torsional buckling, Equation (8.81)
should also be checked.

10.5.3 Sway ultra-sensitive frames

When cr < 5, only second-order direct analysis method can be used.

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10.6 Examples

10.6.1 Simple benchmark example for testing of software

A column of CHS 88.93.2, grade S275 steel and length 5m, has a boundary
condition of one end pinned and one end fixed (i.e. a propped cantilever) as shown in
the figure below. The analytical elastic critical load Pcr and the compression
resistance Pc to the HK Code can be calculated by taking the effective length of this
propped cantilever as 0.7 of its true length. When using NIDA, the design load is
indicated by the load causing the section capacity factor equal to 1.0 while the elastic
critical load is the load when the load vs deflection curve becomes flat. In NIDA, no
effective length assumption is required as the P- effect is automatically taken into
account during the analysis. However, an initial member imperfection of L/500 is
imposed as given in Table 6.1 of the HK Code.

Compare the analytical elastic critical load and the design load to the HK Code with
results given by NIDA. Also repeat the example with a boundary condition of one end
free and one end fixed (i.e. cantilever) and the effective length factor equal to 2.

F
One end pinned and one end fixed
CHS 88.9x3.2 grade 275, Length =5m

5m

SECTION PROPERTIES

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D  88.9mm , t  3.2 mm , I  79.2cm 4 , r  3.03cm , Z  17.8cm 3 , A  8.62cm 2

Case 1: Propped cantilever

Effective length, LE  0.7 L  3.5m
 2 EI  2  205000  79.2  10 4
Elastic critical load, Pcr  2

35002
 130.8kN
LE
L 3500
Slenderness ratio,   E   115.5 (Clause 8.7.4)
r 30.3

Compressive strength for hot-rolled hollow section bending about both axes should be obtained from
buckling curve a (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, p c  126.0 N mm 2 (Table 8.8(a))

Compression resistance, Pc  p c Ag  126  862  108 .6 kN (8.73)

The elastic critical load and design load found by NIDA are 98.7kN and 131.4kN respectively.

The table below compares the elastic critical loads and compression resistance between different
methods.
Methods Elastic critical load (kN) Compression Resistance (kN)
NIDA 131.4 98.7
Analytical 130.8 -
HK Code - 108.6

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Case 2: Cantilever
Effective length, LE  2 L  10m
 2 EI  2  205000  79.2  104
Elastic critical load, Pcr  2

100002
 16.0kN
LE

LE 10000
Slenderness ratio,     330 .0 (Clause 8.7.4)
r 30.3

Compressive strength for hot-rolled hollow section bending about both axes should be obtained from
buckling curve a (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, pc  18 N mm2 (Table 8.8(a))

Compression resistance, Pc  p c Ag  18  862  15 .5 kN (8.73)

The elastic critical load and design load found by NIDA are 15.6kN and 16.8kN respectively.

The table below compares the elastic critical loads and compression resistance between different
methods.
Methods Elastic critical load (kN) Compression Resistance (kN)
NIDA 16.8 15.6
Analytical 16 -
HK Code - 15.5

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These two simple examples show clearly the reliability and capability of NIDA in predicting a single
column with resistance dominated by P- and P- effects. Imperfection to code value of L/500 for hot-
rolled tubular sections has been allowed for. While the single column can be verified directly by code
assuming an appropriate effective length, the computer method NIDA can be applied to design of
complex frames composing of thousands of members by repeating the calculation whereas the HK
Code approach can hardly be extended as every member has its own buckling length and some load
cases are sway and others are non-sway.

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10.6.2 Structural analysis of the portal frame

Check the structural adequacy of the following portal. The section is 686254140
UB of grade S355 steel. The frame is rigid-jointed and pin-supported with dimensions
shown in the figure below.

1000kN

100kN

k1 k1
10m

k2 k2
30m

DESIGN LOAD
Axial force, Fc  1000  100  10 30  1033.3kN
Base shear, V y  100 2  50kN
Top moment, M x  50  10  500kNm

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  683.5mm , B  253.7mm , t  12.4mm , T  19.0mm , d  615.1mm , I x  136000cm4 ,
rx  27.6cm , Z x  3990cm 3 , S x  4560cm3 , A  178cm 2

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  345 N / mm 2 for 16mm  T  40mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.89 (Table 7.1 Note b)
345

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an I-section is 9

b 253.7
  6.68  9  0.89  8.01 (Table 7.1)
T 2  19
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an I-section under both axial compression and bending is
80 1  r1 
Fc 1033.3  103
Stress ratio, r1    0.393  1 (7.1)
dtp yw 615.1  12.4  345
d 615.1 80  0.89
  49.6   51.1 (Table 7.1)
t 12.4 1  0.393
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

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FRAME CLASSIFICATION
Deflection due to horizontal force =149.7 mm
(Note that it is unnecessary to use 0.5% for notional force as the same elastic critical load factor cr
will be obtained because the deflection N below will be changed proportionally and the final answer
will be the same.)
F h 100 10
Elastic critical load factor, cr  N   6.68 (6.1)
FV  N 1000 0.1497
10   cr  5 (6.4)
 it is a sway frame (Clause 6.3.4)

SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  12.4  683.5  8475mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 265  8475
Shear capacity, Vc    1296 .7 kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

MOMENT CAPACITY
V  0.6Vc  778.0kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
 It is low shear condition
Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1.2 p y Z x (8.2)
 345  4560  10 3  1.2  345  3990  10 3
 1573 .2kNm  1651 .9kNm
 M x (OK)

COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
I
Beam stiffness in sway mode should be taken as 1.5 (Table 6.2)
L
K c  K1 I / 10  0
k1    0.67 (Figure 6.4)
K c  K1  K11  K12 I / 10  0  1.5  I / 30  0
k 2  1 for pinned end
Effective length, L E  2.9 L  2.9  10  29m (Figure 6.5a)
Slenderness ratio,   LE  29000  105.1 (Clause 8.7.4)
rx 276

Compressive strength for rolled I-section with maximum thickness less than 40mm bending about
x-x axis should be obtained from buckling curve a (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, pc  156.3 N mm2 (Table 8.8(a))

Compression resistance, Pc  p c Ag  156 .3  17800  2782 .1kN  Fc (OK) (8.73)

CROSS-SECTION CAPACITY
Fc M M y 1033.3  103 500
 x     0.49  1 (OK) (8.78)
Ag p y M cx M cy 17800  345 1573.2

MEMBER BUCKLING RESISTANCE

Buckling check using effective length under sway mode to Equation (8.79)
Equivalent moment factor, mx  0.6 (Table 8.9)
F c mx M x m y M y 1033.3 0.6  500
     0.59  1 (OK) (8.79)
Pc M cx M cy 2782.1 345  3990 10 3

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Buckling check to non-sway mode effective length under amplified moment to Equation (8.80)
Effective length, LE  L  10m
Slenderness ratio,   LE  10000  36.2 (Clause 8.7.4)
rx 276

Compressive strength, pc  327.8 N mm2 (Table 8.8(a))

Compression resistance, Pc  p c A g  327 .8  17800  5834 .8kN  Fc (OK) (8.73)
The moment amplification factor is given by the larger of (8.82)
cr 6.68
  1.20
 cr  1 6.68  1
1 1
and   1.46
Fc L2E 1033.3  29 2
1 1 2
 2 EI x   2.05  136000
 The P-- amplification factor is taken as 1.46

Fc mx M x m y M y 1033.3 0.6  1.46  500

     0.50  1 (OK) (8.80)
Pc M cx M cy 5834.8 345  3990  10 3

Note: Pc can be calculated by using the effective length found from Figure 6.5b for greater accuracy
and assuming effective length factor = 1 is only for conservative design. P c can be used for sway
frames with amplified moments Mx and My because the effect of moment increase has been considered
in the moments so economical design can be achieved when compared with use of Pc which is obtained
by using effective length factor greater than 1. However, additional check is needed for the case when
the frame sways with an effective length factor greater than 1 (i.e. use of Pc in sway frame) but the
bending moment is too small to amplify, such as the case when the dominant axial load is concentric to
the column being designed.

No beam buckling check to Equation (8.81) is needed here as the out-of-plane deflection is restrained.

DESIGN BY SECOND-ORDER DIRECT ANALYSIS

When using second-order direct analysis for design in NIDA, the section capacity
factor is 0.60. This is close to the most critical value above.

Comments on second-order direct analysis applied to sway and non-sway frames

The reason for classifying a frame to sway and non-sway is to determine the
effect of sway moment. When cr is greater than or equal to 10, the sway moment is
negligible and when cr is less than 10, it is important and the effect need to be and
can be considered by the use of second order direct analysis program or sway
amplification factor.

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10.6.3 Sway and non-sway frame

This example is to demonstrate the design procedures to the HK Code using the
conventional approach as well as using second-order P-- elastic analysis. Three
simple frames subject to same loading condition but three different boundary
conditions are shown in the figure below. The columns are 25425473 UC and the
beams are 40617874 UB of S275 steel. Subject to the same notional horizontal
forces as required according to Clause 2.5.8, the respective internal forces determined
from the first-order elastic analysis are also shown in the figure.

SECTION PROPERTIES
For 25425473 UC
D  254.1mm , B  254.6mm , t  8.6mm , T  14.2mm , d  200.3mm , I x  11400cm 4 ,
rx  11.1cm , Z x  898cm 3 , S x  992cm 3 , A  93.1cm 2

For 40617874 UB
D  412.8mm , B  179.5mm , t  9.5mm , T  16.0mm , d  360 .4 mm , I x  27300cm 4 ,
rx  17.0cm , Z x  1320cm 3 , S x  1500cm 3 , A  94.5cm 2

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SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  275 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
 1 (Table 7.1 Note b)
275

Plastic limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an H-section is 9

b 254.6
  8.96  9 1  9 (Table 7.1)
T 2 14.2
flange is plastic

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an H-section under both axial compression and bending is
80 1  r1 
Fc 604  10 3
Stress ratio, r1    1.275  1 (7.1)
dtp yw 200.3  8.6  275
 r1  1

d 200.3 80 1
  23.3   40 (Table 7.1)
t 8.6 11
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

FRAME CLASSIFICATION
The notional horizontal deflections of the three frames found from linear first-order elastic analysis and
the corresponding elastic critical load factor are summarized below.

Boundary condition Notional horizontal deflection, N (m) Elastic critical load factor, cr
Supports fixed 1 4
Member joints rigid 8.85710-4   22.6
200 8.857  10  4
Supports pinned 1 4
Member joints rigid 3.61210-3   5.54
200 3.612  10 3
Supports pinned 1 4
One member joint pinned 8.91910-3   2.24
200 8.919  10 3

Therefore, the frames can be classified into non-sway, sway and sway ultra-sensitive respectively
according to Clause 6.3

It should be noted that for sway ultra-sensitive frames, where the elastic critical load factor is less than
5, only second-order direct P-- elastic analysis or advanced analysis can be used. In this example,
self-weight of the material and lateral-torsional buckling are neglected. For simplicity, this example
only shows the design of the column member which involves the following steps.

SHEAR CAPACITY
Shear area, Av  tD  8.6  254.1  2185mm 2 (Clause 8.2.1)
p y Av 275  2185
Shear capacity, Vc    346.9kN  V (OK) (8.1)
3 3

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MOMENT CAPACITY
V  0.6V c  208.1kN (Clause 8.2.2.1)
 it is low shear condition
Moment capacity, M cx  p y S x  1 .2 p y Z x (8.2)
 275  992  10 3  1.2  275  898  10 3
 272 .8kNm  296 .3kNm
 M x (OK)

COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
According to Clause 6.6.3,
Kc
k1  (Figure 6.4)
K c  K 11

where
I c 11400
Kc    28.5cm3
Lc 400
I b 27300
K11    45.5cm3
Lb 600

According to Clause 8.7.5, the compression resistance should be obtained from

Pc  A g p c (8.73)

Non-sway frame Sway frame

I I
Beam stiffness  0.75 Beam stiffness  1.0 (Table 6.2)
L L
28.5 28.5
k1   0.46 k1   0.39 (Figure 6.4)
28.5  0.75  45.5 28.5  1.0  45.5
k 2  0 for fixed end k 2  1 for pinned end

L E  0.59 L  0.59  4  2.36m LE  2.3L  2.3  4  9.2m (Figure 6.5)

2360 9200
  21 .3   82 .9 (Clause 8.7.4)
111 111

pc  270.7 N mm 2 pc  175.2 N mm 2 (Tables 8.7, 8.8b)

Pc  9310  270.7  2520.2kN Pc  9310 175.2  1631.1kN (8.73)

CROSS-SECTION CAPACITY
The cross section capacity check can be carried out as
Fc M
 x 1 (8.78)
Ag p y M cx

Non-sway frame Sway frame

602  10 3 172 604  10 3 157
  0.87 (OK)   0.81 (OK) (8.78)
9310  275 272.8 9310  275 272.8

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MEMBER BUCKLING RESISTANCE
The resistance of the member can be checked using
Fc m x M x
 1 (8.79)
Pc M cx
Fc mx M x
 1 (8.80)
Pc M cx
in which m x is the equivalent moment factor as given in Table 8.9 and M x is the design moment
amplified from the first-order moment M x .

For finding P c ,
Effective length, L E  L  4m
Slenderness ratio,   LE  4000  36.0 (Clause 8.7.4)
rx 111
Compressive strength, p c  254.8 N mm 2 (Table 8.8(b))
Compression resistance, Pc  p c A g  254 .8  9310  2372 .2 kN (8.73)

For non-sway frame, the P- can be neglected and the P- amplification factor is given by:
1 1
  1.01
Fc L2E 602  2.36 2 (8.83)
1 2 1 2
 EI   2.05  11400

For sway frame, the P-- amplification factor is given by the larger of: (8.82)
cr 5.54
  1.22
 cr  1 5.54  1
1 1
and   1.28
FL 2
604  9.2 2
1  c2 E 1 2
 EI   2.05  11400
 The P-- amplification factor is taken as 1.28

Non-sway frame Sway frame

89.4
   0.52  0
172

 m x  0.50  m x  0.60 (Table 8.9)

604 0.60  157

  0.75 (OK) (8.79)
1631.1 8.98  2.75  10
602 0.50  1.01 172 604 0.60 1.28  157
  0.59 (OK)   0.74 (OK) (8.80)
2520.2 275  898 10 3 2372.2 8.98  2.75 10

These factors are smaller than the cross section capacity factor and this shows the
column is strength controlled partly because of use of low grade steel of S275.

By performing second-order P-- elastic analysis, the section capacity factors of the
columns of the non-sway, sway and sway ultra-sensitive calculated by Equation
(10.24) are respectively 0.85, 0.80 and 0.91*.

*0.91 is calculated using the result of the column opposite to the loaded column. Also,
the beam fails with a section capacity factor of 1.34 because the bending moment has

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been much enlarged by the sway displacement. This shows that the use of linear
analysis without amplifying the moment is dangerous.

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10.6.4 Leaning column portal

This example is to demonstrate the concept of an effective length paradox for the
effective length factor, or the K-factor, of a lean column, which is widely taken as 1.0,
but it may be larger or smaller than 1.0 depending on the frame instability. The figure
below shows a two-bay frame using the same sections as those in Example 10.6.3.
After performing a first-order elastic analysis, the frame is classified as sway frames.
Traditionally there are three methods determining the effective length factor.

600kN

200kN 200kN
100kN/m 100kN/m

11kN

4m
sway

6m 6m

Method 1: Chart method

k1  1 for pinned end
k2  1 for pinned end
From Figure 6.5a, the effective length factor is infinity.

Method 2: Idealized column method

Idealizing the two ends of the column is rotation free and transition fixed, the
effective length factor can be taken as 1.00 as recommended in Table 8.6.

Method 3: Elastic critical load factor method

The effective length can be calculated by the following equation,
 2 EI
LE 
Fc cr

The elastic critical load factor can be calculated by either the deflection method or the
Eigen-buckling analysis.

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Deflection Method Eigen-Buckling Analysis
 cr  6.36  cr  6.16

 2  2.05  11400  2  2.05  11400

LE   5.30m LE   5.38m
1293  6.36 1293  6.16
5.30 5.38
Effective length factor   1 .33 Effective length factor   1.35
4 4

The effective length factor found by Method 1 is totally unacceptable for design. Most
engineers adopt Method 2 for simplicity and take the effective length factor as 1.0.
However, since the lean column is part of the sway frame, its actual effective length
factor must be greater than 1.0. It appears that only Method 3 provides reasonable
estimates of the effective length factor. However, Method 3 is not recommended in
the HK Steel Code because the effective length found from this method is only true
for the most critical column but not for other columns. For other non-critical columns,
this method is inappropriate. The effective length factor can also be traced back from
a second-order P-- elastic analysis. It is found that the failure load of the lean
column is 2308kN. Therefore the compressive strength of the column is 248N/mm 2.
From Table 8.8(b), the equivalent slenderness ratio is roughly 42.0 meaning an
effective length factor of 1.17. It should be noted that the effective length factor found
here is meaningless to a second-order direct analysis but it is used to support the result
found from Method 3 and for comparison only. To avoid this effective length
paradox, the best way is to adopt second-order direct analysis which avoids the use of
effective length factor in column design.

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10.6.5 Braced and unbraced frames

The 4-storey frame shown below is designed. All members are 20320360 UC. The
structure is under a pair of factored vertical point loads of 500kN at top, with a
notional force of 0.5% applied horizontally at the same level. The design strength is
275 N/mm2. In the original study, all members are loaded about their principal minor
axes.

44m

4m

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SECTION PROPERTIES
D  209.6mm , B  205.8mm , t  9.4mm , T  14.2mm , d  160 .8mm , I x  6120cm 4 ,
I y  2060cm 4 , rx  8.96cm , r y  5.20cm , Z x  584cm3 , Z y  201cm 3 , S x  656cm 3 ,
S y  305cm 3 , A  76.4cm 2

FRAME CLASSIFICATION
The structure is under a pair of factored vertical point loads of 500kN at top, with a
notional force of 0.5% applied horizontally at the same level. In the original study, the
members are loaded about their principal minor axes.

Using the method of sway index, the elastic buckling load factor, cr, is calculated in
Case 1 as follows.

Deflections (mm) / sway indices s

Storey Case 1 (Bent about Case 2 (Bent about Case 3 (Bent about
minor axis, unbraced) major axis, unbraced) minor axis, fully braced
1 5.923 / 1.48110 -3 2.027 / 5.18010-4 0.063 / 1.57510-5
2 14.99 / 2.26710 -3 5.164 / 7.84310-4 0.202 / 3.47510-5
3 24.33 / 2.33510-3 8.425 / 8.15310-4 0.392 / 4.75010-5
4 32.39 / 2.01510-3 11.28 / 7.13810-4 0.611 / 5.47510-5

Note: The sway index is given by:

 
s  i i1
h

Case 1 Bent about minor axis, unbraced

The maximum s is 2.33510-3 and the cr is given by
1 1 1 1
cr      2.141
200 s 200 2.335 10-3
cr  5 (6.6)
 it is a sway ultra-sensitive frame (Clause 6.3.5)

Since cr is less than 5 here, the effective length method cannot be used in the HK Code. There are two
methods to solve this problem. The first is to use the major principal axis of members to resist loads,
which is considered as Case 2. The other option is to add bracings members which is designated as
Case 3.

Case 2 Bent about major axis, unbraced

Referring to the table above, the critical s is 8.15310-4 and the coressponding cr is given by
1 1 1 1
cr      6.133
200 s 200 8.153 10 4
10   cr  5 (6.4)
 it is a sway frame (Clause 6.3.4)

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 I
Beam stiffness in sway mode should be taken as 1.5 (Table 6.2)
L
I I

K c  K1 L L
k1    2 / 3.5  0.57 (Figure 6.4)
K c  K1  K11 I I I
  1. 5
L L L
I I

Kc  K2 L L
k2    2 / 3.5  0.57
K c  K 2  K 21 I I I
  1. 5
L L L

Effective length, LE  1.6 L  1.6  4  6.4m (Figure 6.5a)

Slenderness ratio,   LE  6400  71.4 (Clause 8.7.4)
rx 89.6

Compressive strength for rolled H-section with maximum thickness less than 40mm bending about
x-x axis should be obtained from buckling curve b (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, pc  199.2 N mm 2 (Table 8.8(b))

Compression resistance, Pc  p c A g  199 .2  7640  1521 .9 kN  Fc (OK) (8.73)

Case 3 Bent about minor axis, fully braced

Referring to the table above, the critical s is 5.47510-5 and the coressponding cr is given by
1 1 1 1
cr      91.3
200  s 200 5.475  10 5
cr  10 (6.2)
 it is a non-sway frame
(Clause 6.3.3)
I
Beam stiffness in sway mode should be taken as 0.5 (Table 6.2)
L
I I

K c  K1 L L 2
k1     0. 8 (Figure 6.4)
K c  K 1  K 11 I I I 2.5
  0. 5
L L L
I I

Kc  K2 L L 2
k2     0. 8
K c  K 2  K 21 I I I 2.5
  0.5
L L L

Effective length, L E  0.86L  0.86  4  3.44m (Figure 6.5b)

Slenderness ratio,   L E  3440  66.2 (Clause 8.7.4)
ry 52

Compressive strength for rolled H-section with maximum thickness less than 40mm bending about
y-y axis should be obtained from buckling curve c (Table 8.7)

Compressive strength, pc  188 .6 N mm 2 (Table 8.8(c))

Compression resistance, Pc  pc Ag  188.6  7640  1440.9kN  Fc (OK) (8.73)

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10.6.6 3-Dimensional steel building

This example is for the extension to a three-dimensional structure and to demonstrate

the application of a second-order direct analysis dealing on a three-dimensional
problem. The figure below shows a three-dimensional four-storey frame with steel
grade S355. The loadings on the floors and the roof are 24kN/m 2 and 8kN/m2
respectively plus the self-weight of the material. The sections used are shown in the
figure. In this example, Column “C1” of 20320346 UC is to be designed. The
frame is 4-storey high of dimensions 12m(H)12m(L)8m(W) with story height of
3m. All base connections are assumed pinned and beam to column connections are
assumed rigid. Concrete floor is assumed as rigid diaphragm and the stiffness in the
Z-axis is strengthened by cross bracings at the two end bays while the sway stiffness
in the X-axis is provided by moment frame action. The major axis of the columns is
located about the Z-axis in order to provide a larger resistance against sway in the X-
axis for which bracings are not provided.

Column “C1” is selected for demonstration. Other members follow the same
procedural check.

“C1”

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DESIGN LOAD
From linear analysis, the internal forces of “C1” are:
Fc  824.1kN , M x1  3.9kNm , M x 2  4.1kNm , M y1  12.1kNm , M y 2  12.2kNm

SECTION PROPERTIES
D  203.2mm , B  203.6mm , t  7.2mm , T  11.0mm , d  160.8mm , I x  4570cm4 ,
I y  1550cm 4 , rx  8.82cm , ry  5.13cm , Z x  450cm3 , Z y  152cm 3 , S x  497cm3 , S y  231cm 3 ,
u  0.847 , x  17.7 , A  58.7cm 2

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Design strength, p y  355 N / mm 2 for T  16mm (Table 3.2)
275
  0.88 (Table 7.1 Note b)
355

Semi-compact limiting value of b T for outstand flange of an H-section is 15

b 203.6
  9.25  15  0.88  13.2 (Table 7.1)
T 2  11
flange is semi-compact

Plastic limiting value of d t for web of an H-section under both axial compression and bending is
80 1  r1 
Fc 824.1  103
Stress ratio, r1    2.01  1 (7.1)
dtp yw 160.8  7.2  355
 r1  1
d 160.8 80  0.88
  22.33   35.2 (Table 7.1)
t 7.2 11
web is plastic

the section is Class 3 semi-compact

FRAME CLASSIFICATION
The elastic buckling load factor for the unbraced plane is 7.20 and for the braced plane is greater than
10 so that bucking about member major x-axis is classified as sway and about member minor y-axis as
non-sway.

MOMENT CAPACITY
Moment capacity, M cx  pyZx (8.3)
 355  450  10 3

 159 .8 kNm
M cy  pyZ y (8.3)
 355 152 10 3

 54.0 kNm

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COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
For bending about major x-axis For bending about minor y-axis
(Designed as sway-frame) (Designed as non-sway frame)
I I
Beam stiffness  1.0 Beam stiffness  1.0 (Table 6.2)
L L
I 4570 I 1550
K C  K1    15.23 K C  K1    5.17
L 300 L 300

I 41000 I 19500
K11  K12    68.33 K11    48.75
L 600 L 400
15.23  15.23 5.17  5.17
k1   0.18 k1   0.17 (Figure 6.4)
15.23  15.23  68.33  68.33 5.17  5.17  48.75
I 11400 I 3910
K2    38.0 K2    13.03
L 300 L 300

I 41000 I 19500
K 21  K 22    68.33 K 21    48.75
L 600 L 400
15.23  38 5.17  13.03
k2   0.28 k2   0.27 (Figure 6.4)
15.23  38  68.33  68.33 5.17  13.03  48.75
LE  1.15 L  1.15  3  3.45m L E  0.57 L  0.57  3  1.71m (Figure 6.5)

3450 1710
x   39.1 y   33.3 (Clause 8.7.4)
88.2 51.3
p cx  319.6 N mm 2 p cy  316.7 N mm 2 (Tables 8.7, 8.8)

Pcx  5870  319.6  1876.1kN Pcy  5870  316.7  1859.0kN (8.73)

CROSS-SECTION CAPACITY
The cross section capacity check can be carried out as
Fc M My
 x  1 (8.78)
Ag p y M cx M cy
824.1  103 4.1 12.2
   0.65  1 (OK)
355  5870 159.8 54

MEMBER BUCKLING RESISTANCE

For bending about major z-axis For bending about minor y-axis
3. 9 12.1
   0.95    0.99
4. 1 12.2
 m x  0.41  m y  0.40 (Table 8.9)

Buckling check using effective length under sway mode to Equation (8.79)
F c m x M x m y M y 824.1 0.41  4.1 0.40  12.2
      0.54  1 (OK) (8.79)
Pc M cx M cy 1859 159.8 54

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Buckling check to non-sway mode effective length under amplified moment to Equation (8.80)
Effective length, LE  L  3m
Slenderness ratio,  x  LE  3000  34 .0 (Clause 8.7.4)
rx 88 .2
Compressive strength, p c  328 .6 N mm 2  p cy (Table 8.8(b))
Compression resistance, Pc  Pcy  1859 kN

For sway frame, the P-- amplification factor is given by the larger of:
cr 7.2
  1.16
 cr  1 7.2  1
1 1
and   1.12
Fc L2E 824.1  3.452
1 2 1 
 EI  2  2.05  4570
 The P-- amplification factor is taken as 1.16

For non-sway frame, the P- can be neglected and the P- amplification factor is given by:
1 1
  1.08
Fc L2E 824.1  1.712 (8.83)
1 2 1 
 EI  2  2.05  1550

Fc mx M x m y M y 824.1 0.41  1.16  4.1 0.40  1.08  12.2

      0.55  1 (OK) (8.80)
Pc M cx M cy 1859 159.8 54

Buckling check to lateral-torsional buckling mode to Equation (8.81)

3. 9
   0.95
4. 1
 m LT  0.44 (Table 8.4a)

For finding M b ,
Assumed effective length, L E  0.5 L  0.5  3  1.5m
Slenderness ratio,   LE  1500  29.2 (8.26)
ry 51.3
1 1
v   0 .969
1  0.05 x  
2 0.25
1  0.0529.2 17.7  
2 0 .25 (8.27)
Z x 450
w    0.905 (8.28)
S x 497
LT  uv  w  0.847  0.969  29.2  0.905  22.8 (8.25)
pb  355 N mm 2
(Table 8.3a)
M b  pb Z x  159 .8 kNm (8.21)

Fc m M my M y 824 .1 0.44  1.16  4.1 0.40  12.2

 LT LT      0.55  1 (OK) (8.81)
Pcy Mb M cy 1859 159 .8 54

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We follow a logic of using either the sway effective length (which is greater than
member length) OR the amplified moment in a single equation check, but not both at
a time.

Using Second-order direct analysis, the section capacity factor is 0.76 with
Fc  820.0kN , M x , max   4 .4 kNm , M y ,max  18 .2 kNm

It can be seen that the first-order analysis method has underestimated the amplified
moment about the minor axis by 27.6%. Therefore design using first-order analysis
can lead to an unconservative result.

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10.6.7 Slender frame in practice

The example below demonstrates the design of a space frame without assuming any
effective length. The space frame shown in below has been designed without
assuming any effective length. All expected loadings have been allowed for in the
analysis and design. The figure shows the structure near completion and the computer
model.

A slender skeleton supporting membrane designed by second-order direct analysis

without assumption of effective length

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 A heavy platform with mobile crane loads
designed by second-order direct analysis

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Chapter 11 References

BSI. Structural Use of Steelwork in Building – Part 1: Code of Practice for Design –
Rolled and Welded Sections, BS5950-1, BSI, London, 2000.
CEN, Eurocode 3, Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Building, EN 1993-1-1,
British Standards Institute, London, 2005.
Chan, S.L. and Cho, S.H., “Design of steel frames using calibrated design curves for
buckling strength of hot-rolled members”, Proceedings, “Advances in Steel
Structures”, edited by Chan, Teng and Chung, Elsevier, 2002, Elsevier Science,
pp.1193-1199.
Chan, S.L. and Chui, P.P.T. (1997), A generalized design-based elasto-plastic analysis
of steel frames by section assemblage concept, Journal of Engineering Structures,
vol.19, no.8, pp. 628-636.
Chan, S.L. and Zhou, Z.H., Second order analysis of frame using a single imperfect
element per member, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, vol. 121, No. 6, June,
1995, pp.939-945.
Chen, W.F. and Chan, S.L., Second Order Inelastic Analysis of Steel Frames using
Element with Mid-span and End Springs, March, Vol.121, No.3, Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, 1995, pp. 530-541.
Code of practice for the structural use of steel, Buildings Department, Hong Kong,
2005 and 2011 versions.
(http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/index_crlist.html)
International Standard ISO 2631-2, Mechanical vibration and shock – Evaluation of
human exposure to whole-body vibration – Part 2, Vibration in buildings (1 Hz to 80
Hz) , 2003.
NIDA-9, Software for nonlinear analysis and design of frames and shells, version 8,
user’s manual, 2015.
SAI, Steel Structures, AS 4100: 1998. Standards Australia International Ltd. North
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, 1998.
Trahair, N.S. and Chan, S.L., “Out-of-plane advanced analysis of steel structures”, 25,
Engineering Structures, 2003, pp.1627-1637.

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