March 2020

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MAKE EVERY MOLECULE

DELIVER MORE VALUE
Evaluate six key elements to capture the most value
from every barrel of oil.

www.uop.com
© 2020 by Honeywell International Inc. All rights reserved.
 CONTENTS
March 2020 Volume 25 Number 03 ISSN 1468-9340
03 Comment 69 Digital data improvement
05 Guest comment Dr Tetsuya Otani, Yokogawa Electric Corp., Japan, examines how digitised
data can be used for automated analytics in predictive maintenance and
07 World news root cause analysis applications.
14 US diesel in focus 75 Making a digital difference
Nancy Yamaguchi, Contributing Editor, takes a magnifying glass to the US Ryan Streeter, MISTRAS Group, USA, introduces modern approaches to
diesel industry, looking at demand, pricing, quality, production, and trade. inspection reporting in the downstream sector.
24 Six steps for success 79 Smarter revenue generation
John Gugel, Honeywell UOP, USA, outlines six criteria fundamental to Leading petroleum refineries are continuously pressured to achieve,
pursuing a long-term capital investment strategy. sustain and reach the next level of performance. Andrew McCloskey,
29 Shepherding hydrocracking profitability AVEVA, USA, looks at how digitalised operations and processes can help
Bi-Zeng Zhan, Ling Jiao, and Hyunuk Ryu, Advanced Refining Technologies, to accelerate decision making and boost revenues.
USA, alongside Woody Shiflett and Theo Maesen, Chevron Lummus 83 HART of gold
Global, USA, outline a new approach to stem the bleeding from recycle Bernd Schäfer and Alexandre Terentiev, HIMA, Germany, use a practical
hydrocracking operations. example to show how the HART communication protocol can be used to
35 Ticking all the right boxes enhance predictive maintenance in the process industry.
Pretreat catalysts are crucial to increasing the profit margin of a 85 The health and safety implications of spills
hydrocracker. Rahul Singh, Haldor Topsoe Inc., USA, explains why. Reuben Ritchings, Adler and Allan, UK, explains what must be considered
39 Transforming reactor performance when safeguarding employees and clients following a spill.
Sarah McFarland and Mallory Taylor, BP, alongside Pankaj Desai, 88 Sound advice
Edwin Maas, and Julien Sigaud, Shell Catalysts & Technologies, look at how Jochen Schaal, SoundPLAN GmbH, Germany, examines the steps that can
to unlock high performance from an ageing hydrocracker with reactor be taken to help mitigate excessive noise.
internal design innovations.
43 Breaking PDH production barriers 93 A heated story
Koen Verleyen, nVent, Belgium, provides a brief history of heat tracing
The gap between propylene demand and supply is growing. Kyle Mankin technology in oil and gas applications.
and Cai Zeng, Clariant Catalysts, USA, and Chul-Jin Kim, SK Advanced,
South Korea, explain how new catalyst technology is raising PDH 97 The right heating choice
production levels to meet this. Hydrodesulfurisation units are crucial in the downstream oil and gas
47 Dealing with the Delhi dilemma industry. Ilan Toledano, Wattco, Canada, looks at the role of these units
and how the right heating choices enable a reliable and efficient process.
Shruti Parkar and Raghavendra Swami Kannaraya, CECO Environmental,
India, outline how India’s new fuel regulations are driving refinery 99 Everyone's a winner
modernisation. Carl Rentschler, Engineering Consultant, and Goutam Shahani, ShureLine
52 The first line of defence Construction, USA, look at supply agreements as the route to reaching a
win-win for all parties organising procurement for downstream projects.
Cody Evans, ExxonMobil Fuels & Lubricants, USA, outlines how a proper
lubrication strategy can help refiners in the fight against corrosion. 103 Butane blending
57 Automated corrosion monitoring Tom Edwards, Technics Inc., USA and Dr Suresh S. Agrawal, Offsite
Management Systems LLC, USA, discuss the economic benefits obtained
Dr William Vickers, Ionix Advanced Technologies, UK, explores modern through optimisation of butane content within gasoline.
methods for non-invasive corrosion monitoring and how these help
improve operational safety, efficiency, and productivity. 109 Taking analysis online
63 Testing your way to success Didier Lambert, Claude Saint-Martin, Michel Sanchez, Bernard Ribero,
and Vincent Marchal, Topnir Systems, France, with Aldemar Figueroa
Simon Daly, Hempel A/S, UK, surveys the issue of corrosion under Loza, Ecopetrol S.A., Colombia, look at continuous online diesel blending
insulation, and highlights the impact of new standards designed to tackle optimisation using modern technology and how this has been performing
this problem. at the Barranca Refinery since 2007.
65 Peace of mind 113 Fuels of the future
Eliminating the risk of unwanted and disruptive downtime, problems with Arne Jakobsen, Wärtsilä Biogas Solutions, reveals why alternative fuels are
corrosion, leaks and accidents is vital. Jonas Höwing, Sandvik Materials a major investment target for marine industry providers.
Technology, Sweden, emphasises the importance of selecting the right
hydraulic and intrumentation tubing for onshore and offshore plants. 117 Running round in circles
David Sudolsky, Anellotech, USA, talks practical solutions for a circular
economy, highlighting plastic waste as an alternative feedstock pathway
for virgin polymers.

THIS The refinery of the future employs the UOP E6

methodology to calculate the efficiency of key

MONTH'S resources in a potential configuration. This gives

refiners the ability to assess the value of an

FRONT
investment, align with business priorities, and realise
consistently better outcomes. Honeywell UOP
can help define a step-wise investment strategy to

COVER capture growth and engineer the most profitable

enterprise possible.

2020 Member of ABC Audit Bureau of Circulations

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Engineering Engineering
AWORLDLEADER
INSULPHUR
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of solid material - single source supply by IPCO.

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 COMMENT
CONTACT INFO CALLUM O’REILLY
SENIOR EDITOR

I
MANAGING EDITOR James Little
[email protected] n the build up to the recent Academy Awards
SENIOR EDITOR Callum O’Reilly ceremony, the important topics of gender equality and
[email protected] racism were once again placed into the spotlight. Media
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Tom Mostyn
commentators wrote opinion pieces decrying the lack
[email protected] of diversity and actors made acceptance speeches in
support of colleagues that hadn’t received equal recognition (or indeed an equal chance).
SALES DIRECTOR Rod Hardy
[email protected] There is evidence that the Academy is growing more diverse – and the fact that South
Korean film ‘Parasite’ won best picture this year is certainly a step in the right direction – but
SALES MANAGER Chris Atkin
[email protected] progress is painfully slow. Behind the camera, the problem of diversity is perhaps most telling.
While data on the ethnicity of writers, producers and directors is limited, recent research into
SALES EXECUTIVE Sophie Barrett
[email protected] the gender breakdown in such roles is revealing. Martha M. Lauzen, Executive Director of the
Center for the Study of Women in Television and Film at San Diego State University, found
PRODUCTION Kyla Waller
[email protected]
that women accounted for just 26% of producers, 16% of writers, and 8% of directors.
Away from the silver screen, the topic of diversity in the oil and gas sector formed
WEB MANAGER Tom Fullerton part of the recently published ‘Global Energy Talent Index’ (GETI) report from Airswift and
[email protected]
Energy Jobline.1 The survey of 21 000 energy professionals and hiring managers found that
DIGITAL EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Sarah Smith 67% of employees believed that their organisation values the perspectives of people with
[email protected]
different backgrounds and beliefs equally. However, it is telling that 16% disagree – a figure
DIGITAL ADMINISTRATOR Imogen Poole that needs to be substantially reduced. The report also found that just 41% of non-hiring
[email protected]
employees (and half of hiring managers) say that their companies have programmes or
ADMIN MANAGER Laura White initiatives in place to improve diversity and inclusion. While this figure may be partially down
[email protected]
to visibility, it provides further evidence that there is room for improvement.
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS The report points to two sectors that are proving particularly popular for professionals in
Nancy Yamaguchi Gordon Cope
the energy industry: renewables and petrochemicals. The petrochemicals sector is benefitting
from current global economic growth. More than half of respondents in the sector reported
a pay rise in the last year, with 70% expecting a raise next year. Hannah Peet, Managing
Director of Energy Jobline, notes: “Petrochemicals ties into other sectors beyond energy,
SUBSCRIPTION RATES which gives it a stable foundation. As you see continued economic development in parts of
Annual subscription £110 UK including postage the world like Asia and Africa, you see the build out of petrochemicals capacity, contributing
/£125 overseas (postage airmail).
Two year discounted rate £176 UK to growth.”
including postage/£200 overseas (postage airmail). A recent report from Deloitte would seem to concur with the positive outlook for the
SUBSCRIPTION CLAIMS petrochemicals sector. In its ‘2020 Oil and Gas M&A Outlook’, Deloitte notes that in order
Claims for non receipt of issues must be made within 3 months of
publication of the issue or they will not be honoured without charge.
to capitalise on growing chemicals demand, most international oil and gas companies will
continue to expand their downstream footprints beyond refining assets into distribution,
APPLICABLE ONLY TO USA & CANADA retail and chemicals businesses, particularly integrated refining and petrochemical assets.2
Hydrocarbon Engineering (ISSN No: 1468-9340, USPS No: 020-998) is
published monthly by Palladian Publications Ltd GBR and distributed Encouragingly, 91% of professionals in the petrochemical sector describe themselves as
in the USA by Asendia USA, 17B S Middlesex Ave, Monroe NJ 08831.
Periodicals postage paid New Brunswick, NJ and additional mailing ‘engaged’ with their professional lives, according to the GETI report. However, it is important
offices. POSTMASTER: send address changes to HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING, 701C Ashland Ave, Folcroft PA 19032.
to note that men reported a higher level of engagement than women, while 39% of males
surveyed felt ‘very valued’ by their organisation compared to just 29% of women. What’s
more, women account for just 9% of workers in the booming petrochemical sector, according
to the report. The women working in the sector put training, learning and development at
15 South Street, Farnham, Surrey
the top of their priorities for feeling engaged, while also valuing flexible working, diversity,
GU9 7QU, UK inclusiveness, remuneration and benefits. It would seem that the key to improving the
Tel: +44 (0) 1252 718 999 satisfaction of existing female professionals – and encouraging more women to pursue
Fax: +44 (0) 1252 718 992 careers in the energy sector – is improved training and development, while also placing
diversity firmly in the spotlight.

1. ‘The Global Energy Talent Index Report’, Airswift and Energy Jobline, (January 2020).
2. ‘2020 Oil and Gas M&A Outlook’, Deloitte, (February 2020).
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 GUEST COMMENT
CHET THOMPSON
PRESIDENT & CEO, AMERICAN FUEL & PETROCHEMICAL
MANUFACTURERS (AFPM)

A
15-year rise in US exports of refined products Fuel Standard to a
continued in 2019 with our nation exporting high-octane, 95-RON
more than ever, underscoring the importance fuel standard. Such
of these products to fueling a growing world. a policy would
We’ve also seen US petrochemical production capacity deliver significant
grow significantly – with more than US$20 billion invested in efficiency improvements in new vehicles, yielding substantial
domestic petrochemical projects in the last two years alone. reductions in carbon emissions across the vehicle fleet.
At the same time, the number of people living in extreme When paired with automobiles optimised for such fuel,
poverty across the globe has dropped precipitously in recent 95-RON can deliver a 3 – 4% fuel efficiency gain and have
decades, from 28% of the world population in 2000 to an the carbon-reduction equivalency of taking hundreds of
estimated 8.6% in 2018 – a thousands of vehicles off the
milestone that means healthier road each year.
lives and more opportunities for AFPM is also committed
hundreds of millions of people.
Our industries have been crucial
Positioned at an to continuously improving the
efficiency and sustainability
in this global transformation, intersection where of our members’ operations.
making affordable fuels that
enable transportation, home
precious natural resources As two industries served by
some of the brightest minds
heating and cooking, and are transformed into of our time, we’re pursuing
petrochemical products that research, innovation, and
facilitate food, water, and valuable, life-enhancing the application of new
health-care systems, among products, our industries technologies and products.
countless other solutions Unfortunately, we are
integral to daily life. have unique perspectives too often excluded from the
Now our society is grappling to inform solutions and dialogue on climate policies
with another challenge, as and sustainability issues.
the UN estimates the world policies. Various proposals have been
population will grow by put forth by politicians in
2 billion people by 2050. And recent months to address
while demand for our products our changing climate, some
is projected to increase for decades to come, there is a even calling for an end to fossil fuels in the next 10 years.
growing dialogue about what it means to operate sustainably These ideas completely overlook the irreplaceable role that
so that we’re doing our part to ensure a better world for the our products will play in serving a growing population in the
next generation. decades to come.
Positioned at an intersection where precious natural We must challenge our leaders to consider a more
resources are transformed into valuable, life-enhancing holistic picture of modern life and the products that enable it
products, our industries have unique perspectives to inform when developing the laws that govern us. Policies addressing
solutions and policies. AFPM is committed to sustainability climate change must be balanced to improve quality of life,
and to the development of sound policies that enable our ensuring the long-term economic, energy, and environmental
members to supply the products that a growing world needs needs of humanity are met.
to thrive, while addressing our changing climate and issues As we look ahead to the next year, decade, and beyond,
like improper plastic waste disposal. I am optimistic about our shared future and look forward to
This is why for the past three years, AFPM has led working with all stakeholders to tackle the world’s biggest
the effort to advocate to transition from the Renewable challenges.

HYDROCARBON 5 March 2020

ENGINEERING
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 WORLD NEWS
Malaysia | ChemOne launches aromatics plant UK | BP sets out
ambitious new plan
C hemOne Group has announced
the launch of the Pengerang
the project, and UOP is the
technology provider for PEC.
Energy Complex (PEC) in Johor.
The US$3.38 billion project will
PEC aims to become a world
class petrochemical hub that will
B P’s new CEO, Bernard Looney,
has announced that the
company’s new purpose is to
be one of the world’s largest and add value to the downstream oil and
‘reimagine energy for people and
most competitive integrated gas value chain in Malaysia. This is in
our planet.’
condensate splitter and aromatics line with the government’s
The company has set a new
facilities. Construction is expected ‘Transformation Programme’ to
ambition to become a net zero
to start in 2H20. increase Malaysia’s petrochemical
company by 2050 or sooner, and to
ChemOne is the master output and establish it as a regional
help the world get to net zero.
developer and majority shareholder oil storage and trading hub.
The ambition is supported by
through its sponsorship in PEC. Maire At full capacity, anticipated from
ten aims, five of which are to get
Tecnimont is ChemOne’s engineering, 2024, PEC is expected to generate an
BP to net zero, and the other five
procurement, construction and annual export turnover of
to help the world to get to net
commissioning (EPCC) partner for US$5 billion for Malaysia.
zero.
To deliver the ambition, BP has
LyondellBasell installs process
USA | said that it will fundamentally
reorganise to become a more
equipment for PO/TBA project focused, more integrated company.
This will consist of four business

C onstruction on LyondellBasell’s
world-scale propylene oxide (PO)
and tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA) plant
for the future plant, including
pouring nearly 83 000 yd3 of
concrete and installing 160 miles of
groups to deliver performance and
value growth (Production &
Operations; Customers & Products;
has achieved another key milestone. pipe at two construction sites. Gas & Low Carbon Energy; and
The installation of several large The PO/TBA plant will produce Innovation & Engineering), three
pieces of process equipment, 1 billion lb (470 000 t) of PO and integrators to identify and
including a 601 t distillation tower, is 2.2 billion lb (1 million t) of TBA maximise opportunities
now taking place at the Channelview, annually once in operation. (Sustainability & Strategy; Regions,
Texas facility, marking a shift from The project broke ground in Cities & Solutions; and Trading &
infrastructure work to vertical August 2018 and is part of the Shipping) and four core enablers to
assembly. company’s multi-billion dollar series support business delivery (Finance;
The first part of the project of investments along the US Gulf Legal; People & Culture; and
focused on laying the foundation Coast. Communications & Advocacy).

USA | Linde starts up new air separation unit

L inde has announced it has

started up a new air separation
unit (ASU) in Freeport, Texas, as part
food containers, and other
industrial applications. The ASU
will also supply Linde’s extensive
beverage, where it is used to
carbonate drinks, as well as to
freeze, chill, preserve and package
of a long-term agreement to supply industrial gas pipeline system and food.
MEGlobal’s new ethylene glycol (EG) add new argon capacity. “We are excited to supply
plant in Oyster Creek, Texas. In addition to the ASU, Linde MEGlobal’s new facility in Oyster
The new ASU will safely and started a new carbon dioxide (CO2) Creek,” said Jeff Barnhard, Vice
reliably supply oxygen and nitrogen plant in Freeport, Texas, that will President South Region, Linde. “The
to MEGlobal Oyster Creek for use recycle the crude CO2 supplied new ASU and the expansion of our
in its EG manufacturing process. EG from an MEGlobal process. The Gulf Coast pipeline system further
is used as a raw material in a crude CO2 will be purified and strengthen Linde’s ability to reliably
variety of products, such as liquefied into commercial grades supply customers throughout the
polyester fibres, polyethylene to serve customers in a variety of region and positions us for future
terephthalate resins for liquid and industries, including food and growth in the US Gulf Coast.”

HYDROCARBON 7 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF New-build refining capacity dominated
Asia |
by Asia

Shell Oil Products US, a subsidiary of
Royal Dutch Shell plc, has formally
A sia is expected to lead the global
refining industry by contributing
about 40% of refining capacity
remainder is from the announced
projects.
Adithya Rekha, Oil and Gas
closed on the sale of Shell’s Martinez additions from planned and Analyst at GlobalData, comments: “In
Refinery in California to PBF Holding announced (new-build) projects Asia, about 47 planned and announced
Co. LLC, a subsidiary of PBF Energy Inc. between 2020 and 2024, according refineries are expected to start
(PBF), in exchange for US$1.2 billion. to GlobalData. operations between 2020 and 2024.
The deal includes the refinery and The company’s report, ‘Global Among these, 18 are planned refineries
inventory, as well as crude oil supply Refining Industry Outlook to 2024 – and 29 are announced refineries. The
and product offtake agreements, among Capacity and Capital Expenditure Hambantota III refinery in Sri Lanka is
other adjustments. Outlook with Details of All the largest upcoming refinery in Asia
Operating and Planned Refineries’, with [...] refining capacity of
 reveals that Asia is expected to add
5.3 million bpd of planned and
420 000 bpd. It is expected to start
operations in 2024.”
Fintoil Ltd, partly owned by Taaleri Plc,
has announced that it will invest more announced crude oil refining The Middle East is expected to
than €100 million to build a crude tall capacity by 2024. Out of this, be the second largest region in terms
oil (CTO) refinery in Hamina, Finland. 2.8 million bpd comes from the of planned and announced refining
Fintoil and Port of HaminaKotka planned projects, while the capacity.
recently signed a lease agreement on a
site located in the Hamina oil port area.
Neste Engineering Solutions Ltd has
USA | Aegion Corp. awarded refinery contract

A
been commissioned for engineering and egion Corp. has recently Brinderson will also implement
delivery of the biorefinery. announced that a subsidiary of several of its process tools aimed at


the Energy Services segment, performance improvement, including
Brinderson LP, has been awarded a the use of workface planning in the
IPCO has acquired Ingeniera de three-year contract as the primary execution of capital construction
Procesos S.A. (IdP), a supplier of onsite mechanical services projects.
processing equipment and spare parts, contractor for a major refinery in Charles R. Gordon, Aegion’s
primarily to the chemical and sulfur Salt Lake City, Utah. President and CEO, said: “This award
segments in Spain. For over 30 years, The company will provide a demonstrates the success of our
IdP has had an agreement with IPCO variety of embedded services expansion effort outside of the West
giving them an exclusive right to sell including daily onsite maintenance, Coast market and into the Rocky
chemical and sulfur equipment in small capital projects and turnaround Mountain region, which included
Spain based on IPCO’s steel belts and support. The transition is expected opening an operations hub in
Rotoforms. to be completed in 1H20. Salt Lake City in August 2019.”

 UAE |BPGIC and Sahara Energy discontinue

Worley has been awarded two master
service agreements (MSAs) by Total E&P joint development
Mozambique Area 1 Limitada to provide
services to the Mozambique LNG
Project. Under the MSAs, Worley will
provide in-and-out of country services,
B rooge Holdings Ltd and its
wholly-owned subsidiary Brooge
Petroleum and Gas Investment Co.
would have resulted in Sahara’s
installation of a modular refinery at
BPGIC’s terminal.
including engineering, consulting and FZE (BPGIC), a Fujairah Free Zone After conducting several technical
specialist engineering for delivery Entity in the oil storage and services studies, BPGIC and Sahara decided to
of onshore and offshore (subsea) business, have announced that BPGIC discontinue their joint development
facilities. The services will support the and Sahara Energy Resources DMCC project due to their differing
development of the new LNG facility. have mutually agreed to discontinue perspectives and visions for the
their joint development project that refinery.

March 2020 8 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 WORLD NEWS
DIARY DATES Worldwide | Shell releases annual LNG outlook
07 - 09 April 2020
Asia Turbomachinery & Pump Symposium
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
G lobal demand for LNG grew by
12.5% to 359 million t in 2019,
according to Shell’s ‘LNG Outlook
In China, LNG imports increased
by 14% in 2019 as efforts continued to
improve urban air quality. Also
atps.tamu.edu 2020’ – a significant increase that notable was LNG demand growth in
bolsters LNG’s growing role in the South Asia. In total, Bangladesh, India
13 - 16 April 2020 transition to a lower-carbon energy and Pakistan imported 36 million t, an
SOGAT system. increase of 19%, pointing to emerging
Abu Dhabi, UAE
www.sogat.org
Last year saw key developments growth countries in Asia.
that are helping to reshape the Over the longer-term, global LNG
15 - 17 April 2020 industry, including an industry record demand is expected to double to
22nd Annual International Aboveground of 40 million t of additional supply 700 million t by 2040, according to
Storage Tank Conference & Trade Show becoming available and being some forecasts, as gas plays a
Orlando, Florida, USA consumed by the market. The belief in significant role in shaping a
www.nistm.org long-term demand growth triggered lower-carbon energy system. Asia is
record investment decisions in expected to remain the dominant
19 - 22 April 2020 liquefaction capacity of 71 million t. region in the decades to come, with
GPA Midstream Convention
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA An increase in diversity of South and Southeast Asia generating
gpamidstreamconvention.org contractual structures also provided a more than half of the increased
wider range of options to LNG buyers. demand.
11 - 15 May 2020 New spot-trading mechanisms and Maarten Wetselaar, Integrated Gas
RefComm a wider variety of indices used for and New Energies Director at Shell,
Galveston, Texas, USA long-term contracts point towards said: “While we see weak market
www.events.crugroup.com/refcomm/home
LNG becoming an increasingly flexible conditions today due to record new
commodity. supply coming in, two successive mild
08 - 10 June 2020
40th Annual International Operating
There was a modest rise in imports winters and the Coronavirus situation,
Conference & Trade Show to Asia in 2019, compared to the we expect equilibrium to return,
Houston, Texas, USA previous two years, as a result of mild driven by a combination of continued
www.ilta.org/aocts weather and rising electricity demand growth and reduction in new
generation from nuclear power in supply coming on-stream until the
09 - 11 June 2020 Japan and South Korea. mid-2020s.”
Global Energy Show
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
www.globalenergyshow.com

10 - 11 June 2020
API: refiners are enabling environmental
USA |
Downstream 2020 progress
Houston, Texas, USA

A
www.downstreamevent.com
major transition to cleaner decade to ensure their readiness for
25 June 2020 marine fuels is proceeding this historic switch, which
Refinery of the Future smoothly, according to data recently strengthens American energy
Online conference released from the American security while simultaneously
www.hydrocarbonengineering.com/refinery2020 Petroleum Institute’s (API) January driving environmental progress in
2020 Monthly Statistical Report the international marine shipping
25 - 27 August 2020 (MSR). industry,” said API Chief Economist
AFPM Summit The International Maritime Dean Foreman. “Despite previous
San Antonio, Texas, USA
Organization’s (IMO) new low-sulfur uncertainty, the IMO 2020 transition
www.afpm.org/2020Summit
emission standard for marine fuels has been relatively smooth sailing
06 - 10 December 2020 (IMO 2020) went into effect on with refiners demonstrating
World Petroleum Congress 1 January without significant market flexibility to accommodate greater
Houston, Texas, USA disruption. demand for low-sulfur fuels with
www.wpc2020.com “American refiners invested more limited impacts on diesel fuel prices
than US$100 billion over the past and the broader supply chain.”

March 2020 10 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
MAXIMIZE
PROFITABILITY
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CrudeFlex, Ecolab, Nalco Water and the logos are Trademarks of Ecolab USA Inc.
©2020 Ecolab USA Inc. All Rights Reserved
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 Nancy Yamaguchi, Contributing Editor,
takes a magnifying glass to the US diesel
industry, looking at demand, pricing,
quality, production, and trade.

March 2020 14 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
US DIESEL
IN FOCUS
I
s diesel undervalued in the US? The country’s popular culture
includes cars, cars, and more cars. Classic Hollywood films include
Ford Model Ts and Mustangs, Chevy Bel Airs and Corvettes, Willys
Jeeps, and other icons. Most of these vehicles use gasoline, and
most passenger cars are gasoline-fuelled. There is always a role for diesel
trucks, cars, locomotives, farm equipment, barges and tankers, but these
more work-a-day vehicles never seemed as romantic and alluring.
Consumers may recall the days when diesel-powered passenger cars
did not seem as quiet, clean, sporty, or luxurious as gasoline-powered
cars. Some of these stereotypes seem to remain in memory, even
though the technology has advanced dramatically. Recent years have
brought more sophisticated, efficient, and low-emission diesel vehicles.
They are making ‘inroads’ in the US market, though diesel-fuelled
passenger cars are not expected to supplant gasoline-fuelled cars for
the ordinary consumer. However, the US Energy Information
Administration (EIA) forecasts that the vehicle miles travelled (VMT) by
trucks will grow at rates more than twice the rate forecast for light-duty
vehicles. According to the EIA, the VMT for commercial light trucks will
grow at 1.4%/yr from 2018 to 2050, and the VMT for freight trucks of
over 10 000 lb will grow at 1.3%/yr from 2018 to 2050. In contrast, the
VMT growth rate for light duty vehicles is forecast at only 0.6%.
There are many experts who believe that demand for
petroleum-based fuels will decline sharply before the year 2050. Given
the length of the forecasting time period, anything is possible. Perhaps it
is safer to say that demand for transport and the role of trucks will
increase, regardless of the fuel they use. In the near-term, that fuel will
be mainly diesel. This article focuses on the US diesel market: demand,
pricing, production, quality, and trade. The past three decades have
brought enormous change, and the coming decades could bring even
more.

Diesel demand in the US

Consumer choice has favoured gasoline engines. Diesel currently
accounts for only 21% of US fuel demand, while gasoline accounts for
47.9%. Figure 1 compares the percentage of diesel in the demand barrels
of the US vs other world regions. Only the Middle East, where fuel oil
still occupies a large share of the demand barrel, has a lower percentage
share of diesel. Europe’s demand barrel is heavily weighted toward
diesel, at 45% of demand. Africa relies on diesel for 42% of its oil-based
fuel requirement.

HYDROCARBON 15 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 diesel’s share of demand also recovered to around 20 – 21%.
2008 brought the Great Recession, and fuel demand collapsed.
Between 2007 and 2009, diesel demand dropped by
565 000 bpd. The share of diesel in the demand pattern fell
from 21.2% in 2007 to 20.2% in 2009, and its share is currently in
the vicinity of 21%.
In the decade after the recession, most, but not all, diesel
demand was restored. According to the EIA, diesel demand
dropped from 4.196 million bpd in 2007 to 3.631 million bpd in
2009. Demand climbed back gradually, and it averaged
4.076 million bpd during the first three quarters of 2019. Figure 3
Figure 1. Diesel as % of demand barrel, 2018 extends the historic data on diesel use with the official
(source: BP). long-term forecast by the EIA, published in the Annual Energy
Outlook (AEO) 2019. The EIA forecasts that diesel demand will
decline slowly between 2020 and 2034, when it will level off at
3.87 million bpd. After the year 2042, demand is forecast to
grow modestly once again, reaching 3.97 million bpd in the year
2050. Over the long-term, the diesel market is forecast to shrink
at 0.1%/yr. However, the EIA forecasts that demand for motor
gasoline will decline at the much-faster rate of 0.8%/yr during
the same period. Therefore, the EIA forecast indicates that
diesel’s role in the fuel mix will increase relative to gasoline over
the next three decades.
Over three-quarters (approximately 77%) of US distillate is
used for transportation, as shown in Figure 4. The industrial
sector is the second-largest end user, at 13%, followed by the
residential sector (6%) and the commercial sector (4%).
Figure 2. Diesel’s share of US demand fell then
recovered (source: EIA).
Diesel pricing
It would be difficult to find a consumer who is insensitive to
fuel prices. Commercial truckers are well-aware of the role
diesel prices play in their bottom line. According to the Trucker’s
Report, fuel is the largest operating expense for a commercial
truck, accounting for 39% of total cost. A commercial truck can
consume over US$70 000 worth of diesel per year. The
second-largest cost component, 26%, is driver salary. Large
fleets tend to have advanced fuel management strategies.
Independent truckers often monitor prices closely while
travelling, and a portion of their time is spent hunting for the
least expensive refuelling options.
From time to time, diesel consumers blame high prices on
the government and/or refiners. However, the main
determinant of the US retail diesel price is the price of crude,
Figure 3. US diesel demand, actual and AEO forecast, which is set in the international marketplace. As shown in
million bpd (source: EIA). Figure 5, in November 2019, the cost of crude oil accounted for
44.2% of the built-up diesel price. This was followed by
Pricing policy plays a role in the shape of demand. In distribution and marketing costs, which accounted for 19.4% of
countries where fuel prices are subject to high taxes or are the retail price. Refining costs and taxes both accounted for
directly administered by the government, diesel’s share can grow 18.2% of the price. As the year 2020 begins, there is a range of
disproportionately large. Some government policies have opinion on where crude prices will go, and therefore, where
encouraged diesel use at the expense of gasoline, the rationale diesel prices will go. Currently, crude prices are weighed down
being that diesel is a constructive fuel. Diesel may be seen as by oversupply. OPEC and other producer countries have
contributing to economic growth and activity, whereas gasoline extended their oil production cut agreement, but this is more of
may be viewed as a consumer fuel, a luxury, or a fuel that a formalisation of existing production levels, rather than a
contributes to traffic congestion. deeper cut. US crude production reached a record-high level of
Diesel’s role in the demand pattern has changed 12.9 million bpd by the end of 2019, and production is expected
significantly, as shown in Figure 2. The oil price shocks of the to increase in 2020.
1970s cut first into demand. Diesel’s share stabilised at 18 – 19% In 2019, US diesel was a relative bargain to the consumer.
of demand during the 1980s until the year 2000. From 2000 Figure 6 calculates the difference between weekly retail diesel
until 2007, diesel demand grew at an average rate of 1.7%/yr, and prices in 2019 relative to the same week in 2018. For most of

March 2020 16 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 diesel prices, including taxes, with prices in other key
International Energy Agency (IEA) countries. In November 2019,
the IEA reported that the average diesel price in the US was
US$3.07/gal. including taxes. The price in the UK was over twice
this at US$6.35/gal. Diesel prices were also over US$6/gal. in
Italy and France. The chief difference is the tax burden. In the
US, taxes accounted for 18.2% of the final price, while in the UK,
the tax burden was a massive 61.2%. Indeed, the November 2019
pre-tax price in the UK was slightly below the pre-tax price in
the US. The IEA reported that the UK diesel price excluding
taxes was US$0.652/l (approximately US$2.47/gal.) while the US
price excluding taxes was US$0.663/l (approximately
Figure 4. 2017 distillate use by end use sector, US$2.51/gal.).
quadrillion BTU (source: EIA).
While US diesel prices are low compared to other IEA
countries, they are not among the lowest in the world. Some
governments subsidise diesel prices, particularly in oil-producing
countries where prices are directly administered. Access to
inexpensive fuel may be viewed as a means of sharing oil wealth
with the people. Iran offers an extreme example; in 2018, Iranian
diesel cost a mere US$0.34/gal. Gasoline has also been heavily
subsidised, and the process of gradually reducing the subsidies
caused riots. Venezuela also subsidises retail fuel prices, but the
hyperinflation of the past year makes it impossible to convert
to US$. Government manipulation of prices has often caused
lopsided demand patterns that ultimately create market
inefficiencies.

Diesel quality and production

Improving diesel fuel quality has been a quest lasting over
Figure 5. Components of US retail diesel price, three decades, and it continues to this day. In the US, the
November 2019, % (source: EIA). California Air Resources Board (CARB) led the way in 1988 with
the ‘Proposed Adoption of Regulations Limiting the Sulfur
Content and the Aromatic Hydrocarbon Content of Motor
Vehicle Diesel Fuel’. CARB had been the first major regulatory
agency to link aromatics with emissions, though other
international agencies were discovering that emissions were
reduced when using diesels with high cetane numbers and high
percentages of paraffinic compounds.
At the national level, the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) began regulating the maximum allowable sulfur
level in 1993. Prior to this, diesel fuel legally could contain as
much as 5000 ppm, or the astonishing amount of 0.5% sulfur by
weight. In many cases, thankfully, this constraint was not
binding, and actual sulfur levels were considerably less
depending on the refinery feedstock and technological
capability. The maximum standard of 500 ppm sulfur (0.05%)
Figure 6. US weekly retail diesel price 2019 minus was then adopted. This quickly became considered an interim
2018, US$/gal. (source: EIA). measure, because discussions were underway to move to
ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) with a maximum sulfur content of
January and February 2019, retail prices were lower than they 15 ppm. Indeed, US diesel sulfur standards were lagging behind
were in the previous year. In March and April, diesel prices were the ones adopted in other countries. For example, Japan
above their levels from last year. Then from May until the last adopted a 50 ppm sulfur maximum standard in 2005. This
week of December 2019, diesel prices were below last year’s standard caused no disruption to supply, because Japanese
levels. As the year 2020 begins, retail diesel prices are above refiners had already voluntarily moved to 30 ppm sulfur diesel
their levels from the prior year, but not by a large margin. As of in 2003. Japan then adopted a 10 ppm sulfur standard effective
the week ended 13 January 2020, retail diesel prices were only in 2007. Countries in the European Community were also
US¢8.8/gal. above their levels for the same week last year. moving quickly toward ULSD with the EURO standards.
The tax burden on diesel is also relatively low in the US. Since 2006, the great majority of on-road diesel in the US
Consumers often are astonished when they travel overseas and became 15 ppm sulfur maximum ULSD. The 15 ppm maximum
experience what other consumers pay. Figure 7 compares US standard spread to all diesel uses except for marine fuel

March 2020 18 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 between 2010 and 2014. Adopting and implementing diesel high-sulfur streams, and it was feared that eliminating this outlet
quality standards was a lengthy and complicated process, with could cause low-sulfur diesel prices to spike above high-sulfur
rules varying by submarket, type of diesel, season, and size of grades. While it is still early in the year, supplies of complying
refiner or importer. The effort has been considered a success, fuel have been available, and the prices have not spiked. In the
however. The EPA calculates that the diesel fuel standards US, desulfurisation capability has expanded enormously.
reduce harmful emissions by over 90%. Increasing the yield of high-quality diesel required billions of
As the year 2020 begins, many analysts are watching diesel dollars of capital investment in US refineries over several
markets to discern whether the adoption of IMO 2020 500 ppm decades. Figure 8 examines hydrocracking (HDC) and
sulfur marine fuel will cause supply or price disruptions. Marine hydrotreating (HDT) as two key indicators of diesel production
fuels had been one of the few places where refiners could blend capability. These are indexed against crude oil refining capacity
in order to see how their relative roles have grown. That is, if
HDC and HDT capacity doubled, but crude refining tripled,
diesel yield and quality might not improve in relative terms.
HDC is the chief upgrading technology that is used to maximise
low-sulfur, high-cetane diesel blend stocks. In 1987, US crude oil
distillation unit (CDU) capacity was 14.915 million bpd, while
HDC capacity was 1.07 million bpd, giving a ratio of 7% HDC to
CDU. HDC is an expensive technology, but US refiners more
than doubled their HDC capacity to 2.285 million bpd in 2019, a
ratio of 12% HDC to CDU.
Middle distillate HDT capacity was also added aggressively
during those years. In 1987, middle distillate HDT capacity was
2.567 million bpd, giving a ratio of 17% HDT to CDU. By the year
Figure 7. IEA automotive diesel price including tax, 2019, HDT capacity had grown to 6.648 million bpd, more than
US$/gal. (source: IEA). doubling the ratio to 36% HDT to CDU. Note that the types of
HDT units included in this reckoning are the ones dedicated to
middle distillates only. Other types of HDT capacity was built to
remove sulfur from heavy gas oils going to cracking units,
naphthas going to catalytic reforming units, and naphthas from
catalytic cracking units destined for gasoline blending.
The additions to HDC and middle distillate HDT allowed
the US to produce larger volumes of higher-quality diesel.
Figure 9 shows the progress in phasing out high-sulfur diesel. In
1993, US refineries produced 2.234 million bpd of diesel with
sulfur contents of over 500 ppm and 898 000 bpd of diesel
with sulfur contents between 15 ppm and 500 ppm. The
amount of high sulfur diesel produced was cut by more than
half as it was phased out in favour of diesels with 15 – 500 ppm
sulfur during the decade between 1995 and 2005. In 2005,
Figure 8. Hydrocracking and middle distillate 2.909 million bpd of diesel in the 15 – 500 ppm sulfur range was
hydrotreating relative to crude capacity, % produced. After this, production of the high-sulfur grades
(source: EIA, and author’s calculations). quickly began to dwindle. Medium-sulfur grades were also
shifted to ultra-low sulfur levels. Refiners began to produce
ULSD of 15 ppm sulfur and below in 2004, when US refinery
production was reported at 20 000 bpd. ULSD production
began to rise, though the chart shows a brief downturn of all
grades produced in 2009 during the recession. During the first
three quarters of 2019, ULSD production averaged
4.816 million bpd. Output of medium-sulfur grades has
dwindled to a mere 127 000 bpd, while production of diesel
containing over 500 ppm sulfur averaged just 202 000 bpd.

Diesel trade
Between 2000 and 2019 (average data for the first three
quarters), US diesel demand grew at an average rate of 0.5%/yr.
As noted above, refinery production of diesel grew at an
average rate of 1.9%/yr. The net result has been that US imports
of diesel have fallen, and exports have risen.
Figure 9. Refiner diesel output by sulfur content,
‘000 bpd (source: EIA and author’s calculations). Figure 10 displays the trend in US diesel imports by source.
Canada has been a significant international source, and it has

March 2020 20 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 The drop in diesel imports was accompanied by an even
more spectacular rise in exports. Figure 11 displays the growth in
US diesel exports and the diversification of foreign markets.
Between 1993 and 2005, US diesel exports had slowly dwindled,
falling from 272 000 bpd in 1993 to 138 000 bpd in 2005. After
2005, however, exports began to surge, first passing the
1 million bpd mark in 2012, and then continuing to rise to an
average of 1.347 million bpd in the first three quarters of 2019.
This equates to an incredible growth rate of 17.7%/yr.
The Asia-Pacific region was historically a key outlet for US
diesel, but its role has diminished. In 1993, the US exported
155 000 bpd of diesel to the Asia-Pacific region. This nearly
Figure 10. US diesel imports by source, ‘000 bpd
vanished in the 2004 – 2007 period, but exports recovered
(source: EIA).
modestly to 27 000 bpd in 2018. The main growth has been in
export markets closer to home. Currently, approximately 80%
of US diesel exports are sent to countries in the Americas and
the Caribbean. Brazil and Mexico, in particular, have grown into
major markets, with Brazil importing 202 700 bpd and Mexico
importing 284 000 bpd during the first three quarters of 2019.
The US is now sending diesel to nearly every importing country
in the Western Hemisphere, including Chile, Peru, Panama,
Colombia, Guatemala, Argentina, the Bahamas, Canada, Ecuador,
the Dominican Republic and El Salvador. Exports to Europe and
the CIS also expanded quickly, soaring from 16 000 bpd in 2005
to 216 000 bpd during the first three quarters of 2019. Some of
the key markets are the Netherlands, Spain, the UK, France, and
Gibraltar.

Conclusion
Figure 11. Growth of US diesel exports, ‘000 bpd The US diesel market has changed significantly in recent years.
(source: EIA). The quest for higher-quality, lower-emission diesel necessitated
a decades-long programme of refinery investment that phased
also been the only stable source of imports. Imports of out high-sulfur grades in favour of medium-sulfur grades, then
Canadian diesel grew from approximately 60 000 bpd in 1993 to phased out medium sulfur grades in favour of ultra-low-sulfur
over 100 000 bpd in 2002, and imports typically have remained grades. It also expanded the volumetric output of diesel at a
in the 100 000 – 140 000 bpd range since then. In the 1990s and rate that far surpassed the growth in domestic demand. The US
2000s, imports from Venezuela and the US Virgin Islands were has emerged as the Western Hemisphere’s dominant exporter
common. Diesel imports from Venezuela typically averaged of diesel, currently providing 1.347 million bpd of diesel to
50 000 – 60 000 bpd. Diesel imports from the St. Croix refinery export markets. Some of these markets lack large, sophisticated
in the US Virgin Islands were usually in the range of refineries, and the US is a key source of low-sulfur diesel for
60 000 – 100 000 bpd. Unrest in Venezuela and deteriorating them.
relations with the US cut exports to nearly zero. Exports to the Compared to much of the developed world, diesel remains
US from the Virgin Islands vanished entirely when the refinery a bargain in the US. For most of 2019, retail prices were below
there shut down in 2012. This refinery is scheduled to be their 2018 levels. The US tax burden on diesel of 18.2% is modest
reopened in 2020 at partial capacity, hoping to benefit from the compared to the 61.2% assessed in the UK. In November 2019,
collapse of Venezuelan refining, and from the adoption of the average retail price of diesel in the US was US$3.19/gal.,
IMO 2020 marine fuels. whereas it was above US$5/gal. in Spain and Germany, and it
In total, US imports of diesel had been trending up from was over US$6/gal. in the UK, Italy, and France.
1993 until the collapse in 2008 – 2009. In 1993, diesel imports The EIA forecasts that gasoline will remain the dominant
averaged 184 000 bpd, growing to over 300 000 bpd during the fuel in the US transport sector through the year 2050, but that
2003 – 2007 period. The recession caused US total fuel demand diesel’s relative role in the fuel mix will grow. Volumetric
to fall sharply. Between 2007 and 2009, the EIA reported that demand for both fuels is forecast to decline, posing challenges
demand for finished petroleum products dropped by to the fuels industry. The rate of decline for diesel is forecast to
1.776 million bpd, including 565 000 bpd of diesel. Demand be more moderate. There are many experts who believe oil
began to recover after 2009, but US imports of diesel continued demand will, and must, peak and begin to fall much sooner than
to decline. Imports fell below 200 000 bpd in 2011, and they currently forecast. However, it seems safe to say that transport
have remained below that threshold ever since. The key force demand and the role of trucks will increase, regardless of the
behind this was the shale boom, which greatly boosted fuel they use, but in the near-term, that fuel will mainly be
domestic oil supply and cut into the need for imports. diesel. In the long-term, anything is possible.

March 2020 22 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 A
s the global oil and gas industry continues to and demand for personal transportation – both signs of
recover from the downturn that shook its economic growth.
foundations five years ago, there is a continued The introduction of MARPOL has resulted in a decline
interest in new projects and the commitment to in high-sulfur fuel oil in favour of low-sulfur fuel oil and
fund them. Modest additions in fuel capacity are being diesel, and this will continue throughout 2020. Refineries
seen, driven almost entirely by demand growth in built in the last five years are largely capable of full
emerging regions, as well as hydroprocessing additions conversion of bottoms material. Assets that were
and reloads related to clean fuels, and growing interest in historically designed to maximise diesel production –
future integration with petrochemicals. particularly in Northeast Asia and China – are now being
Demand for transportation fuels has peaked in some reconfigured for the production of petrochemical
developed economies, due to a combination of more feedstocks. Indeed, naphtha and jet fuel exhibit the
efficient engine technology, low population growth, and highest growth rates, with naphtha growth reflecting
the continued adoption of electric vehicles. Fuel demands increased demand for petrochemicals.
in emerging economies, on the other hand, continue to While globally the market for petrochemicals is
rise as a result of growth in commercial transportation smaller than that of fuels, demand for petrochemicals is

COVER STORY

March 2020 24 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
John Gugel, Honeywell UOP, USA,
outlines six criteria fundamental
to pursuing a long-term capital
investment strategy.

HYDROCARBON 25 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 merchant feedstocks for petrochemicals. Others have
added petrochemicals to their refining operations, but
continue to run them as separate businesses under a
single corporate umbrella. Finally, there are refiners
that have achieved a fully integrated
crude-to-chemicals operation that acts as one entity.
In today’s environment, this latter category
consistently generates the most value from every
barrel of oil.
However, big changes are on the horizon.
Improving engine efficiency and the growth of electric
vehicles, hybrids, and even ridesharing services are the
driving forces behind global decarbonisation. Demand
for transportation fuels will begin to decline in
different markets at different times, but on a global
basis, total demand is on track to peak within the next
two decades.
Still, new refineries continue to be built in China,
Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. Many are
being built in markets where the existing import
volume is greater than ~250 000 bpd – including
countries that currently import fuels from Europe, the
Figure 1. Evaluation of six critical criteria is necessary
US and other regional suppliers. As each of these new
to determine the advantages and trade-offs of stepwise
investments in petrochemical and refining operations. refineries begins operation, their favourable cost
position allows them to displace the products that are
currently imported to these markets.
growing roughly three times faster than fuels demand, led
by capacity additions in olefins and aromatics. Implementing a new strategy
Furthermore, this is directly correlated to emerging Across the globe, increasing discipline is being applied
regions, where a rapidly growing middle class is driving towards capital investments. Customers are
demand for consumer goods based on plastic resins, films implementing investment strategies that are engineered
and fibres and other petrochemical products. to consistently and sustainably capture growth – in what
In regards to cost-advantaged natural gas, there is a is being termed as the ‘refinery of the future.’
greater capital discipline in the North American The refinery of the future is not a standard
midstream market as customers are concentrating on configuration or collection of technologies, but a
returns from the investments they have made over the stepwise capital investment strategy for capturing
last couple of years. At the same time, investments in gas growth to ensure a refiner is the most economically
processing capacity continues to grow outside efficient and profitable enterprise possible. It is a
North America. In both cases, customers are emphasising pathway that is unique to each refinery, accounting for
technology innovation in operations involving high changing market conditions, available feedstocks, new
recovery and energy efficiency, as well as the rapidly technology, regulatory constraints, and competition,
growing global LNG supply chain, which is driven by rising with the goal of sustainable long-term profitability.
demand for electrical energy and the desire to reduce While fuels demand is essentially flat, global gross
carbon emissions. domestic product is growing by approximately 4%/yr,
Many of the world’s largest energy companies are also primarily driven by the emerging economies.
placing serious emphasis on the development of Refineries under construction benefit from the most
renewable energy technologies, making it the fastest current technology and configurations and are designed
growing source of energy, and accounting for half of the to accommodate evolving demand patterns over the
current growth in global energy supplies. If this continues, coming decades. These modern refineries can produce
renewables will be the largest source of power within the fuels and petrochemical feedstocks with an uplift of as
next 20 years. much as US$15/bbl of oil. However, when
Globally, the centre of demand for all hydrocarbons petrochemicals capacity is included, these same
– for fuels, petrochemicals and energy – continues to refineries can add an additional uplift of up to
shift towards Asia, where most of the 3 billion people US$30/bbl – providing them with a bridge toward even
who are expected to achieve middle class status over the greater profitability.
next two decades live and work. Rather than being divided into traditional processing
blocks, with heavy oil conversion followed in stages to
Capturing growth treat lighter products, the refinery of the future looks
Refiners today generally fall into three groups. There are completely different when fuels production – and the
traditional refiners that convert crude oil into fuels and need to meet changing fuel blend specifications – is

March 2020 26 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 measuring how effectively it is being used to clean
or change hydrocarbons – again, to create a certain
product.

Utilities
More effective conversion processes can eliminate
certain intermediate steps, thereby improving carbon
and hydrogen efficiency simultaneously. In addition,
the efficiency of energy requirements for feedstock
conversion into a desired product slate can be
evaluated by measuring the efficiency of each utility.

Emissions
Regulatory limits and the influence of social
investment on refinery emissions and their effects on
climate change also must be weighed. Emissions
efficiency can be measured to maximise the
conversion of crude oil into more valuable products,
while generating the lowest net emissions footprint.

Water
Figure 2. Refiners generally fall into three categories based Water is essential to refinery and petrochemical
on how they operate, with those that are fully integrated operations because it is used to transfer heat, clean up
positioned to generate the greatest value. streams, and as a reactant. However, it is increasingly
being treated as a scarce resource in industrial
factored out. The amount of fractionation and applications, so water efficiency must not be measured as
compression, the types of reactors, and the catalysts are a utility, but in a separate category to minimise fresh
tuned to serve new purposes. The refinery of the future water consumption across an entire facility.
treats every molecule as a raw material that can be
directed to places where it can achieve far greater value. Capital
These refineries can also be digitally connected to Carbon, hydrogen, utilities, emissions and water
help manage the complexity of the operation, as well as efficiency are primary factors to determine overall
enhance the skills and capabilities of a rapidly changing capital efficiency – in effect, to determine how
and less experienced workforce, thereby ensuring that the effectively capital investments are generating
plant achieves the best possible production every day. sustainable profit.

The six efficiencies Working together

Given the stepwise path of capital investment required Overall, all six criteria may assist or contend with each
to modernise a refinery for the future, several factors other, but they can be used to balance the operational
may work in concert, and others may work in contention. goals of a facility with market demand, regulatory
How these factors line up will determine the most restrictions, investor requirements, and any other license
economically beneficial development strategy over time. to operate.
To determine the optimal design and operating The six efficiencies look very different in a
conditions, six fundamental criteria are used to evaluate petrochemicals complex, when compared to a refinery
trade-offs that may be necessary when pursuing a producing fuels. As the shift from fuels to petrochemicals
long-term capital investment strategy. Each quantifies continues to grow, carbon and hydrogen will have very
the efficiency of carbon, hydrogen, utilities, emissions, different roles; in precise ratios to carbon, hydrogen will
water – as a scarce resource – and capital. graduate from sulfur removal to become a yield multiplier
by making carbon rejection processes unnecessary.
Carbon Refiners that are sensitive to carbon dioxide (CO2)
The first is carbon, which is essential to almost every emissions will look to new pathways for hydrogen
fuel and petrochemical compound. The production, since traditional techniques such as steam
cost-effectiveness of carbon utilisation in a refinery can reforming also co-produce large amounts of CO2. In the
be determined by measuring how much effort is required future, new processes, such as propane dehydrogenation,
to change or rearrange a hydrocarbon molecule to will become increasingly favoured by operators – not
convert it into a certain product. only to make propylene, but also to generate hydrogen
without the CO2 load.
Hydrogen Taken together, the six efficiencies will provide the
As hydrogen is equally essential to each conversion economic scorecard for achieving the refinery of the
process, hydrogen efficiency can be established by future.

March 2020 28 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Shepherding
hydrocracking
profitability

H
Bi-Zeng Zhan, Ling Jiao, and Hyunuk ydrocracking is a flexible and resilient
Ryu, Advanced Refining Technologies, hydrocarbon conversion process whose roots
trace back to the conversion of coal into liquid
USA, alongside Woody Shiflett and transportation fuels in the early part of the last
Theo Maesen, Chevron Lummus century. An early commercial scale unit to hydroprocess
brown coal began operation in 1927 at Leuna (Germany). In
Global, USA, outline a new approach the late 1920s I. G. Farben (Germany) and Standard Oil of
to stem the bleeding from recycle New Jersey (US) collaborated on hydroprocessing heavy
petroleum, but high operating pressures (1500 – 4500 psi)
hydrocracking operations. and temperatures (> 700˚F) posed economic limits

HYDROCARBON 29 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 to deployments.1 Hydrocracking had strategic applications silica-aluminas, nanoporous crystalline silica-aluminas,
during the Second World War, but ultimately and tailored mixed metal sulfide nanostructures.3,7,8
implementation languished in the early post-war era. By „ Tailoring catalyst systems to processing needs through
the late 1950s, several dynamics fed a practical resurgence parallel testing coupled with modelling capabilities.9
of hydrocracking.2 The growth of a motorised world „ Advances in analytical chemistry focused on
provided a demand for increased amounts of gasoline, and understanding fractions that are recalcitrant to
high-performance cars demanded high-octane gasoline. hydroprocessing, shorten run length and can cause
Fluidised catalytic crackers (FCCs) were stretched to operational problems (causing ‘red death’ through
maximise gasoline yield, with concurrent production of sedimentation in equipment).
low-value light cycle oil. In addition, growth of diesel
locomotive use to replace steam and the emergence of The current focus is now on managing these
wide-spread jet aviation added demand for diesel and jet recalcitrant fractions. Optimisation of both operations and
fuel. Significant advances in catalysis ensured the catalyst utilisation must rely on this foundation. Work has
hydrocracking process would be a key part of the solution.3 already been conducted on characterising aromatic
In 1959, the California Research Corp. introduced a new molecules by high performance liquid chromatography
hydrocracking process that was commercialised in the (HPLC), ultra-violet (UV) spectroscopy, and mass
Standard Oil Company of California refinery in Richmond spectrometry at Arco and Chevron.10,11 The development of
(California, US).4,5 By 1961, Universal Oil Products (now UOP) a polycyclic index (PCI) parameter at Chevron in the early
and California Research Corp. combined technologies to 1970s helped predict the catalyst performance and
license the Isomax process, and Union Oil Co. (later Unocal) establish design guidelines for recalcitrant feedstocks.
announced the UnicrackingTM process. Hydrocracking, as a However, analytical technologies were limited in their
viable and economic process, was off and running. Recycle ability to specifically identify and quantify defined
hydrocracker configurations were deployed for maximum fractions related to operational decline and catalyst
conversion. Hydrocrackers recycling unconverted oil from a fouling. Recent advances, particularly in high-resolution
fractionator at the tail-end of the reactors (single-stage mass spectrometry techniques, have now bridged that
recycle configuration) favoured distillate production. gap.2,12,13,14
Hydrocrackers recycling oil from a fractionator in-between Both operability and maximisation of catalyst cycles
the first and second reactor (two-stage recycle depend on mitigating the detrimental effects of
configuration) favoured naphtha (destined for gasoline) recalcitrant aromatics, either through design considerations
production.6 or improved catalyst systems. Particularly in a two-stage
The licensor and technology provider landscape recycle configuration (Figure 1), the low temperature
continued to evolve. Some heritage companies have operation of a noble metal second stage catalyst can
disappeared or were part of acquisitions or mergers; new mitigate recalcitrant aromatics build-up, but the low
ones have emerged over time. The California Research second stage temperature required for managing
Corp. and Standard Oil of California are now part of the recalcitrant fractions limits hydrocracking conversion.8
greater Chevron corporation, and the process and catalyst The inclusion of a deep hydrogenation catalyst from the
technologies have been expanded and leveraged in joint ICR® 1000 catalyst family at the appropriate location offers
ventures: Chevron Lummus Global (CLG) with McDermott a more robust and flexible means to address these
and Advanced Refining Technologies (ART) with Grace. challenges.14
Over the last few decades hydrocracking progress has
been fuelled in a few fundamental focus areas: Recycle hydrocracking for maximum
„ The development of flexible and robust flexibility
hydroprocessing catalysts based upon tailored Even though two-stage recycle configurations were
materials comprising mesoporous amorphous originally designed to maximise naphtha production and
volume swell, they became preferred over single-stage
recycle configurations when flexibility in both feedstocks
and product slates was desired.1,8 Fractionation after the
first reactor removes intermediate products and waste
streams (fuels, hydrogen sulfide [H2S], ammonia [NH3])
before hydrocracking in the second reactor.
Irrespective of the configuration, the key objective of
the first hydrocracking reactor is to severely reduce the
compounds that inhibit hydrocracking, such as metals,
sulfur, nitrogen and aromatic compounds. Excellent heat
management by proper internals, a high hydrogen partial
pressure, and a well-designed catalyst system with
gradually increasing hydrogenation activity contribute to
optimum first stage operation.
Figure 1. Recycle hydrocracker with intermediate
fractionation to maximise operational flexibility. The second reactor hydrocracks both feed from the
first reactor and unconverted oil recycled from

March 2020 30 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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CHALLENGE CONVENTION
 poses an additional barrier to adsorption and conversion:
instead of leaving a homogeneous liquid phase for an
adsorbed phase straightaway, aggregates must first leave
the floc and diffuse through the continuous phase before
reaching the adsorbed phase of a catalyst and convert.
Aromatics that trigger flocculation tend to be more
prevalent with VGO derived from residuum than with
straight-run feedstocks. This is because conversion of
residuum disconnects aromatic moieties from their
chemical anchors to other nano-graphenes
(chicken-wire-like aromatics) and releases them into the
VGO boiling range.2,12 Mild thermal conditions (visbreaking,
residuum hydrocracking or hydrotreating) release the
largest aromatic moieties (benzoperylene and coronene);
severe thermal conditions (delayed coking, resid-FCC)
capture these large moieties as coke and release smaller
Figure 2. The conversion of benzoperylene and moieties (benzopyrenes10 and pyrene, respectively). The
coronene in the typical VGO hydrocracking operating named aromatic moieties are the thermodynamically most
window. Whereas coronene retains its hydrogenation stable aromatics within their size.11 Hydrocracking also
equilibrium concentration, ICR® 1000 catalyst generates these thermodynamically favoured aromatic
allows enough benzoperylene hydrogenation to moieties from molecules already in the VGO boiling range
enable (methyl)benzoperylene hydrocracking in the through (H2-generating) reforming-type reactions such as
subsequent hydrocracking catalyst layers. dehydrogenation, dehydrocyclisation11 and aromatics
condensation.18 The degree to which aggregating and
the fractionator. Since the fractionator removes the flocculating aromatics stem from the residuum or from the
converted oil as product, it concentrates the most VGO boiling range depends on the specific synthetic feed
recalcitrant components in the recycle stream. It is and conditions.
important to assure compatibility of the unconverted Synthetic feedstocks can also introduce other unusually
streams from the first and from the second reactors. This is recalcitrant compounds, e.g. a polyamide chain sedimented
particularly important when hydrocracking ‘synthetic’ after prolonged storage inside a hydroprocessed product,
vacuum gas oil (VGO), i.e. a feedstock made with suggesting that it survived as an aggregate or a floc while
components that have already been processed. the continuous phase was severely hydrogenated and
partially hydrocracked. Hydrotreating of hydrocracked
Understanding flocculation risks Canadian bitumen retains recalcitrant nitrogen compounds
The unusual compositions and reactivities of synthetic with a core described by C15H13N,19,20 and identified as mostly
hydrocracking streams increase the risks of sedimentation 4,8,9,10-tetrahydrocyclohepta[def]carbazole.21 Why this
in the feed, reactor or product section of a novel compound would be so unusually recalcitrant requires
hydroprocessing facility. Mitigating sedimentation risks further investigation.13
requires careful management of the flocculation that
usually precedes sedimentation. Managing flocculation Principles of floc management
requires a combination of experience, knowledge and Many approaches have been evaluated to manage the
know-how. concentration of aromatics that are prone to flocculation
Floc management benefits from semi-quantifying flocs to prevent sedimentation in reactor or product sections.
through traditional fractionation methods based on Conventionally, a (financially) significant fraction of the
polarity, such as SARA, ASTM D2007 or through more recycle stream is bled from the hydrocracker (Figure 1).
recent, more accurate methods such as on-column To stem the bleed stream without incurring
precipitation and filtration.15 These methods harvest flocs sedimentation, physical separations have been evaluated.
as ‘resins’, ‘asphaltenes’ or ‘polar’ fractions. Distillation of Examples are sedimentation through cooling of the recycle
these fractions frequently reveals residuum entrainment stream22 or through addition of a flocculant23 followed by
(compounds with a boiling point above the VGO boiling periodically siphoning off the sediment, adsorption of the
range), at a level below the detection limit of a single aromatics prone to sedimentation,24 and distillation to
(simulated) distillation. remove the heaviest boiling fraction where the recalcitrant
Flocculation is a concern when there are large molecules reside.25 Even though adsorption and distillation
concentrations of one type of aromatics or of molecules have remained in commercial practice for many decades, it is
with large aromatic moieties. In excessive concentrations, safe to say that they have not become mainstream. This
aromatics aggregate with themselves and with other suggests that the physical separation methods have technical
multi-ring compounds (both aromatic and naphthenic).16,17 merit but not a highly convincing economic benefit.
Aggregates can form > 10 nm sized flocs, a phase separate Catalytic options to mitigate the bleeding without prior
from the majority (continuous) phase.12 Flocculation makes separation of flocs became available recently with the
aggregates more recalcitrant to hydroprocessing because it deployment of deep hydrotreating catalysts of the

March 2020 32 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 In marked contrast to the floc management systems
that rely on physical separation methods, catalytic floc
management is currently gaining ground, and has been
deployed successfully in three more two-stage recycle
operations over the course of the last two years. These
applications resulted in a lower bleed rate, a switch to
lower-cost feedstocks and higher feed throughput,
respectively. In addition, its use has recently been
extended successfully into single-stage recycle operation
(i.e. two reactors with fractionation at the tail end instead
of in-between the reactors).
While shepherding refineries to these greener
pastures, technical service has relied on advanced
characterisation methods at critical junctures of the novel
technology introduction process. As a result of the
Figure 3. Reduction of the bleed rate while avoiding
sedimentation and maintaining cycle length through technology becoming increasingly established,
use of ICR® 1000 catalyst.14 commercial hydrocracking operations that harvest the
benefit from advanced floc management have become
more routine.
ICR® 1000 catalyst family. A top layer of such a catalyst
selectively hydrogenates recalcitrant aromatics at least References
partially,8 which enables hydrocracking in subsequent 1. SCHERZER, J., and GRUIA, A. J., Hydrocracking Science and
catalyst layers. Figure 2 illustrates the results of this Technology, Marcel Dekker, (1996).
2. CHABOT, J., and SHIFLETT, W., PTQ, Q3, (2019), pp. 89 – 97.
two-pronged approach: whereas the extent of 3. GRUIA, A., ‘Recent Advances in Hydrocracking’, Practical
hydrogenation of a marker for flocculation such as Advances in Petroleum Processing, Vol. 2, Chapter 8, C. S. Hsu
benzo(g,h,i)perylene decreases with increasing temperature and P. R. Robinson, eds., (2006).
4. SCOTT, J. W., ROBBERS, J. A., MASON, F. H., PATERSON, N. J., and
(indicative of operating at thermodynamic hydrogenation KOZLOWSKI, R. H., 6th World Petroleum Congress, Section III,
equilibrium), the extent of benzoperylene conversion over paper 18, (1963).
5. SCOTT, J. W., and BRIDGE, A. N., ‘The Continuing Development of
the combination of a treating followed by a cracking layer Hydrocracking’, Origin and Refining of Petroleum, Advances in
increases with temperature. This increase in conversion Chemistry, McGrath and Charles, eds., ACS, (1971).
6. SULLIVAN, R. F., and SCOTT, J. W., ‘The Development of
with temperature does not span all recalcitrant aromatics Hydrocracking’, Heterogeneous Catalysis ACS Symposium Series
(e.g. [methyl]coronene remains untouched), but commercial 222, (1983).
experience has shown that hydroconversion of key 7. KOLDACHENKO, N., YOON, A., MAESEN, T., TORCHIA, D., and
BROSSARD, D., AFPM Annual Meeting, paper AM-12-41, (2012).
components disrupts flocculation sufficiently to 8. MAESEN, T., JIA, J., HURT, M., CHENG, M., BRAIT, A., ZHANG, M.,
significantly stem the bleed stream, and to hydrocrack DUMA, V., LEW, C., VIRDI H., and MUKHERJEE, U., AFPM Annual
Meeting, paper AM-16-29, (2016).
most of the bleed into value-added transportation fuels 9. BRAIT, A., ‘Refinery Unit Optimization Using Parallel Testing and
instead. Automated Workflows’, presented conference in celebration of
HTE’s 20-year anniversary, (September 2019).
Figure 2 shows the conversion of benzoperylene and 10. FITZGERALD, M. E., MOIRANO, J. L., MORGAN, H., and CIRILLO, V. A.,
coronene in the typical VGO hydrocracking operating Applied Spectroscopy 24 (1), (1970), pp. 106 – 114.
window. Whereas coronene retains its hydrogenation 11. SULLIVAN, R.F., BODUSZYNSKI, M. M., FETZER, J. C., Energy &
Fuels 3 (1989), pp. 603 – 612.
equilibrium concentration, the catalyst enables enough 12. MOIR, M., ACS Symposium Series, C. Ovalles, M. Moir eds. 1282,
benzoperylene hydrogenation to enable (2018), pp. 3 – 24.
13. OVALLES, C., ROGEL, E., HURT, M., DUMA, V., MORAZAN, H.,
(methyl)benzoperylene hydrocracking in the subsequent HENCH, K., and MOIR, M., ACS Symposium Series 1320, (2019),
hydrocracking catalyst layers. pp. 261 – 280.
14. BLACKWELL, D., MAESEN, T., DUMA, V., and RYU, H., Catalagram
122, (2018), pp. 12 – 17.
Floc management in commercial 15. ROGEL, E., OVALLES, C., and MOIR, M., US 9,671,384.
practice 16.
17.
VON BOENTE, L., Brennstoff Chemie, 36, (1955), pp. 210 – 214.
JANOWSKI, T., and PULAY, P., J.Am.Chem.Soc., 134, (2012),
Commercially, bleed streams were reduced while assuring pp. 17520 – 17525.
that flocculation did not reduce the run length by 18. FETZER, J. C., Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 4, (1994),
pp. 19 – 24.
monitoring a combination of a catalyst from the ICR® 1000 19. KANDA, W., SIU, I., ADJAYE, J., NELSON, A. E., and GRAY, M. R.,
series and a hydrocracking catalyst in commercial Energy & Fuels, 18, (2004), pp. 539 – 546.
20. FU, J., KLEIN, G. C., SMITH, D. F., KIM S., RODGERS, R. P.,
two-stage recycle operation on a synthetic feed consisting HENDRICKSON, C. L., and MARSHALL, A. G., Energy & Fuels, 20,
nearly exclusively of VGO derived from hydrotreated (2006), pp. 1235 – 1241.
residuum. Figure 3 gives the bleed rate comparison of three 21. WIWEL, P., HINNEMANN, B., HIDALGO-VIVAS, A., EUTHEN, P.,
PETERSEN, B. O., and DUUS, J. Ø., Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 49, (2010),
commercial cycles with and without the self-supported pp. 3184 – 3193.
catalyst to disrupt flocculation. Figure 3 illustrates that 22. HENDRICKS, G. W., ATTANE, E. C., and WILSON, J. W., US 3619407.
23. FETZER, J. C., ROSENBAUM, J. M., BACHTEL, R. W., CASH, D. R., and
addition of the catalyst affords stemming the bleed rate by LAMMEL, D. G., US 5323577.
more than 50% as compared to the two prior cycles. 24. LAMB, P. R., BAKAS, S. T., and WOOD, B. M., US 4447315.
25. RAMASESHAN, V., AL-TURKI, A. A., AL-HAJJI, A. A., ADAMS, F.,
Converting this low-value bleed stream into high-value and AL-GHAMDI, A. S., Hydrocarbon Processing, 95(6), (2016),
transportation fuels had a major economic benefit.14 pp. 49 – 52.

March 2020 34 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
TICKING ALL
THE RIGHT
BOXES
Pretreat catalysts are crucial to increasing the
profit margin of a hydrocracker. Rahul Singh,
Haldor Topsoe Inc., USA, explains why.

T
he hydrocracker (HDC) is a key conversion unit in a refinery,
where feeds with a high carbon-to-hydrogen ratio (gas oils,
cycle oils, coker gas oils, deasphalted oils) are upgraded into
a variety of products – i.e., jet fuel, diesel, and naphtha in
the presence of a catalyst and hydrogen. Feed is introduced first over
a pretreat catalyst, which is generally composed of nickel and
molybdenum (NiMo) supported on an alumina substrate.
Hydrodenitrogenation (HDN), hydrodesulfurisation (HDS) and
hydrodearomatisation (HDA) are the main reactions that occur on the
pretreat catalyst to remove nitrogen, sulfur and aromatics from the
feed. The resulting hydrotreated stream is then processed over a
hydrocracking catalyst composed primarily of nickel and tungsten
(NIW) supported on amorphous and zeolitic materials to produce
liquid products with desirable properties. Noble metals can also be
used as metal components of the hydrocracking catalyst for maximum
aromatic saturation requirements, particularly in the lubricant oil
sector or to meet CARB Diesel standards. The liquid products from
the hydrocracker are formed via complex reaction networks of
cracking, ring opening, saturation and isomerisation reactions over the
cracking catalyst.

Ways to leverage improved HDN activity for

profits
Hydrocrackers play a big role in increasing the profit margin of a
refinery by (i) processing heavier, opportunity feedstocks with a high
degree of upgrading potential, (ii) maximising the API lift to produce
high volume swell, (iii) generating superior quality products with
desirable characteristics, (iv) providing the operational flexibility to
maximise naphtha and/or diesel depending on the market demands,
and (v) improving the operation of process units downstream by

HYDROCARBON 35 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 providing better quality feed, i.e., improving fluid catalytic inhibiting the cracking catalyst performance and severely
cracker (FCC) operation by including upgraded unconverted affecting the hydrocracker’s performance over the cycle. It is
oil (UCO) in the FCC feed diet, or improving HDA unit imperative to remove the nitrogen compounds over the
operation for meeting CARB specifications. Refiners can pretreat catalyst to fully achieve the cracking catalyst
maximise the profit from their hydrocrackers by utilising performance.
tailored hydrocracker pretreat and cracking catalyst solutions Figure 1 shows the advantage of a hydrocracker pretreat
to meet or exceed their objectives. Selecting the right catalyst with a high HDN activity. A boost in HDN activity
hydrocracker pretreat catalyst is one of the most important facilitates deep aromatic saturation, leading to a much lower
steps for ensuring a successful cycle for the hydrocracker. monoaromatic content of the pretreat effluent and a higher
Hydrocrackers operate across a wide, varying range of volume swell. It is always beneficial to use any available H2 to
feedstock types, feed properties, and process conditions. upgrade heavy feeds into valuable products. This lift in HDN
Organic nitrogen compounds in the feed is a key activity will lower the nitrogen in the pretreat effluent,
characteristic of the feed quality (specific gravity, aromatics) resulting in a reduced temperature requirement for achieving
on which the activity, selectivity and product properties the same conversion over the cracking catalyst. This low
depend on. The basic nitrogen molecules present in the feed hydrocracking weighted average bed temperature (WABT)
get adsorbed on the acidic sites on the zeolites, thus operation has several advantages for the overall
hydrocracking unit performance, i.e., (i) increased cycle
length, (ii) lower coke formation rate resulting in lower
deactivation rate, (iii) selectivity towards liquid products, and
(iv) low HPNA formation rates for recycle and two stage
units. Additionally, the product properties, such as specific
gravity, diesel cetane index, and kerosene smoke point,
depend on the aromatic content of the liquid. Therefore, the
high HDN activity of the pretreat catalyst will lower the
aromatic contents, resulting in better product properties.

High volume swell pretreat catalyst

Figure 1. Effect of HDN activity of pretreat catalyst on Topsoe’s latest generation HDC pretreat catalyst technology
the overall performance of the hydrocracker. HySwellTM and previous generation HyBRIMTM with strong
HDN activity are the result of state-of-the-art surface
science research approaches, enabling the formation of an
advanced metal slab structure which boosts the
hydrogenation (HDN, HDA and HDS) activity of the new
catalytic sites without compromising the stability. This
catalyst technology is described elsewhere.1,2 These new
catalytic sites present in catalysts utilising HyBRIM
technology impart significantly higher catalytic activity
compared to Type II sites, which researchers discovered back
in the 1980s and became the industry standard. This
technology – combined with additional metals loading with
good metal dispersion – has led the way to the launch of
HySwell catalysts.
Figure 2 shows the HDN activity comparison chart of
different catalysts at two different conditions. Each
Figure 2. HDN activity comparison of HyBRIMTM and progressive generation of catalyst has gained significant
HySwellTM catalysts on VGO feed. activity above its predecessor. Refiners can take advantage of
these gains in HDN activity by
processing heavier feeds,
increasing charge rates and
creating a better reaction
environment for the
hydrocracking catalyst. Figure 3
shows the progressive
improvement in aromatic
saturation of each generation
of catalyst. This is the result of
enhanced metal dispersion,
which limits the interaction
Figure 3. Comparison of aromat activity of HyBRIM and HySwell pretreat catalysts. between the active metal and
the alumina support, and

March 2020 36 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 increased metals loading, which would not be possible sulfur in the diesel decreases with increases in total
without the highly advanced microscopy techniques. This conversion. For the red markers, the total conversion was
boost in the aromatic saturation activity across the three kept constant while nitrogen slip was varied to understand
subsequent generations of catalyst allows refiners to increase the response on sulfur in the diesel product. An increase in
the volume swell while processing heavy feeds. Monoaromatic pretreat WABT by 9˚F lowered the nitrogen slip from
saturation pathway is the rate limiting step that the catalytic 25 ppmw to 10 ppmw, which decreased the required HDC
sites encounter during reactions involved with aromatics WABT by 10˚F to achieve the same 9% conversion. This drop
saturation. Improving the monoaromatic saturation activity is in nitrogen slip played a very important role in lowering the
crucial for enhancing the liquid volume swell. With every new sulfur in the diesel product from 20 wppm to 10 wppm
generation of catalyst, it has been possible to increase the sulfur. Even though sulfur in the products can be lowered by
level of monoaromatic saturation activity, resulting in increasing the total conversion in the unit, sulfur in ULSD can
additional volume swell and profit for the refinery. be lowered even further by dropping the nitrogen slip for a
set conversion target. It can be inferred that running at high
Nitrogen slip – key determinant of nitrogen slip would require higher HDC WABT to achieve the
product properties same conversion and result in products with inferior quality.
Hydrocracker pretreat catalysts play a very important role in This would in turn negatively affect the volume swell. Higher
controlling the final product properties from the HDC WABT also shifts the selectivity towards higher gas
hydrocracker. There are operating options at various makes, thus lowering the volume swell. Cracking catalysts
magnitudes of nitrogen slip which are governed by a have two functionalities – cracking on the zeolites and
combination of intrinsic HDN activity of the pretreat saturation on the metal. High nitrogen slip hinders the
catalyst, overall conversion, temperature, product quality, aromatic saturation capability of the cracking catalyst. The
and process constraints. It is quite valuable to operate at low WABT is increased to compensate for the high nitrogen slip
nitrogen slip to realise the benefits explained earlier. Figure 4 to achieve the same conversion, however, the aromatic
shows the effect of total conversion on the sulfur content of saturation capability is not gained.
the diesel product for a mild hydrocracker processing cycle
oils and coker gas oils over a stacked bed of TK-611 HyBRIM Better jet quality from improved
and TK-6001 HySwell pretreat catalysts and TK-971/TK-961 pretreat saturation activity
cracking catalysts. The goal of this hydrocracker is to Figure 4 also shows the effect of nitrogen slip on the sulfur
produce ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD). It is observed that the in the diesel. The sulfur in diesel increases with increases in

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 Figure 4. Sulfur in diesel as a function of total conversion and nitrogen slip.

the hydrogenation activity of the pretreat and cracking

catalysts will determine the quality of the fuel. This quality
was evaluated at the same overall unit conversion to make a
fair comparison across both cycles. It was noted that the
specific gravity of the jet fuel produced at both the refineries
dropped upon using TK-611 compared to TK-609 for the
same targeted conversion level. This drop in specific gravity
corresponds to an increase in volume swell of approximately
0.75 – 0.85% from jet fuel only. The same trend was noted
for the smoke point, which increased by at least 2 mm upon
using TK-611. A much higher improvement in smoke point was
Figure 5. Density improvement of jet fuel when using a observed compared to specific gravity. This illustrates that
higher activity pretreat catalyst for two refineries. the degree of monoaromatic saturation significantly
increased, impacting the smoke point to a larger extent. The
higher activity of the pretreat catalyst allowed both refiners
to increase the volume and improve the quality of jet fuel
produced, resulting in higher profits from the hydrocracker.
The combination of two pathways on TK-611, i.e., higher
monoaromatic saturation boost at the same temperature
and/or lower nitrogen slip at the same temperature, allows
the saturation activity rates to increase over the cracking
catalyst. Improving the hydrogenation activity of the pretreat
catalyst helps with getting the best value out of the
hydrocracking unit.

Conclusion
Figure 6. Smoke point improvement of jet fuel when Hydrocracker units can be highly profitable with the right
using a higher activity pretreat catalyst for two refineries. choice of catalysts. The pretreat catalyst determines the
direction for the optimal performance of the hydrocracker
from various aspects, i.e., meeting cycle length requirement,
the nitrogen slip to the hydrocracker. As nitrogen is increased volume swell, H2 consumption, conversion, and product
beyond 15 wppm, the poisoning effect is limiting on the quality while operating within the process constraints. It is
sulfur content in diesel. It is quite evident that HDN activity important to understand that at the same total conversion in
of a pretreat catalyst determines the product quality off the the hydrocracker, a combination of higher nitrogen slip from
hydrocracker. the pretreater and higher HDC WABT is much less profitable
Figures 5 and 6 show the quality of jet fuel characterised than lower nitrogen slip and lower HDC WABT. The benefit
by specific gravity and smoke point for two refineries, where of the catalyst systems outlined in this article can be
subsequent cycles for the hydrocracker pretreat were loaded demonstrated via pilot plant testing for refiners that are
with TK-609 HyBRIM and TK-611 HyBRIM, respectively. The interested in pursuing optimal performance in their
cracking catalysts were the same for both cycles, which hydrocracking units.
allowed the TK-611 (the successor of TK-609) to demonstrate
its sound performance benefits with regards to HDN, HDS References
and HDA. This hydrocracker processes a combination of 1. SCHMIDT, M. T., ‘Development in hydrotreating catalyst’, PTQ,
(September 2016).
vacuum gas oils and coker gas oils with the goal of 2. RASMUSSEN, H., ‘New Step-out Hydroprocessing Technology’,
maximising jet fuel and diesel yield. The smoke point is a American Fuels and Petrochemical Manufacturers, 111th Annual
function of monoaromatics present in the jet fuel, therefore, Meeting, (March 2013).

March 2020 38 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Transforming
reactor
performance
Sarah McFarland and Mallory
Taylor, BP, alongside Pankaj Desai,
Edwin Maas, and Julien Sigaud, Shell
Catalysts & Technologies, look at
how to unlock high performance from
an ageing hydrocracker with reactor
internal design innovations.

R
evamping old reactors becomes necessary when
hydrocrackers that were designed in the 1960s to
process easier feeds with less active catalyst
become ill-equipped to handle the current feeds
that refineries need to process. This was the case with the
160 000 bpd BP-Husky Toledo refinery in Toledo, Ohio, US,
which BP operates as part of a joint venture with
Husky Energy.
The feeds being processed at the BP-Husky Toledo
refinery had become difficult to treat and the process
conditions more severe so that pressure differentials and
radial temperature differentials were curtailing the catalyst
cycle length and causing potential safety concerns.
However, replacing the reactors was not considered an
option. Working closely with Shell Catalysts &
Technologies, the refinery’s technologists removed the
internals from two reactors, including all the existing
hardware, then reconfigured them and installed the latest
generation internals. This was a technically demanding
10-month project.

HYDROCARBON 39 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 of quench lines without welding. In addition, the quench
lines had to pass through the catalyst beds. Without line
insulation, the quench gas heats up when passing through
the hot catalyst beds, but insulating quench lines
introduces other difficulties.
This was a common situation for the project team. For
every solution, there were possible complications, which
the team resolved by drawing on experience from
revamping similar units.
Other custom design work included:
„ Adapting the thermal expansion loops by making them
more sophisticated and moving them from the reactor
beds to the reactor dome.
Figure 1. The 160 000 bpd BP-Husky Toledo refinery „ Replacing the thermobars with flexible thermocouples
in the US, which BP operates as part of a joint venture in a smart layout that offered radial coverage.
with Husky Energy, is a highly flexible, highly complex „ Removing the internal catalyst bed dump tubes while
facility.
retaining the penetrations in the bed to help avoid the
gas and liquid bypassing the interbed reactor internals,
which can cause radial temperature maldistribution.
„ Moving the quench pipes from the bottom of the beds
into the interbeds. In-bed quench pipes can introduce
temperature differentials, so moving them further
down provided more even mixing and, therefore,
enhanced temperature control.

The revamp involved removing all the reactors’ existing

hardware and replacing it with Shell Catalysts &
Technologies’ latest generation reactor internals including
filter trays, HD trays, ultra-flat quench (UFQ) interbed
internals and catalyst support grids. Each of these elements
was designed to maximise efficiency, performance,
durability and operational safety.
The revamp of the first stage hydrodenitrification
reactor extended the catalyst cycle length from two or
three years to four years. The second stage reactor had
been having issues with poor distribution and high radial
temperature differentials. It was overcracking and
producing light ends, so the objective was to reduce the
Figure 2. The BP-Husky Toledo refinery unlocked fuel gas make and produce gasoline, kerosene or diesel.
high performance from its ageing hydrocracker with a
series of reactor internal design innovations. How the revamp improved safety
Safety is the number one priority at the BP-Husky Toledo
refinery and was a key driver for the revamp.
The challenge of revamping very old Before the revamp, the reactors had various
reactors shortcomings that needed to be addressed: small manways,
The age of the reactors presented a constraint to the which threatened personnel safety and prevented quick
project team. When the reactors were built, the catalysts egress in emergencies, and hot spots and maldistribution,
available were far less active than those currently on the which can lead to process safety issues.
market and the feeds typically processed were much easier The new reactor internals have improved safety in
to treat, as they contained less sulfur, nitrogen and foulants. several ways:
Consequently, the reactors’ quench lines and „ The manways are larger and enable quick egress of
thermometry would not provide all the information people.
currently required for the most effective processing. The „ Confined space residence time is shorter, as
inside of both reactors had to be updated and the maintenance is easier.
engineers had to devise custom-made mechanical „ There are fewer foreign objects and obstructions in the
innovations for each reactor. beds that might introduce maldistribution and cause
The site had a strong desire to avoid welding anything channeling.
to the reactor walls, as is the case with most existing „ Hot spots in the catalyst bed have been significantly
reactors, in case the reactors’ interior lining cracked. The reduced and are now well below the recommended
Shell Catalysts & Technologies design enables installation limits.

March 2020 40 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 REFINERY OF THE
FUTURE 2020
INTERNATIONAL ONLINE CONFERENCE EXPLORING
THE TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATIONS DRIVING THE
REFINERY OF THE FUTURE

25th June 2020

With participation from:

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 „ Poor thermal distribution in the second stage, which Results
could lead to the increased likelihood of temperature Both reactors were rebuilt and had different requirements
runaways, was reduced. and challenges to gain the results necessary. The first
„ Hot work is not required. By using wedge pins and split reactor has seen a 20 – 30% reduction in pressure
keys, the new internals can be installed without differentials, which resulted in several improvements:
welding and opened and closed using just a hammer. „ The cycle length was increased by one and a half
years.
How the revamp reduced shutdown „ The radial temperature differentials were reduced,
time which improved unit safety.
Having seen the advantages of the wedge-pin design in „ Catalyst utilisation was improved, which extended
other reactors in the BP refinery network that use Shell catalyst life by a year.
Catalysts & Technologies reactor internals, technologists at „ A relocated quench line unlocked a six-month
the BP-Husky Toledo refinery believe that this feature will increase in catalyst life.
reduce the catalyst change-out time by two days per event.
The new reactor internals have brought other maintenance The second reactor has reduced radial temperature
advantages too, such as shorter catalyst loading and differentials, decreased risk of temperature runaways, and
unloading time, and simplified maintenance procedures. In improved flexibility to shift from vapour to liquid
addition, the confined space residence time has been products. The revamp should also contribute to reduce
reduced, which will help to mitigate the safety risks during the turnaround time required for subsequent turnarounds.
turnarounds.
Value delivered
Installation and start-up The unit’s age meant that this project was highly
The whole project took 10 months and the unit started up technically demanding from an engineering perspective.
successfully, on time and within budget. In such a project, it The close work between Shell Catalysts & Technologies
is crucial that the new internals are installed correctly the and BP-Husky Toledo enabled technical challenges to be
first time and that rework is not required, so that turnaround overcome, ensuing that the reactors operated efficiently
time is minimised, and the project remains on schedule. and safely, and on schedule.

T +49 2961 7405-0

T +1 704 716 7022

Your Specialist for

PRESSURE RELIEF
© REMBE® | All rights reserved

SOLUTIONS
Consulting. Engineering. Products. Service.

Inc.
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F +49 2961 50714 | [email protected] | www.rembe.de F +1 704 716 7025 | [email protected] | www.rembe.us
 BREAKING PDH
PRODUCTION
BARRIERS
I
The gap between propylene demand n a highly competitive market, propylene producers building new
propane dehydrogenation (PDH) plants expect to see fast returns
and supply is growing. Kyle Mankin on their investments. Manufacturers looking for ways to speed
and Cai Zeng, Clariant Catalysts, up construction, commissioning, and drastically increase
production efficiency, need technologies offering the highest
USA, and Chul-Jin Kim, SK Advanced, possible yield with minimum propane consumption, as well as
South Korea, explain how new catalyst greater on-stream reliability over the long-term. To an increasing
extent, producers are also building larger plants to benefit from
technology is raising PDH production economies of scale, driving the need for partners capable of
levels to meet this. supporting projects of such dimensions.

HYDROCARBON 43 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 than 60 years of continuously improved performance,
the technology has grown to be used at over 25 olefin
dehydrogenation plants worldwide, and in the past
two years has been selected for 18 new PDH projects
globally. Clariant and Lummus recently announced the
successful start-up of its catalyst at Hengli Group’s new
mixed-feed dehydrogenation plant in Dalian, China.
This unit combines PDH with isobutane
dehydrogenation (BDH) process technologies, and
produces over 1 million tpy of olefins – becoming the
world’s largest dehydrogenation plant using this
catalyst technology.

Figure 1. Annual global propylene supply vs demand (source: Benefits

IHS World Analysis, 2019 Spring Update). Two major benefits that all CATOFIN PDH units share
are reliable operation at high on-stream conditions
(typically above 97%), and product yield significantly
higher than the design capacity (up to 150% in some
cases and exceeding 110% on average). There is also
typically less feedstock consumption, since the
reactions occur in a vacuum where lower operating
temperatures minimise thermal-cracking and
undesirable by-products. It is also a cleaner process as
any coke is removed within the cycle, eliminating the
need to shut down for decoking and cleaning. In
service, the robust catalysts ensure fast start-up, simple
operation, and a long lifetime.

Continuous advances
Committed to further enhancing propylene
Figure 2. Propylene capacity by production technology (source: production, Clariant and Lummus continue to
IHS World Analysis, 2019 Spring Update and Clariant internal announce innovations such as heat generating material
project database). (HGM) and new catalyst solutions. As its name implies,
HGM produces heat inside the catalyst bed, which
The propylene problem significantly reduces demands on heat from other
Propylene demand has risen steadily and is expected to grow sources, such as from reheat air. While it sounds simple, this
from approximately 110 million t in 2018 to 150 million t by 2028 sophisticated material is commercially proven to increase olefin
(Figure 1). This surge in interest is mainly due to the growing selectivity and yield while greatly reducing input air
range of applications for propylene and its derivatives, temperatures (Figure 3). Combined with other energy
particularly polypropylene. optimisations, the HGM-based catalyst system reduces energy
The propylene production growth rate from refineries and costs and carbon dioxide emissions by as much as 35%. Another
crackers has not kept pace with demand. Over the last decade, significant advantage of using an HGM-based catalyst system is
the advent of shale gas has fundamentally changed the olefin that catalyst run lengths can be extended up to four years or
market. Cracker operators have tended toward lighter feeds and more.
are producing relatively less propylene and higher olefins. The most recent breakthrough was the development of the
Consequently, conventional steam cracking processes alone can new CATOFIN 311, a commercially proven catalyst that delivers
no longer fulfil the growing demand for propylene. This has led even greater selectivity and a longer lifetime, resulting in
to increased interest in on-purpose propylene production increased overall profitability for propylene producers. Further
technologies. Of the options available, catalytic PDH is among catalyst enhancements continue with a pipeline of newer
the fastest growing technologies due to its lower overall costs, versions in development.
and the greater availability of propane feedstock (Figure 2). Looking to the future, the technology partners are investing
in promising new solutions that decrease capital expenditure by
A first and foremost solution minimising the number of reactors while maintaining plant
CATOFIN is one of the earliest technologies for producing capacity and advanced energy integration. Further research is
olefins, such as propylene (from propane), isobutylene (from focused on reducing operating expenses through significantly
isobutane), and normal butylenes/butadiene (from normal lower air rates and higher space velocities enabled by HGM.
butane) via non-oxidative catalytic dehydrogenation with
excellent conversion and selectivity. The rights to this catalyst Success at SK Advanced
process are owned by Clariant, working in close collaboration CATOFIN and HGM were selected for one of the world’s
with its licensing partner, Lummus Technology. Today, with more largest PDH plants. In 2013, three major petrochemical

March 2020 44 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Fixed-Point
Interface Profiling
Multi-Point Density Array (MDA) Solution
for Difficult Emulsion Applications

Achieving reliable density information in emulsion

applications is now easier than ever. VEGA’s
radiometric MDA system sets new standards
for accuracy by providing continuous density
data at each individual measurement point
across a vessel’s measurement span.
The density profile created by the MDA
system provides actionable data that
allows for real-time process monitoring,
leading to unrivaled unit efficiency.
This precise, non-contact technology
leads to better process performance
and increased throughput.

www.vega.com
 on-spec propylene was successfully produced. Following a
smooth and safe temperature ramp-up, full plant capacity was
achieved after two weeks of continuous operation. Design
conversion was also matched, with an evident selectivity gain
of 2.5 to 3.5 rel. % compared to CATOFIN PDH units not using
HGM. For the 600 000 tpy plant, this additional selectivity
translates into an annual production gain of as much as
21 000 t of propylene.
The plant has consistently demonstrated operation at an
average of 110% of the design nameplate capacity, with a
maximum as high as 116%. Thus, it comes as no surprise that
the plant’s cumulative production yield from start up to date
far exceeds the design of 2.4 million t in four years. Moreover,
the inclusion of HGM in this design increases the catalyst run
length from three to four years as compared to non-HGM
Figure 3. Propane conversion using CATOFIN catalyst, plants which eliminates the entire expense of a turnaround
with and without HGM, at the same plant conditions. over the course of 12 years of operation.

Conclusion
companies – SK Gas Corp. Ltd of South Korea, Saudi Arabia’s The abundance of low-cost propane from lighter shale gas
Advanced Petrochemical Co., and Kuwait’s Petrochemical condensates and the constant growth of propylene demand
Industries Co. – collaborated to build a new propylene plant, have created business opportunities for on-purpose PDH
SK Advanced, in Ulsan, South Korea. The plant has realised producers. Pioneering technology and ongoing catalyst
rapid returns on investment, surpassing expectations by taking innovations have advanced CATOFIN to maintain its standing as
only 18 months from construction to mechanical completion the most productive and reliable solution. The SK Advanced
and by exceeding design production rates. success is one of many recent examples that demonstrate how
Completed in 2016, the new CATOFIN PDH plant has a the technology can convert producers’ expectations into highly
nameplate capacity of 600 000 tpy. Initial feed-in occurred on profitable day-to-day operations – exceeding capacity
8 March 2016, and within 24 hours of operation, consistent predictions.

THE ADVA
VANTAAGESS WITH
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WEG
CENT
TRIFUGES DUURIING TAILIN
NGS
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DRAIINAGE IN THE
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· Significant space savings compared to sludge tanks
· Environmental risks such as dam failure are minimized
· Permits the reuse of the purified process water
· Complies with legal requirements in most countries
DEALING WITH
THE DELHI
DILEMMA
Shruti Parkar and Raghavendra Swami
Kannaraya, CECO Environmental, India,
outline how India’s new fuel regulations
are driving refinery modernisation.

I
ndia has a lethal problem with its air. As other
developing nations have, it must find a way to grow
its infrastructure – industrial production, power
generation, refining and wastewater treatment –
while balancing the social health of its citizens. With
air quality technologies becoming more widely

HYDROCARBON 47 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 The energy industry is taking on
an important role in driving
necessary change for India’s largest
cities. Key multinational players
are forming partnerships with local
oil and gas entities to modernise
existing, and build out new,
refinery infrastructure. This is not a
new role for oil and gas companies
and power generation plants to
drive and support the evolution of
developing societies. With new
and modernised refineries, India is
able to drive new regulations that
require automobiles to run on
higher quality fuels – resulting in a
significant reduction in the air
pollutants associated with
adulterated fuels.
Figure 1. The FCC cyclone is lowered into the refinery. It is a key component The single biggest source of air
of refinery operations and profitability. Having efficient and reliable cyclone
pollution in Delhi is vehicle
systems is key to achieving state-of-the-art performance.
exhaust, an indirect consequence
of overcrowding. This results in
available to advanced and developing nations, it may emissions of nitrogen oxide (NOX), sulfur, carbon
be easier for India to manage the issue. monoxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and – in
Atmospheric pollution in India is the fifth largest cause some ways the deadliest – carbon microparticles,
of death in the nation – recently estimated to kill which lodge in lung tissue. At average trip speeds
approximately 2.5 million people a year. Specifically, between 5 and 20 km/hr – common during rush hour
the World Health Organization has found that India has in Indian cities – cars’ pollutant emissions are 4 – 8
the world’s highest death rates from asthma and times as much as when the average speed is
chronic respiratory illness. In Delhi in particular, 55 – 70 km/hr. The NOX emissions cause
suffocating air quality has irreversibly damaged the photochemical smog that mixes with the smoke and
lungs of 2.2 million children (approximately 50% of the exhaust particulates, hanging in a heavy, choking layer
total number of children in the city) – a public-health over the city for days or even weeks at a time,
crisis that will go on causing sickness and premature especially in November to December because of local
death for decades. climate conditions. It is also worth noting that NOX is
So where is all this pollution coming from? The many times more potent than carbon dioxide as a
answer is not simple. In fact, the problem has multiple heat-trapping greenhouse gas.
sources and components that reflect India’s developing At ground level, the VOC emissions contribute to
nation status, including the transition from an asthma, allergies, and cancer among other grave health
agricultural to an industrial-technological economy, problems. Black carbon particles in the pervasive
poverty-related pollutants and urban overcrowding. smoke add to the problem. And in Delhi’s sprawling,
One energy-related major pollution source, driven by often unplanned neighbourhoods, illegal factories
poverty at one end and opportunity at the other, is the churn out VOCs from paints and plastics and NOX and
dilution of gasoline with cheaper petroleum derivatives, sulfur compounds from unfiltered furnaces and boilers.
notably kerosene. This problem is partly the unintended To its credit, the national government is now joining
consequence of a tax policy meant to reduce tailpipe the under-resourced Delhi city administration and its
pollution. Throughout South Asia, gasoline is taxed more counterparts in other Indian cities like Mumbai,
heavily than diesel, which in turn is taxed more heavily Chennai, Kolkata, and Pune in taking some stronger
than kerosene, naphtha, and similar lower-grade measures to address the air quality crisis. The city is
hydrocarbons. This policy was intended to encourage attempting to shut down illegal factories and, as
the use of public transport rather than private cars and mentioned earlier, has tightened regulations along the
to avoid placing extra burdens on motor freight petroleum supply chain, from refining to consumption.
operators, whose trucks run on diesel. Instead, gasoline As a result, this is creating a dynamic era for the energy
in India was becoming more adulterated with kerosene, industry as modernisation and new energy
naphtha, and diesel fuel, up to 80 – 90% in some cases, infrastructure is needed. Economically, this in turn has
while diesel fuel was adulterated with kerosene. resulted in unique multinational partnerships to finance
Emissions from fuel adulteration is one of the top and develop the build out in order to produce quality
contributors to urban air pollution. fuels in compliance with new regulations.

March 2020 48 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 MAINTENANCE

PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

TURNAROUND

PROCESS SAFETY

The 2020 AFPM Annual Summit brings together professionals from the refining and
petrochemical industries who are focused on improving plant-wide performance.

This enhanced and integrated summit pulls the best elements from AFPM’s Reliability and
Maintenance Conference, Cat Cracker, and Operations & Process Technology Summit, with
added benefits of an integrated approach to problem solving across disciplines.

Benchmark your plant Be a part of an energized Experience a seamless

performance against community and grow integration of conference
others. your network. content and hands-on
technology demonstrations.

REGISTER EARLY AND SAVE! www.afpm.org/2020Summit

August 25 – 27, 2020 | San Antonio, TX
 the production of polypropylene, a refining
by-product that is a key ingredient in plastics.

Refinery exhaust emissions at the stack

Petroleum refining generates large volumes of NOX,
notably in the ethylene ‘cracking’ process. Refineries
are installing selective catalytic reduction systems
and, more specifically, upgrading ammonia injection
grid (AIG) technology to cut NOX emissions by as
much as 95%. Companies such as CECO Peerless, who
have been working towards this goal for decades, have
already helped prevent millions of tonnes of
particulates from being released into the air.

Eliminating particulates and dust

associated with polypropylene
Industrial scrubbers and cyclones along with other
dust collection and exhaust systems are increasingly
added during refinery upgrades, especially in the case
of byproduct production such as polypropylene,
which are a key ingredient in plastics.

Reducing toxic VOCs and hazardous air

pollutants (HAPs)
Regenerative thermal oxidisers (RTOs) and industrial
dry and wet-bed scrubbers are specified in a broad
range of industrial applications from plastics,
composites, paint and coatings manufacturers to scrap
metal yards. These technologies often work together
to scrub and channel pollutants through filter and
exhaust systems so that the air is toxin-free and safe
to breathe by the time it is emitted back into the
Figure 2. Scrubbers are pollution control devices that use
atmosphere.
liquid to wash unwanted pollutants from a gas stream, or
that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream One of the largest oil and gas companies in Delhi
to ‘wash out’ acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary recently acquired a large-scale RTO from CECO
devices that control gaseous emissions, especially acid Environmental which will address a wide range of air
gases. pollution issues, including:
„ VOC abatement.
Joining in the infrastructure modernisation and build „ Helping the oil and gas company be in compliance
out are a growing number of technology companies that with new NOX and SOX emission regulations.
bring air pollution control expertise. Technology „ Remove/reduce hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)
engineers who specialise in the various control and and odorous emissions.
abatement technologies are working with refineries and
other industrials to evaluate production, growth Operating principles of selective
projections, emissions and local regulations in order to catalytic reduction systems
specify the right technologies. Some of the most As flue gases are combusted in gas turbines and process
commonly utilised air pollution emissions control and furnaces, NOX is formed. A selective catalytic reduction
abatement technologies can be organised by the air (SCR) system is a post-combustion technology, which
pollution issues they address: injects an ammonia (NH3) based reagent into the flue
stream to reduce NOX emissions by up to 95%. Typically,
Fuel quality and byproducts these systems are adaptable to a wide range of
Refineries are installing advanced fluidised catalyst temperatures and flow rates, and help power generators
cracking (FCC) cyclone technology to convert heavier and oil and gas operations meet regulatory compliance
hydrocarbon fractions of crude oil into gasoline and other requirements.
useful products and to raise the quality of gasoline to the They are specified in the processing of various fuels
government of India’s new standards. The better-quality such as natural gas, refinery gas, coal, biomass, and various
gasoline combines with more efficient engines, also fuel oils.
mandated by new government standards, to reduce Benefits include the following:
exhaust emissions. Other teams are helping to upgrade „ Low total cost of ownership.

March 2020 50 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
„ High efficiency with up to 95% NOX emission Conclusion
reduction. These contributions are only a beginning. There are
„ Minimal life cycle costs with optimal performance many other ways air quality technology can help
systems. engineer solutions that solve the air pollution
„ Reduced assembly time with pre-assembled modular problems of developing and mature nations. On a
construction. larger scale, it will truly be a collective effort to make
„ Enhanced design for smaller system footprint. a significant impact on achieving higher air quality for
India that must include industries such as
Operating principles of tower-type manufacturing, transportation and energy along with
RTO banking finance cooperation with national, regional,
The VOC laden air is directed by the poppet valve and urban governments.
mechanism to flow through one or more beds into the Achieving a level of air quality and protecting
combustion chamber. These beds have been previously India’s shared environment is possible while it grows
heated and because of the intimate contact between the into a mature, productive and affluent society.
air and ceramic material very high rates
of heat transfer are produced. This
results in the air being preheated very
close to the required oxidation
temperature by the time it reaches the
combustion chamber.
[email protected]
The air then enters the
combustion chamber where a small hallwoodmodular.com
amount of heat is added by a +1 337 393 2575
fuel-fired burner to combustion
temperatures. The thermal oxidation
process then takes place and the
pollutants are destroyed.
The clean air then exits the
combustion chamber through another
bed or beds that have been previously
cooled. As the air passes through these
beds it is cooled by the same heat
transfer process. After passing through
the cooled beds the air exits the RTO
system at a temperature only slightly
higher than the inlet temperature.
After several minutes the first set
of beds (inlet) becomes depleted of
heat while the second set of beds
(outlet) becomes saturated with heat.
At this point the flow of air through
the beds is reversed with the formerly
inlet beds acting as the outlet beds and
the formerly outlet beds acting as the 20 Years and Counting...
the Best Protection
inlet beds. In this way each bed
periodically extracts heat from the

for People and Equipment

clean gas stream exiting the
combustion chamber and then releases
this heat into the polluted gas entering
the combustion chamber. This method
is thermal regeneration. The
combination of thermal oxidation and
regenerative heat recovery allows the
RTO system to efficiently destroy VOC
laden air with minimal operating costs.
Typical applications include
Blast Resistant Perimeter Protective Site
petrochemical, biodiesel, natural gas Modular Security Doors Services
processing, refining, composites and Buildings Products & Accessories
plastics, amongst others.
March 2020 52 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
 Cody Evans, ExxonMobil Fuels &
Lubricants, USA, outlines how a proper
lubrication strategy can help refiners in
the fight against corrosion.

A
s the nature of the downstream industry continues to
evolve, industrial operators at refineries, processing
plants and other facilities will consistently need
more reliable equipment in an effort to stay cost
competitive as well as expand productivity, and reduce
unscheduled downtime.
However, industrial operators that are responsible for the
processing, transportation, and selling of refined crude oil
products must work with equipment that operates under a
variety of conditions that can, and do, lead to a whole host of
performance issues – one of which includes corrosion.
According to the Union of European Lubricants (UEIL), one of
the most damaging risks to industrial equipment performance
is corrosion, which is responsible for 30% of global energy
production loss.1 Moreover, it can cause catastrophic loss of
productivity and reduced profits, a point that the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) International
estimated to be a global cost of US$2.5 trillion, which equates
to approximately 3.4% of the global gross domestic product. 2
The destructive nature of corrosion, still one of the most
significant challenges industrial operations have faced over
the last several decades, should come as no surprise.
Especially as most industrial equipment is regularly exposed
to detrimental conditions that can hasten the development of

HYDROCARBON 53 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 electrochemical reactions between them and any
external environmental contaminants. Several
different types of corrosion exist, though the
determination of each depends on the nature and
severity of deterioration present on the metal
components.
For example, general attack corrosion is the
most common type of corrosion and accounts for
the most substantial amount of damage brought on
metal components. Others include localised,
galvanic, high-temperature, fretting, de-alloying,
intergranular, flow-assisted and environmental
cracking corrosion, to name a few.
In order to fully recognise the need for and role
of a comprehensive lubrication strategy, it is
important to understand the big picture, and that
means looking at the most common causes of
Figure 1. Engineering professionals evaluating a refinery. corrosion through a wider and more general lens.
The three most common causes of corrosion
include water, microbial activity and a lack of
reliable corrosion inhibition.

Water
Water is a substance that is present in many industrial
applications. It is an essential tool that is used as a
cooling mechanism in the steel industry but is also
naturally present for any operations taking place in
outdoor environments where equipment can be
exposed to water in the form of rain or seawater. If
the proper precautions are not taken, water can build
up dangerously and lead to increased corrosion. Water
is also a fantastic incubator for other contaminants,
including the full range of microorganisms.

Microbial activity
Figure 2. Pipes filled with oil for use at the refinery. Microorganisms include different species of bacteria,
fungi, and algae that can help encourage the
rust and corrosion including water, extreme corrosion of metal components. They exist in all facets
temperatures, gases and other contaminants. of the natural world, and can be found in water, dirt, and
One of the most effective wards against the threat the air. The only way to diminish microbial activity is by
of corrosion is a comprehensive lubrication strategy. ensuring the industrial equipment is kept clean and free
Working as the first line of defence against corrosion, of additional contaminants.
the correct lubricants can help protect industrial
equipment from deterioration by keeping it clean and Corrosion inhibitors
free of contaminants. They are designed to defend Corrosion inhibitors are chemical substances designed
against those destructive qualities, and certain specifically to reduce or prevent the opportunity for
lubrication-related services can also provide operators corrosion among metal components in an effort to
with a reliable source of information regarding how extend the life of operational equipment. They are
their equipment is performing in real-time. added to water used for cooling, acid and steam, as
well as in coatings and lubricants to help counteract
What is corrosion and how does it corrosive materials present in the environment. When
form? products do not contain sufficient corrosion inhibitors,
Regularly utilised equipment in the oil and gas industry, the equipment is left vulnerable to the natural
including pumps, piping, diesel engines, motors, natural environmental contaminants, including reactions with
gas compressors, flow meters and large-bore water and microbial activity.
equipment, are at extreme risk of corrosive decay. This
can be a severe problem as corrosion is a hazardous The first line of defence – a
and expensive problem where metal components comprehensive lubrication strategy
(and/or other solid surfaces) are concerned. It causes Lubricants help to minimise friction by protecting
those surfaces to deteriorate due to the components against wear and reducing the amount of

March 2020 54 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
direct exposure to environmental contaminants. They will include anti-corrosion benefits, but it will never
are an essential part of any industrial operation, are sacrifice overall lubricant performance as a by-product.
integral to the successful performance of industrial Corrosion resistance should also not be the only
equipment, and are vital in the fight against corrosion. consideration when formulating lubricants. Other
The key to putting together the most successful variables an operator should consider when choosing
comprehensive lubrication strategy for an industrial the right lubricant include its ability to provide
operator’s unique set of circumstances relies on finding sufficient oxidation stability, wear resistance, and
lubricants that are a well-balanced mix of the right viscosity, among others, in order to perform as required
advanced base oils as well as the inclusion of a robust for any given application. How a lubricant performs
additive package. With regards to corrosion protection, across these and other characteristics is all dependent
the lubricant should include the correct corrosion upon which base oils are used, with what specific
inhibitors to defend against the environmental factors ratios, and with which additives combined.
that include humidity, water contamination and high To ensure the best lubrication strategy is
temperatures. implemented in an industrial operation, operators
Facilities should be aware, however, that only should work closely with their preferred supplier.
incorporating corrosion inhibitors could potentially Suppliers can help identify the available formulations
leave their operations vulnerable to other forms of as well as help select those designed with optimal
corrosive attack. The best formulations will include just performance across a range of sectors, applications,
the right amount of corrosion inhibitors, because too and environmental conditions in mind – including
few could result in the lubricant not being able to corrosion resistance. Finding the perfect lubricants for
provide adequate protection for the equipment and/or a refinery’s operational needs will help ensure
components involved. On the other hand, including industrial equipment performs effectively, efficiently,
too much of an additive could negatively influence the and productively, which can help save energy and
rest of the formulation. improve the overall bottom line.
To that point, another important factor to consider
when choosing the right lubrication strategy is whether Protect equipment further – investing
any sacrifices have been made in performance to make in lubrication services
up for other lubricant attributes. It is imperative to Beyond the actual lubricant in use, it is important for
understand that a well-balanced lubrication formula operators to invest in the proper services to help
 support those lubrication needs. These can include
Need a reprint? services such as routine used oil analysis (UOA) and
contamination control inspections, both of which
help provide operators with real-time information
and insights about their lubricant and equipment
performance.

Used oil analysis

UOA is useful when operators need to identify the
existence of oxidation, contamination, wear, etc. – all
challenges that could compromise lubricant
performance and reduce the ability of the lubricant’s
corrosion inhibitors to do their job. UOA results can
be measured over time, allowing operators to
distinguish patterns within their facilities and the
lubricants in use. When these patterns are discovered
preemptively, operators can make plans to take quick
and effective action. For example, results indicating
that there are increased wear particles present, could
be a warning that some form of corrosion is actively
taking place.

Contamination control inspection

More detailed lubrication assessments can be
provided when operators work with their preferred
lubricant suppliers to implement contamination
control inspections. These inspections typically
involve a UOA in combination with a manual, physical
inspection of critical equipment systems to pinpoint
irregular operating conditions resulting from potential
contamination (a characteristic which, again, can
ultimately lead to some form of corrosion).

Conclusion
To receive the full benefits of services like those
mentioned above, an established inspection schedule
is critical. Having a consistent and reliable inspection
schedule allows lubrication specialists to conduct
their studies, and detect equipment in need of
immediate solutions, as well as identify systems with
excessive oil makeup requirements requiring
We can tailor to your corrective action. Therefore, it is important for
industrial operators to work with their lubricant

requirements, suppliers and other maintenance partners to ensure

the best possible recommendations are provided, as
well as the actions necessary to effectively address
produce 1 - 12 page the source of an issue.
Lubrication may not necessarily be capable of
formats, print colour or totally preventing corrosion on its own, but it is still a
necessary building block in the fight against this
mono and more destructive industry scourge and will help protect
industrial equipment in the long run. As discussed
within this article, it is imperative that operators
implement the right lubrication strategy – which
includes the right product technologies and
+44 (0)1252 718999 associated services – to guarantee their lubricants are
[email protected] providing optimal protection for the operations
required.

References
1. AUGUSTEIJN, N., ‘Sustainability Blooms in the Lubricants
Industry’, Lubes’N’Greases EMEA, (March 2019), pp. 28 – 34.
2. NACE International, http://impact.nace.org/economic-impact.
aspx
AUTOMATED
CORROSION
MONITORING
Dr William Vickers, Ionix Advanced Technologies,
UK, explores modern methods for non-invasive
corrosion monitoring and how these help improve
operational safety, efficiency, and productivity.

R
ecent years have seen a shift in the corrosion monitoring practices of refineries
away from traditional invasive methods such as electrical resistance (ER) probes
and coupons to non-invasive ultrasonic systems which provide actual wall losses
for use in process control and asset integrity.1 The automated ultrasonic testing
(UT) and monitoring systems use permanently, or semi-permanently, installed ultrasonic
sensors to make robust and reliable wall thickness measurements which can be streamed
direct to a control centre or server and used to trend wall loss rates over time.2 Sites will
already be performing asset integrity measurements using non-destructive testing
techniques, including UT, but these inspections lack the precision and frequency which can
be achieved with automated monitoring systems. This means that they are unable to
provide the trending data that operations teams need to efficiently run their plants,
including operational decisions on corrosion inhibitor programmes and the processing of
opportunity crudes. Most plant operators are now aware of the benefits of online UT
systems but are unsure of how the systems can be deployed on their sites to monitor their
processes. This article will review how the latest installed ultrasonic monitoring systems
have been deployed for asset integrity and corrosion monitoring with a focus on the
challenges faced when deciding how and where to implement these systems for the first
time, and how to make the most of the data they generate. Knowledge gained from
successful system implementations, and the experience of those who use them, can be
shared to make the adoption of this technology easier for all. This review will be of interest
to all inspectors, reliability and corrosion engineers and plant managers who wish to
improve their understanding and knowledge of automated ultrasonic integrity and
corrosion monitoring and apply it to their processes and plants.

Why move to non-invasive UT corrosion monitoring?

Invasive ER probes and corrosion coupons have traditionally been used to monitor
corrosion. ER probes provide an indication of the corrosivity of fluids but not the actual
loss of material from the pipes through which it flows. Coupons, immersed in the fluid, can
be extracted and weighed to determine the material loss of a representative sample and

HYDROCARBON 57 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 inspected to indicate the corrosion mechanism occurring. new plant. UT corrosion monitoring, on the other hand, is
However, both these methods fail to provide actual wall loss non-invasive, and can therefore be installed on almost all plant
rates – the key metric in determining the integrity and safety of locations whilst in-service to provide actual, real-time wall
critical assets. They are also invasive, which means they must thicknesses and wall loss rates.3 UT corrosion monitoring
either be installed on isolated lines or via high-risk hot tapping systems can be retrofitted to ageing assets to extend life as part
procedures. As such, these traditional methods are most of a Risk-Based Inspection (RBI) strategy, or can be used to
frequently deployed by engineering, procurement and replace or complement historic corrosion measurement
construction (EPC) contractors who can design them into the methods by providing live data direct to a control centre via
wireless communication interfaces.4 A UT
monitoring system should provide a
complete solution including: the sensors
and electrical interface with data transfer
capability, data and system management,
integration with local systems such as data
historians, distributed control systems (DCS)
or plant integrity management systems
(PIMS) such as PCMS, and a method for data
review and system health monitoring as
shown schematically in Figure 1.

Where can sensors be

installed?
The decision on where to install sensors
should be guided by the site asset integrity
and corrosion engineers. Corrosion
engineers can identify specific loops or lines
which need monitoring and install multiple
sensors, usually in groups of four, at various
locations either on straight sections or in
higher risk areas, such as elbows, that may
Figure 1. The complete UT corrosion monitoring system, including:
sensors, deployment and electrical interface, data collection, data exhibit flow accelerated corrosion (FAC), to
integration and data and system review. determine average wall loss rates (see
Figure 2). Asset integrity engineers can
designate specific thickness monitoring
locations within a line that should be
monitored either as part of RBI, or in
response to specific mechanisms or
anomalies. It may not be possible to deploy
all types of UT monitoring systems in all
locations. For example, some systems use
metal stand-offs connected to the sensors
to mount the electronics and wireless
communication modules. This is useful in
that it reduces the requirement for cabling,
but it prevents installation in confined
spaces, and requires breaching the
protective layer of weather-proofing in clad
or insulated lines. It also means that the
batteries used to power the system must be
mounted on the sensor itself, which may
not be in a convenient location for
replacement or maintenance. Alternatively,
Figure 2 shows low profile sensors which
are installed in confined spaces with wired
Figure 2. Examples of UT corrosion sensor installations. Top left: sensors connections to a separate electronics
installed on an elbow prior to insulation and weather-proofing installation. interface, which can be mounted in an
Top right: low profile, high temperature sensors installed in a confined
accessible location such as at walkways.
space. Bottom left: installation of electronics interface (Mistras CALIPERAY)
There is a new generation of UT
on walkway with wired connection to sensors on pipe elbow. Bottom right:
in-service installation of high temperature sensors. corrosion monitoring systems which use
high-temperature capable sensors that can

March 2020 58 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 Monitoring around refining and other flammable locations
means it is important to ensure that the UT system selected is
capable of operation in hazardous and explosive environments.
Choosing an intrinsically safe (IS) system with the highest levels
of protection will ensure deployment across all locations of the
plant, including Class 1 Div 1 and Zone 0 locations.

Can these systems be installed during

normal operation?
UT monitoring systems now offer clamped deployment systems
which can be installed during plant operation, even at high
temperatures. The Ionix HotSense sensors have been shown to
survive thermal cycling and thermal shock as well as high levels
of vibration.6
For very large pipes or vessels, welded deployments are
often preferred. Here, studs are spot-welded to the asset and
used to mount the sensors. The advantage of this approach is
that multiple sensors can easily be installed at any location on
very large assets. It also allows for the sensors to be removed
and re-installed at the same location, if required for inspection.
However, some plants will insist that the stud welding is
performed during a shutdown which can delay the roll-out of a
monitoring system.

How is data returned to control rooms

or servers?
There are a range of options including the use of wires, manual
data collection from individual sensors or data loggers, through
to cellular or local wireless networks. For large scale
deployments, the use of local wireless networks is by far the
most efficient solution. A number of wireless methods exist
including WirelessHART, LoraWAN and ISA100. ISA 100 and
WirelessHART are popular, industrial mesh type networks where
all nodes on the network relay encrypted information to ensure
that all areas of a plant can be covered and a network can easily
be expanded. Their point-to-point range is up to 150 m but
Figure 3. Schematic of WirelessHART UT corrosion using a mesh network and a series of gateways (to collect the
monitoring system showing sensors, electrical wireless data and transit it to control centre) an entire facility
interface with WirelessHART mesh radios, gateway can be easily covered.6 They offer many similar features but are
and integration into local systems. not cross-compatible. Before selecting a system, consideration
should be made of what other sensors or instrumentation may
be deployed directly on to hot assets and make wall thickness be used to ensure that they are covered by the wireless
measurements on surfaces up to 600˚C/1112˚F.2 These protocol. WirelessHART is the most widely adopted wireless
low-profile sensors can be attached/installed using straps or mesh protocol, with sensors and systems offered by many
welded studs, and are small enough to be installed under major process control and instrumentation companies, using
insulation and weatherproofing, ensuring no water ingress and the IEEE 802.15.4 standard radios and approved as the first
minimising the risk of corrosion under insulation (CUI). international wireless standard (IEC 62591).7 An example of a
High-temperature capable UT sensors, such as the Ionix WirelessHART-enabled corrosion monitoring system is the
HotSenseTM range, enable real-time monitoring of the hottest Mistras CALIPERAY. WirelessHART networks are simple to
plant locations found in a refinery, including crude distillation configure and self-managing. All WirelessHART devices are
units (CDUs), vacuum distillation units (VDUs), and fluid certified against international standards for EMC and Fieldbus
catalytic cracker units (FCCUs).5 The monitoring of such assets, communication for integration into local systems.7,8 This ensures
some of which historically could only be inspected during that WirelessHART networks and sensors can be deployed
shutdown periods, helps to improve plant safety by providing across a whole site without interference with other systems or
more accurate and reliable asset integrity data, and by controls. Finally, a key benefit of a WirelessHART system is that
removing personnel from hazardous locations. As a result of the data never leaves the site and is protected by secure 128-bit
these developments, UT corrosion monitoring systems can be AES encryption.9
installed across lower and higher temperature applications, LoraWAN is a long-range protocol which uses a star type
being of particular value where rope or scaffolding access network where every sensor communicates directly to a
would usually be required. gateway. This method can have issues with total site coverage

March 2020 60 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 and reception dead-spots. It also requires either connection to productivity and make important process-related decisions.
the internet and cloud with subscription or a bespoke LoraWAN Maintenance and turnaround planners can make informed
server – an expensive investment, particularly if only running a decisions on repair and replacement, optimising maintenance
limited number of sensors. Currently there is a lack of globally project costs and planning
available and universal LoRaWAN sensors for corrosion
monitoring and also general instrumentation, and Conclusions
WiresslessHART is the preferred full site wireless monitoring Advanced UT corrosion monitoring systems are an increasingly
solution for oil and gas facilities. common solution to replace historic invasive methods, to
implement RBI programmes, and to safely extend asset life
What can the data be used for? and improve plant productivity and processing. It is now easier
Data from UT monitoring systems can either be collected in than ever to implement these systems into plants and
proprietary software or sent direct to a local server, DCS, PIMS programmes due to:
or data historian, as depicted in Figure 3. Some UT corrosion „ In-service installation and commissioning, even on hot
monitoring systems require bespoke software to analyse signals assets and in hazardous, explosive environments.
and produce measurements. These types of systems often Installation during a normal production run allows
demand an additional server to sit between the monitoring benefits and savings to be realised immediately instead of
system and the local systems and potentially may even require waiting for a very busy refinery turnaround period in the
cloud computing. Alternatively, some systems allow for data future.
processing and measurements, including compensation for „ Continuous monitoring enables wall thickness data to be
factors such as temperature, to be made in the field at the automatically collected multiple times per day from
electrical interface. This allows data to be imported directly to hazardous locations – avoiding the requirement for
local systems, such as DCS or data historian, and allows for scaffolding, hot work permits and exposure of staff to
integration into operations and comparison to other data high temperature and hazardous environments –
sources. It may still be beneficial to use the system’s proprietary enhancing safety and personnel risk reduction measures
software alongside local systems to provide functions such as and reducing inspection costs.
remote management of the system or for simple display of the „ Industry-standard wireless communication standards, such
data including current measurements, temperature reading, wall as WirelessHART, enable simple data collection from the
thickness trends and corrosion rates. field and collection at control centres and on servers.
UT corrosion monitoring systems can have integrated „ Compliant systems enable direct data integration into
configurable alarms which issue an alert when wall thickness existing servers and DCS, PIMS or other data historians,
retirement values are close to being reached – enabling allowing quick access by all refinery teams, and direct
maintenance to be scheduled or processes adjusted. For fully comparison to process or monitoring data from other
WirelessHART-compliant systems, these alarms are integrated sources.
into the electronics interface and can be displayed directly in „ Process and production engineers have access to integrity
control systems. data at key locations allowing optimisation of feedstock,
A valuable output from UT corrosion monitoring systems is corrosion inhibitor strategy and process parameters to be
the ability to observe wall thickness trends over time, allowing made. This enabled profitable decisions to be made based
corrosion rates to be determined and updated in real-time. UT on measurable data.
corrosion monitoring systems provide many more data points
than manual inspection, usually one to two every 24 hours References
compared to one every 3 – 5 years. The systems also allow 1. ‘Analysis of the Global Corrosion Monitoring Market’, Frost & Sullivan,
(2016), https://store.frost.com/analysis-of-the-global-corrosion-
improved measurement resolutions of around 25 μm compared monitoring-market.html
to > 100 μm for manual methods. These factors enable more 2. STEVENSON, T., ‘High-Temperature Piezoelectric Sensors for the Energy
Industry’, Engineering & Technology Reference, Vol. 1, No. 1, (2017),
accurate measurements to be made thanks to data fitting and https://doi.org/10.1049/etr.2017.0002
trending, which can remove some of the noise observed in 3. STEVENSON, T., ‘From inspection to monitoring’,
standard UT measurements. The most common method is to fit Hydrocarbon Engineering, Vol. 23, No. 8, (August 2018), pp. 57 – 61.
4. ‘Non-Invasive Thickness & Corrosion Monitoring’, Ionix Advanced
a linear regression to the data allowing for multiple data points Technologies, (2020), https://ionixadvancedtechnologies.co.uk/
to be included in an accurate determination of wall products/non-invasive-thickness-corrosion-monitoring/
5. ‘API Recommended Practice 580 – Risk Based Inspection’, American
loss/corrosion rates over time. In a recent example, frequent, Petroleum Institute, (2009).
consistent and high-quality wall thickness data collection 6. VICKERS, W., ‘Continuous high-temperature wall thickness monitoring
enabled a refinery operator to maximise plant availability and of multiple refinery process units’, Ionix Advanced Technologies,
(2019), https://ionixadvancedtechnologies.co.uk/wp-content/
avoid unplanned shutdowns, generating an expected payback uploads/2019/10/HotSense-Case-Study-In-Service-Monitoring-
time of less than one year for the UT corrosion monitoring Website.pdf
7. ‘IEC 62591: Industrial networks - Wireless communication network
system. and communication profiles - WirelessHARTTM’, International
One of the key advantages of collating UT corrosion Electrotechnical Commission, (2016).
monitoring data into local systems is that it enables the 8. ‘IEC 61158-1: Industrial communication networks - Fieldbus
specifications - Part 1: Overview and guidance for the IEC 61158 and
comparison of data from different sources by various disciplines. IEC 61784 series’, International Electrotechnical Commission, (2019).
For example, the operations team now has access to actual wall 9. ‘Intrinsically Secure WirelessHART® Field Device Networks and the
Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)’, FieldComm Group, (2017), https://
loss rates which they can compare to the fast-acting corrosivity www.fieldcommgroup.org/sites/default/files/technologies/hart/
measurements from ER probes in order to help optimise WirelessHART%20security%20v1.0.pdf

March 2020 62 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 Simon Daly, Hempel A/S, UK, surveys the
issue of corrosion under insulation, and
highlights the impact of new standards
designed to tackle this problem.

TESTING
YOUR WAY
TO SUCCESS
I
t is well-known that corrosion under insulation (CUI) is a then lead to significant corrosion of crucial infrastructure,
relentless form of corrosion, localised within insulated, which can be costly to repair or replace, and sometimes
low alloy and carbon steel equipment. It occurs hazardous to leave unattended. Additionally, the removal
wherever water makes its way under layers of insulation and disposal of insulation materials needed to inspect and
and is unable to evaporate. Over time, the trapped water repair has a significant environmental impact. Here is where
vapour causes the equipment to corrode and lose the right protective coating can play a significant part. But
structural integrity. Normally found in the insulation layers choosing a protective coating to fight CUI is not
of operating parts, process equipment, valves and refining straightforward, given the sheer number of products on the
assets, CUI has unfortunately become commonplace market today.
amongst operators in process industries, causing loss of
revenue due to maintenance, downtime and the The importance of quality testing
replacement of corroded components. Protective coatings should not be used in isolation, but as
Within the interior layers of insulation, corrosion can go part of a CUI methodology that sets out inspection,
unseen and is difficult to test for in a way that will not detection, installation and design practices that will limit
delay the daily operations of oil and gas assets. This can the damage corrosion can cause. Poor application of a

HYDROCARBON 63 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 Table 1. CUI classification environments The artificial ageing process uses a
Classification Minimum temperature Peak temperature combination of salt spray and water immersion.
CUI-1 -45˚C Up to 60˚C Afterwards, checks for blistering, cracking, rusting
CUI-2 -45˚C 60 – 150˚C
and flaking are carried out to ISO 4628
specifications. This is a common feature
CUI-3 -45˚C 150 – 204˚C
throughout the standard.
coating, or an issue with its manufacture and storage, can
all lead to the eventual failure of a coating product, Cyclic testing
independent of the coating’s inherent characteristics. An Cyclic testing with immersion functions involves the
additional major challenge lies with ensuring that the right repeated heating and cooling over multiple cycles from the
product is specified for the right application, given the maximum temperature of the relevant CUI category then
complexity of many coating specifications that are quenching into cold water at 5˚C.
expected to work in both CUI and exposed
high-temperature areas. CUI cyclic corrosion test (mandatory)
At present, there are many documents and standards Perhaps the most controversial part of this standard is the
intended for fighting CUI. By necessity, many coatings selection of the condensation chamber as an indication of
suppliers have developed ad-hoc testing programmes with CUI performance. This test is not widely used in the
very little comparable data. ISO 19277 is a relatively recent industry and numerous other, larger-scale testing methods
introduction to address this issue but has only seen limited are currently being evaluated. The absence of any insulation
uptake amongst operators. This standard, described in full in this test makes it an arduous task to form conclusions
as ‘ISO 19277: 2018 Petroleum, petrochemical and natural that would closely reflect real-world performance under
gas industries – Qualification testing and acceptance insulation.
criteria for protective coating systems under insulation’,
seeks to address testing of various factors which help Optional tests
determine the suitability of a coating for use under Besides the test programme, there are several optional
insulation. tests:
With advancements in technology in recent years „ Cryogenic exposure – optional cryogenic cyclic testing
providing a wide range of protective coatings, the is described for those cryogenic categories described in
importance of proper testing has not diminished. Money the standards.
and time can both be saved when the right tests are „ Vertical pipe/Houston Pipe test – as an optional CUI
performed to determine an appropriate coating for a given test method that is included within this standard, the
situation. vertical pipe test faces criticism because of the
temperature gradient that exists throughout the pipe
Testing procedures and protocol samples. This test is also highly dependent upon the
ISO 19277 introduces the concept of CUI categories based testing conditions, notably the insulation type.
upon temperature, allowing coatings to be classified in one
or more categories, dependent upon the temperature in What does the future hold?
which they are intended to operate. These categories are Although this standard is a very positive start to prescribe a
shown in Table 1. Additional categories are used for documented and reproducible CUI coating test
coatings intended for cryogenic service. methodology, the CUI testing element faces significant
The standard describes procedures for sampling, push back from the industry.
application and heat conditioning of coatings prior to With many test programmes active in this area, it seems
testing. Heat conditioning is extremely important, as CUI probable that this standard will be refined as time passes
does not generally occur the instant that a plant becomes by. Additionally, with a handful of key oil and gas standards,
operational. Therefore, the effects of heat/temperature on such as NORSOK M-501, currently due for revision, it seems
a coating must be considered, before the coating’s exposure likely that there will be continued activity in this important
to a CUI environment. Dry film thickness measurement and area.
adhesion testing are carried out before and after each kind
of exposure. Taking a decision
The standard proceeds to examine the following areas The performance of protective coatings under a wide range
in detail: of conditions is important, which is why there exists a
plethora of testing methods to help avoid choosing the
Artificial ageing wrong coating specification.
Whilst not an immediately obvious choice for a CUI testing The process of testing the effectiveness of coatings on
programme, it is very important to consider 1) the exposure their ability to prevent or delay CUI is complex, although
of the coating during transport and installation before necessary. Combining these test methods into a coherent
plant start-up and 2) situations such as extended standard with clear acceptance criteria is what ISO 19277
shutdowns where the insulation may be removed. seeks to do. Further refinements to this document as
Additionally, it is useful when considering bulk pipework improved test methods for CUI become available will allow
which may subsequently be insulated or left exposed. even better coating selection to be taken in the future.

March 2020 64 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 F
Eliminating the risk of or those working in chemical, petrochemical,
refinery and offshore industries, there is always the
unwanted and disruptive pressure to have a steady production output. At
downtime, problems with the same time, there is also often a demand to
improve productivity. Regardless of the expectations for
corrosion, leaks and accidents the operation, it is vital to never compromise on safety.
is vital. Jonas Höwing, Sandvik Safety of the plant operations, safety for the personnel
running the plant, and not least the safety of nearby
Materials Technology, Sweden, settlements and the environment. Selecting the right
emphasises the importance of hydraulic and instrumentation tubing for an installation
might not appear to be critical at first glance. After all,
selecting the right hydraulic and what is the use of a small diameter tube compared to the
intrumentation tubing for onshore large diameter process pipe carrying the valuable products
between the different process units? But these small
and offshore plants. tubes, although largely unobserved by the casual eye, do

HYDROCARBON 65 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 steel grades must be used. It has been shown, both in field
trials and from experience with end-users, that in tropical
environments at least super duplex or 6Mo austenitic
grades are needed for reliable, long-term service for
hydraulic and instrumentation installations. To save money
in the project by installing lower alloyed grades such as
316L or even 904L will, in the end, come back as a
high-cost solution when the tubes need to be replaced.
In offshore situations, salt spray and high chloride
environments are nothing new and high alloyed stainless
steel grades are always needed in hydraulic and
instrumentation installations. What is different in these
cases though, compared to most onshore sites, is the
Figure 1. Selecting the right tube material for possible presence of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which will put
refineries is extremely important. completely new demands on the tube metallurgy.
Materials with high resistance or immunity to cracking in
this sour application then need to be employed, which
normally means high nickel grades such as Alloy 625.
Encouraging engineers and OEMs to work closely with
their material manufacturer will help in getting the
material selection right from the start. Peace of mind is
achieved when the risk for corrosion and premature failure
is minimised.
When selecting and purchasing the tubes for a
hydraulic and instrumentation system, not only corrosion
resistance needs to be considered. Depending on the
production route of the tubes, heat treatment procedures,
and know-how in alloying content, the mechanical
properties such as yields strength, hardness and ductility
will vary between different tube manufacturers. The
Figure 2. Close-up of an intricate tube system at a mechanical properties of the tubes play a major role
chemical plant. during the installation of the hydraulic and
instrumentation system as they directly affect two key
play a major part in eliminating unnecessary risks and components: how easy the tubes are to bend in the field
downtime as they are crucial for operating valves, levers and how easy it is to assemble leak-tight couplings and
and getting correct information of the operations through fittings on the tubes. A tube with high yield strength will
instrumental readings. In addition, what these tubes lack in require a lot of force to bend and give high spring-back
size they make up for in their number and length. They are after bending. This can make field installations difficult and
also technically highly advanced products with tight slow unless highly skilled personnel are employed and the
tolerances and strict mechanical properties. Therefore, best equipment is used. High hardness of the tube can
they also carry a not insignificant cost with them. make it difficult to get the ferrules in the fitting to deform
While at times it may be tempting to go for the and grip securely onto the tube. This can later lead to
cheaper option for these systems, in many cases it can leakage or even result in a fitting becoming loose under
come back as a high cost a few years after installation, as pressurisation of the system. A fitting that comes loose
leaks and failure of the tubes may start to affect can become a deadly projectile. When buying tubes from
operational safety. Working with experts with the right a manufacturer with consistent mechanical properties of
level of knowledge and expertise will always be the best their tubes, reliable handling and installation can be
option to ensure peace of mind. expected. This gives peace of mind to workers, who know
Due to logistic advantages, onshore plants are often what to expect when handling the tubes, and the
located close to the sea. While this is convenient for end-users who do not need to see their hydraulic system
getting feedstock to the plant and for shipping the final coming apart.
products to customers, it puts the facilities in a highly All tubes for hydraulic and instrumentation systems are
corrosive environment. Salt spray from the sea can carry produced to standards which set the allowed tolerances
several kilometres inland and deposit on all outdoor on tube wall thickness variations, ovality and differences in
surfaces, and the high humidity in the atmosphere can give outer diameter. With variations in tube dimensions and
rise to dew forming on cold metal surfaces. This creates ovality from tube to tube and batch to batch, achieving
continued cycles of wet/dry conditions with chlorides secure and tight mounting of fittings and couplings can be
being present. In a low temperature climate, standard a challenge. When procuring the tubes from a tube
stainless steel may be able to cope with such conditions, manufacturer that has consistent tube dimensions and
but in warmer or tropical climates, high alloyed stainless tolerances regardless of whether the tubes were produced

March 2020 66 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 yesterday or several years ago, the end-user and the expansion of a system. If the original tubes in the system
people handling the tubes always know what to expect. were procured from a tube manufacturer who had been in
With dimensional tolerances that are tighter than those the business for decades, there is a good chance that the
cited in the standards, an additional safety factor regarding same manufacturer will be there to offer new tubes for
tight, leak-free fittings is a bonus. All involved in the the specific requirement. These new tubes will be of the
assembly of the tubular system can feel assured that it is same quality, alloying chemistry, dimensional tolerances
up to standard. and have the same mechanical properties as those already
Seamless tubes are known for their consistent in service, for maybe more than a decade in some
mechanical properties all around their circumference. This circumstances.
is not necessarily true for a welded tube that, regardless of Sometimes, accidents do happen and tubes are
redrawing and annealing processes applied, will always damaged. A part of the plant may need to be shut down
have an area with irregular microstructure. This will give for replacement of tubes and a large production loss is the
the tube uneven mechanical properties at risk of buckling result. Procuring tubes from a supplier that carries 100+ t
when bending and uneven deformation when attaching of tubes in stock in strategically placed distribution
fittings. It is important to have dependable mechanical centres is ideal in these cases. With a wide range of
properties of the tubes, however often they are twisted standard sizes and alloy grades, fast delivery of the
and turned. much-needed tubes can be arranged. Naturally, these
After installation, the hydraulic and instrumentation tubes will have the same properties as the old tubes and
system must be kept as clean as possible on the inside. fit perfectly into the repaired system. Having a solid source
Any solid particles or residues inside the tubes can of tubes is vital in such a difficult situation.
otherwise cause problems with the system during When selecting hydraulic and instrumentation tubing,
operation, hindering the satisfactory function of actuators. there is much to consider to ensure the best performance
To procure tubes from a manufacturer with a solid and operation. Cutting corners will invite problems down
cleaning process and who delivers the tubes with end caps the line. The best advice is to be certain of the
is therefore a great advantage. requirements of the application and consult with the tube
Even if the tubes for the hydraulic and manufacturers to ensure the material specified is the right
instrumentation systems are chosen with great care and one. Each scenario will have its own challenges and
consideration, new tubes may be needed. This may be due potential outcomes, good results will come from
to replacement of damaged tubes, alteration, or adherence to this advice and working with experts.

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Taking Command: Leadership

and Risk Management
The Cook Political Report’s
Admiral William H. McRaven, Road Map to the 2020 Election
USN (Ret.)
David Wasserman
Retired U.S. Navy four-star admiral and former chancellor
of the University of Texas System Senior Election Analyst, The Cook Political Report

Author, Make Your Bed: Little Things That Can Change Highly respected election
Your Life and Maybe the World analyst David Wasserman will
break down the upcoming 2020
Retired U.S. Navy four-star
U.S. national election, running
admiral and former chancellor of
through scenarios and possible
the University of Texas system,
outcomes. Wasserman is the U.S.
William H. McRaven opens our
House editor and senior election
conference with a presentation
analyst for the non-partisan
on leadership and risk manage-
newsletter, The Cook Political
ment. McRaven is an expert on
Report, and a contributor to NBC
the topic, having commanded
News. Wasserman will present
special operations forces at
data-driven forecasting to look
every level, before eventually
at both national and local trends, the relationship between
taking charge of the U.S. Special
consumer brand loyalty and voting and what the future holds
Operations Command. He is a
for the American elections. Wasserman drew widespread
recognized national authority on U.S. foreign policy and has
praise in 2016 for his accurate pre-election analysis, including
advised Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama as
his uncanny September piece entitled, “How Trump Could
well as other U.S. leaders on defense issues. McRaven has
Win the White House While Losing the Popular Vote.”
been recognized for his leadership many times, including in
Chuck Todd, host of NBC’s Meet the Press, recently called
2011, when he was the first runner-up for TIME Magazine’s
Wasserman “pretty much the only person you need to follow
“Person of the Year.” McRaven’s book Make Your Bed: Little
on Election Night.”
Things That Can Change Your Life and Maybe the World,
based on his 2014 UT commencement speech, has received
worldwide attention.

WWW.ILTA.ORG/AOCTS
 DIGITAL DATA
IMPROVEMENT
R
efineries worldwide have been converting from Dr Tetsuya Otani,
manual operations and analogue instrumentation to
automatic and digital operations for decades. This Yokogawa Electric
process has largely been completed for real-time Corp., Japan, examines
control and monitoring, often by installing a distributed
control system (DCS). But data analytics often lags behind, how digitised data can
with many refineries still using manual methods to collect be used for automated
and analyse data.
This article will focus on how refineries can convert analytics in predictive
manual data analysis to an automated digital process by maintenance and
using advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence
(AI) and machine learning (ML). Results from these analyses root cause analysis
can be used to improve quality, increase throughput, applications.
decrease downtime, and optimise maintenance.
Digital data analytics projects usually start with a
feasibility study, which typically takes a few weeks and
includes the following tasks in this order:
„ Identify the issues and develop a hypothesis
for the root cause of each issue.
„ Identify the available process data.
„ Execute a trial of process data analytics
using AI and ML technologies to solve
the issues identified in step one.
„ Determine the scope of the
project with estimated costs
and duration.

HYDROCARBON 69 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 The feasibility study typically identifies two categories of Predictive maintenance methods
projects. The first is predictive maintenance for early There are various methods available for performing predictive
detection of equipment failure, and the second is root cause maintenance by analysing digital data. This article will describe
analysis to identify what factors affect process inefficiencies methods typically used by Yokogawa, some of which are
and suggest improvements. proprietary, and others which are generic and used by other
automation system vendors.
Figure 1 depicts an example of a system configuration. Data
is collected from sensors by an edge computer in this
example, although sensor data could also be collected by an
asset management or similar system. In either case, data is
then stored in a database and sent to another system for
analysis.
As depicted in the bottom right of Figure 1, this system
configuration uses the Mahalanobis Taguchi Method (MTM)
and ML algorithms for predictive analysis. The models in MTM
and the ML algorithms are generated by offline process data
analytics software, which imports, displays, and analyses
historical process data.
Figure 1. This system configuration is for a typical Displays of overlay, scatter, and stratifying plots can be
refinery, with the sensor data collected by an used to see the difference between normal and abnormal
automation system and used for analysis. data, and these differences are often precursors to equipment
failure (Figure 2).

MTM vs ML
Many of the differences leading to failures cannot be easily
detected through simple visual examination, but instead
require automated and digital detection methods, such as
MTM and ML.
MTM is a pattern recognition technology used for analysis
of process data. A normal operating space is calculated using a
correlation matrix of data collected during normal operations.
The distance or difference between the ongoing process data
and the normal space is determined using a matrix calculation,
and this difference shows the degree of abnormality in the
process. In the case of asset data, MTM shows the degree of
asset abnormality, the precursor to equipment failure.
ML can also be applied for predictive maintenance, but
this method first requires the selection of algorithms
especially tuned for process data analytics, typically provided
by an automation systems vendor. These algorithms are
supplied with datasets from normal and ongoing operations,
Figure 2. Different types of plots depict the and the ML algorithms use a classifier to detect abnormalities.
difference between normal and abnormal data, useful Ideally, the classifier predicts signs of asset failure.
for predicting equipment failure. Typical ML algorithms include:
„ Algorithm using process data to resolve complex issues
such as cavitation detection, root cause of motor
malfunction, or clogged pipe detection.
„ Algorithm for simple issues requiring high accuracy and
processing speed, such as quality variation estimation.
„ Algorithm for issues with bad data.
„ Algorithm for analysing only good data when there is no
bad data and no requirement for fast processing speeds,
such as compressor failure analysis.
„ Algorithm for handling 24-hour periodicity data such as
temperature, which can be used for deterioration
detection of pH sensors and other purposes.
Figure 3. A Mahalanobis distance or difference, or
a machine learning output, can be used to detect MTM and ML results are typically sent to the edge
equipment abnormalities. computer, which has software designed to analyse the
historical trend data and these types of results (Figure 3).

March 2020 70 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 Historical trend data is automatically displayed on the edge between product quality and productivity. And even where
computer screens. Overlay plots of several periods of data, this trade-off does not exist, it is very common to have
scatter plots of cause and effect data, and stratified plots are
quality variations and resulting out-of-spec products. In
easily displayed by simple interactive operations. many cases where quality varies, process conditions are
The edge computer should also include an intuitive and quite similar, making it difficult to determine the root
easy-to-understand display of MTM and ML analysis results. cause.
This is critical because the raw results are not always clear andGenerally, root causes can be identified by combining
can be difficult to understand without interpretation by the two analytic approaches. The first approach is to
edge computer. investigate the correlation between quality and each
MTM and ML can be used separately or in conjunction, possible process parameter in a step-by-step fashion
with each method having advantages and drawbacks. (Figure 4). But with this approach, it is often not easy to find
MTM clearly classifies normal and abnormal operations clear correlation when plotting the quality variable against
by using rules to detect the difference between abnormal process parameters at each step of the production process.
and normal operations. Required computing resources are One common method to address this issue is classifying
minimal because the algorithms are relatively simple. But thethe quality variable into three or more classes according to
selection of feature values is critical, and large and process conditions as shown at the bottom of Figure 4, and
homogenous datasets gathered from normal operations are then plotting the quality variable when corresponding
required. Feature values are used to reduce the amount of process conditions are nearly fixed within a certain range.
input data. For example, if there are 100 samples of This technique is a type of hypothesis testing using a
continuous data, in some cases average and standard stratified classification approach, and it is often very useful
deviation values can be used to represent these data as an for discovering and finding the desired correlations.
input to MTM. Typical applications are product quality and The second approach is exhaustive correlation analysis
equipment health checks. and uses a regression model for estimation of quality
ML is very versatile for analysing unknown datasets, and
variables based on process parameters selected as
it is applicable to nonlinear problems and a wide range of candidates for root causes of quality variation. Whether
issues. Unlike MTM, ML requires the selection of specific the created regression model is linear, or non-linear based
algorithms in advance, depending on the process and on neural networks, the influence of each process
specific issues. ML requires extensive computing resources parameter on quality – also often referred to as
and the results require interpretation. Typical applications contribution of each factor – can be inferred by analysing
include pattern recognition and failure detection. the regression model.
Since the contributing process parameters are often
Root cause analysis for quality issues selected using process or domain knowledge, it is
Root cause analysis can be used to detect process reasonable to first investigate the relationship among
parameters causing inefficiencies. Quality variation is one process parameters through scatter plots, and then use ML
example, where there is often an underlying trade-off techniques to estimate the contribution of each selected
process parameter.
The stratified
classification approach
– where relevant process
parameters are first
selected based on
process knowledge, with
the contribution of each
analysed – is called
hypothetical stratified
analysis.
The second approach,
in which a regression
model is first developed
using all relevant
parameters and then
analysed using the
contribution of each
parameter, is called
exhaustive correlation
analysis. Typically, the
most effective way to
Figure 4. This root cause analysis method looks at the correlation between quality and analyse process data is by
each possible process parameter in a step-by-step fashion. using both of these
approaches.

March 2020 72 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 The process data with and without the occurrence of
corrosion was analysed to find the root cause of corrosion.
As a result, some of the operations were found to be
different than expected. Specifically, the data showed that
slight differences regarding introduction of neutraliser,
temperature control at the topper, and desalter operation
was causing corrosion. Adjusting these values eliminated the
corrosion.
Similar analyses are effective in finding the root cause of
fouling in distillation towers or clogging by unexpected
polymerisation in heat exchangers.

Catalyst deterioration root cause

analysis
Catalyst deterioration in the hydrocracker unit and the fluid
catalytic cracker unit in refineries is a common issue in
reaction processes. The reactor temperature should be
increased to keep the reaction constant through the life of
Figure 5. The analysis approach illustrated in this the catalyst, but temperature increases should be minimised
figure uses clustering to classify data. to reduce catalyst damage and maximise catalyst lifetime.
Catalyst deterioration root cause analysis and prediction
are required to maximise catalyst lifetime. Optimal
Root cause analysis for operating conditions with different heat balances must be
equipment/process anomalies found according to catalyst deterioration. Process data
Common equipment and process anomalies include analytics approaches including MTM and ML are deployed
compressor fouling, leakage from tanks and pipes due to to solve these issues.
corrosion, contamination caused by corrosion particles, Similar performance degradation can occur in the fired
device clogging as a result of formation of undesired heater furnace, and this issue can be addressed by analysing
polymer substances, and many others. furnace heat efficiency degradation.
Using exhaustive correlation analysis, data which
represents good and bad process or operating conditions is Predicting product properties
first collected. The collected data is then used to train an Another common refinery issue is optimising crude
ML model, and then the contributions of each parameter to switching and blend control, for example when gasoline is
the anomaly can be estimated from sensitivity analysis created by blending intermediate products. The prediction
performed on the created model. However, the data of gasoline properties from the laboratory analysis data of
available for anomaly detection is often insufficient, which intermediate products is therefore very critical. ML models
makes it difficult to find correlation in scatter plots or to can be used to predict gasoline properties such as density,
create a classifier model using ML techniques. final boiling point, octane number, etc. by using historical
In such cases, the stratified classification approach using data collected from laboratory analysis data.
hierarchical clustering is more effective. Clustering is an
unsupervised approach, where data does not require Conclusion
labelling or classification, allowing classification of data into Recently, combining rigorous simulation and ML approaches
an arbitrary number of clusters (Figure 5). is attracting attention.
By doing so, one may propose that a cluster containing The first approach is generating learning data for an ML
some anomaly data is more likely to represent the causative model by process simulation. This takes a long time for data
bad process or operating conditions, and then analyse that generation by process simulation and learning with an ML
cluster for better understanding of the root causes. model, but after the ML model is established, the
The following three examples illustrate how these calculation speed to predict the process output by the
techniques can be used to solve common refinery model is much faster than with a process simulator. Once
problems. created, the model is available for many kinds of
applications like prediction, early detection of process
Corrosion root cause analysis abnormality, and process optimisation.
Corrosion can occur when moisture is generated in the The second approach is to use rigorous process
acidic vapour region of a pipe or tray around the top of a simulation to confirm the root cause of issues identified by
crude distillation main tower unit, with chloride and sulfur MTM or ML. With this approach, MTM and ML are used to
compounds the main contributing constituents. find abnormalities and root cause candidates, but it can be
In one refinery, the amount of these compounds was difficult to interpret and understand the reason why the
reduced, and the temperature was controlled to remain candidates were selected by MTM and ML. Rigorous process
higher than the dew point in an effort to reduce corrosion, simulation can be used to address this issue, and to find
but it still occurred frequently, requiring repairs. root causes and recommended changes to operations.

March 2020 74 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 MAKING
A DIGITAL
DIFFERENCE
Ryan Streeter, MISTRAS Group, USA,
introduces modern approaches to inspection
reporting in the downstream sector.

R
efineries and other process plants rely heavily on
the ability to process and deliver critical
non-destructive examination (NDE) inspection
reports to keep the facilities safe, operational,
and profitable. But what happens when that information
is not appropriately processed, organised, and delivered?
Traditional, paper-based inspection reports are
notoriously inefficient, and can lead to costly
maintenance delays, manual errors, safety concerns,
and lost profits.
While this may sound like an intimidating task
to overcome, there are solutions. Mobile digital
reporting solutions now exist that transition away
from paper-based reporting. Powerful, end-to-end
workflow solutions enable increased safety and
significantly enhanced productivity through the
elimination of non-value-added work, while
offering customers complete visibility
and transparency into the
inspection process.

HYDROCARBON 75 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 All NDE operations results are centralised, while the MISTRAS Digital is a next-generation, NDE reporting
process to request NDE, forecast schedules, assign solution that helps facility operators and personnel
technician/inspector tasks, execute field work, review streamline critical data, facilitate operations, oversee
results, publish reports, and generate key performance safety, and coordinate budgets into functional, easily
indicators (KPIs) is simplified and connected. accessible categories. Through this process, customers
are given the opportunity to experience enhanced NDE
Digitalisation vs traditional NDE reporting, by way of upgraded visibility, flexibility,
reporting control, and optimisation, along with specific time and
While traditional, paper-based NDE reporting has cost efficiencies.
served its purpose over the years, the world today The use of digital reporting solutions rather than
moves at a faster pace, requiring data to be delivered traditional, paper-based reporting offers many useful
quicker and more accurately than ever before. capabilities that help to streamline refinery operations.
Facility personnel can remotely plan, schedule,
dispatch and receive inspection tasks at their
convenience, whereas through traditional reporting,
each of these steps has to be completed manually
and requires face-to-face intervention, which can be
time-intensive and potentially lead to human error.
By utilising a digital reporting solution, NDE
technicians/inspectors also have access to all
relevant data and documentation on their mobile
devices (e.g. isometric drawings, weld maps, P&IDs,
U1’s, pipe schedules, inspection histories, etc.),
enhancing the inspection process.
The tablets’ cameras offer the ability to quickly
capture and embed field photos directly within the
inspection record. The technicians/inspectors’
pertinent data is also captured during field
execution and encrypted along with the inspection
record to ensure data integrity. If any questions or
Figure 1. Plant managers have instant access to critical concerns arise while the technician/inspector is in
inspection reports and can plan accordingly based on the
the field, audio and video communications can be
priority needs of their refinery/process plant.
engaged between site management and the field
technician/inspector for real-time collaboration.
Customers also have the capability to bake-in
custom logic geared to drive dynamic work
instructions and deliver custom formats for
inspection report deliverables.
A mobile reporting platform can seamlessly
integrate within many inspection data management
systems (IDMS), such as MISTRAS’ Plant Condition
Management Software (PCMS), enabling further
efficiency gains through the direct download and
upload of data to the customer’s system of record. It
successfully addresses the need for a variety of
working situations including turnarounds, run and
maintain projects, capital project, or call-out NDE
and is fully compatible with iOS, Android, or
Windows-based platforms. Mobile reporting
platforms can also address all connectivity
scenarios, including 4G, LTE, and offline protocols,
with periodic synchronisation to the server.

Safety oversight
Safety is maximised through the implementation of
engineering controls within field workflows, and ‘start
work authority’ is governed by the platform’s
Figure 2. Through MISTRAS Digital, technicians/inspectors
database. This action prevents technicians/inspectors
can report NDE results to a plant’s inspection database
management system (IDMS) instantly and seamlessly. from starting work without having a list of specific
requirements met. This includes proper and extensive

March 2020 76 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 www.gastechevent.com

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 training, possessing all active and relevant certifications, A centralised database enables KPIs to be generated
ensuring that current equipment calibrations are not in real-time and rendered in a web portal to maximise
expired, having successfully completed a job safety process transparency. Certain metrics, such as progress,
analysis (JSA) and job hazard analysis (JHA), and any productivity, cost, and efficiency, are provided
other prerequisites required by the customer. Once all out-of-the-box to help drive business decisions, while
these preconditions are satisfied, then a start work flexible digital platforms enable additional custom KPIs
authority will be granted. to be developed in minimal turnaround time.
Digital reporting solutions offer real-time system
Time and cost efficiencies advantages, including delay notifications, facility access,
When it comes to providing inspection reports and other permitting, and weather conditions. When
relevant field data, traditional, paper-based techniques implementing a digital reporting solution into a
introduce significant latency between the work being workflow, refinery personnel are set to experience an
completed and the actual handover of the deliverable. increase in data reliability, reduced manual data entry,
Manual data entry from multiple technicians/inspectors real-time feedback from the field, and remote data
can also lead to significant discrepancies in inspection analysis.
results, potentially resulting in incorrect reporting or
redispatch of technicians/inspectors to perform Making the case for digital reporting
verification work. In multiple cases during 2019, MISTRAS Digital
However, with a comprehensive digital solution like successfully enabled increased efficiency across a
MISTRAS Digital, reports are standardised, accurate, and multitude of tasks:
provided instantaneously, leading to conservative „ Eliminated the need for spreadsheets and worklogs
expectations of 10 – 15% gains in productivity just in the to be built: query from IDMS and upload CML scope
field alone. These inspection reports are standardised into the portal.
and authored automatically, based on the information „ Increased efficiency for coordinators: provided added
captured in the field, which helps to deliver a engagement in the field with technicians/inspectors.
consistent product. It also maximises data integrity and „ Eliminated the need to carry paper: all drawings and
eliminates hours of non-value-added work. If IDMS historical data was readily available to
management personnel have questions about specific technicians/inspectors on their tablet.
inspection results, they can communicate „ Eliminated the need to retype reports in the office:
instantaneously with the on-site technicians/inspectors inspection reports were generated in the field rather
to confirm accuracy, rather than sending them back to than in the office.
the site days or weeks later. „ Reduced verification work by requiring a recheck
while still in the field: UT Temp conversions and
feedback for thickness anomalies during
field data entry.
„ Eliminated the need to carry a digital
camera and manually manage pictures:
view and download high-quality field
photos and attachments from portal.
„ Reduced the latency between dispatch
and receiving inspection results: live
update of incoming inspection data in
portal per asset.
„ Eliminated the need for manual data
entry: inspection data was loaded
directly into the IDMS (following
QA/QC review).

Final thoughts
Long gone are the days when utilising
manual, paper-based reporting methods for
NDE and visual inspection were ideal.
Mobile reporting platforms have
modernised the inspection reporting
process. With real-time visibility, flexibility,
control, and optimisation along with
cost- and time-saving efficiencies, digital
Figure 3. Digital inspection snapshots are developed to offer a
mobile reporting platforms are enabling
clear view of the condition of a facility’s assets, such as corrosion
monitoring location (CML) needs. facility operators to enhance productivity
and safety.

March 2020 78 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
SMARTER REVENUE
GENERATION
Leading petroleum refineries are
continuously pressured to achieve,
sustain and reach the next level of
performance. Andrew McCloskey,
AVEVA, USA, looks at how
digitalised operations and processes
can help to accelerate decision
making and boost revenues.

W
hen one talks about downstream
business processes, this commonly
refers to the petroleum industry, and is
associated with post-production
activities. Leading petroleum refineries are
continuously pressured to achieve, sustain and then
reach the next level of performance.
In the ongoing quest for value creation, businesses
are also seeing a new wave of technology-enabled
productivity growth. This is acknowledged in
McKinsey & Co.’s research on ‘Digitising the Value
Chain’, which states that 80% of operations agree that
digitalisation is a critical driver of competitiveness.1
In monetary terms, digital transformation in the oil
and gas industry could unlock approximately
US$1.6 trillion of value for the industry, its customers
and wider society. This total estimated value from
digitalisation can further increase to US$2.5 trillion if
existing organisational/operational constraints are

HYDROCARBON 79 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 relaxed, and the impact of futuristic technologies, such as database, Laboratory Information Management Systems
cognitive computing, is considered. Digitalisation has the (LIMS), mass and energy balance, production accounting;
potential to create around US$1 trillion of value for oil and gas accurate plant models; single version of truth achieved
firms.”2 through the seamless flow of validated data across all
Digitalisation is gaining momentum. It enables management applications via an integrated environment.
to receive real-time operational information in an integrated
manner and can help businesses break through to the next level Analyses performance with a collaborative
of performance in three key ways: analysis tool
„ Unlock hidden or captive value: performance gains made Accurate and robust progress measurement tool to ensure
by early adopters of refining operations management show high level of integrity in reporting; roll-up of individual key
significant contribution to profitability goals and invested performance indicators (KPIs) to the corporate KPIs, powerful
capital. visualisation and event management tools; seamless flow of
„ Close the digital operations gap: addressing the steps in an validated data and designed version of truth.
end-to-end refinery value chain as an integrated whole is
driving the next productivity frontier in petroleum refining. Continuously improves by agile decision
Although it goes by different names (digital, IoT, making based on reliable data
Industry 4.0), they all reflect a common theme of Well-designed business processes and workflow management
digitalisation of business processes, with huge potential leveraging state-of-the-art technology and industry standards.
especially for areas like operations management.
„ Enable a step change in process: unlocking hidden value Real-time data, real-time insights
requires dealing with events closer to real time – in As an early adopter of both enterprise and real-time control
particular, the many minor performance deviations or ‘value systems, the petroleum refining industry is well into the
leaks’ that occur daily. digitalisation journey. Most operational applications were
designed for reporting as opposed to real-time decision
Unlocking hidden potential making. As a result, the strategy-to-execution linkage is weak,
To understand the performance improvement potential in preventing real-time visibility and agility.
quantitative terms, consider the benefits to a 400 000 bpd The current reality for operational users in refining is that
refinery from integrated refinery information management users do not have time to coordinate closely or take
processes. advantage of available data, especially data that could provide
Revenue increase of at least 1%, which is worth more than appropriate insight into upcoming refinery behaviours.
US$67 million/yr per percent improvement, is achieved through The highly competitive nature of the refining industry has
improved availability and yield. Energy efficiency increases of at required higher levels of operational excellence. But with no
least 4%, which is worth more than US$20 million/yr, are relief in sight for margin pressure, there is a general recognition
achieved through proactive operations and closer coordination that sustaining the refining business under this ‘new normal’
through the ‘internal value chain’. Further cost reductions of at requires that we change the operational mindset. In other
least 1% are worth more than US$60 million/yr per percent words, businesses need a step change in performance to be
improvement, which is achieved through logistics improvements able to survive in the long-term and, as a result, ensure smart
within the ‘internal value chain’. revenue generation.
In qualitative terms, the deployment of refining operations The key to managing performance in real-time is that
management achieves further improvements in the following relevant information reaches the appropriate approval level
ways: quickly so that the decision can be made while the
opportunity still exists or before the issue becomes a
Enables planning with accuracy problem. All too often, the decision cycle takes too long
It enables planning and scheduling processes to tightly couple and/or the action fails to impact the KPIs that matter to the
with supply chain and operations management and allows business.
accurate planning based on accurate demand forecasts and real What is needed is to compress the time within the
plant constraints. decision loop while at the same time enabling informed
decisions along the management hierarchy. This approach
Allows the plant to operate optimally, reliably enables operations to deal with events closer to real time – in
and safely while meeting targets particular, the many minor performance deviations that occur
Applications such as ‘Operator Logbook’, ‘Operating Window’, daily. These minor deviations or ‘value leaks’, when undetected
‘Offsites Management’ and others enable digitalised business and left unchecked, slowly but surely erode profitability over
processes and allow enhanced operator productivity, improved time.
decision making, and working within the operating envelope to Companies evaluating an integrated, real-time operational
improve plant efficiency and asset lifecycle, providing a safer system are encouraged to consider the business decision in
and a more reliable operation. terms of enabling the right level of operational integration to
gain the agility where the business can adapt to changing
Measures performance with accuracy business conditions and exploit new opportunities. Digital
Tightly integrated quality management processes benchmarked initiatives, if well executed, can unleash enormous
against stringent quality standards; well implemented real-time opportunities in value creation.

March 2020 80 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 Case study – BP revolutionises its Real-time performance management in
downstream business practice
BP has placed a digital innovation programme at the heart of its While technology is a critical enabler, successful transformation
business strategy. It was within this context that BP decided to requires a holistic approach that includes the people- and
review its global downstream supply chain management process-related aspects. These are addressed by the four key
process. pillars:
The company identified that margin improvements were
being inhibited by current technologies, as well as organisation Align the hierarchy of metrics
and skillset requirements. Numerous unsupported bespoke A real-time business measurement system necessary to
tools developed at each of BP’s sites resulted in high underpin operations and business measurement incorporates
maintenance costs and duplication of effort between corporate both real-time KPIs and real-time accounting measures to
and local teams. provide a comprehensive view of the value of the operation.
The tools used were complex, hard to configure and not Closing the contextual gap means that operators and shift
transparent enough for refinery analysts to quickly identify supervisors must be able to understand the real-time financial
economic opportunities. Execution and sharing of best practices impact and strategic alignment of decisions and issues.
in refinery optimisation were limited and a strong inertia existed Conversely, upper management needs a direct line of sight into
to respond to dynamic market and operational changes. the leading indicators and how they are performing in real-time
BP set itself three goals: at the execution level.
„ Simplify and standardise oil and gas downstream supply
chain management to enable the business to quickly adapt Develop near-real-time dashboards
to market changes and take advantage of economic Once the KPI hierarchy has been broken down through to the
opportunities. operator level (including the financial view), it is embedded in
„ Enhance data management and transparency to improve the dashboard to ensure that at every level there is a real-time
decision-making across global feedstock planning and view of execution in an integrated, strategic context, combining
refinery operations teams. operational and financial KPIs for all stakeholders.
„ Reduce IT cost of ownership and increase agility by taking
advantage of cloud-enabled workflows. Empower the edge
For corrective action to be taken in a timely manner, those
The company conducted a comprehensive evaluation to closest to the frontlines or the ‘edge of execution’ must be
select a technology that would help standardise and simplify its empowered to act in a way that is consistent with the
supply chain business process. Key stakeholders were operational procedures defined. Every person in the operation
interviewed, and several commercial solutions were evaluated. may perform activities that add or reduce the business value
AVEVA was selected because it had the ability to support BP’s produced by the operation.
digital transformation strategy.
BP selected AVEVA’s Unified Supply Chain in the cloud Create a culture of accountability
solution to deliver maximised margin capture, efficiency and In a culture of accountability, people at every level of the
sustainability. Its single and enterprise platform has built-in data organisation are not only personally committed to achieving
management and embedded business process workflows, which key results set by the organisation, but also have to be
is aligned with BP’s vision that business value is built on trusted proactive where they never wait to be asked for a progress
data that is easily accessible across the enterprise. report or a follow-up plan.
Through the platform, collaboration and planning model
assurance has been improved. For example, multi-user access
and a common language that is easily understood across „ Earlier decisions and communications – decisions on
different regions and roles enables faster implementation of feedstock purchasing and planning operations that
refinery LP model updates. BP’s process engineers can also now previously took two business days can now be made in
communicate effectively with plant operators and those making two hours and instantly shared across the enterprise.
maintenance decisions, mitigating risk and improving safety. „ Removal of technology limitations, enabling BP to focus on
Furthermore, sophisticated analytics with improved the human aspect of process improvement.
reporting and visualisation help the team to build robust and
stable plans. Alongside easy deployment and optimised user BP continues to partner with AVEVA through its long-term
experience, one key differentiator was the time it took to support structure and continuous R&D development. In doing
understand what worked best for BP’s culture, including a robust so, BP’s teams are empowered to focus on discovering even
change management process. more innovative ways to increase efficiency and drive
The results included: profitability across the company’s global portfolio.
„ Significant margin improvements through an improved
refinery optimisation process. References
1. NANRY, J. NARAYANAN, S., and RASSEY, L., ‘Digitising the Value Chain’,
„ More robust and lower risk plans – ability to run complex McKinsey & Co., (March 2015).
models that were not possible before and execute more 2. ‘Digital Transformation Initiative: Oil and Gas Industry’, World
Economic Forum, (January 2017), http://reports.weforum.org/digital-
analysis due to improved calculation speed, down from transformation/wp-content/blogs.dir/94/mp/files/pages/files/dti-oil-
seven hours to just over three minutes. and-gas-industry-white-paper.pdf

March 2020 82 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
HART
Bernd Schäfer and Alexandre
Terentiev, HIMA, Germany, use
a practical example to show how
the HART communication protocol

of T
can be used to enhance predictive
maintenance in the process industry.

he digitisation of field devices offers plant

operators huge potential to reduce operating
costs while increasing productivity. As ‘eyes and
ears’, field devices collect valuable data directly

gold
from machines and plants. However, the reality of the
process industry shows that a large part of the available
data remains unused. Measuring transducers installed today
can do considerably more than just transmit measured
values via a 4–20 mA signal. Diagnostic data remain unused
for the majority (85%) of HART-capable devices present in
processes. Field devices that use the HART protocol are
becoming increasingly important in the digitisation of
process engineering manufacturing. The result is new
opportunities for use in predictive maintenance. The key is
to know the current ‘state of health’ of a particular device.

HYDROCARBON 83 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 With over 40 million field devices installed and support First applications indicate potential
from leading instrument suppliers, the HART communication About 50 HART assemblies (spread over three systems) and 40
protocol is the most widely used digital communication vacant positions in two additional systems are used in a plant
technology in the process industry. Although the HART signal belonging to a German chemistry company which manufactures
has been primarily used for parametrisation thus far, it can also an intermediate product for the cosmetics industry. In this
enable continuous device monitoring and diagnosis as well as process, HIMax controller acts as a safe gateway to the asset
provide multivariable process information with the management system. This is used for the acquisition,
corresponding tools. If this data is collected and converted parametrisation, device exchange, and for the carrying out of
into usable information, they can provide considerable added repeat tests. The plant operator regards the selective permission
value over the complete plant life cycle – from planning and of the HART communication as a particular benefit. In another
installation through to operation and maintenance. Another operation of the same company, flow meters work together
factor is that data is theoretically relatively easy to access. This with the safety controller to supply relevant diagnostic values
makes seamless integration into IIoT solutions possible, automatically once a month. These are filed in the operating
potentially via the HART protocol and gateway solutions. data information system at the same time so that predictive
HART technology means that corresponding field devices have maintenance can be scheduled. There is also a pilot system with
huge potential where the vertical networking of plants and which loop checks (testing of the circuits) of the sensors can be
the transition to intelligent factories and Industry 4.0 are carried out. This is controlled and monitored by the safety
concerned. controller via an automated simulation in the device. With
these measures, the plant operator aims to extend the test
Predictive maintenance enabled by interval of the SIL repeat test to up to three years.
diagnostic data from field devices A large-scale use of the HART solution has already proved
With the HIMA HART solution, plant operators can make the an initial success for an oil and gas company in the DACH region.
diagnostic data acquired with field devices easily and safely The project involved explosion protection over the complete
usable for the asset management system. Extended trend plot, using approximately 900 gas warning sensors with SIL 2
information enables meaningful predictive maintenance for the classification spread over 18 plant parts. The safety function was
safety systems in the process industry. The analysis of data from realised via the 4–20 mA loop. However, the extended
the field devices provides definitive information for the requirements plus the customer desire for simplified device
operation and maintenance of the plant. Targeted repairs can be parametrisation, online calibration reporting, and
planned at an early stage, misuse can be prevented, and defined documentation, as well as statistical reports and predictive
maintenance intervals can be extended. maintenance could not be fulfilled via standard AMS functions;
Plant operators can integrate the solution into existing expensive customer-specific solutions would have been
infrastructure without incurring huge costs. They benefit from necessary. The HART-based safety solution and additional
low engineering costs and shorter commissioning times as well standard software (SCADA system with reporting functions)
as reduced maintenance costs due to optimised work saved time and money on initial installation. The solution is
instructions and maintenance plans. The new solution also flexible with regard to changes, upgrades and updates.
offers support functions for NAMUR NE106 with more flexible Additional advantages for the customer included the possibility
test intervals; the automatic repeat test means that test intervals of working with familiar systems while also receiving an integral
can be extended, thereby reducing maintenance costs and security concept.
increasing availability.
Conclusion
Joint solution Diagnostic data from field devices offers plant operators
Based on the technology described above, a solution has been advantages in the field of predictive maintenance, provided that
developed which combines a HART-enabled HIMax safety the data can be made usable. The HART communication
controller from HIMA with dedicated diagnostic technology protocol – as the most widely used digital communication
from Endress+Hauser. With this, it is possible to use the technology in the process industry – is a suitable starting point.
monitoring function of the measurement technology in flow The HIMA HART solution sets high standards for the acquisition
meters and read diagnostic data in the SIL loop. This function of diagnostic data from field devices used in safety circuits.
provides a sensor integrity value with which corrosion and With the data obtained, it is possible to derive clear progress
deposits can be detected, among other things. In addition to curves and trend statements on the health status of a device.
the test result (passed or not passed), the devices’ test provides This facilitates anticipatory maintenance: by avoiding downtime,
all the diagnostic values necessary for meaningful trend system operators are able to effectively save costs.
monitoring. These can then be processed further and used for
predictive maintenance. There are now various analytical References
1. GILL, S., ‘HART holds its own in the race to Industry 4.0’,
models available for a detailed evaluation of the parameters so
Control Engineering Europe, (4 September 2017), https://www.
that clear progression curves and trend statements on the controlengeurope.com/article/139367/HART-holds-its-own-in-the-
health of the device can be derived in the respective race-to-Industry-4-0.aspx
2. KEMPF, J., ‘Exklusiv-Interview zur Namur-Hauptsitzung: Endress+Hauser-
application. With a specific adaptation of this application, it is CEO Matthias Altendorf: “Das IIoT wird greifbarer“’, Process,
even possible to display to the nearest millimetre the thickness (17 September 2018), https://www.process.vogel.de/endresshauser-
ceo-matthias-altendorf-das-iiot-wird-greifbarer-a-756111/
of a coating formed in a measuring tube. Any necessary plant 3. MÜHLENKAMP, S., ‘Intelligenter Türöffner – Diagnose für PLT-
purging processes can be initiated in this way. Sicherheitseinrichtungen’, Process Ausgabe, Vol. 9, (2018), p. 34 ff.

March 2020 84 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
THE HEALTH
AND SAFETY
IMPLICATIONS
OF SPILLS
Reuben Ritchings, Adler and Allan, UK, explains
what must be considered when safeguarding
employees and clients following a spill.

A
midst the catastrophic environmental impact of spills, thought is
rarely given to the risks encountered by clean-up operators.
However, these first line responders must be given the best
protection possible against contamination and injury. Apart from
being ethically desirable and legally mandated, these skilled technicians would
not be able to tackle serious incidents without safeguards.
Specialists are routinely called into a wide variety of refining and oil or gas
and petrochemical storage spills. They range from pipeline leaks that require a
mechanical response, to tanker rollover and breach, all the way through to
major incident spills, such as high-volume breaches, which demand large scale
protection and restoration of entire ecosystems.
The majority of these spills are potentially hazardous to the environment
and could also compromise human health and safety. Toxic substances may
cause either short-term irritation or longer-lasting conditions, such as
occupational asthma, or even instant death if not handled correctly.

HYDROCARBON 85 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 Armed with the full picture of what they will be getting to Dangerous locations
grips with, those working in environmental protection All affected work areas are dangerous due to their varying
companies must ensure that all appropriate safety equipment, natures and locations. This includes refineries, terminals,
clothing and knowledge are provided to anyone going near offshore oil rigs, chemical plants, ports and harbours, and
pollution, ensuring risks to their wellbeing remain low. fuelling station forecourts.
Any of these high-risk environments might involve unstable
No two jobs are the same structures, high voltage cabling and transformers, flammable
Whilst there is never a routine operation, most spill responses poisonous and corrosive atmospheres, working at height,
involve three key areas: containment; clean-up and disposal of confined spaces and fast-flowing or deep water.
substances that, once dealt with properly and quickly, will limit Clean-up specialists have to be fully knowledgeable of all
damage to specific ecologies and the wider environment; as best practice and legislation for every scenario, as all incidents
well as human health. present different challenges. This includes additional individual
However, no two jobs are ever the same and spill health and safety requirements that have to be fully complied
responders must always be prepared for the unexpected and with, since the strict rules of client organisations and sectors
unknown. Ostensibly, tanker rollovers leaking the same often exceed statutory requirements.
substances may appear like similar spills, however the presence
of many different variables mean that a unique set of Training and certification
circumstances occur with every incident. The talent pool must attain all formal qualifications that are
This may include the size of the overturned vehicle, its needed before they can set foot on-site and operate in
angling, whether it is lying on a road, soil or a water course. dangerous environments. For example, technicians must have
Other factors affecting the speed of response, the potential OFTEC OFT/600A to install oil tanks and the associated pipe
impact and which assets should be deployed include the work and equipment. This qualification covers health and safety,
amount leaked, the surrounding environment, time of day, fire valve installation, regional legislation and requirements, safe
temperature, weather conditions and whether there are electrical isolation, and oil storage and supply.
overhead lines or gas mains nearby. The numbers of statutory courses and certificates that must
Every one of these aspects and many more must be be successfully completed to be able to access every
factored in to get the job done as quickly, effectively and safely petrochemical, gas and oil storage operator run into the dozens,
as possible. and many companies require specific demanding accreditation
hurdles of their own.
A particularly demanding regime is the marine sector where
fresh UK Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) requirements
came into effect in November 2019. These certify response
organisations to advanced Tier 2 oil spill responder criteria
under the International Spill Accreditation Scheme (ISAS).
As individual port authorities often have additional
induction requirements, this all calls for a learning and
development programme that is extremely broad, flexible and
multi-disciplinary in its spectrum, if clean-up staff are to be
properly protected.

Personal protective equipment

Environmental protection companies must ensure that anyone
Figure 1. Various personal protective equipment (PPE). going near pollution is provided with all appropriate safety
equipment and clothing, keeping risks as low as possible.
Ideally, personal protective equipment (PPE) should be
designed for operation in many different settings and must fulfil
a wide array of varying functions. While it is unlikely that any
individual technician will make full use of their kit, this
multifunctionality ensures that all employees are safeguarded in
any potentially hazardous environment by having all available
capabilities.

Safety drills
Regular callout exercises with clients should be conducted to
test their protocols and practical deployment readiness.
Adler and Allan conducts exercises with port and harbour
associations to test their oil spill contingency plans but other
aspects that could be tested range from strategy and resources
Figure 2. Using absorbents to mop up after an oil
to other matters such as business continuity, public health and
spill.
environmental concerns.

March 2020 86 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 This ensures that the safety demands of each call-out are
met in a more complex, pressurised situation than personnel
might encounter in other simulations, therefore maximising
their efficiencies and attention to safety during a live incident.
Such exercises also allow clean-up teams to pre-compile
risk assessment method statements (RAMS) for every customer,
which anticipate all possible incidents and how they should be
tackled, including the safety precautions that must be taken.

The vital 10%

During a spill call, RAMS are refined and added to speedily assist
with pre-work risk assessments. They are studied and
completed by the emergency response operators and the
affected organisation, who factor in and build on the particular
circumstances on the ground. This adds a vital 10% to the 90%
already laid down to prevent harm and save lives.
This is essential as no set of RAMS should be completed
without specific on-site knowledge and cooperation with the
client in the hyper-dynamic and fluid situation that is an
emergency response.
Crucially, by arming clean-up specialists with the right skills,
latest techniques and innovations, they are given the confidence
to challenge established procedures and tell customers what
they need to know.
For instance, if a generic gas monitor that only detects
methane in a propane outage is being used, or if a piece of
equipment is likely to be an ignition hazard in a flammable
atmosphere, these serious lapses should be pointed out and
removed.

Additional dangers
Despite rules demanding that only a specific piece of
equipment or method should be used, the prescribed kit and
processes present cannot be allowed to pose additional
dangers in an emergency response situation. Any properly
trained specialist response team will address this with their
client so that a suitable alternative can be deployed instead.
Spill affected companies and end users may be experts in
what they do and their operations may well conform to
industry standards. However, it is the clean-up crew’s
YOU CAN‘T IMPROVE YOUR
responsibility to ensure that all parties attending are always safe DECISION MAKING...
...WITHOUT THE RIGHT
and not walking into danger in an emergency breach.
To this end, a competent spill response service will ensure

INFORMATION.
that all machinery and safety equipment is always entirely
appropriate to the location and nature of the pollution.

Ever more complex and challenging

emergencies HOERBIGER‘s compressor audits
Finally, as emergency situations become ever more complex and „ assess compressor performance
challenging – and with rising demands that learnings should be
acquired from each one – environmental clean-up operations
„ visualize improvement potential
require multi-functional expertise. „ anticipate savings
This has led to sector leaders developing bespoke software „ provide ROI for each scenario
that can instantly display all of the training received by „ estimate the value of the reliability increase
attending clean-up personnel and the time they have spent on
different kinds of recent jobs. This ensures that the most
suitable personnel are always deployed, which means that they
ree.hoerbiger.com
will be most attuned to the safety requirements at play.
Spill response professionals must maintain and log levels of
competency to serve clients from different sectors without risk
or compromise.
March 2020 88 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
 Jochen Schaal, SoundPLAN GmbH, Germany, examines the
steps that can be taken to help mitigate excessive noise.

V
arious noise reduction arrangements disturbance, cardiovascular disease, fatigue, and other physical
and suppression apparatus have been disturbances. Recent investigations suggest a link between noise
developed to mitigate occupational and dementia, as well as potentially cancer and diabetes in
noise and vibrations emanating from women.
hydrocarbon engineering operations. This is Mental health can also be affected by exposure to excessive
particularly important at the planning and preliminary noise. Psychological conditions include communication
design stages, when noise control strategies should be disturbance, reduced or delayed reactions, and the reduction of
implemented. Too often, facilities are developed without psychological wellbeing (which could manifest itself in
properly assessing the noise likely to be generated and how increased nervousness, frustration, or aggression).
to reduce it. Mitigating noise (and other potentially harmful
emissions) does not have to be a case of trial and error, or result Knowledge is power
in expensive retrofits. In the arena of noise control, the saying ‘scientia potentia est’
Noise during the construction phase is unavoidable, but it (‘knowledge is power’) is very apt. It is not hard to recognise
can be minimised. In addition, there are steps to reduce noise nuisance noise but identifying its exact source and field of
once operations are up and running. propagation can be a very different matter.
Noise emissions can vary widely in sound power, frequency
Why is noise such an issue? spectra, directivity, and also in their timings. Their regularity in
Industrial noise can cause both temporary and permanent different work situations also varies between irregularly
hearing damage. Hearing loss comes from exposure to noise, distributed noise impulses and almost continuous noise.
both over time where it may occur gradually, or suddenly, due In order to reduce noise and mitigate its harmful effects, it is
to an exceptionally loud noise, which can trigger it instantly. important to know as much about it as possible. To be truly
As significant as it is, it is easy to assume that this is the only effective, any attempts at noise control must be based on an
issue caused by exposure to high levels of noise, but there are a accurate analysis rather than guesswork or reference to
number of other potential impacts. These include sleep previously recorded levels.

HYDROCARBON 89 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 Getting to the source noise reaches 85 dB or above. This is known as the
The danger of hearing loss is a given if people are exposed to ‘noise contour line’. In areas where levels exceed 85 dB, workers
levels of more than 85 decibels (dB). The risk increases with the should wear hearing protection. Failure to clearly mark the
magnitude and exposure time, as well as the frequency of the contour line could leave companies open to fines and litigation.
noise; with higher frequencies doing more damage. Hearing loss There must always be signs showing employees and visitors
makes up between 30 – 40% of occupation-related illnesses. where hearing protection is required, and it is the supervisor’s
When considering how to control noise, the primary responsibility to ensure it is always worn. This applies to both
requirement is to locate and document the areas where the inside facilities and outside.
If a workplace has areas that may be close to or above
85 dB, then a noise study should be carried out to define all
areas where hearing protection is required, and mitigation is
needed. Workers can also be provided with noise dosemeters
to keep track of their daily exposure to noise. A well-studied
and documented noise policy is better than paying for
lawsuits from workers with hearing problems and paying for
disability because of tinnitus and hearing loss.
Alongside the physical and emotional issues associated
with hearing loss, there is also a financial impact both for the
individual and businesses through loss of earnings, lost
working days, litigation, recruitment costs, and reputational
damage.
Figure 1. Vertical noise map within a production site.
Mapping the noise
Measurement alone shows only one noise level and it is not
possible to assess how much came from any source. However,
computer-devised simulations using sound mapping mean it is
now possible to isolate and address problem areas.
Using the data from a noise study and other relevant
sources, sound mapping software enables realistic noise
simulations to be developed. These can show the sources of
the loudest noise and the propagation across the site.
With sound-mapping software, one can create a noise
map of the facilities or landscape in question, and produce a
visual display of how the noise will travel and at what
volumes.
Noise software maps can also be used for specialist
purposes, such as the positioning of turbines, as they show
how noise will move across the landscape in different
environmental situations. More importantly, it can show how
mitigation measures can affect the flow of noise and protect
workers.
Sound mapping also makes it possible to predict future
levels of noise and take steps to control it, whereas
Figure 2. Noise exposure from a refinery. measurements cannot be taken until the entity making the
noise is physically there. This means that ‘what-if scenarios’ can
be created prior to building a facility, enabling an assessment of
how effective new, quieter equipment or noise mitigation
techniques would be.
No two noise maps will be the same as their make-up is
dependent on the project size, geography, objective, and most
significantly, the available data which can be imported and
used.
The multiple visualisation options in a sound map mean
that plants can be viewed from different aspects. This helps the
user to identify the problem areas and recognise the noise
reduction potential.
When choosing sound-mapping software, there are a
number of factors to consider:
Figure 3. Noise map within a building. „ Open data – if necessary, can the data be transferred to a
new software? If it is produced in proprietary software, the

March 2020 90 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 company will be locked into using that system or have to start again from
scratch in the event of changing sound-mapping provider.
„ Good resolution – is the map a high-resolution image? Is it possible to make
out small details to help with noise mitigation planning or does it just give an
overview of the situation?
„ Displays information – does it contain the information or just present a
picture? To be fully effective the information should be displayed within the
map and different views should be available.
„ Information manipulation – are data files all merged or are they separate for
easy manipulation and extraction?
„ Meeting requirements – depending on the size of a project, the software
solution may change. For a small project a tailored version may be sufficient,
but, if the project grows, will the software be able to cope, and will a more
complete version be compatible?
„ Ease of use – is the software simple to operate? Be careful though, if it seems
very easy to use straight away it may be because the software is basic and will
not be able to handle all the company’s requirements.
„ Ongoing support – will the company get help to use the software after
purchase and how easy is it to upgrade?

Noise reduction pays

Although there will be an initial outlay for noise audits, new quieter equipment,
and other mitigation factors, properly managing noise should show a positive
return on investment.
Not taking action can be expensive. If excessive noise is left untreated,
businesses can face legal action from workers or local residents whose health has
been affected. This in turn can increase insurance premiums. There is also the cost
of both lost man hours, when workers take time off sick, and management time to
deal with sick leave and litigation. These expenses can soon mount up, so investing
in noise control can quickly pay for itself.
While important to health and safety, providing the necessary personal
protective equipment (PPE), such as earplugs and earmuffs, is not cheap, and the STOCEXPO EUROPE
administration costs of maintaining sufficient supplies can mount up too. By
reducing the noise at source, the requirement for PPE can be dramatically reduced.
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By reducing noise by just a few decibels, the risk of hearing loss and other harmful
effects is considerably reduced.
Using low-noise and well-maintained equipment, or placing a barrier between
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 13-16 April, Abu Dhabi

2ƱFLDO3XEOLFDWLRQ 2UJDQLVHG%\
A HEATED
STORY
Koen Verleyen, nVent, Belgium,
provides a brief history of heat tracing
technology in oil and gas applications.

D
espite being an essential function that keeps
the world moving, heat tracing remains
undervalued in many industries. The process by
which heat is applied to a vessel to replace
energy lost to the ambient environment, heat tracing
technology is both vital for preventing pipes and
equipment from freezing, and maintaining a range of
fluids at the optimal temperature for manufacture,
transportation or storage. As such, there are few
industries which rely on heat tracing more than the oil,
gas and petrochemical sectors.

HYDROCARBON 93 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 Advancements in heat tracing technology have onshore production sites, as well as offshore vessels and
helped drive significant growth in the petrochemical platforms. The systems help enforce anti-icing and
industry over the decades. The evolution of this de-icing of walkways, stairs, and handrails, and can keep
technology has so far spanned a century, and each point a wide variety of critical equipment free of ice, including
of technological innovation has been spurred on by navigational tools, pumps and antennas.
experimentation and innovation, born from vital need. Heat tracing technology is therefore essential for the
safe and efficient operation of many critical processes,
Safety and efficiency first undertaken in unusually harsh environments: maximising
In today’s oil and gas industry, heat tracing has a wide industrial productivity by reducing the risk of downtime
variety of uses. A major application is freeze protection and ensuring better management of health and safety
of water lines, including water supply and steam issues in high-risk settings.
condensation pipes, wastewater lines and water supply The history behind this technology is long, with
for both fire sprinklers and eyewash/safety shower electrical heating cables having been around in some
stations. shape or form since the 1930s. While the core principals
Heat tracing is further critical for maintaining the have remained fairly consistent since the early days, heat
flow assurance of hydrocarbons in pipelines and process tracing technology has likewise completely transformed
equipment. It does so by preventing the formation of to adapt with the times. To chart the history of this
solid deposits, such as wax, hydrates and paraffins, which shift, it is important to consider how the industry
may reduce or block flow entirely. Similarly, heat tracing functioned before these cables ever existed, when steam
ensures process fluids such as sulfur, bitumen, acetic was the driving force behind heat tracing.
acids, biodiesel, phenol and other chemicals are
maintained at the correct temperature for optimum Early 1900s: steam heat tracing
viscosity and to prevent a change of state. The Steam had been used for heat tracing since the early
technology is also vital for ensuring winterisation of 20th century. As a by-product of numerous
manufacturing techniques, steam had long been seen as
a readily available source of heat that cost nothing to
derive: working by circulating steam around process
pipes to dissipate latent heat.
This is heat tracing at its most rudimentary. Yet
steam is still frequently used today, particularly in
settings where it is available as a by-product of the core
process, for example in power industries. In the
petrochemical industry, however, its use has been
reduced over time, due to its inherent limitations.
Two major drawbacks of steam tracing are its
inaccuracy and poor energy efficiency. The lack of a
reliable control method makes the use of steam
ill-advised for applications where tight process control
is essential, whilst the fact that steam systems remain at
Figure 1. Electrical heat tracing (EHT) cables offer an a constant temperature (pressure dependant) often
efficient alternative to steam tracing. means excessive heat is transferred to a pipeline. Steam
tracing systems can also be costly to install and require
regular maintenance to prevent abrasion or blockage in
steam condensate traps, corrosion and pipe leakages.
Therefore, it became clear that a more effective solution
had to be uncovered.

1930s: electric heat tracing

The urgent need for more efficient solutions is what
drove the development of electric heat tracing (EHT). It
was an inventive start, with industry professionals
beginning by experimenting with what was available. At
this point, mineral insulated cables arrived on the scene.
Mineral insulated cables contain copper wires, packed in
a sheath alongside powdered minerals, such as
magnesium oxide, which provide insulation. Their unique
composition ensures the cables have a low flammability,
Figure 2. Heat tracing has always been a
even when used in extreme temperatures and
vital operational and safety consideration for
petrochemical applications. conditions. However, in the early days of their use,
mineral insulated cables could only be controlled in

March 2020 94 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
simplistic ways with controllers that were self-regulating heat tracing cable. These cables were
opportunistically adapted from other equipment, polymer based, constructed from crosslinked polymers
making them less than optimal in terms of safety and that offered previously unseen toughness, chemical
accuracy. resistance and high-temperature performance.
There was only one potential safety issue – mineral Inside the core of a self-regulating heat tracing cable,
insulated cables were tough in many senses, but could polymer and conductive carbon black create pathways
also be susceptible to failure. Their termination points between conductors. As a pipe cools, this conductive
could be damaged by fire or moisture and they were core contracts, making room for a higher number of
unsuitable for use with heavy vibrating machinery, which conductive pathways. Conversely, as a pipe heats up, the
could cause them to crack. Furthermore, the magnesium core expands and limits the number of conductive
oxide insulation was hygroscopic, with a tendency to pathways. As such, there is a lower flow of current
draw in moisture which could cause electrical leakage. between conductors and the cable transmits less power,
and therefore less heat, to the pipe.
1950s: enter the mineral insulated For the petrochemical industry, this invention
resistance heating cable became a key milestone, as a result of the major
While the name may be only marginally different, challenges it could overcome. Self-regulating heat
mineral insulated resistance heating cables offered major tracing cables could be cut to length in the field, as the
advantages over their predecessors and are still widely wattage or metre of the cable was not affected by its
used today. These specialised cables are more effective
due to their conductors, which are made of a
high-resistance alloy. As such, they are able to meet the
oil and gas industry’s need for specific temperature
conditions. Today, mineral insulated resistance cables
remain the most effective solution for applications with
high exposure temperatures or where high-power output
is required, such as bitumen production, molten salt
applications for solar power transfer and preventing
condensation in incinerators.
While mineral insulated resistance heating cables
may offer more advantages, they also share some of the
same limitations as their previous iterations. They remain
hygroscopic, due to the use of magnesium oxide
insulation and must further be prefabricated and Figure 3. Developments in heat tracing technology
terminated at the factory, which prevents anticipation of have been consistently driven by the needs of the
onsite conditions and makes it extremely difficult to industry.
deploy any last-minute changes. In addition, they cannot
be overlapped, which means that installation of complex
piping systems becomes a challenge.

1960s: skin-effect speciality heaters

The next decade brought the arrival of specialised
heaters for long-line pipelines. These heating systems
are composed of a current-carrying conductor, which is
energised at a high voltage and sealed within a
ferromagnetic tube. Magnetic inductance then causes
resistance heating within the tube, while the charge in
the conductor induces a small current, creating the
phenomenon known as ‘skin-effect’ heating. While
highly efficient, the skin-effect strategy is only effective
in long-line unbranched pipelines that run for 1 – 25 km
(1 – 15 miles), making it unsuitable for smaller circuits.

1972: invention of the conductive

polymer self-regulating heat tracing
cable
In 1972, radiation chemistry was a young field, and its
potential was still being fully explored. The Raychem
Figure 4. The invention of self-regulating heat tracing
Corp. (now a part of nVent) was amongst those cables was a major milestone for the petrochemical
experimenting with the chemical effects of radiation on industry.
various materials, which led to the invention of the

HYDROCARBON 95 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 require expert installation. As the
petrochemical industry expands, it has
driven a need for ever-more sophisticated
control systems that can manage more
complex and wide-ranging heat tracing
processes.
The 1990s for instance, saw the first use
of networked computerised controls.
These systems enabled the integration of
EHT controllers into distributed control
systems (DCS) onsite. For the first time,
process engineers had full central visibility
of heat tracing processes in real-time,
meaning they could react more quickly to
problems and adopt a more agile,
proactive approach towards maintenance.
Though there have been many stages of
Figure 5. Self-regulating heat tracing cables represent a safe, versatile controller technology since the 1970s, one
and durable option for a range of applications. particularly noteworthy development is
the proportional ambient sensing
controller (PASC). PASCs use an intelligent
total length. When combined with advanced controllers, algorithm to measure ambient temperature and run or
these cables could also substantially increase energy shut off heating power in response. As such, the level of
efficiency. Self-regulating cables also offered higher heat energy transferred is directly proportional to
levels of safety in hazardous areas as they did not predicted heat loss, thereby maximising both energy and
overheat or burn out, were highly resistant to damage cost-efficiency.
and could be crossed over on pipe fittings. Thus,
self-regulating heat tracing cables became the first and, 2000 – today: heat tracing gets smart
at times, only choice in a variety of critical settings Powered by the digital revolution, the world is becoming
within the oil and gas industry, and continue to be the increasingly connected through smart technology and
most versatile option for many projects today. the Internet of Things (IoT): not only in homes and
offices, but also out onsite, where intelligent, responsive
1990s: zone heater developments control systems are arguably needed most. The latest
A more recent development is the constant wattage smart controllers offer insight into heat tracing systems
zone heater – also known as a parallel circuit trace through highly sophisticated, yet safe, remote
heating cable – which is a cost-effective solution monitoring. They can be integrated with DCS systems for
offering a selection of the benefits of self-regulating seamless, intuitive operability, even in the largest and
heat tracing cables. Within these cables, a constant most complex of systems. Smart controllers can
wattage alloy is helically wound around an insulating calculate required power levels in a variety of contexts
core, which shortens the deployed length of resistance with an extremely high degree of accuracy, thereby
wire. This is then wrapped around two parallel insulated reducing total operating costs (TOC) and offsetting total
bus wires which have alternating nodes at regular installed costs (TIC). Any faults are immediately visible,
intervals, constituting a zone of 1 – 5 m (3 – 6 ft). As a easy to locate and can be targeted specifically based on
result, these zones allow constant wattage cables to be severity level, without a blanket need for system
cut-to-length in the field and overlapped, thereby shutdown. As such, smart systems enable the highest
overcoming some of the drawbacks associated with degree of safety, efficiency and quality – all essential
standard constant wattage applications. requirements for the petrochemical industry.

1970 – 2000: controller innovation 2020 and beyond: the future of heat
The essential technology behind EHT has stayed tracing
relatively consistent since 1972, but the controller So, with the history of the technology briefly explored,
technology behind it has made significant progress. the question becomes what is next for heat tracing
While self-regulating heat tracing cables can be systems? Smart controllers are expected to get smarter
operated without any kind of external control as the potential of Big Data and machine learning allow
mechanism, installing a control system enables more for ever greater levels of assessment and control.
precise temperature measurement and higher energy Process engineers can anticipate gaining even greater
efficiency – which is essential in advanced oil and gas levels of insight into EHT systems, driven by greater
applications. accuracy and increased connectivity. For the oil and gas
Heat tracing controllers range from the most basic industry, these developments promise a brighter, safer,
devices through to highly advanced systems which more dynamic future ahead.

March 2020 96 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 THE RIGHT
HEATING
CHOICE
Hydrodesulfurisation units are crucial in the downstream oil and gas industry.
Ilan Toledano, Wattco, Canada, looks at the role of these units and how the
right heating choices enable a reliable and efficient process.

S
ince their commercialisation in the industrial boom of Commercial uses of elemental sulfur
the 1950s, hydrodesulfurisation (HDS) has become an In addition to creating a better product, HDS also creates sulfur
important part of the downstream sector of the oil and as a by-product. Elemental sulfur has several commercial uses
gas industry. that play important roles in various industries:
In the decades since its emergence, HDS processes have „ Sulfuric acid for fertilizer.
undergone substantial changes and innovations. Some of the „ Mineral extraction.
most important innovations centre around improved heating „ Wastewater processing.
techniques and mechanisms which allow for faster, more „ Insecticides.
accurate, and more economical processes. „ Fungicides.
„ Matches.
HDS in refining crude oil
The vast majority of all sulfur produced around the globe is Sulfuric acid for fertilizer is the largest commercial use of
produced in refineries and natural gas processing plants. The the sulfur removed by the HDS process. This use makes the
process removes the sulfur compounds from products like sulfur by-product particularly important to the agriculture
refined gasoline. HDS is an especially important step in refining industry. However, elemental sulfur still plays a role in most
crude oil, creating products such as jet fuel and gasoline. It also other industries from mining to power generation.
helps produce cleaner-burning fuels. Crude oil refineries with
HDS units manufacture products that produce sulfur dioxide Variables to control in HDS
emissions during combustion. This is important for meeting Effective desulfurisation of crude oil requires precision control
emission standards in everything from commercial vehicles to over variables. Even in very low concentrations, sulfur can poison
power plants. noble metal catalysts – damaging catalytic reforming units.

HYDROCARBON 97 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 Complete removal of sulfur from petroleum requires accurate target temperature (300˚C to 400˚C). Once it achieves the
equipment and a high degree of control over the following desired heat, the vapour enters the fixed-based reactor. In
variables: the reactor, the product flows through the catalyst, which
causes the HDS reaction to occur.
Temperature Although the HDS occurs here, this is still an early stage
Industrial HDS units require elevated temperatures to remove in the HDS unit. Further refining and separation continue on
elemental sulfur compounds. Exact temperature requirements from this point.
vary depending on the size of the HDS unit and the product
being treated, but generally, the temperatures range between Reboiler
300˚C to 400˚C. The product moves into a gas separator where it splits off
Industrial heaters are used to achieve the necessary into gas and liquid. The gas moves on to an amine treater for
temperature. Electric heaters are a popular option for HDS units H2S removal, while the liquid moves on to a reboiler. Here, a
as they are capable of achieving temperatures quickly and with boiler heater creates further separation, converting the liquid
great precision. The process may also involve heat exchangers into steam or hot oil. The fully desulfurised product is then
for cooling the product before it enters the pressure controller. removed and ready for other stages of refinement in
downstream oil and gas processes.
Pressure The vapour which is removed at this stage does not
The pressure is adjusted throughout the desulfurisation continue on, instead, it goes through further processing in
process. At its height, pressure can be elevated as high as 30 to the HDS unit.
130 atmospheres of absolute pressure. Although the pressure is
reduced to 3 to 5 atmospheres in the gas separator vessel. Reflux drum
The remaining product is further separated. The vapour goes
Catalyst through a condenser, returning to a liquid mix. This goes into
While the external forces of temperature and pressure are a reflux drum where it is heated again in a reboiler. The
necessary, HDS still requires a catalyst in order to occur. The heated liquids go in one of three directions.
catalyst causes the reaction to occur when introduced to the Most of the remaining product separates either into sour
right conditions. gas or sour water. Sour gas refers to gas with a significant
The most active catalysts are at the middle of the transition amount of hydrogen sulfide. Although desulfurised gas is
metal series. The main HDS catalysts are based on cobalt and ideal for most major uses, sour gas still has significant use. It
molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), commonly referred to as a CoMo is commonly used in upstream operations or for sulfur
catalyst. Alumina is a common support for the catalyst. recovery.
Some feedstocks that are difficult to treat require Sour water is the liquid equivalent of sour gas. It is
hydrodenitrogenation. These often use a combination of CoMo wastewater that is rich in hydrogen sulfide and ammonia.
and NiMo (nickel and molybdenum) catalysts. Sulfur and ammonia can be extracted from this fluid. Once
they are removed, the wastewater can be reused in a variety
The role of heaters in refinery HDS of ways, such as industrial heating.
Heaters are among the primary drivers of the HDS process. They The rest of the separated product goes through another
promote the catalytic reaction, allow the product to flow pump and returns to the first reboiler. From here, some will
through the system, and separate gases and elements. Heating is become a desulfurised product, ready to move through the
involved in the most critical stages of HDS, removing sulfur refining process. The rest will repeat the reflux drum process.
by-products and moving crude oil through the refining process.
There are many variations and different approaches to HDS Optimising HDS heaters
units in crude oil refineries. Yet most modern processes have The role of heaters is significant in the HDS process.
similar heating principles and applications. Here, the roles of However, maximising the efficiency and consistency of those
industrial heaters in a typical HDS unit are examined. processes still requires significant thought.
The power source is one of the biggest considerations.
Preheating Traditionally, fired heaters have been common, especially for
Before separation, the crude oil goes through preheating. This the liquid-gas mix feeding into the reactor. More recently,
process starts with the pressurisation of the liquid feed which though, electric heaters are on their way to replacing this
then joins with hydrogen-rich gas. It then goes through a standard. Electric power offers greater accuracy, longer
preheater to prepare it for the next stage of separation. This can lifespans, and rapid heating.
be achieved through an inline heater or a heat exchanger. The heater materials need to be chosen carefully as well.
Preheating the mix not only optimises flow but also makes The materials need to be capable of withstanding the
the next stage of heating faster and more efficient. Since the product flowing through, and reactions occurring, within it.
mix is already heated, it requires less energy to achieve the This selection must account for the nature of the product
desired heat in the next phases. itself, the catalyst used for HDS, and the temperature ranges.
Matching the heater selection to the specific needs of
Fixed-based reactor the process will result in longer equipment lifespans, lower
Next, the preheated liquid-gas flows through a fired or operational costs, and higher productivity. The right heating
electric heater where it is fully vaporised and brought to the choices allow for a reliable and efficient HDS process.

March 2020 98 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
EVERYONE’S
A WINNER
Carl Rentschler, Engineering
Consultant, and Goutam
Shahani, ShureLine
Construction, USA, look at
supply agreements as the route
to reaching a win-win for all
parties organising procurement
for downstream projects.

I
t is essential to carefully manage the cost of
purchasing materials and equipment, as well as
engineering services and construction. The
obvious approach is to bid all inquiries, but this
may not always be the best solution. Factors to
consider include whether there will be repeat orders
for the same or similar equipment/material, and
whether there is an established relationship with a
supplier. Also, thought should be given to whether
the project entails significant proprietary
technology that must be guarded. In this case, the
fewer suppliers involved, the greater ease in which
the technology can be kept confidential. Also, there
may be a chance that a single vendor can help
create performance improvements through ongoing
component enhancements from project to project.
Supply agreements offer the opportunity to
create partnerships with suppliers to increase overall
project performance, but this must be done with
eyes wide open. The obvious question that arises
with supply agreements is how does a buyer know

HYDROCARBON 99 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 the work. All of this takes time when a project schedule may
already be tight.
An approach to expedite the procurement process is to
establish a terms and conditions agreement with a supplier
or multiple suppliers. This is a contract with a supplier for
the purchase of defined material, equipment or services
according to agreed-upon terms and conditions. Prices are
negotiated with each order. This still requires the
preparation of detailed scope documents, but time is saved
with contract negotiations.
Using pricing lists is another method of performing
procurement. Under this option, vendors provide lists of
equipment, material or services containing fixed prices for a
defined period of time. This provides a quick assessment of
Figure 1. Construction work at a speciality chemical costs, but is limited to well-defined equipment, material and
company in New Jersey, US, in 2019.
service scopes. Having unique scopes for procurement will
require iterations with vendors to modify pricing lists. Under
whether they are getting a reasonable price over time as this procurement option, terms and conditions are
prices fluctuate. Supply agreements must be negotiated negotiated or confirmed with each order.
considering the review of pricing forecasts, and then as the Supply agreements provide the opportunity to reduce
agreement progresses, an eye must be kept on the market. A time constraints inherent with other procurement options,
win-win can be achieved between the project owner and and also to ensure that specific scope definitions are easily
supplier through a properly executed supply agreement. addressed. A supply agreement is a contract with a supplier
A successful supply agreement requires communication for the purchase of defined equipment, material or services
among parties and openness about changes and needs at a fixed price and established terms and conditions, over a
during the partnership. For example, if a supplier sees that specific period of time. Vendors considered for supply
costs, schedule or performance can be improved with a agreements often have a long-term relationship with the
design change, these ideas should be noted to the buyer. buyer and therefore are well-acquainted with expectations.
Owners on the other hand should share if there is schedule Generally, trust has developed so buyer and supplier are
relief or other allowances to reduce delivery pressure by the common stakeholders in projects and strive to resolve issues
supplier. Together the buyer and supplier should look for as a team. For supply agreements to be most effective
ways to improve project performance, either through between buyer and supplier, there must be openness
enhanced designs or more timely deliveries. Construction between parties and a team effort. Both parties must share
problems should be solved as a team, with both parties problems being faced and, on the other hand, there should
available to send people to the field on short notice to solve be openness about upsides being experienced, either with
problems. schedule or cost. Technically both parties within a supply
Major projects frequently encounter problems in agreement should work together for innovative solutions
material/equipment delivery and services supply, and these and resolution of any problems. This type of procurement is
can have a dramatic impact on project execution. This discussed further in subsequent sections.
situation can be improved with well-focused supply
agreements creating a team for material/equipment or Evaluating procurement options on an
services supply. This team ensures timely delivery of ongoing basis
material, and it is in place to solve emerging problems. In the The process of determining the best procurement option
end both parties benefit with a successful project added to should continuously be considered. This is particularly true
their resumes. Together a win-win situation is achieved with for material/equipment and services purchased on an
a partnership having a common goal: the overall successful ongoing basis. Circumstances change with time and an
execution of a project. approach viewed as acceptable for past orders may not be
the best option today. It is wise to originate and maintain a
Procurement options strategy document outlining options, and considering the
There are numerous ways to procure material and services possibility of a supply agreement. Factors to be considered
and each method has its positives and areas of concern. The include upcoming projects, spend data with current vendors
most common method of procurement is to bid material or (not having supply agreements) and the ability to increase
services with several bidders on a defined scope basis. The buying power. Regular meetings to discuss procurement
competition drives price competitiveness, and using strategies is an effective means to ensure there are ongoing
qualified bidders ensures that material or services are discussions concerning buying options.
provided by reputable bidders. The process can be time
consuming as detailed bid documents must be developed Circumstances driving supply
including scope and execution parameters. If qualified agreements
bidders are not obvious, an effort must be made to ensure In today’s competitive, global marketplace, cost is a primary
that financially sound and capable companies are bidding driver to get projects approved. Speed is equally important.

March 2020 100 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 In order to get a credible capital cost estimate, detailed One major concern with supply agreements is that
engineering has to be completed. This can be as much as 15% sometimes the vendor can quietly increase the price, which may
of the total installed cost. For a US$200 million project, become higher than the prevailing market price for the material
engineering can cost up to US$30 million and take 12 months or service. Sometimes the buyer ‘falls asleep’ and eventually
to complete. Corporations are not willing to spend this realises that they are paying too much. There have to be internal
money upfront since it is not certain whether the project checks and balances to ensure that the price increases are kept
will eventually get funded. Hence, project capital cost has to within reason. For long-term sustainable success, the right
be estimated in a timely manner without spending millions partner must be carefully selected. The skillsets of the two
of dollars to get final funding approval. Without detailed companies should be complementary. The geographical
engineering, estimates for equipment, materials, and location of the two companies including time zones should be
construction have to be developed. It must also be noted considered as well as language and communication methods.
that most major chemical companies have their own Lastly, the partnership should be structured so that the goals of
specifications and standards for equipment, valves, piping, the two organisations are aligned and that both companies win
materials of construction, and construction work processes. by delivering a successful project.
These standards and specifications ensure that the finished
project complies with the corporation’s safety and quality Conclusions
requirements for the entire project life cycle. In addition, Procurement of material/equipment and services for major
sustainability, environmental performance and energy projects remains a major activity influencing successful
efficiency must be taken into account. Unless the project’s project execution. All procurement options should be
requirements are clearly spelled out, different suppliers will considered to drive successful projects, but supply
provide estimates that cannot be directly compared to one agreements in particular offer options to leverage factors
another. A lot of time and energy has to be expended in influencing a positive outcome. A supply agreement
putting various quotes on an ‘apples-to-apples’ basis. In procurement arrangement allows for a vendor to assist with
addition, all the suppliers have to be qualified in terms of project development, which is a crucial and costly part of
safety, quality, and insurance. Furthermore, references have the project. This procurement technique also eliminates the
to be checked. All of this takes a lot of time and money. At time consuming effort of qualifying vendors and going
the end of the day, the lowest bid may not be the best bid through a bid process. Finally, a long-term vendor-buyer
when quality, safety and reputation are taken into account. relationship offers the possibility to improve the design and
Some suppliers will provide an aggressive number to secure execution techniques from project to project.
business with the hope that scope changes after detailed Both vendor and buyer must enter into a supply
engineering is complete will enable them to adjust the price agreement with eyes wide open and a willingness to work
upwards. Such an approach causes stress and consternation together for the good of the project. Problems on either side
and may even jeopardise the viability of a project based on should be surfaced immediately and resolved through open
financial analysis. discussion. A team arrangement with both parties driving to
To avoid these pitfalls, it is a good idea to consider a common goal is a powerful approach in procuring
supplier arrangements – either exclusive or non-exclusive. material/equipment and services, and resolving emerging
There is a certain comfort in dealing with known entities that execution problems. Trust is at the core of successful supply
understand the owner’s requirements, culture and work agreements, and with openness by both parties this can be
process. Such relationships take a long time to develop and assured. In the end, a win-win is a realistic outcome of
cultivate, but they can be useful to generate credible capital supply agreements with buyer and supplier both enjoying
cost estimates in a timely manner without spending too the upsides of successful project execution.
much money.
Bibliography
Supply agreements: advantages and 1. RENTSCHLER, C. and SHAHANI, G., ‘Comparative analysis of
common project execution alternatives’, Hydrocarbon Processing,
possible concerns (April 2019).
The advantages of having partnership supply agreements are 2. BERG, J., SHAHANI, G., and RENTSCHLER, C., ‘Creating a “win-win”
between a construction contractor and project owner – Part 2’,
fairly self-evident. When a supplier agreement is properly Hydrocarbon Processing, (June 2018).
structured, it can save both time and money. One of the 3. BERG, J., SHAHANI, G., and RENTSCHLER, C., ‘Creating a “win-win”
major benefits of supply agreements is the time saving between a construction contractor and project owner – Part 1’,
Hydrocarbon Processing, (May 2018).
associated with not having to quote every purchase. This 4. RENTSCHLER, C. and SHAHANI, G., ‘Construction – The cornerstone of
includes not having to qualify vendors. There is greater a successful project’, Hydrocarbon Processing, (December 2017).
5. RENTSCHLER, C. and SHAHANI, G., ‘Outsourcing and Offshoring
comfort in the quality of the estimate. Furthermore, there is Engineering and Fabrication Activities’, Chemical Engineering,
confidence that the partner will deliver the goods or services (August 2017).
6. MULROONEY, M., and SHAHANI, G., ‘Signed, sealed, delivered’,
as proposed. Communication is simplified when there is a Hydrocarbon Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 2, (February 2017), pp. 93 – 98.
prior relationship and trust. In addition, people at the two 7. RENTSCHLER, C., MULROONEY, M., and SHAHANI, G., ‘Modularization:
companies are familiar with one another, which allows for The key to success in today’s market’, Hydrocarbon Processing,
(December 2016).
speedy project execution. Having previously worked 8. RENTSCHLER, C. and SHAHANI, G., ‘Better risk-management methods
together allows some of the risk to be taken out of the ensure project success’, Hydrocarbon Processing, (July 2015).
9. RENTSCHLER, C. and SHAHANI, G., ‘Successful project development
picture. This results in a lower reserve in the capital cost and execution: Beyond EPC to “T-EPC”’, Hydrocarbon Processing,
estimate, which can make the project easier to fund. (December 2014).

March 2020 102 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 BUTANE
BLENDING
Tom Edwards, Technics Inc., USA
and Dr Suresh S. Agrawal, Offsite
Management Systems LLC, USA,
discuss the economic benefits obtained
through optimisation of butane content
within gasoline.

O
ne barrel of crude oil produces 80 – 85% of
blended fuel products such as gasoline, diesel, and
fuel oil. Gasoline fuel production is between
45 – 55% of one barrel of crude oil. These fuels
products are made by blending 6 – 12 components which are
produced in the refinery process units and have different
qualities such as research octane number/motor octane
number (RON/MON), Reid vapour pressure (RVP), distillation
points, olefins, aromatics etc., to meet the final product
specifications. Each of these quality specifications are
controlled by regulatory agencies such as the US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) who impose
restrictions for greenhouse gas emissions both for the
regional climate and population centres. In addition, quality
specifications are seasonally adjusted for proper functioning
of vehicles in all weather conditions.

Gasoline properties and significance

RVP is a measure of volatility of the fuel and has absolute
maximum value of atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi (101.35 kPa).
It has both minimum and maximum specifications and varies
regressively from winter to summer. Modern fuel injection
systems have greatly decreased the impact of changing fuel
volatility that was a routine problem for carbureted engines.
However, the impact still exists and the systems still require
liquid (non-gaseous) fuel with adequate volatility. Cold
temperatures will not properly atomise low RVP fuel within a
cold engine and a high temperature with high RVP fuel will
tend to produce vapour in the fuel supply. Naturally, RVP
specifications are higher for the winter season than the
summer season and can vary from region to region.

HYDROCARBON 103 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 Table 1. Gasoline properties and their significance
Quality Specification limits Typical range Seasonal/regional Significance of quality
variation?
RON Minimum 94 – 95 No Prevention of pre-ignition or knocking at low RPM
of approximately 600
MON Minimum 84 – 85 No Prevention of pre-ignition or knocking at higher
RPM of approximately 900
RDOI Minimum 89 – 90 No (R+M)/2
RVP Minimum/maximum 7 – 14.25 psi Yes Low RVP will not vaporise fuel to start the engine
in winter, higher RVP in summer will cause vapour
lock and health hazard due to ozone layer inverson
T10 Minimum 122 – 158˚F Yes
T50 Minimum/maximum 250 – 365˚F Yes
Engine performance from cold start to warm
T90 Maximum 374 – 365˚F Yes behaviour
EP Maximum 437˚F No
Sulfur Maximum 10 – 95 ppm No Corrosion of engine parts, exhaust system, emission
toxicity
Olefins 3 – 14%
Exhaust emission toxicity
Aromtics 20 – 40%
Benzene 0.09 – 0.31%
Drivability index 850 – 1275˚F Engine performance over temperature range
calculated from T10, T50, T90 and % ethanol
Vapour/liquid Measure of temperature at V/L ratio = 20 to
(V/L) facilitate spark ignition

Regional and seasonal RVP

specifications
The controlled period for the summer blend RVP is
as follows:
„ For refiners and terminals – 1 May to
15 September.
„ For retailers and wholesalers – 1 June to
15 September.

However, the RVP controlled period in

California, US, is from 1 May to 31 October with a
different period for different air basins and counties
within that timeline to start earlier or later. Figure 1
shows variation of RVP specifications for various
California air basin and counties. EPA limits highest
RVP summer value as 9 for all states other than
Figure 1. Regional and seasonal RVP specifications. California. This historical data for California will be
used to discuss the concept of this article.
Figure 1 shows that refiners gradually ramp
Refiners sometimes make 20+ boutique grades of gasoline down the gasoline production with lower RVP to meet 1 May
with different RVP specifications alone to meet the regional deadline for the summer specification and again start ramping
and seasonal demands of gasoline. Table 1 shows an example up from 15 September or later, as the case may be, for winter
of gasoline qualities, range, and types of specifications and gasoline blends. During the summer period of 1 May to
their environmental and vehicle-related significance. 15 September, refiners produce gasoline blends with constant
From Table 1 it can be seen that RVP is the only direct RVP value of 9 psi in most states.
gasoline specification that has regional and seasonal maximum RVP can be increased for winter blends by adding
values as controlled by EPA. The maximum value of RVP for externally or in-line blending as butane can blend with
most states is 9 psi but also has lower values of 7 and 7.8 for gasoline in liquid form, but refiners face the challenge of
some population centres. The RVP limit is extended to 10 psi if lowering the RVP of winter blend ramping down to summer
the formulation has 9 – 10% ethanol. The addition of ethanol blend as butane cannot be simply taken down. Hence, refiners
in the gasoline reduces the vapour pressure of ethanol – use lower RVP value components in winter blend to meet
gasoline blend and lowers the temperature to achieve critical summer specifications during ramp-down period. This lower
vapour/liquid (V/L) of 20 to avoid vapour lock. RVP value gasoline is expensive and hence the price of

March 2020 104 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 gasoline is higher in summer than is in winter. Figure 2 shows Tangible benefits
the variation of mid-grade (RON 87) prices over 2018, Refiners, pipeline operators, and terminals will obtain the
revealing how gasoline prices synchronise with transition ofmaximum economic benefits of optimal butane blend during
winter grade to summer grade.1, 2 RVP ramping stage for the period of 15 September to
31 December. However, all parties can see some
economic benefit throughout the cooler months
by reducing the difference between the blended
product and the regulatory (SAE and EPA)
restrictions. The tangible benefits come from the
fact that butane can be added more profitably to
gasoline than to the LPG pool. This increases the
sale value of gasoline US$2/gal higher than LPG.
This increase is calculated based on the average
winter price of gasoline and butane as US$3/gal.
and US$0.94, respectively.
The analysis conducted in this article used a
simple 2 by 2 algebraic equation to blend mid-grade
(RON87) with butane for octane and RVP values.
Furthermore, a linear blend model for RVP was used
for simplicity, to illustrate the order of magnitude
Figure 2. Variation of 2018 prices for mid-grade conventional of tangible benefits at various levels of RVP’s in
gasoline. winter blends. However, it is important to note that
a properly designed butane blending control
system uses a non-linear equation for the control
of final blend RVP.
Figure 3 shows the results of the simple
calculations, demonstrating that the tangible cost
benefits can vary from US$100 000 to US$6 million
for a gasoline batch of 100 000 bbl as a function of
the butane content in the gasoline being as high as
11 – 12% based on blend RVP value. The tangible
benefits increase during the winter period RVP
ramping steps. It was also estimated that the
refiners (or downstream parties) can realise
maximum tangible benefits of over US$600 million
for 100+ batches of 100 000 bpd gasoline for the
entire duration of the winter season. This huge
benefit simply should not be ignored by the refiners
and retailers as it provides a rapid ROI for a butane
blending system.
Figure 3. Butane blending tangible benefits.
Process of butane blending
The blending of butane into gasoline at both the
refinery and in downstream operations is not new. However,
as the industry matures, it is no longer a race for innovation
but instead one focused on optimising existing assets.
Historically, gasoline blending has occurred in a storage
tank with the butane content determined by outdated
mathematical models. This method is still widely used but
has two major deficiencies: the economic giveaway inherent
to mathematical (best-guess) determination, and the risk
involved in adding free butane to a floating roof tank that is
not designed for LPG storage as the cost for both equipment
and the downtime associated with a floating roof failure is
significant.
Most modern refineries have an inline blending facility for
gasoline where the RVP can be measured through the
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyser, which
Figure 4. Blending system hardware. also measures other characteristics such as octane. However,
the FTIR method has proven to be an unreliable tool for RVP

March 2020 106 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
measurement, which provides little benefit over traditional Transfer
mathematical modelling. It is imperative for the proper operation of the blending unit
An optimal design, which provides the maximum tangible that it be supplied with full liquid phase butane as any gas
benefits, is an inline system that accurately measures the two production will not bond with the gasoline. Care must be
feedstocks and controls the butane feed to prevent any placed on the effects of overflow prevention, strainers, and
upset. The system should utilise an online RVP analyser with shut-off valves prior to the pump.
the same triple expansion method used in the laboratories of Commonly a sliding vane pump is used for transfer from
the regulators. trucks and permanent storage. This style of pump is resilient
to some amount of cavitation, but its suction capability
Blending infrastructure needs to be cared for because, as mentioned, the production
A terminal butane blending must consider the following of the gas phase can be an issue. The use of a vertical
aspects of its infrastructure: (canned) turbine pump can eliminate many problems due to
its inability to create vacuum conditions.
Storage Figure 4 shows a typical blender system with 12 in.
If LPG storage does not exist at the site, the choice of pipeline for gasoline stream and a Coriolis meter for custody
permanent or temporary storage is largely a matter of the transfer. The system uses a pair of Coriolis meters and flow
expected usage, which plays into the economic calculation. A control valves (FCVs) to obtain a 100:1 turndown ratio on the
permanent storage facility can be costly, but it offers a butane feed.
guaranteed supply if the logistics in the locale are difficult.
However, as propane and butane are used for heating and Metering, blending, and analysis
cooking fuel worldwide, obtaining a local contractor for It remains imperative that the gaseous phase is eliminated
installation, regulatory support, and maintenance is a simple not just for the proper operation of a blender but for the
proposition. Temporary storage, on the other hand, occurs in safety and environmental risk imposed downstream.
the form of trucks or rail. This method is less expensive, with Therefore, best practice is to monitor this gaseous phase and
the main disadvantage being a supplier’s inability or return it to the storage tank with an automated valve
unwillingness to provide the tank for an extended period or commanded by the Coriolis flowmeter through the control
with a limited tanker capacity. system.

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 This type of meter handles two phase flow and the Finally, the blended product is measured by an RVP
latest technology can provide fairly precise estimates of analyser that complies with the latest vapour pressure
its proportion to liquid. standards such as ASTM D6378 for the measurement of
All systems will have to manage at least a 10:1 gasoline and ASTM D6897 for the measurement of LPG.
turndown ratio but in many cases a 100:1 turndown is Figure 5 shows a typical control and analysis system
justified. The 100:1 turndown scenario is easily managed with fast loop pumps for butane, gasoline, and the blend.
using a dual high and low stream with the maximum
expected controlled flow of the smaller stream being Control system
approximately 10% of the larger. The control system should be designed as mission critical
Once the butane has been properly measured and not only due to the regulatory and safety implications
metered, it is important to blend the mixture as rapidly as caused by a butane-rich blend, but also due to the fact
possible in order to both provide a representative sample that revenues occur in batches during the year. A typical
for analysis as well as to ensure that the light end is butane blending operation proceeds as follows:
retained. If the downstream process does not have a back „ The controller is placed in ready mode and it
pressure greater than vapour pressure of the butane at the immediately samples the butane feed, measuring and
operating temperature, a restriction needs to be in place recording its RVP.
which can be in the form of a simple orifice plate or a „ After the butane is measured, the system sits idle,
throttling valve. The injection design should ensure a waiting for gasoline flow. Once detected, the raw
distribution throughout the gasoline pipeline’s cross gasoline is sampled and its vapour pressure and
section prior to the mixing element. density are recorded.
The benefits of using an online analyser for the RVP „ The system begins to add butane to the flow. The
measurement will typically justify the capital expense and amount of butane delivered is calculated through a
maintenance involved in these systems. The use of these specific algorithm equating the density and RVP of the
devices allows for a repeatability of ≤ 0.50 kPa (0.073 psi) feed streams along with certain assumptions on their
and ensures that the customers and regulatory authorities composition.
will be satisfied while optimising revenues. „ At this point the system begins analysing the
homogenised fuel and adjusts the transfer of butane
to match the overall target given the value of the
blend already transferred to the storage tank.
„ The system re-enters idle mode when the gasoline
flow is stopped. A batch report is generated and
stored in the computer. The deviation between
calculated and actual RVP is used by the computer to
modify its stored algorithm in preparation for the next
transfer.
„ For systems that directly feed tankers, the next
instance of gasoline RVP is assumed to be the same
and thus the first three steps are bypassed.

Figure 6 shows a typical graphical user interface display

to control and monitor the butane blending system.

Conclusion
Figure 5. A RVP online analyser system. This article has discussed the concept of butane blending
with respect to its significance for gasoline
properties and tangible RVP giveaway benefits
due to seasonal and regional changes in RVP
specifications. The attributes of modern butane
blending infrastructure have also been discussed,
describing butane storage options, hardware,
quality measurement and control system.
Overall, this article has shown that tangible
benefits from butane blending can be
significant.

References
1. ‘Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) Control Periods for
California Air Basins and Counties’, http://www.arb.
ca.gov/desig/adm/basincnty.htm
Figure 6. A typical graphical user interface for a blending system. 2. ‘Gasoline Reid Vapor Pressure’, https://www.epa.gov/
gasoline-standards/gasoline-reid-vapor-pressure

March 2020 108 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 TAKING
ANALYSIS
ONLINE

Didier Lambert, Claude Saint-Martin, Michel Sanchez,

Bernard Ribero, and Vincent Marchal, Topnir Systems, France, with
Aldemar Figueroa Loza, Ecopetrol S.A., Colombia, look at continuous
online diesel blending optimisation using modern technology and how
this has been performing at the Barranca Refinery since 2007.

E
mpresa Colombiana de Petróleos was created in regulations. In order to optimise and control diesel fuel
1948 and transformed into ECOPETROL S.A. in blending operations, an online Topnir analyser was
2003, a 100% state-owned public stock-holding installed in 2007 at the Barranca Refinery to continuously
corporation. analyse both blended grades after blender header, as well
The company is active in the upstream and as diesel components.
downstream sectors. Ecopetrol S.A. owns major oilfields This technology is able to quickly characterise any
in Colombia such as Caño Limó, as well as Cusiana and motor fuels containing bio components such as
Cupiagua. It also operates two refineries, Barrancabermeja bioethanol or bioester in a very complex hydrocarbon
and Cartagena. matrix. Real-time measurement is performed in less than
Fuel manufacturing, mainly gasoline and diesel, has one minute, delivering the full property vector within
become more complex due to increasing environmental ASTM warranty.

HYDROCARBON 109 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 „ Identify all the samples located within a certain
distance.
„ Apply the property function to those samples.

Due to a unique graphical representation, Topnir

offers a Graphic User Interface (GUI) to quickly view
the samples for a better understanding of the product
chemistry.
To build the database, a densification technique is
used which circumvents the requirement of a large
number of samples as is the case for linear modelling
techniques.
Densification is done when the model is initially
Figure 1. Comparative analysis on diesel for T95% with prepared. When in use, this technology carries out a
Topnir. local densification ‘on the run’ to increase the accuracy
of prediction by populating around the point to be
analysed. Topnir takes into account any outlier and
does not require any new calibration of the models. It is
a self-learning method which fits with the reality of
industrial operations.
Thanks to local online densification, property
prediction can be provided even if the sample is an
outlier.

Case study: a diesel blending

application
Previous situation
There was significant scope to simultaneously optimise
the components in the jet, diesel and fuel oil blending
Figure 2. Comparative analysis on diesel for KV with Topnir. pools. Rundown constraints between the process units
and the tank farms resulted in unnecessary
downgrading of jet fuel and diesel.
Product quality giveaway in diesel and fuel oil was
This article describes the results and advantages high when benchmarked against other advised locations.
obtained at the diesel blending plant at the Barranca The following obstacles made it difficult for the refinery to
Refinery using modern technology. minimise product quality giveaway:
„ Component properties were only partially known,
Topology modelling some of the critical properties were not analysed.
NIR Spectra contains all the chemical information of any „ Blending recipes were prepared on an infrequent basis,
hydrocarbon compound but is not easily accessible. This resulting in near historical recipes being used, with the
information is extracted by advanced statistical methods, consequences consisting of a large quantity of reblends
among which the topology technique provides the most or product giveaway.
accurate and reliable results. „ Lack of facilities for blend control and ineffective
Indeed, Topnir, based on topology, works through online analysers.
pattern recognition (same spectra – same sample and same „ Several desired components could not be incorporated
sample – same properties) and databank densification. It into the blends.
does not use linear models for a set of properties (one „ No scheduling and blending tool.
model per property), but instantly delivers all the
properties required for a given application from a single Current situation
model. Moreover, it offers the possibility of extrapolation The jet, diesel and fuel oil component pools are now
from the initial calibration range. simultaneously optimised to ensure maximum earnings.
This topology modelling consists of: Lower value components can be used to produce diesel in
„ Building a reference database from a reduced set of hydrotreatment plants. Optimal grades of fuel oil are
samples. blended using the most economically attractive diluents.
„ Densifying this database with virtual samples. Visbreaker naphtha is upgraded to gasoline, and
„ Defining a ‘property function’. by-products suitable for jet fuel are sent to this pool.
Blend performance, resulting in product quality
To perform a prediction, Topnir will: giveaway to the customer, was enhanced by improving
„ Position the new sample in the database. hardware, blender control, and procedural changes.

March 2020 110 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
In particular, the blend control was improved by
using an online analyser to measure all critical
properties of products every minute. Moreover,
all possible components can now be added into
the final product due to the rapid analysis of any
diesel blending component.

Results
During the first half of November 2019, more than
a million barrels of diesel fuel were produced.
Quality control is performed routinely, measuring
key parameters such as distillation, aromatics,
flash point, cetane index, cetane number and
bioester (FAME).
Figure 3. Diesel blending plant at Barranca Refinery.
One blending operation takes around
24 hours. For the blending performed during
15 days in November, the comparative analyses
are shown in Figures 1 and 2, highlighting:
„ Average of Topnir online analyses for each
blend.
„ Spot sample analysis, carried out every
8 hours for each blend on blender outlet.
„ Vobo: quality data of diesel blend tank.

Clearly, regardless of which property is

considered, there is a strong consistency between
all the curves. It affords a monitoring and control
of diesel blending and therefore an optimisation
on key diesel properties.
The Topnir diesel blending system was
installed in 2007 at the Barranca Refinery and has Figure 4. Topnir analyser shelter with sampling systems on the
exceeded expectations on performance. The blending plant at Barranca.
technology delivers
nearly 20 properties
every two minutes, Table 1. Diesel grade 10 ppm prediction with Topnir
providing almost Properties Standard Unit Topnir ASTM Guarantee Status
instantaneous method repro repro
quality control of Cetane number D4737 N/A 1.4 N/A Guaranteed N/A
the blend and Cetane number without additives D613 N/A 2.3 3.8 Guaranteed Passed
allowing closed loop Initial boiling point D86 ˚C 8.4 8.5 Guaranteed Passed
property control.
T10% D86 ˚C 3.7 12 Guaranteed Passed
The diesel
blender has a T50% D86 ˚C 5.7 7.6 Guaranteed Passed
capacity of T90% D86 ˚C 5.3 6.5 Guaranteed Passed
120 000 bpd and T95% D86 ˚C 6.2 2 Guaranteed Fail
handles up to
Final boiling point D86 ˚C 10.4 10.5 For information N/A
12 streams, gathering
API gravity D4052 ˚ API 0.6 N/A For information N/A
both blending
components Aromatics D5186 % 1.24 1.6 Guaranteed Passed
(blender inlet) and Pour point D97 ˚C 4.5 6 Guaranteed Passed
commercial grades Viscosity D445 cSt 0.036 0.04 For information N/A
(blender outlet).
Flash point D93 / D56 ˚C 4.9 6 Guaranteed Passed
Figures 3 and 4 show
the diesel blending Colour D1500/D156 N/A 0.4 1 For information N/A
plant and the Topnir Reflectivity D6468 % 6.4 N.C. For information N/A
analyser shelter with Biodiesel content EN 14078 % 0 0.1 For information N/A
sampling systems. Cloud point D2500 % 1.26 4 Guaranteed Passed
Online quality
Cold filter plugging point D6371 ˚C No data No data For test No data
control analysed
19 properties such as Lubricity D6079 μm 0 0.14 For information N/A

HYDROCARBON 111 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 Where possible, a remote access is installed and a
maintenance link is possible between the Topnir systems
offices and the laboratory analyser, providing direct access
for database maintenance and updates.

Advantages and benefits

Profitability is increased as a result of the drastic reduction
in commercial product giveaway that is achieved through
good property predictions. The main benefits are delivered
by giveaway reduction, representing more than 50% of the
total savings. A significant reduction in laboratory analyses,
increased production and an optimal use of components is
Figure 5. Screenshot of Topnir diesel online analyser. also achieved.

the cetane index, cetane number, flash point, cloud point, Conclusion
pour point, aromatics, distillation (IBP, T10%, T50%, T90%, Topnir models have been proven robust and stable. The
T95%, FBP), FAME content, viscosity and so on. As part of continuous and accurate online analysis, thanks to a Topnir
the project, a lab FTIR analyser is also used to build and analyser, is seen as the key success factor for a stable
maintain the Topnir database. operation and significant reduction of giveaway.
Product properties calculated by Topnir are sent to the Topnir technology has been in use at the Barranca
distributed control system (DCS) every minute to be used Refinery since 2007 for continuous online diesel blending
by the controller to regulate the system in terms of valves optimisation and has been performing well. With shorter
and pumps (Table 1). response times, faster convergence on targets and
The performance of the model is, for all the properties, specifications, and easy maintenance, modern technology
well within the accuracy requirements of ASTM is continuing to push the limits of online analysis.
reproducibility. Figure 5 shows a screenshot of an online
analyser showing the historical trends for T90% and T95%, Note
The authors would like to thank Diego Martinez and Nilsson Claro from
FAME, flash point and KV.
Insurcol, Colombia, for their contribution to this article.

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 FUELS
OF THE
FUTURE
Arne Jakobsen, Wärtsilä Biogas Solutions, reveals why alternative fuels are
a major investment target for marine industry providers.

T
he marine industry is facing the challenge of finding development of alternative (or future) fuels capable of being
ways to drastically cut exhaust emissions. The run with existing combustion engine technology.
International Maritime Organization (IMO) has set a For the more immediate future, probably the most
goal of achieving a 40% reduction in the carbon economically viable and proven solution for powering
intensity of emissions by 2030, compared to 2008 levels, and a newbuild ships, and to some extent retrofitting existing ones,
50% reduction by 2050. This has intensified the development of is combustion engines fuelled by LNG. LNG has virtually no
alternative fuels. sulfur content, and emits significantly less nitrogen oxides
There are, of course, existing ways of propelling a ship with (NOX) and particulates than the conventionally used heavy
zero or almost zero emissions, battery power being the most fuel oil. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are also lowered by
obvious. But while current energy storage capacity is sufficient up to 25%. Further in favour of LNG is the fact that the supply
for short voyage sailing, further development is still required to infrastructure is already rather well developed.
make it a technologically feasible, robust, and cost-effective Looking further down the road, however, since LNG is not
solution for larger vessels, and in fact it may never become a clean enough to meet the IMO’s ultimate goals for carbon
viable option for the largest of ships. Other means must, emissions reduction, the most likely equation will be one
therefore, be found if the IMO’s goals are to be met. where regulatory compliance equals combustion engines
using a low carbon biofuel. Currently, the general thinking is
Regulatory compliance that the path towards an ultimately de-fossilised future for
The most feasible solution for addressing the targets and the shipping sector is likely to be LNG > bioLNG > synthetic
regulations set by the IMO would seem to lie in the LNG, which would maximise utilisation of the existing

HYDROCARBON 113 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 LNG fuel to bioLNG fuel can be made without modifications
to either the engine or the infrastructure.
Wärtsilä has earlier provided the turnkey installation for
the world’s largest bioLNG facility located in Skogn, Norway
and is in the process of delivering two more bioLNG plants to
customers in Scandinavia. Interest from both the European
and North American markets is high, and continued strong
growth in this sector is anticipated.

The emergence of biogas solutions

Wärtsilä’s focus on alternative fuel developments includes its
range of liquefaction and biogas upgrading technologies. The
Figure 1. The Biokraft plant in Norway is the world’s liquefaction technology is scalable upwards to a capacity of
largest bioLNG facility, using waste from local fish and at least 60 tpd. The company’s biogas upgrading plants utilise
paper industries. its in-house CApure technology, a process that recovers more
than 99.9% of the biomethane present in raw biogas. The
infrastructure. In 2030, the year by when the IMO is targeting process separates the CO2 from the biogas through chemical
a 40% reduction in carbon intensity compared to 2008 levels, adsorption. The process is highly tolerant of variations in the
it is estimated that the cost of synthetic LNG will be on a par, raw gas composition resulting from changes in the feedstock.
or lower, than other alternative fuels, thus making this The use of upgraded biogas as a fuel for road
projected pattern rather realistic. transportation is already rather well established and its use is
steadily increasing. A mega dairy in the US state of Oregon,
Ongoing research for instance, has installed the CApure technology to produce
Leading marine industry providers are investing heavily in biomethane from the anaerobic digestion of manure. This
research on possible future fuels that could meet the need to renewable gas (RNG) will be injected into a pipeline for use as
drastically reduce GHG emissions. Having introduced transportation fuel in the adjoining state of California.
dual-fuel engine technology in the 1990s, Wärtsilä has already As another example, the city of Oslo in Norway has city
played a leading role in the emergence of LNG as a viable buses running on biogas fuel from household waste. The city
marine fuel. estimates that this will reduce CO2 emissions by some
Burning LNG in a modern combustion engine reduces 10 000 tpy. The cleaned biogas is converted into liquid fuel,
GHG emissions by some 20 to 25% compared to burning cooled to -160°C, and stored in insulated tanks. Having the
diesel fuel. However, methane slip during production and biogas as a cryogenic liquid, rather than as compressed gas,
combustion remains a challenge that threatens the GHG makes it a viable fuel for heavy vehicles since sufficient
footprint of LNG, since methane is 28 times more potent energy can be stored onboard.
than CO2. At the same time, while engine manufacturers This is a fairly significant regional development. Not only
continue to improve the combustion process to further lower is environmental sustainability a major item on Norway’s
the methane slip, this also opens up opportunities for political agenda, but Northern Europe has large fishery and
embracing new alternatives, which companies such as forestry sectors that produce a steady volume of organic
Wärtsilä, Shell and others have committed to doing. waste, which creates the opportunity for the region to
It is important to keep in mind the advances made in become a world leader in biogas production.
engine technology during the past 30 years or so. Wärtsilä, It is increasingly feasible that, providing the supply
for example, has engines capable of burning associated gases infrastructure is in place, ships will also expand the utilisation
from oil production sites, thereby cutting down on the need of biofuel for propulsion. In fact, this has already started to
to flare such gases. By comparison, bio and synthetic fuels are some extent. The Norway-based cruise operator Hurtigruten,
relatively easy to accommodate. for instance, is in the process of replacing conventional
engines with gas-powered engines and large battery packs on
BioLNG at least six of its ships. These hybrid vessels will run on a
For fuels based on biomaterial, the main challenge is the combination of clean electric power, LNG, and biogas (LBG).
availability of sustainable feedstock, and supply chain Similarly, the Dutch dredging and heavylift company
deficiencies represent a drawback to widespread adoption. Boskalis began using a 50% biofuel blend, using residual
Nevertheless, bioLNG has the advantage of being able to products from the paper industry, on one of its dredgers in
utilise various kinds of feedstock, including manure, sewage 2016. The company now uses this fuel in some of its vessels
residue, forestry waste, and many other waste products. It is wherever it is feasible, and aims to reduce carbon emissions
considered an advanced biofuel that is blendable with LNG in from its fleet and equipment by 35% over the next five years.
different ratios to fulfil specific requirements and for different
applications. Cargo handling
The blending of liquid biogas into LNG decreases its CO2 The global acceptance of LNG as a marine fuel is the result of
footprint, while at the same time enabling a circular more than merely the development of dual-fuel engine
economy. The technology for the upgrading and liquefaction technology. Equally important has been the company’s
of biogas is available and proven. The progression from using LNGPac fuel storage, supply and control system. This includes

March 2020 114 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 the bunkering station, the LNG tank and related process transforming the way that the industry acts. This is providing
equipment, as well as the control and monitoring system, a truly meaningful upgrading of overall efficiency, not only for
which are fully integrated to ensure maximum operational individual ships but also in port authority operations and
efficiency. The LNG fuel system can be offered as a fleet management, all of which will ultimately reduce fuel
standalone product, or as a part of a complete propulsion consumption and consequently exhaust emissions.
system. If the IMO’s targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions
For future marine fuels, therefore, full attention needs to are to be met, it will need a combination of technology and
be given as much to the cargo handling system as to the low-carbon fuels. It has to be remembered that it will take
engine for which the fuel is intended. For newbuild vessels, some years for new alternative fuels, such as synthetic
the cooperation between the ship designer and qualified methane, ammonia, and hydrogen fuel cells to be accepted
cargo handling system providers needs to begin at the initial by marine classification societies. LNG was introduced in the
planning phase. In this way, a fully integrated system, 1990s as a marine fuel, but it took 20 years before it had even
customised to suit the type of fuel and other specific needs, a small penetration into the global fleet’s portfolio.
can be realised. The world of shipping is being reshaped and investments
in sustainable production of bio and synthetic fuels are
Beyond biogas needed today if they are to become broadly available post
The use of biofuels in ship propulsion applications is still in its 2030. Leveraging radical and transformative innovation is no
infancy, and as yet there is little or no legislation covering it. doubt the way to tackle emissions. Today, LNG presents itself
However, one can say with a fair amount of confidence that as one of the best and most economical pathways to
marine biofuel will become increasingly popular as a means decarbonisation, owing to its cleaner burn, compatible pricing
of meeting environmental regulations, provided that a viable and established supply infrastructure – the same
supply infrastructure can be established. infrastructure that can be used for future fuels. Therefore, the
This is, nevertheless, just one piece in the overall puzzle combustion engine remains the stalwart of shipping because
of lessening the carbon footprint of shipping. Increased the reciprocating engine enables fuel flexibility, leaving the
efficiency and modern technologies – including digitalisation, doors wide open for the future renewable liquid and gaseous
the use of connectivity, real-time communications, and data fuels as and when they become compliant, market-ready and
analysis in operational and energy management – are available.

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 Running
round in
circles?
David Sudolsky, Anellotech, USA,
talks practical solutions for a circular
economy, highlighting plastic waste as
an alternative feedstock pathway for
virgin polymers.

T
he rising tide of plastic usage has had a positive
impact on our daily lives – but it also has a
downside that threatens to overwhelm its societal
benefit. According to some predictions, “If plastics
demand follows its current trajectory, global plastics-waste
would grow from 260 million tpy in 2016 to 460 million tpy
by 2030, taking what is already a serious environmental
problem to a whole new level”.1
The chemical industry has begun to view the pursuit of
viable techno-economic recycling pathways as an issue that
is universal and worldwide in its impact. Responses from
governments currently swing between banning certain
single-use plastics and incentivising reduction, reuse and
recycling – with uncertainty surrounding how aggressively
to move on either response.

HYDROCARBON 117 March 2020

ENGINEERING
 Beyond this broad-based mix of consumers, industry of Anellotech’s new thermal catalytic technology platform,
and government players, technology developers are Plas-TCat, to the conversion of mixed plastic waste directly
considering varied approaches. To be successful, these into olefins and aromatics. The new process is the sister
solutions must be integrated, from the waste plastic supply technology to Anellotech’s Bio-TCatTM bio-based process
chain (sourcing, composition, variability) to the product analogue – described in a previous issue of Hydrocarbon
value end of the supply chain. Technological solutions are Engineering – which aims to commercialise the innovative
only one link in the chain, yet are essential to build a production of renewable chemicals and fuels from
circular economy (Figure 1). non-food biomass.2
Therefore, the guiding premise for creating The company plans to leverage its technology,
technological solutions are the traditional process laboratory facility, pilot scale infrastructure and
development basics for the chemical industry: simple flow partnerships to develop a process which would
sheets, high yields, low by-product production, fewer economically convert plastic waste into commodity
environmental issues, plus the flexibility to adapt to wide chemicals. Using the Plas-TCat process, aromatics and
compositional variations feeding the processes. These have olefins would be produced which can potentially be used
been the guidelines for Anellotech’s development of its to make virgin polymers to use in food and beverage
plastic waste conversion process, named Plas-TCatTM. packaging, textiles and plastic components for consumer
Broadly speaking, technology approaches fall into products, the automotive industry and other markets. The
mechanical recycling or chemical recycling types. A process can also potentially allow conversion of mixed
promising example of this latter approach is the application plastics streams, including composite films.
By using this modern technology to recycle
plastic waste, companies could produce aromatics
and olefins directly – which can be more efficient
than non-catalytic pyrolysis, the products of
which require further upgrading in steam crackers.
Making valuable products with a high yield could
also allow payment for waste feedstock in
countries without subsidised waste collection.
Textiles are another alternative feedstock
being explored through the Tex-TCatTM process,
which also leverages Anellotech’s technology
platform. Under consideration for conversion are
cotton fabrics, synthetic fabrics (polyester, nylon,
Lycra/Spandex, etc.) as well as blends, to turn into
valuable aromatics and other chemicals to use as a
‘drop-in’ replacement for the petroleum-derived
aromatics used to make the same virgin synthetic
fabrics, or biofuels.
Figure 1. The plastic circular economy. The Plas-TCat process is a simple process
patterned on the familiar refining process of fluid
catalytic cracking (FCC) as depicted in Figure 2.
Solid plastics feedstock would be ground into
particles to be injected into a fluid-bed reactor. A
combination of thermal cracking, pyrolysis and
catalytic reactions converts solid materials into
hydrocarbon products, which exit the reactor in
the vapour phase. The fluid-bed catalyst may be
temporarily deactivated by coke deposits that are
a by-product of the plastic waste conversion –
however, the coke is readily removed by oxidation
in the catalyst regenerator. Catalyst continuously
circulates between the reactor, a catalyst stripper
for removing adsorbed hydrocarbons and the
regenerator, via standpipes, and is controlled by
slide valves in a manner analogous to a refinery
FCC unit.
The pyrolysis of plastic waste is an ongoing
area of R&D which began in the 1970s and
continues to the present day. In the 1980s and
Figure 2. The Plast-TCat process. 1990s, major corporations built large pyrolysis
pilot plants, but never managed to reach

March 2020 118 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
commercialisation, presumably due
to inadequate economics. More
recently, start-up companies have
rediscovered plastic pyrolysis as a
solution to mixed plastic waste
recycling and a variety of
technologies are being piloted or
commercialised. Plas-TCat technology
is quite distinct from plastic pyrolysis
technologies due to its effective use
of proprietary catalysts. The process’
potential for waste plastic conversion
is showing early indications of
economic and technical viability. Figure 3. Anellotech laboratory screening results.
Plastic pyrolysis has been
categorised into three operating
ranges, low temperature (< 400˚C), mid-range Anellotech is well-suited to develop this
(400 – 600˚C), and high temperature (> 600˚C) processing. critically-needed plastic waste recycling technology. Its
The technology fits most comfortably into the fully operational laboratory testing units in Pearl River,
mid-temperature category and provides additional New York, US, and its large-scale TCat-8 pilot plant in
benefits of in-situ catalytic conversion. At mid-range Silsbee, Texas, US, have been used to validate the wood
temperatures, most plastic types are expected to be conversion application and can be adapted for developing
converted in the process to a mixture of light olefins such a plastics conversion process.
as ethylene and propylene, light paraffins such as The company is in the process of adapting its wood
methane and ethane, BTX aromatics, and by-products conversion process for mixed waste plastic feedstocks
especially coke-on-catalyst, char, and light heteroatom and plans to generate the engineering data required for
gases and vapours depending on the heteroatoms present process design, scale-up, and economic analyses in the
in the plastic waste (e.g. CO, CO2, H2O, NH3, H2S, HCl, 2020 – 2021 timeframe. Some of these tests are to ensure
etc.). The formation of coke should not necessarily be the Plas-TCat process is robust and capable of running
discouraged, since regeneration of the catalyst by burning long-term, on a range of real-world waste plastics
away coke deposits in the regenerator releases heat which feedstocks, with all the impurities that come with them.
returns to the reactor with the circulating catalyst stream. The company has undertaken laboratory studies to
This interchange of energy is what drives the pyrolysis and assess performance in the Plas-TCat reaction environment
catalytic reactions in the reactor and is the same principle (Figure 3).
applied in refinery FCC processing. The fluidised bed of The process has the potential to transform plastic
catalyst in the reactor also facilitates and promotes heat waste such as composite films, mixed plastics and plastics
transfer which is an important element of the technology. with biomass – such as paper labels – directly into
Rapid heating of the feed helps to minimise the formation valuable chemicals. It can handle oxygenated polymers,
of char, tar and heavy hydrocarbon materials. an important advantage over pyrolysis processes that
The potential yields of plastic pyrolysis products will produce complex oil mixtures which require upgrading
depend strongly on the chemical makeup and and additional conversion in steam crackers. This allows
stoichiometry of the polymer material, especially its the technology to align with most hydrocarbon
effective hydrogen to carbon molar ratio. In general, processing industry sustainability goals.
catalytic pyrolysis yields are controlled by This new process offers an enabling and economically
thermodynamic driving forces and the amount of sound solution to the growing problem of plastic waste,
hydrogen and carbon remaining in the reaction system in pursuit of a circular solution to ameliorate the adverse
after the thermodynamically most-favoured compounds environmental impact of plastics pollution.1 While
are accounted for. In oxygen-containing systems, carbon plastics is a segment of materials essential to our modern
dioxide is the energetically most-favoured light molecule, economy, Plas-TCat tackles the consequences of
followed by water, then carbon monoxide. In unchecked plastic waste and could help transform the
nitrogen-containing systems, ammonia is favoured. Yields chemical industry.
of hydrocarbon products from the catalytic pyrolysis of
waste plastics are expected to be highest for polyolefins
and to be lower for materials that contain significant References
1. HUNDERTMARK, T., MAYER, M., MCNALLY, C., SIMONS, T.J., and
heteroatom content. In a mixed waste plastic stream, the WITTE, C., ‘How plastics waste recycling could transform the
overall yield will depend on the concentration of each chemical industry’, McKinsey & Company Chemicals Insights,
(December 2018), https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/
type of plastic in the mix and the chemical structure of chemicals/our-insights/how-plastics-waste-recycling-could-
the repeating units in each polymer. Additional yield transform-the-chemical-industry
2. SORENSEN, C., SUDOLSKY, D., FEUGNET, F., and BECCAT, P., ‘Seeing
effects will include the type of catalyst, the reactor the wood for the trees’, Hydrocarbon Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 3,
temperature, residence time, pressure, and heat-up rate. (March 2019), pp. 134 – 139.

HYDROCARBON 119 March 2020

ENGINEERING
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