Lecture 9

Highway Capacity and

Level of Services
SCE5362
Transportation Engineering

1
CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Overview

Highway Capacity

Freeway vs Highway

Level of Services (LOS)

Basic Definitions

LOS Criteria for Freeways

Determining LOS

LOS Criteria for Highways

CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Highway Capacity

The maximum traffic flow that a roadway is
capable of supporting

Theoretically, actual volume can never be
observed at levels higher than the true
capacity of the section

Design Flow refers to TPDM Vol. 2.

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Capacity Analysis

Capacity is the maximum number of vehicles
that can pass a given point during a specified
period of time under prevailing conditions
(roadway, traffic and control).

It is assumed that there is no influence from
downstream traffic (e.g. backing up)

Capacity analysis examines segments of a
facility under uniform traffic, roadway and
control conditions
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Freeway vs Highway (US)

Freeway

A divided highway with full control of access and two or
more lanes for exclusive use of traffic in each direction.

Provides uninterrupted flow

Access is limited to ramp only.

Basic Freeway Segments are outsides of the influence area
of ramps or weaving areas.

Similar to Trunk Roads in Hong Kong

Freeway Capacity – maximum sustained 15-min flow
rate in passenger cars per hour per lane for a
uniform freeway segment.
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Freeway vs Highway (US)

Highway

Can be two-lanes or multi-lanes

Multi-lane highways usually with speed limit of
60-90 km/h

Usually have 4 to 6 lanes counting both directions

Can be divided or undivided

Similar to the Primary Distributors in Hong Kong

Highway Capacity – maximum sustained

hourly flow rate for a uniform segment
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Level of Service (LOS)

Level of Service (LOS) is a quality measure
describing operational conditions within a
traffic stream in terms of:

Speed and travel time

Freedom to maneuver

Traffic interruptions, and

Comfort and convenience.

US Standard

Source: HCM Chapter 2 7

CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Level of Service (LOS)

Each Level represents a range of operating
conditions and the driver’s perception of those
conditions

Six Levels of Service (LOS)

A – Completely free flow conditions

B – Free flow with high speed

C – Freedom of maneuver is affected

D – Maneuver is restricted with traffic congestions

E – At or near capacity

F – Forced or breakdown flow
Source: HCM Chapter 12 8
CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Level of Service (LOS)

Basic definitions

Free Flow Speed (FFS)

Mean Speed of passenger car at low volume and low
density

Maximum Service flow (MSF)

Actual hourly rate of flow based on maximum 15 min
period flow

MSF is in unit of passenger cars per hour per lane
(pc/h/ln)

Volume to Capacity Ratio (V/C)

Maximum volume to capacity ratio for given LOS
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Level of Service (LOS) for Freeway

Base condition for determining Freeway LOS

Wide lane width (3.6 m or above)

No lateral obstacles (1.8 m or above)

No heavy vehicles

Zero grade

Driver familiar with the facility

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

LOS for Basic Freeway Segment

Density is used to estimate LOS for basic freeway
segment. (in pc/km/ln)

LOS thresholds for a basic freeway segment are
summarised as follows:
Level of Service Density Range (pc/km/ln)
A 0–7
B > 7 – 11
C > 11 – 16
D > 16 – 22
E > 22 – 28
F > 28
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

LOS for Basic Freeway Segment

• Geometric Data
• Measured FFS or BFFS
• Traffic Volume

BFFS Adjustment Volume Adjustment

• Lane width • Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

Measured FFS
• Number of lanes • Number of lanes
• Interchange Density • Driver Population
• Lateral clearance OR • Heavy Vehicles

Compute FFS Compute Flow rate

Define Speed-flow Curve

Determine Speed using Speed-flow Curve

Compute Density using Flow Rate and Speed

Determine LOS
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

LOS Criteria for Basic Freeway Segments

LOS

Free-Flow Speed Criteria A B C D E

Maximum density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 28
Average speed (km/h) 120.0 120.0 114.6 99.8 85.7
120 km/h
Maximum volume to capacity ratio (v/c) 0.35 0.55 0.77 0.92 1.00
Maximum service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 840 1320 1840 2200 2400
Maximum density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 28
Average speed (km/h) 110.0 110.0 108.5 97.2 83.9
110 km/h
Maximum v/c 0.33 0.51 0.74 0.91 1.00
Maximum service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 770 1210 1740 2135 2350
Maximum density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 28
Average speed (km/h) 100.0 100.0 100.0 93.8 82.1
100 km/h
Maximum v/c 0.30 0.48 0.70 0.90 1.00
Maximum service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 700 1100 1600 2065 2300
Maximum density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 28
Average speed (km/h) 90.0 90.0 90.0 89.1 80.4
90 km/h
Maximum v/c 0.28 0.44 0.64 0.87 1.00
Maximum service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 630 990 1440 1955 2250
Note: To be within a given LOS, the density criteria must be met.
Source: HCM Chapter 23 13
CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

LOS Criteria for Basic Freeway Segments

Source: HCM Chapter 23 14

CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Determining LOS
Step 1: Define and Segment the Freeway
Step 2: Based on the FFS to define or construct a
speed-flow curve
Step 3: Using the flow rate (vp) and speed-flow
curve to find an average passenger car
speed S (y-axis of the curve)
Step 4: Calculate density (D = vp / S)
Step 5: Determine the LOS by looking up from
the LOS criteria table.
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Segmenting the Freeway

Uniform traffic conditions and roadway
characteristics are basic requirements for
capacity / LOS analysis.

Normally segmenting conditions are:

Natural boundary such as on-ramp / off-ramp;

Change in the number of lanes;

Change in right shoulder lateral clearance;

Grade change of 2% or more; or

Change in speed limit.

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Determining FFS

FFS is the measured mean speed of passenger cars
during low to moderate flows.

If field measurement of FFS is not possible, it can be
estimated indirectly by
FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − fN − fID
BFFS = base free-flow speed (110 km/hr for urban and 120 km/hr for rural)
fLW = adjustment for lane width (reduced FFS for lane width < 3.6m)
fLC = adjustment for lateral clearance (reduced FFS for clearance < 1.8m)
fN = adjustment for number of lanes (reduced FFS for < 5 lanes (1 direction))
fID = adjustment for interchange density (reduced FFS for > 0.3 per km)
Note: Appropriate values are selected from separate tables documenting
each of these four adjustment factors.
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Determining Flow Rate

The hourly flow rate are calculated in terms of
equivalent passenger car flow rate:
V
vp =
PHF * N * fHV * fp
vp = 15-min passenger car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln)
V = hourly volume (veh/h)
PHF = peak hour factor (range from 0.89 to 0.95)
N = number of lanes (one direction)
fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor
fp = driver population factor (in general uses 1.00 for commuter)

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Heavy Vehicle Adjustment Factor

This adjust is different from the pcu equivalent
method being used in Hong Kong.

The heavy vehicle adjustment factor is determined
by
1
fHV =
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR(ER − 1)
ET ER = passenger-car equivalents for trucks/buses and recreational
vehicles (RV) respectively
PT PR = proportions of trucks/buses and RV respectively
Note: Appropriate values are selected from separate tables documenting
each of these two passenger-car equivalents according to three grade
conditions.
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Applications

Operational application – determine LOS for an
existing segment

Design applications:

Check the adequacy of lanes for a given flow rate and LOS

Recommend the number of lanes for a given flow rate and
LOS

Determine the achievable flow for a given LOS goal and
number of lanes available

Planning applications – based on estimated values to
determine future LOS, required number of lanes or
flow rates
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Applications

Required Inputs and Outputs for different
applications:
Applications Inputs Outputs
Operational (LOS) FFS, N, vp LOS, S, D
Design (N) FFS, LOS, vp N, S, D
Design (vp) FFS, LOS, N vp, S, D
Planning (LOS) FFS, N, AADT LOS, S, D
Planning (N) FFS, LOS, AADT N, S, D
Planning (vp) FFS, LOS, N vp, S, D

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 1

[Operational] An existing four-lane freeway in an
rural area with very restricted geometry running
along a rolling terrain is posted with 110 km/hr
speed limit. What is the LOS during peak hour?
(given the following factual information)

Two lanes in each direction;
5% trucks;

3.3m lane width;
0.92 PHF;

0.6 m lateral clearance;
0.6 interchanges per km;

Commuter traffic;
Rolling terrain.

2,000 veh/h peak hour volume
(one way)

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 1 (Solutions)

Assumptions:

0% or buses and RV (as not mentioned)

BFFS of 120 km/hr (for rural freeway)

Number of lanes does not affect (as for rural)

fp = 1.00 (for commuter)

Step 1: Compute FFS using 120 as BFFS adjusted for
different factors
FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − fN − fID
= 120 − 3.1 − 3.9 − 0.0 − 3.9
= 109.1 km/h
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 1 (Solutions)

Step 2: Find heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV)
1
fHV = = 0.930
1 + (0.05)(2.5 − 1) + 0

Step 3: Convert veh/hr volume of pc/h/ln volume
2,000
vp = = 1,169 pc/h/ln
(0.92)(2)(0.930)(1.00)

vp 1,169

Step 4: Compute Density D = = = 11 pc/km/ln
S 109.1

Step 5: Determine LOS according to density: LOS B

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 1 (Solutions)

Alternatively, LOS can also be determined by
directly lookup from the speed/flow curve.

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 2

[Design] A new suburban freeway is being designed.
How many lanes are needed to provide LOS D during
the peak hour? (given the following factual
information)

4,000 veh/h (one way)
0.85 PHF;

Level terrain.
0.9 interchanges per km;

15% trucks
3% RVs; and

3.6m lane width
1.8m lateral clearance

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 2 (Solutions)

Assumptions:

fp = 1.00 (for commuter)

BFFS = 120 km/h (for suburban)

Number of lanes affects free-flow speed as the freeway is
to be located at suburban

Solutions Strategy:

All input parameters are known

To determine required number of lanes, assessing the
speed, density and LOS starting with a 4-lane option, then
6-lane, 8-lane, etc. until LOS D is achieved.

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 2 (Solutions)

Step 1: Find heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV)
1
fHV = = 0.925
1 + (0.15)(1.5 − 1) + (0.03)(1.2 − 1)

Step 2: Convert veh/h volume of pc/h/ln volume (for 4-lane
option)
4 ,000
vp = = 2,544 pc/h/ln
(0.85)(2)(0.925)(1.00)
Since 2,544 exceed capacity, so 4-lane option not acceptable.

Step 3: Convert veh/h volume of pc/h/ln volume (for 6-lane
option)
4 ,000
vp = = 1,696 pc/h/ln
(0.85)(3)(0.925)(1.00)
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 2 (Solutions)

Step 4: Compute FFS using 120 as BFFS adjusted for different
factors
FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − fN − fID
= 120 − 0.0 − 0.0 − 4.8 − 8.1
= 107.1 km/h

Step 5: Compute Density

vp 1,696
D= = = 16 pc/km/ln
S 107.1

Step 6: Determine LOS according to density: LOS C

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 2 (Solutions)

Alternatively, LOS can also be determined by
directly lookup from the speed/flow curve.

30
CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 3

[Planning] To assess a six-lane freeway located in a
growing urban area, what is the current LOS during
peak hour? What LOS will occur in 3 years? When
should a fourth lane be added to each direction to
avoid excess of demand over capacity? (given the
following factual information)

5,000 veh/h (one way, existing);
6 lanes;

Level terrain;
10% trucks;

5,600 veh/h (one way, in 3 years)
0.95 PHF; and

Beyond 3 years, traffic grows at
FFS = 110 km/h (measured)
4% per year;

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 3 (Solutions)

Assumptions:

Assume HV proportions, PHF and FFS remains constant;

Assume 0% buses and RVs;

Assume commuter traffic.

Step 1: Find heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV)
1
fHV = = 0.952
1 + (0.1)(1.5 − 1) + 0

Step 2: Based on the LOS criteria table to find the

maximum vp for each LOS.

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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Example 3 (Solutions)

Step 3: Convert the maximum service flow rate vp for each
LOS to veh/h. V = vp(PHF )(N)( fHV )( fp)
vp (pc/h/ln) V (veh/h)
LOS A 770 2,089
LOS B 1,210 3,283
LOS C 1,740 4,721
LOS C 2,135 5,793
LOS D 2,350 6,376

Step 4: Compare the 5,000 and 5,600 veh/h to determine
LOS: LOS D (existing and in 3 years)

Step 5: When traffic exceeds 6,376 veh/h, a fourth lane in
each direction will be needed.
5,600(1.04 n ) = 6,376 ⇒ n = 3.3 years
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

Level of Service (LOS)

Base conditions for Multi-lane Highway LOS

Wide lane width

No lateral obstacles

No heavy vehicles

No direct access point

A divided highway

Free-flow speed (FFS) higher than 100 km/h

Under base conditions, full speed and capacity

of a highway are achieved.
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CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

LOS for Multilane Highways

• Geometric Data
• Measured FFS or BFFS
• Traffic Volume

BFFS Adjustment Volume Adjustment

• Lane width • Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

Measured FFS
• Median type • Number of lanes
• Access point • Driver Population
• Lateral clearance OR • Heavy Vehicles

Compute FFS Compute Flow rate

Define Speed-flow Curve

Determine Speed using Speed-flow Curve

Compute Density using Flow Rate and Speed

Determine LOS
35
CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

LOS Criteria for Multilane Highways

LOS

Free-Flow Speed Criteria A B C D E

Maximum density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 25
Average speed (km/h) 100.0 100.0 98.4 91.5 88.0
100 km/h
Maximum volume to capacity ratio (v/c) 0.32 0.50 0.72 0.92 1.00
Maximum service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 700 1100 1575 2015 2200
Maximum density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 26
Average speed (km/h) 90.0 90.0 89.8 84.7 80.8
90 km/h
Maximum v/c 0.30 0.47 0.68 0.89 1.00
Maximum service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 630 990 1435 1860 2100
Maximum density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 27
Average speed (km/h) 80.0 80.0 80.0 77.6 74.1
80 km/h
Maximum v/c 0.28 0.44 0.64 0.85 1.00
Maximum service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 560 880 1280 1705 2000
Maximum density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 28
Average speed (km/h) 70.0 70.0 70.0 69.6 67.9
70 km/h
Maximum v/c 0.26 0.41 0.59 0.81 1.00
Maximum service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 490 770 1120 1530 1900

Source: HCM Chapter 21 36

CCN2278 Transportation
Lecture09 Engineering
– Highway Capacity Fundamentals – Chapter 1
and LOS

LOS Criteria for Multilane Highways

Source: HCM Chapter 21 37