READING SKILLS

Introduction to Reading Skills

What are reading skills? Why do we need academic reading skills in English?
High reading capability is necessary, especially for university students, because they
need to read a lot of textbook written in English. To acquire high reading capability,
students need to know some strategies in efficient reading. In order to know the efficient
reading, we need to be familiar with important elements of reading. The elements of
reading as defined by Ambruster, Lehr and Osborn (2001) in their work, Put Reading
First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read are phonemic
awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. “Phonemic awareness is
the ability to hear, identify and manipulate the individual sounds – phonemes – in
spoken words”, “phonics is the understanding that there is a predictable relationship
between phonemes (the sounds of spoken language) and graphemes (the letter and
spelling that represent those sounds in written language)”, “vocabulary refers to words
we recognize or use in print:, “fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and
quickly. When fluent readers read silently, they recognize words automatically ‘and”
comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not
understand what they are reading, they are not really reading”.
Besides understanding the elements of reading, according to Gillet (2009), we
need to know several factors relating to efficient strategies in reading; they are:
1) “Understanding meaning: deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words; relations
within the sentences; implications; conceptual meaning; for example: comparison,
purpose, cause, and effect.”
2) “Understanding relationships in the text: text structure; the communicative value of
sentences; relations between the parts of a text through lexical and grammatical
cohesion devices and indicators in discourse”.
3) “Understanding important points: distinguishing the main ideas from supporting
detail; recognizing unsupported claims and claims supported by evidence; for
example: fact from opinion; extracting salient matters to make summary; following
an argument; reading critically and evaluating the text”.
4) “Reading efficiently: surveying the text, chapter, paragraphs, skimming for the main
idea or general impression; scanning to find specifically required information;
reading quickly”.
5) “Note taking” and “acknowledgement”.

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PART ONE
VOCABULARY: The Key to Meaning
Joe and Rachel were both taking a sociology course. Joe was doing well in the
course, but Rachel was not. In particular, Rachel was having trouble with the
vocabulary in the textbook. She complained, “I can’t even pronounce some of these
words, much less know what they mean!. There are so many words I don’t know that I
can’t look them all up. And to make things worse, the instructor uses these same words
on exams.”
Rachel asked Joe if he were having the same trouble, Joe agreed that there were
many new and difficult words, but he said he had worked out a way of handling them.
He figured out the meanings of many words from the way they were used in a sentence.
He also used word parts to figure out meanings. To pronounce hard words, he broke the
words into syllables. Then he used a dictionary to check meanings or pronunciations of
which he was unsure.
Joe has acquired a set of skills that are helping him to handle the vocabulary in
college courses. These skills help him improve his overall everyday vocabulary as well.
Vocabulary development is a skill worth the effort to improve. Your vocabulary
affects not only your reading skills, but your speaking, listening, and writing skills as
well. In speaking, the words you choose affect how well you are understood, the
impression you make, and how people react to you. In writing, your vocabulary
determines how clearly and accurately you can express your ideas to others. In listening,
your vocabulary influences how much you understand in class lecture, speeches, and
class discussions.

Chapter 1
RECOGNIZING THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS

THIS CHAPTER WILL SHOW YOU HOW TO

1. Figure out words you do not know
2. Use prefixes, roots, and suffixes

USING WORD PARTS TO EXPAND YOUR VOCABULARY

Suppose that you came across the following sentence in a human anatomy
textbook:

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 Trichromatic plates are used frequently in the text to illustrate the position of
body organs.
If you did not know the meaning of trichromatic, how could you determine it? There
are no clues in the sentence context. One solution is to look the word up in the
dictionary. An easier and faster way is to break the word into parts and analyze the
meanings of the parts. Many words in the English language are made up of word parts
called prefixes, roots, and suffixes. These word parts have specific meanings that, when
added together, can help you determine the meaning of the word as a whole.
The word trichromatic can be divided into three parts, its prefix, root, and suffix.

 Prefix – tri (“three”)

 Root – chrome (“color”)
 Suffix – atic (“characteristic of”)
You can see from this analysis that trichromatic means “having three colors.”
Here are a few other examples of words that you can figure out by using
prefixes, roots, and suffixes.”
The parent thought the child was unteachable.
un- = not
teach = help someone learn
-able = able to do something
unteachable = not able to be taught

The student was a nonconformist.

non- = not
conform = go along with others
-ist = one who does something
uncomformist = someone who does not go along with others.

The first step is using the prefix-root-suffix method is to become familiar with
the most commonly used word parts. The prefixes and roots listed in the table 1 and 2
will give you a good start in determining the meanings of thousands of words without
looking them up in the dictionary. For instance, more than 10.000 words can begin with
the prefix non-. Not all these words are listed in a collegiate dictionary, but they would
appear in unabridged dictionary. Another common prefix, pseudo-, is used in more than
400 words. A small amount of time spent learning word parts can yield a large payoff in
new words learned.
Before you begin to use word parts to figure out new words, there are a few
things you need to know:
1. In most cases, a word is built upon at least one root.

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 2. Words can have more than one prefix, root, or suffix.
a. Words can be made up of two or more roots (geo/logy).
b. Some words have two prefixes (in/sub/ordination).
c. Some words have two suffixes (beauty/ful/ly)
3. Words do not always have prefix and suffix.
a. Some words have neither a prefix nor a suffix (read)
b. Others have a suffix but no prefix (read/ing)
c. Others have a prefix but no suffix (pre/read)
4. Roots may change in spelling as they are combined with suffixes (root =
aud/audit, meaning = hear, sample word = audible)
5. Sometimes, you may identify a group of letters as a prefix or root, but find that it
does not carry the meaning of the prefix or root. For example, in the word
internal, the letters inter should not be confused with the prefix inter-, meaning
“between.” Similarly, the letters mis in the word missile are part of the root and
are not the prefix mis-, which means “wrong; bad.”

PREFIXES
Prefixes appear at the beginnings of many English words. They alter the
meaning of the root to which they are connected. In Table 1, thirty-two common
prefixes are grouped according to meaning.
Table 1 COMMON PREFIXES

Prefix Meaning Sample Word

Prefixes referring to amount or number
bi two bimonthly
equi equal equidistant
micro small microscope
mono one monocle
multi many multipurpose
poly many polygon
semi half semicircle
Tri three triangle
uni one unicycle
Prefix Meaning Sample Word
Prefixes meaning “not” (negative)
a, an, ab not asymmetrical
anti against antiwar
contra against, opposite contradict
dis apart, away, not disagree
in/il/ir/im not illogical
non not nonfiction

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un not unpopular
pseudo false pseudoscientific
mis wrong, bad misunderstand
Prefixes giving direction, location, or placement
circum around circumference
com/col/con with, together compile
de away, from depart
extra from, out of, former ex-wife
hyper over, excessive hyperactive
inter between interpersonal
intro/intra within, into, in introduction
post after posttest
pre before premarital
re back, again review
retro backward retrospect
sub under, below submarine
super above, extra supercharge
tele far telescope
trans scross, over transcontinental

Exercise 1
Directions: Use the list of common prefixes in table 1 to determine the meaning of each
of the following words. Write a brief definition or synonym for each. If you are
unfamiliar with the root, you may need to check a dictionary.
1. interoffice ……………………………………………………………………….
2. supernatural …………………………………………………………………….
3. imperfect ………………………………………………………………………..
4. subtopic …………………………………………………………………………
5. introspection ……………………………………………………………………
6. nonsense ………………………………………………………………………..
7. transmit …………………………………………………………………………
8. multidimensional ……………………………………………………………….
9. prearrange ………………………………………………………………………
10. reset …………………………………………………………………………….

Exercise 2
Directions: Read each of the following sentences. Use your knowledge of prefixes to
complete the incomplete word.

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1. A text titled Botany was ___titled Understanding Plants.
2. The politician delivered his speech in a dull ____tone.
3. The new sweater had a snag, and I returned it to the store because it was ___perfect.
4. The flood damage was permanent and ___reversible.
5. I was not given the correct date and time, I was ___informed.
6. People who speak several different languages are ____lingual.
7. A musical ___lude was played between the events in the ceremony.
8. I decided the magazine was uninteresting, so I ____continued subscription.
9. Merchandise that does not pass factory inspection is considered ____standard and
sold at a customer.
10. The tuition refund policy approved this week will apply to last year’s tuition as well;
it will be ___active to January 1 of last year.
Exercise 3
Directions: Use your knowledge of prefixes to figure out the missing word in each
sentence. Write the word in the space provided.
1. Our house is a duplex. The one next door with three apartments is __________
2. A person who cannot read or write is called _________________
3. I did not use my real name, instead I gave a ________________
4. If someone seems to have greater powers than do normal humans, he or she might
be called _______________
5. A friend who criticizes you too often without reason is ____________
6. If you plan to continue to take college course after graduates, you would be taking
________ course.
7. Substances that fight bacteria are known as _________ drugs.

ROOTS
Roots carry the basic or core meaning of a word. Hundreds of root words are
used to build words in the English language. Thirty of the most common and most
useful are listed in Table 2. Knowledge of the meanings of these roots will enable you
to unlock the meanings of many words. For example, if you know that the root dic/dict
means “tell or say,” then you would have a clue to the meanings of such words as
dictate (speak for someone to write down), dictation (words spoken to be written
down), and diction (wording or manner of speaking).
Table 2 COMMON ROOTS

Root Meaning Sample Word

aud/audit hear audible
aster/astro star astronaut
bio life biology

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cap take, seize captive
chron(o) time chronology
corp body corpse
cred believe incredible
dict/dic tell, say predict
duc/duct lead introduce
fact/fac make, do factory
graph write telegraph
geo earth geophysics
log/logo/logy study, thought psychology
mit/miss send dismiss
mort/mor die, death immortal
path feeling sympathy
phono sound, voice telephone
photo light photosensitive
port carry transport
scop seeing microscope
scrib/script write inscription
sen/sent feel insensitive
Spec/spic/spect look, see retrospect
tend/tent/tens stretch or strain tension
terr/terre land, earth territory
theo god theology
ven/vent come convention
vert/vers turn invert
vis/vid See invisible
voc call vocation

Exercise 4
Directions: Use the list of common roots in table 2 to determine the meaning of the
following words. Write a brief definition or synonym for each, checking a dictionary if
necessary.
1. Dictaphone_______________________________________________________
2. Biomedicine______________________________________________________
3. Visibility________________________________________________________
4. Autograph_______________________________________________________
5. Chronicle________________________________________________________
6. Sociology________________________________________________________
7. Sensation________________________________________________________

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8. Speculate________________________________________________________
9. Porter___________________________________________________________
10. Audition_________________________________________________________

Exercise 5
Directions: Complete each of the following sentences with one of the words listed
below.
synchronized verdict scripture
graphic visualize spectators
phonic prescribed extensive
apathetic

1. The jury brought in its _____________ after one hour of deliberation.

2. Religious or holy writings are called _________________
3. She closed her eyes and tried to _____________ the license plate number.
4. The ______________ watching the football game were tense.
5. The doctor _____________ two types of medication.
6. The child’s list of toys he wanted for his birthday was _____________.
7. The criminal appeared ______________ when the judge pronounced sentence.
8. The runners ____________ their watches before beginning the race.
9. The textbook contained numerous ____________ aids, including maps, charts, and
diagrams.
10. The study of the way different parts of words sound is _____________

SUFFIXES
Suffixes are word endings that often change the part of speech of a word. For
example, adding the suffix y to the noun cloud produces the adjective cloudy.
Accompanying the change in part of speech is a shift in meaning. (Cloudy means
“resembling cloud; overcast with clouds, dimmed or dulled as if clouds.”)
Often, several different words can be formed from a single root word with the
addition of different suffixes.
Examples: Root: class
Root + suffix = class/ify, class/ification, class/ic
Root: right
Root + suffix = right/ly, right/ful, right/ist, right/eous.

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 If you know the meaning of the root word and the ways in which different
suffixes affect the meaning of the root word, you will be able to figure out a word’s
meaning when a suffix is added.

Table 3 COMMON SUFFIXES

Suffix Sample Word

Suffixes that refer to a state, condition, or quality
able touchable
ance assistance
ation confrontation
Ence reference
Ible tangible
Ic aerobic
Ion discussion
Ity superiority
Ive permissive
ment amazement
Ness kindness
Ous jealous
Ty loyalty
Y creamy
Suffixes that mean “one who”
Ee tutee
Eer engineer
Er teacher
Ist activist
Or advisor
Suffixes that mean “pertaining to or referring to”
al autumnal
ship friendship
hood brotherhood
ward homeward
You can expand your vocabulary significantly by learning the variations in
meaning that occur when suffixes are added to words you already know. When you find
a word that you do not know, look for the root word. Then, using the sentence the word
is in (context), figure out what the word means with the suffix added. Occasionally, you
may find that the spelling of the root word has been changed. For instance, a final e may
be dropped, a final consonant may be doubled, or a final y may be changed into i.
Consider the possibility of such changes when trying to identify the root word.
Examples: The article was a compilation of facts.
root + suffix

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 compil(e) + -ation = something that has been compiled, or
put together into an orderly form.
Our college is one of the most prestigious in the state
root + suffix
prestige(e) +-ious = having prestige or distinction

Exercise 6
Directions: For each of the words listed, add a suffix so that the word will complete the
sentence. Write the new word in the space provided. Check a dictionary if you unsure of
the spelling.
1. converse
Our phone ____________ lasted ten minutes.
2. assist
The medical ___________ labeled the patient’s blood samples.
3. qualify
The job applicant outlined his _____________ to the interviewer.
4. intern
The doctor completed her ______________ at Memorial Medical Center.
5. eat
We did not realize that the blossoms of the plant could be _________.

Exercise 7
Directions: For each word listed below, write as many new words as you can create by
adding suffixes.
1. compare________________________________________________________
2. adapt__________________________________________________________
3. right___________________________________________________________
4. identify_________________________________________________________
5. critic___________________________________________________________

HOW TO USE WORD PARTS

Think of root words as being at the root or core of a word’s meaning. There are
many more roots than are listed in table 2. You already know many of these, because
they are everyday words. Think of prefixes as word parts that are added before the root
to qualify or change its meaning. Think of suffixes as add –ion that make the word fit
grammatically into the sentence in which it is used.
When you come upon a word you do not know, keep the following pointer in
mind:
1. First look for the root. Think of this as looking for a word inside a larger word.
Often a letter or two will be missing.
Examples: un/utter/able post/operat/ive
defens/ible non/adapt/able

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 inter/college/iate im/measure/ability
2. If you do not recognize the root, then you will probably not be able to figure out
the word. The next step is to check its meaning in a dictionary. For tip on
locating words in a dictionary rapidly and easily.
Suppose you are looking up the word loathsome. The guide words on a
particular page are livid and lobster. You know that the word loathsome will be
on that page because, alphabetically, loathsome comes after livid and before
lobster.
3. If you did recognize the root word, next look for a prefix. If there is one,
determine how it changes the meaning of the word
Examples: un/utter/able post/operative
un = not post – after
4. Locate the suffix, if there is one, and determine how it further adds to or changes
the meaning of the root word.
Examples: unutter/able postoperat/ive
-able = able -ive = state or condition
5. Next, try out the meaning in the sentence in which the word was used. Substitute
your meaning for the word and see whether the sentence makes sense.
Examples: Some of the victim’s thoughts were unutterable at the time of the
crime.
Unutterable = not able to be spoken

My sister was worried about the cost of postoperative care.

Postoperative = state or condition after an operation.
PRONOUNCING UNFAMILIAR WORDS
Most college students, at one time or another, meet words that they are unable to
pronounce. To pronounce an unfamiliar word, sound it out syllable by syllable
(Knowing how to divide words into syllables is useful for typing term papers and other
written materials. When you have to break a word at the end of a line, it must be split
between syllables).
Here are a few simple rules for dividing words into syllables:
1. Each syllable is a separate, distinct speech sound. Pronounce the following
words and try to hear the number of syllables in each.
Example: expensive ex/pen/sive = 3 syllables
recognize rec/og/nize = 3 syllables
punctuate punc/tu/ate = 3 syllables
complicated com/pli/cat/ed = 4 syllables
2. Each syllable has a least one vowel and usually one or more consonants (The
letter a, e, I, o, u, and sometimes y are vowels. All other letters are consonants.)
Examples as/sign re/act cou/pon gen/er/al
3. Divide words before a single consonant.

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 Examples: hu/mid pa/tron re/tail fa/vor
4. Divide words between two consonants appearing together.
Examples: pen/cil lit/ter lum/ber sur/vive
5. Divide words between prefixes (word beginnings) and roots (base words) and/or
between rotts and suffixes (word endings)
Example: Prefix+ Root
Pre/read post/pone
Root + suffix
Sex/ist agree/ment list/ing
6. Divide compound word word between the individual words that form the
compound word.
Examples: house/broken house/hold space/craft
Green/house news/paper sword/fish
7. Divide words between two vowel sounds that appear together.
Example: te/di/ous ex/tra/ne/ous
SUMMARY
When context does not give enough clues to the meaning of an unknown word,
it is helpful to break the word into word part. The beginnings, middles, and endings of
words are called prefixes, roots, and suffixes. Learning the meanings of the most
common prefixes, roots, and suffixes will provide a basis for analyzing thousand of
English words.

PART TWO
UNDERSTANDING SENTENCES
Along with words and phrases, sentences are basic units of meaning to consider
when we try to improve reading rate and comprehension. Clear accurate understanding
of sentences is essential to other comprehension skills and to the effective reading and
study of textbook chapter.
A sentence is commonly defined as a group of words that express a complete
thought or idea. Understanding sentences can be used as a comprehensible input
through comprehending punctuations, context clues, references, and sentence core parts.
A. PUNCTUATIONS
1. Comma (,)
The comma has a number of different uses. But in each case, it separates some type
of information from other parts of the sentences. The different uses of the comma
are explained below.

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a. The introductory use. The comma can be used to separate introductory,
beginning, or opening parts of a sentence from the main part of the sentences.
Examples:
1. To my surprise, most people attending the party were over thirty years old.
2. At the age of sixteen, he began to give piano concerts.
3. In spite of noise, he was able to sleep.
4. Before the war began, American colonist had already been rebelling for several
years.

b. The Parenthetical Use. The comma can be used to separate additional

information from the main part of the sentence. Writers occasionally interrupt
the core sentence to add some extra (parenthetical information which important,
but not crucial, to the sentence meaning. They use a comma before and after this
parenthetical information. To you as a reader, this useof the comma should help
you to tell important from less important information and should aid you in
identifying the sentence’s core part. You will notice that even when the
parenthetical phrase is left out, the sentence is complete and conveys meaning.
Examples
1. My daughter, Raida Afifah, plans to go to Bali.
2. Dolphins, as a matter of fact, are very friendly creatures that frequently come to
the rescue of people.
3. Carl Akely, the American Naturalist, led two expeditions in the nineteen-
twenties.
4. The Coal Mine Safetry Act, one of the first federal efforts to enforce safety
standards, reduced worker productivity.
5. Drug and alcohol, experts warn, are an unsafe and dangerous combination.
c. The Serial Use. Whenever several items are presented in a list or series, in a
sentence, they are separated by comma. Many different types of items may be
given in series. Single words, such as nouns or adjectives as well as phrases and
clauses are all separated by commas when they are part of list. In all cases, the
items in a series are equal ad consistent in how they are connected or related to
the core parts of a sentence. As you are reading, if you notice many items
separated by commas, you might expect that they are a series of related facts or
ideas.
Examples
1. After I saw the film, I was bored, tired, and angry.
2. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and
writing.
3. Please runs upstairs, go into my bedroom, get my hand phone, and give it to me.

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 4. Social adjustment requires that an individual maintain himself independently, to
be gainfully employed, and to conform to social standards set by the community.

d. Related Ideas Use. The comma can be used to joint two closely related, and
complete ideas within a single sentence. When used in this way, the comma
must be used with a conjunction or connecting words (and, or, nor, but and
for). This use of the comma tells you that there are actually two complete but
related ideas within a sentence (there are two sets of core parts within the
sentence)
Examples
1. We walked two miles into the woods, but we did not see a single wild animal.
2. We as teachers cannot be held responsible for the differences in ability that
students bring in the classroom, but we are responsible for motivating our
students and for making sure that they are involved in learning.
Exercise 1
Direction: In each sentence below, cross out the part or parts of the sentence that
you can identify as of lesser importance in the sentence based on the use and
placement of commas.
1. In the nineteenth century, industrialization made its impact on society for better
or worse.
2. If we put together everything we have discussed about the incidence and
distribution of mental retardation, we can draw some tentative conclusion.
3. All societies are held together by a system of norms, which are defined as rules
of acceptable behavior that are upheld by tradition and custom, as well as by
law.
4. Graphite, on the other hand, is made of a lot of carbon layers stacked one on the
top of the other like sheets of paper.
5. Dr. Ling, my philosophy instructor, assigns one chapter per week.
6. Along with words and phrases, sentences are basic units of meaning to consider
when we try to improve reading rate and comprehension.

2. The Semicolon (;)

The primary use of the semicolon is to separate two very closey related ideas
which have been combined in a single sentence. Sentence 1 and 2 in the examples
below can be combined to form sentence 3.
Examples
1. They bought the house at a very low price.
2. The former owner had to sell immediately and move to another city.

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 3. They bought the house at a very low price; the former owner had to sell
immediately and move to another city.
You may notice that this use of the semicolon is similar to the use of the comma
to separate complete and related ideas in one sentence. One main difference is that a
conjunction such as and or but must be used along with the comma, but the
semicolon can be used alone – without conjunction. When a semicolon is used, you
know that the two ideas have equal weight or importance.
Examples:
1. The job had to be finished on time; we found we had underestimated the amount
of work involved.
2. A good actor has to spend a lot of time in classes where he studies human
emotions, such as sadness, happiness, or anger; in these classes, he concentrates
on the audience in the theatre.
3. The fisherman caught fifteen trout; they cooked over on open fire.
Occasionally, a semicolon is used to separate sentence parts which, if divided by
comma, would be confusing or difficult to read. To illustrate this use of the
semicolon, the sentence below has been written in two versions.
1. Speakers at the conference included Dr, Frank, a biologist, Dr, Flock, a
philosopher, and Professor Smith, a geneticist.
2. Speakers at the conference included Dr, Frank, a biologist; Dr, Flock, a
philosopher; and Professor Smith, a geneticist.

As you read the first version of the sentence, you are not sure whether the
speakers include Dr. Frank and a biologist or whether it was Dr. Frank who was
being described as a biologist.

3. The Colon (:)

The colon is most often used to introduce a list, statement, or quotation. The
colon tells you, the reader, that some type of additional information which further
explains the main idea of a sentence is to follow. The colon also serves as a marker
indicating that the sentence’s core parts precede the colon.
Examples
1. Books that I have enjoyed recently include: Pride and Prejudice, Sons and
Lovers, and Bleak House (The colon introduce a list of book titles)
2. The causes of the war can be divided into three categories: social, economic, and
political (a list of categories will follow).
3. Chomsky described two levels of language: One underlying or deep structure
involved with meaning, and a surface level used in ordinary conversation. (the

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 colon in this example signals that an explanation of the two levels of language is
to follow).

4. The Dash (–)

The dash is most commonly used in a sentence to separate unessential or
parenthetical element from the core sentence, when using a comma would be
confusing. This usage also assists the reader in separating core parts from supporting
information.
Examples
1. At least three sports – basketball, football, and tennis – are continually gaining
television fans.
2. Throughout history, man has been puzzled and exasperated by the strange
duality of his nature – half animal, half angel – and much religious and
philosophic teaching has been an attempt to understand and integrate these two
sides of human nature.
Summary
The sentence, one of the basic units of meaning, is defined as a group of words that
express a complete thought or idea. In order to be complete, a sentence must contain
sufficient information, so the reader is not left to questions what happened or to whom
or to what something happened.
All complete sentences must have two essential components; these are called core
parts. First, a sentence must have subject; it must be about person, thing, or idea.
Second, a sentence must express some type of action; something must happen to or be
done by the subject. In long complicated sentences, identifying the core parts is more
difficult because it is necessary to separate the core parts from other words, phrases, and
clauses which provide additional information about the core parts.
Punctuation is an aid to the reader in comprehending sentence meaning and
identifying the core parts of the sentences. Each types of punctuation mark gives the
reader specific information about the relative importance of ideas and the location of
core parts within the sentence.

B. USING CONTEXT CLUES

1. Figure out the meanings of words from their use in a sentence.
2. Use types of context clues.
What do you usually do when you come to a word you do not know in your
reading?

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 a. Look it up in the dictionary?
b. Ask your teacher?
c. Ask another students or friends?
d. Try to guess what it means?
If your answered a, b, or c, then you are not reading as effectively and efficiently as
you could be. In fact, the best strategy for dealing with an unknown word is to try to
guess what it means. This strategy:

 is fast because you don’t interrupt your reading.

 helps your comprehension because you stay focused on the general sense of
what you are reading.
 helps build vocabulary because you are more likely to remember the words.
 Allows you to enjoy your reading more because you don’t have to stop
often.
WHAT IS CONTEXT
Read the following brief paragraph. Several words are missing. Try to figure out the
missing words and write them in the blanks.
Most Americans can speak only one _______. Europeans, however, ________
several. As a result, Europeans think ______ are unfriendly and unwilling to
communicate with them.
Did you insert the word language in the first blank, speak or know in the second
blank, and Americans in the third blank? You could tell from the sentence what word to
put in. The words around the missing words (the sentence context) gave you clues to
what word would fit and make sense. Such clues are called context clues. Context clues
can help you to figure out the meaning of unfamiliar words.
Example
Phobias, such as fear of height, water, or confined spaces, are difficult to eliminate.
From the sentence, you can tell that phobias mean “fear of specific object or
situation.
There are many types of Context Clues, such as definition, example, cause and
effect, contrast, restatement, and modifier.

1. Definition Cues
Many times a writer defines a word, directly or indirectly, immediately
following its use. The writer may define a word directly by giving a brief definition
or providing a synonym (a word that has the same meaning). The words and phrases

17
 such as means, is, are, refer to, can be defined as, can be called, and are called
often use.
Examples
1. Induction refers to the process of reasoning from the known to the unknown.
2. Business is the production, distribution, and sale of goods and services for a
profit.
3. A markdown is a reduction in the original selling price of a product.
At other times, a writer may define a word indirectly. Indirect definitions usually
follow the word and are set off by commas, parentheses, or dashes. In the following
examples, the boldface word or phrase is defined the underlined part of the sentence.
Examples
1. A hypochondrium, excessive worry over one’s health, is common among senior
citizen.
2. Some stores offer loss leader (products on which the stores lose money) to gain
new customers.
3. Probability – the likelihood that an event will occur – is important in the field of
statistics.

2. Example Clues
Writers often include examples that help to explain or clarify a word. Suppose
you don’t know the meaning of the word toxic, and you find it used in the following
sentence.
Toxic materials, such as arsenic, asbestos, pesticide, and lead , can cause bodily
damage.
This sentence gives four examples of toxic materials. From the examples given,
which are all poisonous substances, you could conclude that toxic means
“poisonous”.
The words and phrases such as include, for example, for instance, such as, and
like indicate example clues.

1. Unconditioned responses, including heartbeat, blinking, and breathing, occur

naturally in all humans.
2. Mark experienced several traumas in early childhood, including the divorce of his
parents and the death of his grandma.
3. Most condiments, such as pepper, mustard, and catsup, are used to improve the
flavor of foods.
4. Reports such as the check-and-earnings statement are essential to operating a
business.

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3. Cause and Effect Clues
The words and phrases such as because, consequently, so, due to, as a result
indicate cause and effect relationships.
Examples
1. Mary’s eyes had been sore for almost a week, so her mother decided to take her
to an oculist for treatment.
2. John was energetic enough to work sixteen hours at hospital because he had a
restful week end.
3. Computer is very expensive, so we cannot afford to buy it.

5. Contrast Clues
It is sometimes possible to determine the meaning of an unknown word from a
word or phrase in the context that has an opposite meaning. The words and phrases
such but, although, even though, yet, on the other hand, indicate contrasting ideas.
Examples
1. During the ceremony, the graduates were quiet, but afterward they became
boisterous.
2. I loathe dogs even though most of my family loves them.
3. I am certain that the hotel will hold our reservation, but if you are dubious, call
to make sure.

6. Inference Clues
Many times you can figure out meaning of unknown word by using logic and
reasoning skills. For Instance, look at the following sentence.
John is quite versatile; he is a top athlete, an excellent car mechanic, and a gourmet
cook.
You can see that John is successful at many different types of activities, and you
could reason that versatile means “capable of doing many things competently”.
7. Restatement
The words and phrases such as or, in other word, that is to say, that is and the
signals, commas, parentheses, and dashes indicate restatement.
1. The instructors also teach the culture (the idea and beliefs of society).
2. Students memorize information; in other word they learn and remember basic
rules and facts.

19
 3. Communicating or getting our message across is concerned not only of a second
language teacher but also all in our daily lives in whatever language we happen
to use.
4. An awareness of body language – the subtle messages conveyed by posture,
hand movement, eyes, and smiles – is one among the many avenues to improve
communication by adult.

7. Modifier
The phrase or clause after a noun modifies the noun.
1. They have city manager, who runs all the service departments of the government
and takes charge of buying, for the city.
2. An Illiterate person, being unable to read and write, is often cited.

8. Sentence/Paragraph
The sentence or sentences that come before or after the sentence containing
word explain the word. The paragraph in which an unknown word appears may also
explain the word.
1. At six on faster morning, the bell in the church began its sonorous ring. The
full, deep, rich ring of the bell could be heard in the empty street as the sun came
up.
2. Language learning strategies are not always readily observable to the human
eye. Many aspects of cooperating a strategy in which learner works with
someone else to achieve a learning goal, can be observed, but the act of making
mental association, an important memory strategy, can not be seen.
3. Children’s capabilities include both reception and production. They can
understand and they can communicate.

C. REFERENCES
References are words which substitute for other words or phrases. They usually
refer back to the ideas that have already been expressed; they sometimes refer
forward to the ideas yet to be stated. In the following, the references are underlined.
Some English teachers teach the lesson fast but _ do not know what they do.
Others do it fast and _ know it. Their teaching matters are the same. The
formers cannot change their way of teaching easily because they are not aware
of it. The latter can easily change their way of teaching since they are aware of
their problem.
D. SENTENCE CORE PART
Even before beginning to develop skill in recognizing core parts in a sentence, it
is important for a reader to understand the differences between complete and
incomplete thought. A complete thought is one that supplies enough information to

20
 give the full meaning being expressed by the writer. Incomplete thoughts give you
only partial information.
1. Slipped off the side of the road into the ditch during a winter storm.
2. The tractor-trailer slipped off the side of the road into the ditch during a winter
storm
Incomplete thought, you are left with a question (what happened) or (to whom
or what something happened). Sentence 2 is complete. You now that the something
which slipped off the road and went in the ditch was a tractor-trailer.
1. This chapter, an excellent summary of the current economic problems in
Indonesia.
2. This chapter, an excellent summary of the current economic problems in
Indonesia, presents some very useful graphs.

1. Identifying Core Parts

Every sentence expresses at least one key idea, or basic message. This key idea
is made up two parts, a simple subject and a simple predicate. In each of the
following examples, the core parts are underlined.
1. George studied for three hours last night.
2. Food prices have been risen drastically in the past four years.
3. Most psychological principles can be applied by everyone.
4. After her own illness, the physician was more sympathetic to her patient’s
concerns and fears.

Object
In some sentences, the verb has an object or thing it refers to that completes the
meaning of the sentence. You might think of the object as the person, place, or thing
upon whom or to which the action is performed. The object is often called the
receiver of the action. Here are a few sentences in which the object is underlined.
The psychology instructor discussed a theory of motivation.
- A theory of motivation is what the instructor discussed.
Researchers have investigated the differences in communication style.
- Differences in communication style are what researchers have investigated.

Sentence Modifier
Once you have identified the core parts of a sentence, the next step is to
determine how the meaning of those core parts is changed or modified by the
remainder of the sentence. These remaining parts, called modifier, provide you with
further information about one of the core parts. Notice how each of the underlined
modifiers expands, alters, or limits the meaning of the following sentences.
After showing the film, the instructor gave a quiz.
- The modifier tells when the quiz is given.
Dr. Ling, my philosophy instructor, assigns one chapter per week.

21
 - The modifier indicates who Dr. Ling is.
Everyone except engineering major is required to take a philosophy course.
- The modifier limits by giving an exception

In many long and complicated sentences, the key idea is not as obvious as in the
previous examples. To find the key idea, ask:
1. Who or what is the sentence about?
2. What is happened in the sentence?
Examples
1. Intelligence, as measured by IQ, depends on the kind of test given, the skill of
the examiner, and the cooperation of the subject.
2. Violence in sports, both at amateur and professional level, has increased
dramatically over the past ten years.
Exercise 1
Directions: Read each of the following sentences, underlined the subject and verb,
and circle the object if present.
1. My sister took her car to the garage for repair.
2. The library was closed for the entire week due to a flu epidemic.
3. The textbook contains exercises intended to increase reading speed.
4. Storage, processing, and retrieval are essential data processing functions.
5. Numerous authors have researched delinquency and offered subcultural theories.
6. Life insurance needs are determined by subtracting the financial resources that
will be available at death from the financial losses likely to result from the death.
Exercise 2
Directions: Read each of the following group of words. Mark S if the words form a
sentence. Mark an N if they do not a sentence.
1. Twenty years ago this month, the President’s Council of Economic advisors
reopened for business under a new management after nearly a year in Limbo.
2. The energy that is used in business and industry in the form of electricity
3. A second feature of the pre-operational stage of child growth and development.
4. Just as water pressure is caused by the weight of water, atmospheric pressure is
caused by the weight of air.
5. An audit, a procedure designed to increase the quality of health care.
6. Since it is difficult to stop smoking, the individual who want to quit may find.
2. Identifying Core parts in Complicated Sentences
Many sentences are short, direct, and straightforward and, as such, are easy to
comprehend. Other, however, are complicated by the addition of numerous facts and
the expression of complex relationships.

22
 Identifying core parts as you read becomes more difficult as sentences become
longer and more complicated and as additional information is added.
Simple sentence: Abnormal behavior is the product of biochemical processes in the
brain
Complicated sentence:
Many professionals in the field of psychology, especially those
with medical backgrounds, believe that most, if not all, abnormal
behavior is the product of biochemical processes in the brain of
the affected individual.
The sentence is complicated by the addition of three pieces of information: (1)
who believe abnormal behavior is biochemically caused – “many professionals in
the field of psychology, especially with medical background”; (2) the qualifying
statement “most, if not all”; and (3) whose brain – “of the affected individual.”
The key to understanding a complicated sentence is to unravel it, identifying its
core parts and analyzing how each additional piece (fact) modifies the meaning of
the core. The following steps are useful.
Step 1: Locate the core parts. Establish what the sentence is about and what action
is occurring. Be alerts for compound subjects or verbs. Many complicated sentences
may express more than one idea and have more than one set of core parts.
Step 2: Study the modifiers. Identify how each remaining piece of the sentence alters
its meaning. Does it describe the subject? Does it tell when, why, how, or where the
action occurred?
Step 3: Paraphrase: Express the sentence’s basic meaning in your own words
without referring to the sentence. If necessary, split it into two or more basic
sentences. This step provides the best test of whether you actually understood the
sentence.
Step 4: Check the vocabulary. If step 3 fails, then difficult or technical vocabulary
may be interfering with your comprehension. Check your text’s glossary or consult
the dictionary.
Simple sentence - complete
Burger World plans to start work on a new restaurant.
Complete sentence – complicated
Burger World, which operates some 2000 fast food restaurant, plans to start
work this spring, or at the latest by early summer, on a new self-service restaurant in

23
 Rochester, New York, which is designed to test many new ideas in energy saving
and customer convenience.
The above example show how a lot of additional information can be added to a
simple sentence. If each fact added to the simple sentence had to be written as a
separate sentence, how many additional sentences would be necessary? Let’s find
out.

1. The new restaurant will be self-service.

2. Burger World operates 2000 fast food restaurants.
3. Burger World plans to start work this spring.
4. If the Burger World does not work in the spring, it will start in early summer.
5. The new restaurant will be located in Rochester, New York.
6. The new restaurant is designed to test many new idea in energy saving and
customer convenience.

Exercise 3
Directions: Read each of the following sentences, using the procedure suggested above.
Paraphrase each sentence in the space provided.
1. Multiple personality is a reaction, usually caused by stress, in which the patient
manifests two or more systems of personality, each of which has distinct, well-
developed emotional and thought processes and represents a unique personality.
2. Some individuals do not go through the normal process of grieving, perhaps
because of their personality makeup or as a consequence of the particular
situation: The individual may, for instance, be stoical about his or her feelings or
may have to manage the affairs of the family.
3. Beyond the volume and quality of arms transferred to troubled regions by the
Soviet Union and the United States bloc has demonstrated a superior willingness
to arrange deliveries (of arms) on schedules that could not be met by the West,
thus enabling it to influence events in regional hotspots at critical junctions,
while Western arms have generally been much slower to arrive.

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 MEMORY
All of us agree that S had a “good memory”; people who cannot remember
appointment or who continually mislay their glasses or car keys often say have a bad
memory. “To understand what we mean by the notion of a good memory, it is useful to
view memory as a function: the capacity to register, retain, and retrieve information.
Memory can be demonstrated by recognizing information when it is
reencountered at a later time or by recalling stored information. Picking out your own
stolen jewelry from a police department display of recovered earrings, cuff-links, and
watches is an example of recognition; recommending a restaurant because of the
wonderful lobster you have been eaten there is an example of recall.
When recognition and recall are flawless, the demonstration of memory is easy,
but all of us register more information that we can recall. Final exams provide a
common experience of the failure to recall stored information. Although a question has
been expected and the material carefully studied, the mind goes blank and, no matter
how great the effort, the information remains elusive. Students give various reasons for
poor performance on examinations, and a list of common fourteen common excuses has
been collected. Poor performance is at the basis of the reasons in the first group; the
students had stored the information but failed to recall it. Lack of knowledge or
capacity is responsible for failures in the second group; the student either did not or
could not store the information. Reasons in the third group are unclassified; they could
represent poor performance, lack of knowledge, or incapacity.
As the students; excuses show, it is often difficult to discover whether the
inability to remember is due to a failure in recall or to failure to store the information
in the first place. For the reason, discovering why the process of recognition or recall
sometimes goes awry is one interest of researchers. The study of human memory is an
attempt to understand the entire memory system from the first registration of
information to its recall for use at a later date. In examining the workings of memory,
psychologists distinguish three basic memory functions or processes: acquisition,
retention, and retrieval.
Acquisition involves transforming raw information into the form in which it will
be stored. This process is also called encoding, but not all aspects of information we
wish to remember are encoded. When two people see the same situation, each may
attend to different aspects of it and their later discussions will show that although their
memories overlap, they are also different. In addition to attention, an understanding of
the material to be remembered and the strategies used to encode it also affect the
acquisition process. For example, S’s use of imagery was an encoding strategy.
Once information is encoded, it must be retained, and retention or maintaining
information in storage, is the second memory process. When retention fails, information
is forgotten, and studies have shown that most forgetting can be traced to interference
from more recent information.

25
 Retrieval, the third memory process, refers to the ability to get encoded
information out of storage and back into awareness. The process of retrieval involves
an organized search of retained material, and the search employs a variety of
strategies. Not all memories are alike, and only some of what we encode is retained for
any length of time. Research on the acquisition, retention, and retrieval of information
had led many psychologists to assume that there are three different types of memory
stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory memory, the first type of storage, refers, to the momentary persistence
of sensory information after stimulation has ceased, such as the image on a frame of
movie film. The memory can be a sight, a sound, a touch, a smell, or a taste, and unless
it is processed, thereby transferring it to another part of the system, the memory will
fade in about a second. Sensory memory can hold a great deal of information at one
time, but because the information is unprocessed, it has no meaning.
Information that has been transferred to short-term memory, the second type of
memory storage, is retained for about fifteen seconds. The information in short-term
memory has meaning; the sensory (the black-shapes of the letter in the sentence) has
been transformed into words that carry a message. Short-term memory can hold only a
limited amount of information.
Long-term memory, the third type of memory storage, has a limitless capacity
and information is stored there indefinitely. Information that is transferred to long-term
memory is related meaningfully to other information already in storage. Long-term
memory makes society possible; it enables us to recognize friends, cook a meal, hold a
job, and enjoy a book or a film.
Some researchers prefer to talk about memory in another way, pointing out that
instead of transferring information from one type of storage to another, human being
process the information at increasingly deeper levels. With levels of processing,
whether material is retained depends on the depth to which it is processed and the
extent to which it is elaborated (i.e., related to other material that has already received
deep processing). Although neither the structural not the levels-of-processing
explanation can account for all aspects of human memory, each has been useful to
researchers.
(From: Elizabeth Hall (1983). Psychology Today: an Introduction. New York: Random House)

26
 WHAT EMOTIONS DO FOR US:
UNDERSTANDING THE FUNCTIONS OF EMOTION
Imagine what it would be like if you had no emotions – no depths of despair: no
depression, no feeling apologetic, but at the same time, no happiness, joy, or love.
Obviously life would be much less interesting, even dull, without the experience of
emotion.
But do emotions serve any purpose beyond making life interesting?
Psychologists have identified a number of important functions that emotions play in our
daily lives (Scherer, 1984). Among the most important of those functions are the
following:
Preparing us for action. Emotions act as a link between events in the external
environment and behavioral responses that an individual makes. For example, if we saw
an angry dog charging toward us, the emotional reaction (fear) would be associated with
psychological arousal of the sympathetic division of the automatic nervous system. The
role of sympathetic divisions is to prepare us for emergency action, which presumably
would get us moving out of the dog’s way quickly. Emotions, then, are stimuli that aid
in the development of effective responses to various situations.
Shaping in our future behavior. Emotions serve to promote learning of
information that will assist us in making appropriate responses in the future. For
example, the emotional response that occurs when a person experiences something
unpleasant – such as the threatening dog – teaches that person to avoid similar
circumstances in the future. Similarly, pleasant emotions act as reinforcement for prior
behavior and therefore are apt to lead an individual to seek out similar situations in the
future. Thus, the feeling of satisfaction that follows giving to a charity is likely to
reinforce charitable behavior and make it more likely to occur in the future.
Helping us regulate social interaction. As we shall discuss in detail later, the
emotions we experience are frequently obvious to observers, as they are communicated
through our verbal and nonverbal behaviors. These behaviors can act as signal to
observers, allowing them to better understand what we are experiencing and predict our
future behavior. In turn, this promotes more effective and appropriate social interaction.
For instance, a mother who sees the terror on her 2 years old son’s face when he sees a
frightening picture in a book is able to comfort and reassure him, thereby helping him to
deal with his environment more effectively in the future.

(Workbook: English for Professionals and Students of Psychology and Education)

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 SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY CHANGES

Developmental psychology deals with the description, explanation, and

modification (Optimization) of changes in behavior within persons across their life
spans, and differences between persons in these changes. These changes are explained
in terms of physical growth, maturation, and learning. Although the causes of
development are characterized as either hereditary or environmental, neither can have
any effect without the other. Therefore, the old heredity versus environment (nature-
nurture) controversy is fruitless.
Development has been viewed from four major perspectives: the behavioral
development emphasizes environmental influences on behavior; the genetic emphasizes
the unfolding of that change developmentally; and the psychometric emphasizes
attributes rives and evolution of high form; the cognitive emphasizes underlying mental
structures that are relatively stable and can be measured objectively.
Lifespan development can be characterized as passing through eight stages:
prenatal (conception to birth), infancy (birth to 18 months), early childhood (18 months
to 6 years), late childhood (6 to 13 years), adolescence (13 to 20), young adulthood (20
to 45, middle age (45 to 65), and old age (to death). A “preconception” stage could be
added at the beginning and a stage of death at the end.
The designs used for developmental research are crosssectional, (comparing
people who are different in age at the present time), longitudinal (repeatedly testing the
same people as they grow older), and sequential (starting with a crosssectional design
but testing each age group repeatedly as they grow older). Each design has advantages
and disadvantages, but the sequential designs are generally best, nevertheless, most
developmental research is crosssectional .
Malnutrition can cause permanent physical and psychological retardation, is
prolonged, severe, or associated with a period of normally rapid growth. Males are more
susceptible ti its negative consequences than females.
Females have a higher survival rate than males from the beginning, in the
prenatal period, until the age of about 100 years. Among other contributing causes is the
greater resistance of females to environmental perturbation. Boys are more prone than
girls to emotional, scholastic, and behavior problems, but the causes may be largely
environmental, based on parental expectations about the behaviors of boys and girls and
consequent differences in treatment.

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 UNDERSTANDING PARAGRAPHS
Understanding paragraph can be used as a comprehensible input through
comprehending paragraph components (topic, topic sentence, supporting details, and
transitions) and paragraph pattern.
1. Identify main ideas in paragraphs.
2. Pick out the key details.
3. Use transitions to make reading easier.
When you go to see a movie, the first thing you want to know is: “What is it about?”
As the movie begins, various characters interact. To understand this interaction, you
have to know who the characters are and understand what they are saying. Then you
have to note how characters relate to one another. To grasp the point the film is making,
you have to realize what all of the conversation and action, taken together, means.
Understanding a paragraph is similar in ways to understanding a movie. The first
thing you need to know is what the paragraph is about. Then you have to understand
each of the sentences and what they are saying. Next, you have to see how the sentences
relate to one another. Finally, to understand the main point of the paragraph, you have to
consider what all the sentences, taken together, means.
The one of the whole paragraph is about is called the topic. The point that the whole
paragraph makes is called the main idea. The sentences that explain the main idea are
called details. To connect their ideas, writers use words and phrases known as
transitions.
A paragraph, then, is a group of related sentences about a single topic. It has four
essential parts: (1) topic, (2) main idea, (3) details, and (4) transitions. To read
paragraph most efficiently, you will need to become familiar with each part of a
paragraph and be able to identify and use these parts as you read.
GENERAL AND SPECIFIC IDEAS
To identify topics and main ideas in paragraphs, it will help you to understand
the difference between general and specific. A general idea is a broad idea that applies
to a large number of specific items. The term clothing is general because it refers to a
large collection of specific items – slacks, suits, blouses, shirts, scarves, and so on. A
specific idea or term is more detailed or particular. It refers to individual items. The
word scarf, for examples, is a particular term. The phrase red scarf is even more
specific.
Now we will apply the idea of general and specific to paragraphs. The main idea is
the most general statement the writer makes about the topic. Pick out the most general
statement among the following sentences.
1. People differ according to height.

29
 2. Hair color distinguishes some people from other.
3. People differ in a number of different ways.
4. Each person has his own personality.
What sentence is the most general statement? Now we will change this list into a
paragraph, rearranging the list and adding a few facts.
People differ in numerous ways. They differ according to physical characteristics,
such as height, weight, and hair color. They also differ in personality. Some people
are friendly and easygoing. Others are more reserved and formal.
In this paragraph, the main idea is expressed in the first sentence. All the other
sentences or statements are specific details that explain this main idea.
IDENTIFYING THE TOPIC
The topic is the one thing a paragraph is about. Every sentence in a paragraph in
some way discusses or explains this topic. To find the topic of a paragraph, ask
yourself: What is the one thing the author is discussing throughout the paragraph.
Flextime, which began in the mid-1960s as an alternative work schedule
experiment, will be a fact of life in many industries in the 21 st century. We’ll work
not according to traditional work schedules but according to our biological and
emotional rhythms. The night owls among us will be delighted to workthe lobster
shifts and let the rest of us work during the day. The number of hours worked won’t
be as significant as what you accomplish when you work. The advantage of flextime
is that it permits flexible, cost-effective work arrangements.
In this example, author is discussing one topic – flextime – throughout the paragraph.
Notice that the words flexible and flextime are used several times. Often the repeated use
of a word can serve as a clue to the topic.
FINDING THE MAIN IDEA
The main idea of a paragraph is what the author wants you to know about the
topic. It is the broad, important idea that the writer develop throughout the paragraph.
The entire paragraph, then, explains, develops, and supports this main idea. A question
that will guide you in finding the main idea is, “What is the author saying about the
topic?”
The Topic Sentence
Usually one sentence expresses the min idea. This sentence is called the topic sentence.
In the following paragraph, the topic is the effect of alcohol on the brain. Read
the paragraph to find out what the writer wants you to know about how alcohol affects
the brain. Look for one sentence that states this.

30
 The effects of alcohol are achieved through a depression of brain function. It is a
common misconception that alcohol is a stimulant. The liveliness of people who
have had one or two drinks at a party is the result of sedation of portions of the brain
that normally exercise judgment or control. At slightly higher concentrations,
alcohol affects portions of the brain that control muscular coordination. At higher
concentrations yet, the ability of the brain to receive pain messages is impaired, and
body metabolism is slowed down, in extreme cases to the point of coma or death.
The first sentence states that alcohol depresses the function of the brain. The
remainder of the paragraph explains how the brain reacts to varying amounts of alcohol.
Where to Find the Topic Sentence
The topic sentence can be located everywhere in the paragraph. However, there are
several positions where it is most likely to be found..
TOPIC SENTENCE FIRST
The most common placement of the topic sentence is first in the paragraph. In
this type of paragraph, the author states the main idea at the beginning of the paragraph
and then elaborates on it. For example:
The good listener, in order to achieve the purpose of acquiring
information, is careful to follow specific steps to achieve accurate
understanding. First, whenever possible the good listener prepares it
advance for the speech or lecture he or she is going to attend. He or she
studies the topic to be discussed and finds out about the speaker and his
or her beliefs. Second, on arriving at the place where the speech is to be
given, he or she chooses a seat where seeing, hearing, and remaining
alert are easy. Finally, when the speech is over, he or she reviews what
was said and react to and evaluates the ideas expressed.
Usually, in this type of paragraph, the author is employing a deductive thought
pattern in which a statement is made at the beginning and then supported through the
paragraph.
TOPIC SENTENCE LAST
The second most likely place for a topic sentence to appear is last in the paragraph.
When using this arrangement, a writer leads up to the main point and then directly states
it at the end.
Whenever possible the good listener prepares it advance for the
speech or lecture he or she is going to attend. He or she studies the topic
to be discussed and finds out about the speaker and his or her beliefs.
Second, on arriving at the place where the speech is to be given, he or
she chooses a seat where seeing, hearing, and remaining alert are easy.

31
 Finally, when the speech is over, he or she reviews what was said and
react to and evaluates the ideas expressed. Thus, an effective listener, in
order to achieve the purpose of acquiring information, is careful to
follow specific steps to achieve accurate understanding.
The thought pattern frequently used in this type of paragraph is inductive. That is, the
author provides supporting evidence for the main idea first, and then states it.
TOPIC SENTENCE IN THE MIDDLE
Another common placement of the topic sentence is in the middle of the
paragraph. In this case, the author builds up the main idea, states it in the middle of the
paragraph, and then goes on with further elaboration and detail.
Whenever possible the good listener prepares it advance for the
speech or lecture he or she is going to attend. He or she studies the topic
to be discussed and finds out about the speaker and his or her beliefs. An
effective listener, as you are beginning to see, takes specific steps to
achieve accurate understanding of the lecture. Furthermore, on arriving
at the place where the speech is to be given, he or she chooses a seat
where seeing, hearing, and remaining alert are easy. Finally, when the
speech is over, he or she reviews what was said and react to and
evaluates the ideas expressed.
TOPIC SENTENCE FIRST AND LAST
Sometimes an author uses two sentences to state the main idea or state the main
idea twice in one paragraph. Usually, in this type of paragraph, the writer states the
main idea as the beginning of the paragraph, then explains or supports the idea, and
finally restates the main idea at the very end. For example:
The good listener, in order to achieve the purpose of acquiring
information, is careful to follow specific steps to achieve accurate
understanding. First, whenever possible the good listener prepares it
advance for the speech or lecture he or she is going to attend. He or she
studies the topic to be discussed and finds out about the speaker and his
or her beliefs. Second, on arriving at the place where the speech is to be
given, he or she chooses a seat where seeing, hearing, and remaining
alert are easy. Finally, when the speech is over, he or she reviews what
was said and react to and evaluates the ideas expressed. Effective
listening is an active process in which a listener deliberately takes certain
actions to ensure that accurate communication has occurred.

32
INFERRING UNSTATED MAIN IDEAS
Although most paragraphs do have a topic sentence, some do not. This type of
paragraph contains only details or specifics that, taken together, point to the main idea.
In paragraphs in which no one sentence clearly expresses the main idea, you must figure
it out.
Reading paragraph in which the main idea is unstated is similar to doing a math
problem. It is a process of adding up the facts and deciding what they mean together. To
solve this math problem you add the numbers and come up with a total sum.
46 fact
74 fact
89 fact
+22 +fact
231 main idea

Think of a paragraph without a topic sentence in a similar way. It is a list of facts or

details that you add up or put together to determine the meaning of the paragraph as a
whole.
Use the following steps as a guide to finding unstated main ideas.
1. Find the topic. Ask yourself: “What is the one thing the author is discussing
throughout the paragraph?”
2. Decide what the writer wants you to know about the topic. Look at each detail
and decide what larger idea each explain.
3. Express this idea in your own words.
Read the following paragraph; then follow the three steps listed above.
In the past, most individuals were educated during a specific period of their
lives. By the time they reached their mid-20s, they could retire their notebooks,
textbooks, carbon paper, scratch pads, and pencils and pens and concentrate on
building their careers. Tomorrow’s workers will have to hold on to their training
paraphernalia because they can expect to be retrained throughout their working
lives. It may mean taking company-sponsored courses every few months, after-work
seminars, or spending a number of days or weeks in a nearby university attending
lecturers at different points during the year.
Exercise 4
Directions: Read each of the following paragraphs and underline the topic sentence.
1. As societies become industrialized, the distribution of workers among various
economic activities tends to change in a predictable way. In the early stages, the
population is engaged in agriculture and the collection of war materials for food

33
 and shelter. But as technology develops, agricultural workers are drawn into
manufacturing and construction.

2. In parts of Africa, people are dying of hunger by the tens of thousands. Famine
is partly caused by increased population. Advances in medicine have increased
life expectancies, keeping more people active for longer period of time.
Agricultural technology has not made substantial advances in increasing the
food supply. Due to the growth of cities, populations have become denser, and
agricultural support for these population centers is not available. In some part of
the world, famine is a constant human condition and exists due to a variety of
causes.

RECOGNIZING SUPPORTING DETAILS

Supporting details are those facts and ideas that prove or explain the main idea of a
paragraph. While all the detail in a paragraph do support the main idea, not all details
are equally important. As you read, try to identify and pay attention to the most
important details. Pay less attention to details of lesser importance. They key details
directly explain the main idea. Other details may provide additional information, offer
an example, or further explain one of the key details. What are the main facts the author
uses to back up or prove what he or she said about the topic?
The following diagram shows how details relate to the main idea and how details
range in degree of importance. In the diagram, more-important details are placed toward
the left; less-important details are closer to the right.
Most Important lesser important
MAIN IDEA

Detail

Detail

Detail

Read the following paragraph and study the diagram that follows.
The skin of the human body has several functions. First, it serves as a protective
covering. In doing so, it accounts for 17 percent of the body weight. Skin also protects
the organs within the body from damage or harm. The skin serves as a regulator of body
functions. It controls body temperature and water loss. Finally, the skin serves as a
receiver. It is sensitive to touch and temperature.

34
 Skin has several functions

protective covering

17 percent of body weight

protects organs

Regulates body functions

temperature

water loss

Receiver

touch

temperature

TYPES OF SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Authors use various types of supporting information to explain a controlling idea
of a topic sentence or a textbook section. Recognizing these types of supporting
information is the key to understanding how author develops and connect his or her
ideas.
Examples
Usually a writer gives an example to make an idea practical and understandable.
An example shows how a principle, concept, problem, or process works or can be
applied in a real situation.
The situations consumers find themselves in can also have direct
influence on their purchase behavior. Consider, for example, the consumer
behavior of a person who has a tire blow out one block away from a service
station. …
Description
An author uses description to help you visualize the appearance, organization, or
composition of an object, a place, or a process. Descriptions are usually detailed and are
intended to help you create a mental picture of what is being described. Read the
following description of the stylistic features of various artists’ work.

35
 To turn now to our central topic, style in art, we can all instantly tell the
differences between a picture by Van Gogh and one by Norman Rockwell or
Walt Disney, even though the subject matter of all three pictures is the same, for
instance, a seated woman. How can we tell? By the style, that is, by line, color,
medium, and so forth─all of the things we talked about earlier in this chapter.
Walt Disney’s figure tend to be built up out of circle (think of Mickey Mouse),
and the color shows no modeling or traces of brush strokes; Norman Rockwell’s
methods of depicting figures are different, and Van Gogh’s are different in yet
other ways. …
Fact and Statistic
Another way to support an idea is to include facts or statistics that provide
information about the main idea or controlling idea. Read the following passage, and
notice how facts and statistics are used to support the idea that age is a limiting factor in
the war against poverty.
Another limitation of the success of the War on Poverty involves age
rather than residence or region. Most of the people who officially moved out of
poverty, especially in the 1070s, were older. And even their relative gains began
to be reversed in the early 1980s.
Between 1970 and 1978, the number of poor people over 65 dropped by
almost a million and a half. Most of this decline resulted from improved Social
Security benefits. …
Citation of Research Evidence
In many field of study, authors support their ideas by citing research that has
been done on the topic. Authors report the result of surveys, experiment, and research
studies to substantiate theories or principles or to lend support to a particular viewpoint.
The following excerpt from a social problems textbook report the result of research
conducted to described the extent of family violence.
One of the most extensive recent studies of family violence, conducted by
the sociologists Murray Strauss, Richard Gelles, and Suzanne Steinmetz,
concluded that “violence between family members is probably as common as
love” …

TRANSITIONS
Transitions are linking words or phrases that a writer uses to lead the order from one
idea to another. If you get in the habit of recognizing transitions, you will see that they
often guide you through a paragraph, enabling you to read it more easily.

36
 In the following paragraph, notice how the underlined transitions lead you (a reader)
from one important detail to the next.
The principle of rhythm and line also contributes to the overall unity of the
Landscape design. This principle is responsible for the sense of community between
different areas of the Landscape. One way in which this continuity can be developed
is by extending planting beds from one area to another. For example, shrub beds
developed around the entrance to the house can be continued around the sides and
into the backyard. Such an arrangement helps to tie the front and rear areas of the
property together. Another means by which rhythm is given to a design is to repeat
shapes, angles, or lines between various areas and elements of the design.

Table 1 COMMON TRANSITIONS

Types of Transitions Example What they Tell the Reader

Time-Sequence First, later, next, finally The author is arranging ideas
in the order in which they
happened
Example for example, for instance, An example will follow
to illustrate, such as
Enumeration first, second, third, last, The author is marking or
another, next identifying each major point
(sometimes these may be
used to suggest order of
importance

Continuation Also, in addition, and, The author is continuing with

further, another the same idea and is going to
provide additional
information.
Contrast On the other hand, in The author is switching to a
contrast, however different, opposite, or
contrasting idea than
previously
Comparison Like, likewise, similarly The writer will show how the
previous idea is similar to
what follow
Cause-Effect Because, thus, therefore, The writer will show a
since, consequently connection between two or
more things, how one thing
caused another, or how
something happened as a
result of something else

37
Summary
A paragraph is a group of related sentences about a single topic. It has four
essential parts.
1. TOPIC: The one thing the entire paragraph is about.
2. MAIN IDEA: The most important idea the writer wants the reader to know
about the topic.
3. DETAILS: Facts and ideas that prove or explain the main idea.
4. TRANSITIONS: Words and phrases that lead the reader from one idea to
another
A paragraph, then, provides explanation and support for a main idea about a
particular topic. The sentence that expresses this main idea is called the topic sentence.
A topic sentence may be located anywhere in a paragraph, but the most common
positions are first, last, middle, or both first and last.
While most paragraphs contain a topic sentence, occasionally a writer will write a
paragraph in which the main idea is not stated in a single sentence. Instead, it is left up
to the reader to infer, or reason out, the main idea. To find main idea when it is instated,
ask yourself the following questions: What is the one thing (topic) this paragraph is
about, and what is the author saying about this thing (main idea)?

FOLOWING THE AUTHOR’S THOUGHT PATTERNS

A. THOUGHT PATTERN
1. Improve your understanding and recall by recognizing thought patterns.
2. Identify five commonly used thought patterns

a. Study each of these drawings for a few seconds (count to ten as you look at
each one.

b. Cover up the drawings and try to draw each from memory.

c. Check to see how many you had exactly corrected.
Most likely you draw all but the fourth correctly. Why did you get that one
wrong? How does it differ from the others?

38
 Drawing 1, 2, 3, and 5 have patterns. Drawing 4, however, has no pattern; it is
just a group of randomly arranged lines.
From this experiment you can see that it is easier to remember drawings that
have a pattern, some understandable form of organization. The same is true of
written material. If you can see how paragraph is organized, it will be easier to
understand and remember. Writer often present their ideas in a recognizable order.
Once you can organize the organizational pattern, you will remember more what
you read.
The following are more common patterns that writers use and shows how to
recognize them: (1) Illustration-example, (2) definition, (3) comparison-contrast, (4)
cause-effect, (5) classification, and (6) chronological order-process.
1. ILLUSTRATION-EXAMPLE
One of the clearest, most practical, and most obvious ways to explain something
is to give an example. Usually a writer will state the idea first and then follow with
examples. Several examples may be given in one paragraph, or separate paragraph
may be used for each example.

Electricity is all around us. We see it in lightning. E receive electric shock when
we walk on nylon rug on a dry day and then touch something (someone). We
can see sparks fly from a cat’s fur when we pet it in the dark. We can rub a
balloon on a sweater and make a balloon stick on the wall or the ceiling. Our
clothes cling together when we take them from the dryer.
These are all examples of static electricity. They happen because there is
build up of one of the two kinds of electrical charge, either positive or negative
….
In the preceding passage, the concept of static electricity was explained through the use
of everyday examples. We can visualize the selection as follows:

Electricity is all around us.

Lightning

Nylon rug

Cat’s fur

Balloon

Clothing from dryer

39
2. DEFINITION
Another way to provide an explanation is to offer a definition. Let’s say that you
see an opossum while driving in the country. You mention this to a friend. Since your
friend does not know what an opossum is, you have to give a definition. Your
definition should describe an opossum’s characteristics or features. The definition
should have two parts: (1) tell what general group or class an opossum belongs to –
in this case, animals.(2) Explain how opossum is different or distinguishable from
other items in the group.
An opossum is an animal with a ratlike tail that lives in trees. It carries
its young in a pouch. It is active at night and pretends to be dead when trapped.

TERM OPOSSUM

General class or group Animal

Distinguishing feature Ratlike tail

Distinguishing feature Lives in trees

Distinguishing feature Young in pouch

The following passage was written to define the term ragtime music
Ragtime music is a piano style that developed at the turn of the twenty
century. Ragtime music usually has four themes. The themes are divided into
four musical sections of equal length. In playing ragtime music, the left hand
play chords and the right hand plays the melody. There is an uneven accenting
between the two hands.
As you read passages that use the definition pattern, keep these questions in mind:
1. What is being defined?
2. What general group or class does it belong to?
3. What makes it different from others in the group?
COMPARISON-CONTRAST
Often a writer will explain something by using comparison or contrast – that is,
by showing how it is similar to or different from a familiar object or idea. Comparison
treats similarities, while contrast emphasizes differences.
Comparison

40
 If a writer is concerned only with similarities, he or she may identify the items to
be compared and then list the ways in which they are alike. The following paragraph
shows how chemistry and physics are similar.
Although physics and chemistry are considered separate fields of study,
they have much in common. First, both are physical sciences and are concerned
with studying and explaining physical occurrences. To study and record these
occurrences, each field has developed a precise set of signs and symbols. These
might be considered a specialized language. Finally, both fields are closely tied
to the field of mathematics and use mathematics in predicting and explaining
physical occurrences.
Such a pattern can be diagrammed as follows:

ITEM A ITEM B CHEMISTRY PHYSICS

Similarity 1 Physical science

Similarity 2 Use signs and symbols

Similarity 3 Require mathematics background

Contrast
A writer concerned only with the differences between sociology and psychology
might write the following paragraph.
Sociology and psychology, although both social sciences, are very
different fields of study. Sociology is concerned with the structure organization,
and behavior of group. Psychology, on the other hand, focuses on individual
behavior. While a sociologist would study characteristics of group of people, a
psychologist would study the individual motivation and behavior of each group
member. Psychology and sociology also differ in the manner in which research
is conducted. Sociologists obtain data and information through observation and
survey. Psychologists obtain data through carefully designed experimentation.

ITEM A ITEM B SOCIOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY

Difference 1 Sociology is concerned with groups;

psychology focuses on individual behavior
Difference 2
Sociological
41 data are obtained through
surveys and observation; psychological data
are obtained through experimentation.
Comparison and Contrast
In many passages, writers discuss both similarities and differences. Suppose you
wanted to write a paragraph discussing the similarities and differences between
sociology and psychology. You could organize the paragraph in several different ways.
OR
ITEM A ITEM B ITEM A

Similarities
Similarities
Differences
Differences
ITEM B

Similarities

Differences

Read the following passage and decide whether it discusses similarities, differences, or
both
A program must be written in a form that a computer can understand.
Every instruction must be prepared according to specific rules. The rules form a
language that we use to instruct the computer. Humans use natural languages
such as English and Spanish to communicate with each other. When we
communicate with a computer, we use a computer programming language.
To write a sentence in a natural human language, we form words and
phrases from letters and other symbols. The construction of the sentence is
determined by the grammar rules of the language. The meaning of the sentence
depends on what words are used and how they are organized. A computer
programming language also has rules that describe how to form valid

42
 instructions. These rules are called the syntax of the language. The meanings of
effects of the instructions are called the semantics of the language.
CAUSE – EFFECT
The cause – effect pattern is used to describe an event or action that is caused by
another event or action. A cause - effect passage explains why or hw something
happened. For example, a description of an automobile accident would probably follow
a cause – effect pattern. You would tell what caused the accident and what happened as
a result.
Basically, this pattern describes four types of relationships:
1. Single cause – single effect
Example:

Got part time job More spending money

Missed the bus Late for class

2. Single cause – multiple effects

Missed two classes

GOT FLAT TIRE Cost $ 10 to repair

DRIVING TO CAMPUS

Got clothes dirty

3. Multiple causes –single effect changing it

Attending class
GOOD EXAM
Taking good notes GRADE

Studying the textbook

4. Multiple causes – multiple effects

Missing classes Low exam grades

Losing notes Failing the course

43
Read the following paragraph and determine which of the previous four relationships it
describes.
Research has shown that mental illnesses have various causes, but the causes are
not fully understood. Some mental disorders are due to physical changes in the brain
resulting from illness or injury. Chemical imbalances in the brain may cause other
mental illnesses. Still other disorders are mainly due to conditions in the
environment that affect a person’s mental state. These conditions include unpleasant
childhood experiences and severe emotional stress. In addition, many cases of
mental illness probably result from a combination of two or more of these causes.
CLASSIFICATION
A common way to explain something is to divide the topic into parts and explain
each part. For example, you might explain how a home computer work by describing
what each major component does. You would explain the function of the monitor
(screen), the disc drive, and the central processing unit. Or you might explain the kinds
of course taken in college by dividing the courses into such categories as electives,
required basic courses, courses required for a specific major, and so on and then
describing each category.
The following paragraph explains horticulture. As you read, try to identify the
categories into which the topic of horticulture is divided.
Horticulture, the study and cultivation of garden plants, is a large
industry. Recently it has become a popular area of study. The horticulture field
consists of four major divisions. First, there is pomology, the science and
practice of growing and handling fruit trees. Then, there is Olericulture, which
concerned with growing and storing vegetables. A third field, Floriculture, is the
science of growing, storing, and designing flowering plants. The last category,
Ornamental and Landscape horticulture, is concerned with using grasses, plants,
and shrubs in Landscaping.
This paragraph approached the topic of horticulture by describing its four areas or
fields of study. You could diagram the paragraph as follows:

TOPIC HORTICULTURE

Part 1 Pomology

Part 2 Olericulture

Part 3 Floriculture

Part 4

44
 Ornamental/Landscapp
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER – PROCESS e
The terms chronological order and process both refer to the order in which
something is done. Chronological order, also called sequence of events, is one of the
most obvious patterns. In a paragraph organized by chronology, the details are presented
in the order in which they occur in time. That is, the even that happened first, or earliest
in time, appears first in the paragraph, and so on. Process refers to the steps or stages in
which something is done.
Both chronological order and process pattern can be diagrammed as follows:

EVENT OR PROCESS

3. Action or step

2. Action or step

1. Action or step

Read the following paragraph, paying attention to the order of the actions or steps.
In the early 1930s, the newly established Federal Bureau of Narcotics
took on crucial role in the fight against marijuana. Under the directorship of
Harry J. Anslinger, a rigorous campaign was waged against the drug and those
using it. Bt 1937 many states had adopted a standard bill making marijuana
illegal. In that same year, the federal government stepped in with the Marihuana
Tax Act, a bill modeled after the Harrison “Narcotics” Act. Repressive
legislation continued, and by the 1950s severe penalties were imposed on those
convicted of possessing, buying, selling, or cultivating the drug.
SUMMARY
Recognition of an author’s thought, or organizational, pattern is an aid to
comprehension and recall. There are six of the most common ways paragraphs are
organized:
1. Illustration-example. An idea is explained by providing specific instances or
experiences that illustrate it.
2. Definition. An object or idea is explained by describing the general class or
group to which it belongs and how the item differs from other in the same group
(distinguishing features)

45
 3. Comparison-Contrast. A new or unfamiliar idea is explained by showing how
it is similar to or different from a more familiar idea.
4. Cause-effect. Connections between events are explained by showing what
caused an event or what happened as a result of a particular event.
5. Classification. An object or idea is explained by dividing it into parts and
describing or explaining each.
6. Chronological Order-Process. Events or procedures are described in the order
in which they occur in time.

READING ARTICLES AND ESSAYS

This part will show you how to

1. Use organizational features of articles and essays
2. Recognize various types of articles and essays and read them more effectively.
Most college students expect to be given textbook reading assignment. However,
many are surprised when their instructors assign other types of reading as well. Many
instructors assign supplementary (additional) readings in books or magazines. Others
distribute reading lists or place material on reserve in the library. These assignments add
to the information the textbook provides. Some may present a particular viewpoint on a
controversial issue. Others may update information in the text. Still others may know a
particular application of concepts and theories learned in the course.
When reading assigned articles and essays, you must comprehend the material.
Becoming familiar with organizational features will make comprehension easier.
Reading will also be easier if you know what type of article or essay you are reading
and how to approach it.
ORGANIZATIONAL FEATURES
Most articles and essay follow a basic organizational pattern. Once you familiar
with the pattern, reading articles and essays will be easier task. With few exceptions,
articles and essays have five basic parts.
1. Title
2. Introduction
3. Thesis statement
4. Supporting information (body)
5. Conclusion or summary
Title

46
 There are two basic kinds of titles, descriptive and interest catching. Descriptive title
announces what article will be about. Interest catching title does not tell the subject of
the article.
Introduction
When reading article, it is tempting to rush through the first paragraph in order to
get right into the main part of the article. Actually, the introduction is one of the most
important parts of an article because it usually:
- Introduces the topic of the essay.
- Gives a general background of the topic
- Indicates the overall “plan” of the essay.
- Arouse the reader’s interest in the topic.
The introductory paragraph consists of two parts a few general statements about the
subject to attract reader’s attention, and a thesis statement, to state the specific
subdivision of topic. A thesis statement for an essay is just like a topic sentence for a
paragraph: it names the specific topic and the controlling ideas or major subdivisions of
the topic.
Example:
A person born in the twentieth century has seen a lot of changes take place in
almost all areas of human life. Some people are excited by the challenges that these
changes offer; others want to return to the simpler, less automated life style of the
past. Living in the twentieth century has certain advantages, such as a higher
standard of living, but it also has some disadvantages, such as a polluted
environment, the depersonalization of human relationship, and weakening of
spiritual values.
The first sentence in an introductory paragraph should be a very general comment
about the subject. Its purpose is to attract the reader’s attention and to give background
information on the topic. Each subsequent sentence should become more specific than
the previous one and finally into thesis statement.
General Statement: 1. introduces the topic of the essay
2. gives background information on the topic.
Thesis Statement
Thesis statement is the one important sentence in the introduction. It sates the
specific topic and lists the major subtopic that will be discussed in the body of the essay.
Furthermore, it often indicates the method of organization, such as chronological order,
logical division, cause and effect, comparison and contrast, and so forth
Thesis Statement:

47
 1. states the main topic
2. lists the subdivision of the topic
3. may indicate the method of organization of the entire paper.
4. Is usually the last sentence in the introductory paragraph.
To sum up, an introductory paragraph is like a funnel: very wide at the top, increasing
narrow in the middle and very small at the neck or bottom.

Supporting Information
You know a paragraph contains details that explain the main idea. Similarly, an
article or essay contains supporting ideas that explain the thesis statement. Again, as is
true in paragraphs, not all supporting ideas are of equal importance. A quick rule of
thumb is that you can expect at least one major supporting idea per paragraph. As you
read supporting ideas, keep one question in mind: How does this information support
the thesis of the selection.
Most writers use various types of supporting information. Often this information is
organized by means of one or more of the pattern described in the previous material. In
addition to these common patterns, writers may support their ideas by giving
description, or by citing facts, statistics, or research.

Conclusion or Summary
An article or essay is usually brought to a close with a summary or conclusion. Each
in its own way brings together the ideas expressed in the article.
A summary provides a review of importance ideas. It can be thought of as an outline
in paragraph form. The order in which the information appears in the summary reflects
the organization of the article itself.
A conclusion is a final statement about the subject of the article. A conclusion does
not review content as a summary does. Instead, a conclusion usually suggests a new or
further direction of thought. It most always introduces an idea that has not been stated
previously or a new way of looking at what has been stated.

Example of essay or article

A SEWAGE TREATMENT PROCESS

48
 Sewage treatment requires the removal of major contaminants from waste water in
order to purify it for reuse. This process takes place in sewage treatment plants and
requires the use of special equipment and chemicals. The sewage treatment process is
divided into three stages: primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary treatment.
During the primary stage of treatment, large, heavy, suspended solids are removed
from the sewage inflow. The polluted water passes through a screen into a grit chamber.
Large organic solids drop to the bottom of the grit chamber. Then the polluted water
continues to flow into a settling tank, where sludge from the water drops into the sludge
digestion tank. From there, It flow out to a drying bed. The water continues to flow
through the system, to begin the next phase of the treatment process.
In the secondary stage, organic matter is further broken up and removed. As the
water flows from the settling tank into the aeration tank, it combines with air. This
process increases the oxygen content of the water and also increases the number of
microorganisms that feed on dissolved wastes. Then the water flows into a second
settling tank, where more sludge drops out. From there, the water flows into a
chlorination chamber. In this phase of the process, chlorine kills most of the harmful
bacteria.
After having the chlorination chamber, the water begins the tertiary or final stage of
treatment. In this stage, remaining chemical impurities, mainly phosphates and nitrates,
are removed by chemical and physical means. Now the water is ready for reuse.
To summarize, waste water can be made reusable in sewage treatment facilities by
undergoing a three-stage treatment process. These stages include primary treatment,
which removes about 35 percent of the organic pollutant; secondary treatment, which
removes up to 90 percent of the remaining organic pollutants by chlorination; and
finally, the tertiary treatment, in which the last impurities – nitrates and phosphates – are
dissolved.

HOW MUZAK MANIPULATES YOU

Andrea Dortman

Every day, millions of people in offices and supermarket and on assembly line
worldwide hear the bland strains of Muzak. That soundtrack is more than just the
homogenization of good music. It has been painstakingly engineered to direct behavior
– to improve employee performance by reducing on the job stress, boredom and fatigue
or to control consumers’ shopping habits.
Background music can, indeed, enhance or interfere with business, concludes
Ronald Milliman, a marketing professor at Loyola University in New Orleans. “Very
few stores that play music play it for any particular purpose,” he says, “But walking into
an environment where music is playing apparently makes a difference.”

49
 Milliman measured the effects of fast-and slow-tempo music on a supermarket’s
traffic flow and sales. Fast music hardly affected sales when compared with no music,
he reported in the journal of Marketing, but pieces played lento slowed shoppers and
boosted receipts 38 percent above what they had been when fast music was playing.
Increase Patience
Restaurants can also use music advantageously, he found. In the evening, slow-
paced music lengthens meals and increases the patience of waiting customers. When
quick turnover is important ─ lunch, for example ─ lively music does the trick.
The best-known supplier of background music is a company called Muzak. But it’s
not the only one. In Chicago, there is MusiCall. In California, Musicast. And in the New
York area, General Background Music (GBM).
Muzak calls it product “environmental music” and has done over 100 studies ─
from simple surveys of employee responses to comparison of production output before
and after Muzak installation ─ to prove its effectiveness. A recent test involved workers
preparing precision parts according to exacting specifications. Overall improvement
generally ranges from 5 to 10 percent to as much as 30 percent. Results are easier to
obtain when routine tasks are involved; people with relatively interesting jobs, however,
are also affected.
The key to Muzak’s programs is something called stimulus progression. Each tune
is given a stimulus code based on its tempo, instrumentation, feel, and the date it was
added to the firm’s library.”We punch these codes into our computer, and it slots the
material into fifteen-minute segments of five tunes each,” music director Ralph Smith
explains. “We start with a tune that has a low stimulus value ─ one that’s slow in tempo
and string-dominated ─ and gradually build to an up-tempo, pop sound.”
After a two-minute pause, a new segment begins on a stimulus level that’s higher
overall than the preceding ones. In this fashion, the days’ program builds to mid-
morning and mid-afternoon “crescendos” designed to give workers a needed boost.
“Since Muzak’s main function is in the workplace, we naturally have to program
against people’s normal slumps,” Smith notes. “Around ten-thirty, you’re running down
a little, but lunch is still a distance away. So, about ten-fifteen, the stimulus value for the
entire segment jumps an extra notch to bring you out of the doldrums.”
“Changing the order of things produces a different effect,” says psychologist
William Wokoun, chairman of Muzak’s scientific advisory board. :When this so-called
ascending program is played in reverse, it seems to lull people to sleep. Reaction times
become slower and more variable.”
Like Muzak, GBM focuses on the mind of the nine-to-five employee. “All day long,
you have ups and downs, peaks and valleys,” vice-president Mel Berstein explains.
“During key periods, psychological programmers change the tempo to increase

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workers’ adrenaline flow, which in turn increases their efficiency. The music becomes
part of the surroundings. Workers no longer notice its effects on their behavior.”
The difference between GBM and Muzak, says Bernstein, is that Muzak isn’t
regional, it has only one product. “But there is a very definite New York sound. And we
even have rainy-day music.”
Bernstein also says that Muzak, with its two-minute pauses every quarter hour, may
help workers keep time subconsciously.

TYPES OF ARTICLES AND ESSAYS

Narrative
Narrative articles and essays tell a story. They review events that have happened.
Usually the events are presented in the order in which they occurred. The story is told,
however, to make a point or to explain an idea. If you wrote an essay describing an
important event or telling how someone influenced your life, you would use narrative
form. You would describe events as they happened, showing how or why they were
important.
In addition to essays, many types of material use narrative style – biographies,
autobiographies, historical accounts, travel books. Follow these steps when reading
narrative:
1. Determine when and where the events are taking place.
2. Notice the sequence of events.
3. Notice how the story is told and who is telling it.
4. Look beyond the specific events to the overall meaning. Ask yourself why the
writer is telling the story. What is the point the author is trying to make.
5. Watch for the writer’s commentary as he or she tells the story.

Descriptive
Descriptive articles and essays present ideas by providing details about
characteristics of people, places, and things. The details are intended to appeal to your
senses, to help you create a mental picture, or to make you feel a certain way. In reading
descriptive writing, be sure to follow these steps:
1. Identify the subject of the essay (ask yourself who or what is being described)

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2. Pay close attention to the writer’s choice of words. The writer often points a
picture with words. Through word choice, a writer tries to create an attitude of
feeling. Try to identify that feeling.

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