EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REVIEWER Quarter 1 (Modules 1-15)

MODULE 1: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH (PLANET EARTH)

Planet Earth is considered habitable because of the following reasons:

(1) it has the right distance from the sun;
(2) it is protected from harmful solar radiation by its magnetic field;
(3) it is kept warm by an insulating atmosphere; and
(4) it has the right amount of ingredients for life, including water and carbon.

Earth is different from other planets in a way that it is the only planet with liquid water on the surface.
a. Earth, Venus, and Mars may have similarities:
(1) They all are terrestrial planets, made of solid rocks and silicates;
(2) They all have an atmosphere;
(3) They all almost have the same time to rotate on their axes;
(4) Earth and Mars both have water;
(5) They all have carbon dioxide; and
(6) All have landforms.
b. Earth, Venus, and Mars have differences:
(1) Venus has no water; (2) Venus and Mars don’t have oxygen; and (3) Earth has life forms.

MODULE 2: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH (THE SUBSYSTEM)

The four subsystems of the Earth are:

1. Atmosphere – it is the gaseous layer above the Earth’s surface, primarily composed of 78% nitrogen and
21% oxygen. Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and other inert gases
made the remaining 1%. The atmosphere supports life because animals and oxygen, and plants need
both carbon dioxide and oxygen. In addition, the atmosphere supports life indirectly by regulating
climate. Air acts as both a blanket and a filter, retaining heat at night and shielding from direct solar
radiation during the day.
2. Biosphere – the zone of Earth where all forms of life exist: in the sea, on land, and in water. It is sometimes
called as the large ecosystem. This is the zone that life inhabits. Biosphere is a very thin layer of the
earth’s surface.
3. Geosphere – the solid Earth, consisting of the entire planet from the center of the core to the outer crust. It
includes the core, mantle, and crust of the Earth.
4. Hydrosphere – the water part of the Earth which circulates among oceans, continents, glaciers, and
atmosphere. Oceans cover 71% of the Earth and contain 97.5% of its water.

MODULE 3: MINERALS

What are Minerals?

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Mineralogists use the criteria to determine whether a material is
classified as a mineral or not.

Characteristics of Minerals
1. naturally occurring- a product of Earth’s natural processes
2. inorganic- it must be product of Earth’s physical processes.
3. homogeneous solid- minerals should have definite volume and rigid shape
4. definite chemical composition—represented by a chemical formula
5. orderly crystalline structure- atoms of minerals are arranged in an orderly and repeating pattern.

To identify minerals, mineralogists observe the following properties:

a. Color - mineral’s color may change depending on the surface.
b. Streak - color of mineral in powdered form.
c. Hardness - minerals resistance to scratching
d. Cleavage - mineral’s resistance to being broken and fracture
e. Crystalline structure or habit
 f. Diaphaneity/amount of transparency - ability to allow light to pass through it. This is affected by chemical
makeup of the mineral sample.
g. Luster - how light is reflected off a surface
h. Tenacity - describes the minerals reaction to stress.

Brittleness- a mineral turns into powder

Malleability a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a hammer.
Ductility- A mineral can be stretched into wire.
Flexible but inelastic-Minerals are bent but they remain in the new position.
Flexible and elastic- Minerals are bent, and they bring back to their original position.
Sectility- ability of minerals to be sliced by a knife.

MODULE 4: ROCKS

THREE TYPES OF ROCKS

Igneous- formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten material that originates deep within the
earth.

Two types of igneous rock:

A. Extrusive/Volcanic rock - forms when magma makes its way to Earth’s surface as lava and then cools. The
crystals are very small (fine grained) since the cooling process is fast.
B. Intrusive/Plutonic - It cools slowly beneath the Earth surface and are created by magma. The intrusive
igneous rocks have very large crystals (coarse grained).

Igneous rocks are classified based on:

1. Composition
FELSIC - light in color; feldspar and silicates
MAFIC - dark in color; made up of magnesium and iron
INTERMEDIATE – between mafic and felsic
ULTRAMAFIC - very dark color
2. Texture- overall appearance of rock
Aphanistic - fine grained
Phaneritic- coarse grained
Porphyritic- large crystals with small crystals
Glassy- non-ordered solid from rapid quenching
Pyroclastic- composite of ejected fragments

Sedimentary rocks provide information about surface conditions that existed in the Earth’s past.
● Particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of materials called sediments, accumulate in layers
and over long period of time harden into rocks.
● Compaction-due to increase of pressure of layered sediments it bind together to form the sedimentary
rocks.

Three types of sedimentary rocks

a. Clastic Sedimentary rock - formed from accumulation of clasts: little pieces of broken rocks and shells.
Examples: conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale
b. Chemical - formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution.
Example: Halite - formed when a body of seawater becomes closed off and evaporates.
c. Organic - rocks formed from the accumulation of animal debris
Example: Coal - composed of organic matter in the form of plants fragments.

Metamorphic - forms from pre-existing rocks: either metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary

Metamorphism - transformation of one rock type into another.

2 types of metamorphism
1. Regional-due to changes in pressure and temperature over large region of the crust
2. Contact-mainly by heat due to contact with magma
Classification:
a. Texture - refers to the size arrangement ad grains within the rock.
b. Foliation - any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within the rock.

MODULE 5: EXOGENIC PROCESSES

Weathering is the process of disintegration (physical) and decomposition (chemical) of rocks. Weathering is a process
of breaking down rocks into small particles such as sand, clay, gravel and other fragments.
Mechanical weathering or physical weathering is the breakdown of rocks into pieces without any change in its
composition.

Factors Description
Pressure Due to tectonic forces, granite may rise to form mountain range. After the granite ascends
and cools, the overlying rocks and sediments may erode. At the point when the pressure
diminishes, the rock expands, cools, and became brittle and fractured.
Temperature Rocks expand and are fractured when expose to high temperature. However, if the
temperature drops to 0°C (freezing point of water), it also expands and causes fracture.
Frost Wedging Generally, rocks have fracture in its surface and when water accumulates in the crack and at
that point freezes, the ice expands and breaks the rock apart.
Abrasion The breakdown of rocks is caused by impact and friction. This primarily occurs during
collision of rocks, sand, and silt due to current or waves along a stream or seashore causing
sharp edges and corners to wear off and become rounded.
Organic Activity The roots grow causing penetration into the crack, expand, and in the long run, break the
rock.
Human Activities Activities such as digging, quarrying, denuding forests and cultivating land contribute to
physical weathering.
Burrowing Animals Animals like rats, rabbits and squirrels excavate into the ground to create a space for
habitation.

In chemical weathering, there are changes in the composition of rocks due to the chemical reactions presented below.
Dissolution It occurs in specific minerals which are dissolved in water. Examples of these minerals are
Halite (NaCl) and Calcite (CaCO3). The formation of stalactites and stalagmites in caves are
brought about by this chemical reaction.
Hydrolysis Rock-forming minerals like amphibole, pyroxene, and feldspar react with water and form
different kinds of clay minerals.
Oxidation It is the response of oxygen with minerals. If the iron oxidizes, the mineral in rocks
decomposes. Rusting is an example of this chemical reaction.

MODULE 6: THE EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT

Heat energy plays a vital role in our planet. It is one of the extreme factors in what makes the world livable. If
you think of a volcano, you know Earth must be hot inside. The heat inside of our planet moves continents, build
mountains and causes earthquakes, but where does all this heat inside the earth come from? Sources of heat in our
planet can be identified as Primordial and Radiogenic heat. During the early formation of the Earth, the internal heat
energy that gradually gathered together by means of dispersion in the planet during its few million years of evolution
is called Primordial heat. The major contribution of this internal heat is the accretional energy – the energy deposited
during the early formation of a planet. The core is a storage of primordial heat that originates from times of accretion
when kinetic energy of colliding particles was transformed into thermal energy. This heat is constantly lost to the outer
silicate layers of the mantle and crust of the earth through convection and conduction. In addition, the heat of the core
takes tens of thousands of years to reach the surface of the earth. Today, the surface of the earth is made of a cold
rigid rock since 4.5 billion years ago, the earth’s surface cools from the outside but the core is still made of extremely
hot material. On the other hand, the thermal energy released as a result of spontaneous nuclear disintegration is called
Radiogenic Heat. It involves the disintegration of natural radioactive elements inside the earth – like Uranium, Thorium
and Potassium. Uranium is a special kind of element because when it decays, heat (radiogenic) is produced. Estimated
at 47 terawatts (TW), the flow of heat from Earth's interior to the surface and it comes from two main sources in equal
amounts: the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust, and the
primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth. Radioactive elements exist everywhere on the earth in a fairly
significant concentration. Without the process of radioactive decay, there would be fewer volcanoes and earthquakes –
and less formation of earth’s vast mountain ranges.

MODULE 7: MAGMATISM

What is Magma?

Magma is composed of semi-liquid hot molten rocks located beneath the Earth, specifically in the melted
mantle rock and oceanic plate. This molten state, when solidified, creates igneous rocks found on the surface of the
Earth. Do you know the difference between magma and lava? Magma and lava are both molten rocks. However, they
differ in location. Magma is found in the magma chamber of the volcano while lava is found on the surface of earth
once the volcano erupts.
Magmatism is a process under the earth’s crust where formation and movement of magma occur. So where
does these formation and movement take place? These happen in the lower part of the Earth’s crust and in the upper
portion of the mantle, known as asthenosphere.

How is magma formed?

The magma present in the lower crust and upper mantle of the Earth is formed or generated through the
process of partial melting. In this process, different minerals in rock melt at different temperature and pressure.
Another factor being considered in this process is the addition of volatile materials such as water and carbon dioxide.

Melting in the mantle requires one of three possible events to occur:

1. AN INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE: Conduction in mantle happens when heat is transferred from hotter molten
rocks to the Earth’s cold crust. This process is known as heat transfer. As magma rises, it is often hot enough to
melt the rock it touches. It happens at convergent boundaries, where tectonic plates are crashing together.
Rocks are composed of minerals. These rocks start to melt once the temperature in the lower crust and upper
mantle increases or exceeds the melting point of minerals. The temperature of mantle is around 1200 degrees
Celsius. Rock minerals such as quartz and feldspar begin to partially melt at around 650-850 degrees Celsius.
2. A DECREASE OF PRESSURE: Mantle rocks remain solid when exposed to high pressure. However, during
convection, these rocks tend to go upward (shallower level) and the pressure is reduced. This triggers the
melting of magma. This is known as decompression melting. This process occurs at the Mid-Ocean Ridge, an
underwater mountain system.
3. ADDITION OF VOLATILES: When water or carbon dioxide is added to hot rocks, flux melting occurs. The melting
points of minerals within the rocks decrease. If a rock is already close to its melting point, the effect of adding
these volatiles can be enough to trigger partial melting. It occurs around subduction zones.

MODULE 8: CHANGES IN MINERAL COMPONENTS AND TEXTURE OF ROCKS (METAMORPHISM)

Metamorphism is the change that takes place within a body of rock as a result of it being subjected to
conditions that are different from those in which it is formed. It is from the Greek word “meta” means change and
“morphe” means form.
The three main factors/agents of metamorphism include heat, pressure and chemically active fluids. The heat
perhaps is the most important factors because it provides the energy to drive the chemical changes which results in
the recrystallization of minerals. The heat increases as the depth increases.
Pressure just like heat, also increases with depth, and the buried rocks are subjected to the force or stress.
Heat and pressure causes physical changes to buried rocks. Chemically active fluids enhanced the metamorphic
process. Usually, the common fluid which helps the chemical activity is water containing ions in solution. As the rocks
buried deeply, the water is forced out of the rock and becomes available to aid in chemical reactions.

MODULE 9: IGNEOUS ROCKS: HOW ARE THEY FORMED?

What are igneous rocks?

Igneous rocks are one of the three major categories of rocks. The word igneous is derived from the Latin word
for fire, ignis or ignus. These rocks are commonly found in the surface and beneath the Earth, specifically in divergent
boundaries, convergent boundaries, subduction zones and hotspots. Not all igneous rocks have the same physical and
chemical characteristics. They differ in the origin, process of formation, color, density, size of grains, crystals and many
more.

How are igneous rocks formed?

Igneous rocks are formed through the process of solidification and crystallization of molten rocks; magma and
lava. When hot, molten rocks reach the surface of the earth, they undergo changes in temperature and pressure
causing them to cool, solidify and crystallize. Moreover, there are also solidification and crystallization magma beneath
the earth.

MODULE 10: MOVEMENTS OF PLATES AND FORMATION OF FOLDS AND FAULTS

TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

Studying plate boundaries is important because along these boundaries deformation of the lithosphere is
happening. Divergent plate movement occurs when plates pull apart from each other. When two (2) plates diverge,
pieces from such plates sink towards the Earth’s mantle. On the other hand, convergent movement occurs when plates
crush into each other and land crumples, forming trenches and mountains. Lateral or transform fault movement occurs
when plates move alongside each other in different directions.

MODULE 11: FORMATION OF ROCK LAYERS

The idea behind the concept that the Earth is billions of years old originated in the work of James Hutton.
Hutton concluded that there are forces that changes the landscape of the Earth in the past. This conclusion is based on
his observation in the geological processes that were taking place in his farm. His Principle of Uniformitarianism
states that the current geologic processes, such as volcanism, erosion, and weathering are the same processes that
were at work in the past. This idea was refined by other geologists that although the process of the past and the
present are the same, the rates of this process may vary over time. The Earth’s history was studied using the different
records of past events preserved in rocks. The layers of rocks are like the pages in our history books.

How are rock layers formed?

Stratified rocks, also known as derivatives rock, maybe fragmental or crystalline. These rocks are products of
sedimentary processes. These are made of visible layers of sediments. The formation on rock layers depend on its
stratigraphy and stratification. Stratigraphy It is the branch of geology that deals with the description, correlation, and
interpretation of stratified sediments and stratified rocks on and within the Earth. It is the study of the rock layers
(strata). It will give you clues to the location of ancient seas, mountains, plateaus and plains.

Stratification
➢ It is also known as bedding, which is the layering that happens in sedimentary and igneous rocks formed at the
surface of the Earth that comes from lava flows or other volcanic activity.
➢ It is expressed by rock layers (units) of a general tabular or lenticular form that differ in rock type.
As early as the mid 1600’s, Danish scientist Nicholas Steno studied the relative position of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are formed particle by particle, bed by bed, and the layers are piled one on top of the other. These
rock layers are also called strata.

Stratigraphic Laws

Law of Superposition
➢ The largest and heaviest rock layer that settled first at the bottom is the oldest rock layer.
➢ The lightest and smallest that settled last is the youngest rock layer.

Law of Inclusions
➢ A rock mass that contains pieces of rocks called inclusions are younger than the other rock masses.

Law of Cross Cutting Relationship

➢ a fault or dike- a slab rock cuts through another rock
➢ when magma intrudes to the rock, that fault or magma is younger than the rock
Law of Original Horizontality
➢ sediments are deposited in flat layers, if the rock maintains in horizontal layers, it means it is not yet
disturbed and still has its original horizontality

Law of Unconformities
➢ rock layers that are formed without interruptions are conformable.
➢ describes a layer of rock that have been deformed or eroded before another layer is deposited, resulting in
rock layer mismatching

Law of Faunal Succession

➢ first recognized by William Smith
➢ different strata contain particular assemblage of fossils by which rocks may be identified and correlated
over long distances

MODULE 12: RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING

Relative Age - Used to arrange geological events, and the rocks they leave behind in sequence.
Absolute Age - Since change is the only thing that is permanent, the measurement of absolute age or exact date
became a challenging task to the scientists. But they found a natural process that occurs at constant rate and
accumulates its record of the radioactive decay of elements in rocks.

Radioactive elements decay because they are composed of unstable isotopes that decompose spontaneously.
Each atom has a certain probability of decaying at any time. It has half-life or time for it to decompose into half.
Radioactivity is not affected by geologic process and easily measured in the laboratory. Aside from those, daughter
isotopes accumulate in rocks. The longer the rock exists, the more daughter isotopes accumulate. The process of
determining the absolute ages of rocks and minerals by measuring the relative amounts of parent and daughter
isotopes is called radioactive dating.

Half-Life
It is almost impossible to say when the last of the parent atoms will decay, but the time taken for half the
atoms to decay is comparatively easy to predict. The half-life of a radioactive decay process is the time taken for
half the original parent atoms to decay.

MODULE 13: GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

Since the beginning, geologists have been studying the Earth to unwrap the secrets of the past. They have
been analyzing rock samples gathered from different continents in the world including its layers and its correlation
with the fossils. This helps in relating the sequence of events in the Earth’s history which is clearly presented in the
geologic time scale.

The geologic time scale is divided into a series of time intervals which are equal in length. These time intervals
are different from that of a clock. They are divided according to the significant events in the history of Earth such as
the mass extinction of a large population of fauna and flora.
MODULE 14: GEOLOGIC TIMELINE

Fossils are the remains or evidence of prehistoric plants and animals that have fossilized. Fossils were used as
markers when building up the geologic time scale. The names of most of the eons and eras end in “zoic”, because
these time periods were recognized by the animal life present at the time. Rocks formed during the Proterozoic Eon
have fossil evidence of simple organisms, such as bacteria, algae, and wormlike animals. In the Phanerozoic Eon, the
rocks formed have fossils of animals and plants such as dinosaurs, mammals, and trees. And with that, geologists have
developed the geological time scale, which divides the Earth’s history into eons that are subdivided into eras, which
are further divided into periods and then into epochs. The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for events in Earth’s
history. It subdivides all time since the end of the Earth’s formative period as a planet (nearly 4 billion years ago) into
named units of abstract time: in descending order of duration, which are eons, eras, periods and epochs. The geologic
time scale provides a system of chronologic measurement relating stratigraphy to time that is used by geologists,
paleontologists and other Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred
during the history of the Earth. The detailed studies made of rocks throughout the world have allowed geologists to
correlate rock units globally, and break them into time units. The result is the Geologic Time Scale, usually presented in
a chart like form with the oldest event and time unit at the bottom and the youngest at the top.

1. Fossils – remains of ancient life that have been turned to stone

2. Body Fossils – actual parts of plants and animals that have been turned to stone (i.e. bone, shells, leaves)
3. Coprolite – fossilized dinosaur dung (scat)
4. Fossilization – process by which the remains of ancient living things are turned to rock
5. Paleontologist – a scientist who studies fossils and ancient life
6. Sedimentary Rock – rock made of layers of tightly packed sand and clay

7. Sandstone – a type of sedimentary rock that is made of sand

8. Trace Fossil – a fossilized sign that a plant or animal once lived in an area (i.e. footprints, coprolite)
9. Porous – full of tiny holes that water, air, and light can pass through
10. Mineralization – to convert into a mineral substance; to fill with a mineral substance

MODULE 15: GEOLOGIC PROCESSES AND HAZARDS

Geology is the study of the Earth and its history. It involves studying the materials that make up the earth, the
features and structures found on Earth, as well as the processes that act upon them. It also deals with the study of the
history of all life living on the earth now.

How do geological processes occur?

Geological processes are naturally occurring events that directly or indirectly impact the geology of the Earth.
Examples of geological processes include events such as plate tectonics, weathering, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
mountain formation, deposition, erosion, droughts, flooding, and landslides. Geological processes affect every human
on the Earth all of the time, but are most noticeable when they cause loss of life or property. These threatening
processes are called natural disasters.

How about Geologic Hazards?

A geologic hazard is an extreme natural event in the crust of the earth that poses a threat to life and property,
for example, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis (tidal waves) and landslides. It is a large-scale, complex natural
events that happen on land. These hazards can cause immense damage, loss of property, and sometimes life. Geologic
hazards can play a significant role when infrastructure is constructed in their presence. The unpredictable nature of
natural geologic hazards makes identifying, evaluating, and mitigating against them a unique challenge.

Earthquake is one of the most violent natural phenomena. According to the number of victims and
destructive force, it exceeds all other natural disasters. Earthquakes also happen under the ocean and can cause
tsunamis.

Listed below are the hazards caused by an earthquake:

A. Ground shaking is one of the hazards resulting from earthquake, volcanic eruption, and landslides. Ground
shaking is both a hazard created by earthquakes and the trigger for other hazards such as liquefaction
and landslides. Ground shaking describes the vibration of the ground during an earthquake.
B. Surface faulting is displacement that reaches the earth's surface during slip along a fault. It commonly
occurs with shallow earthquakes; those with an epicenter less than 20 km. Surface faulting also may
accompany aseismic creep or natural or man-induced subsidence.
C. A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. Landslides are a
type of "mass wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock under the direct
influence of gravity. The term "landslide" encompasses five modes of slope movement: falls, topples,
slides, spreads, and flows.
D. Liquefaction describes the way in which soil liquefies during ground shaking. Liquefaction can undermine
the foundations and supports of buildings, bridges, pipelines, and roads, causing them to sink into the
ground, collapse, or dissolve.
E. Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the sea. It can injure or kill
many people and cause significant damage to buildings and other structures. The speed of tsunami
waves depends on ocean depth rather than the distance from the source of the wave. Tsunami waves
may travel as fast as jet planes over deep waters, only slowing down when reaching shallow waters.

What are volcanoes?

Volcanoes can be exciting and fascinating, but are also very dangerous. Any kind of volcano can create
harmful or deadly phenomena, whether during an eruption or a period of dormancy. Volcanoes are natural systems
and always have some element of unpredictability.
What about volcanic eruption?
A volcanic eruption occurs when magma is released from a volcano. Volcanic eruptions are major natural
hazards on Earth. Volcanic eruptions can have a devastating effect on people and the environment.

These are the hazards caused by volcanic eruption:

A. Tephra consists of pyroclastic fragments of any size and origin. It is a synonym for "pyroclastic material."
Tephra ranges in size from ash (<2 mm) to lapilli (2-64 mm) to blocks and bombs (>64 mm).
B. A pyroclastic flow is a dense, fast-moving flow of solidified lava pieces, volcanic ash, and hot gases.
Pyroclastic flows form in various ways. A common cause is when the column of lava, ash, and gases
expelled from a volcano during an eruption loses its upward momentum and falls back to the ground.
Another cause is when volcanic material expelled during an eruption immediately begins moving down
the sides of the volcano. Pyroclastic flows can also form when a lava dome or lava flow becomes too
steep and collapses.
C. Lahar is an Indonesian term that describes a hot or cold mixture of water and rock fragments that flows
down the slopes of a volcano and typically enters a river valley. Lahars are extremely dangerous
especially to those living in valley areas near a volcano. Lahars can bury and destroy manmade
structures including roads and bridges.
D. A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. Floods can look very different
because flooding covers anything from a few inches of water to several feet.
E. Lava domes are formed by viscous magma being erupted effusively onto the surface and then piling up
around the vent. Like lava flows, they typically do not have enough gas or pressure to erupt explosively,
although they may sometimes be preceded or followed by explosive activity. The shape and size of lava
domes varies greatly, but they are typically steep-sided and thick.
F. Poisonous gases. The gases that are released during a volcanic eruption come from deep within the Earth.
The largest portion of gases released into the atmosphere is water vapor.

Compiled by Master Shenron Inamorato