PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN

SHS DEPARTMENT

LECTURE NOTES

Lesson 4
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
This part of research includes information which would focus attention on the importance and
validity of the problem. It is the general orientation to the problem area. A brief rationale to justify the
problem must be provided. This is the present state of knowledge regarding the problem. It answers the
following questions:

 What facets of the problem (phenomenon) are known and what needs further
investigation?
 What approaches have been used previously in research of the problem?
For a good background, the researcher can state the antecedents of the study, the reasons why this
topic is proposed relative to previous studies.
The background includes:
1. Discussion of the problem in general and the specific situations as observed and
experienced by the researcher (macro to micro approach)
2. Concepts and ideas related to the problem including clarification of important
terminologies; and
3. Discussion of the existing or present conditions and what is aimed to be in the future or
the gap to be filled-in by the research.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM/OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Guidelines in formulating a quantitative research problem and research questions:

1. Formulate a research problem that is researchable

2. See to it that you state your quantitative research problem clearly, concisely
3. Have your research problem focus on a general understanding of your research topic
4. Construct a research problem that mirrors the importance of carrying out the research for finding
the answers or solutions to the problem.
5. Let your quantitative research problem state the variables and their relationships with one
another.
6. Construct an introductory statement to present your research problem, which is the main problem
of your research.
7. State your research questions or sub-problems, not in the form of yes-or-no, but in informative
questions.
8. Express your research problem and research questions either in an interrogative or declarative
manner.
(note: research problems expressed in a declarative manner are called objectives.)

Types of Research Questions:

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 Descriptive research questions – ask questions on the kind, qualifications, and categories of the
subjects or participants
 Relation questions – are questions about the nature and manner of connection between or among
variables
 Causal questions – reasons behind the effects of the independent variable on the dependent
variable is the focus of these types of research questions

Approaches in Research Questions:

 Deductive approach – your questions begin from “hunches or predictions” or expectations about
the outcome of your research.
- Goes from bigger ideas such as such as theories or concepts to smaller ideas
 Inductive approach – starts from the smaller and simple ideas to bigger or more complex ones.
- Focus on description of things to prove an idea or a system

The specific questions which are to be answered in the study are called research questions or
investigative questions. The answers to the research questions should lead to the solution of the research
problem. Focus on a clear goal or objective. State the precise goal. The problem should be limited enough
in making a definite conclusion possible.
1. The major statement or question may be followed by minor statements or questions. The
introductory statement must be the purpose/aim or the objective of the study.
2. If the goal is specifically to test a given hypothesis then state so. In many cases, the objective
will be more general statement than that of a hypothesis.
Example 1:
Specifically, the study aims to determine the causes of low performance of selected
programs in the board examinations. Further, it seeks to answer the following sub-problems:
1
2.
3.

Example 2:
The primary objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between workplace condition and teaching performance of faculty members.
Specifically, it aims to answer the following sub-problems:
1.
2.
3.

NOTE: IF YOU ALREADY HAVE THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, NO NEED TO HAVE
THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ANYMORE AS THEY ONLY CONTAIN THE SAME THING.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

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The scope describes the coverage of the study. It specifies what is covered in terms of concept,
number of subjects or the population included in the study, as well as the timeline when the study was
conducted.
Delimit by citing factors or variables that are not to be included and the boundary in terms of time
frame, number of subjects, participants or respondents who are excluded. Specify that which you will not
deal within the study.
This section discusses the parameters of the research in paragraph. It answers the basic questions:
WHAT – the topic of investigation and the variables included
WHERE – the venue or the setting of the research
WHEN – the time frame by which the study was conducted
WHY – the general objectives of the research
WHO – the subject of the study, the population, and sampling
HOW – the methodology of the research which may be include the research design,
methodology, and the research instrument
note: it may also discuss why certain variables were not included in the research

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

In this part of the research, the researcher defines who will benefit out of the findings of the
study. He/she describes how many problems will be solved and specifically pinpoints who will benefit
from such findings or results. Usually the beneficiaries of the study are those experts concerned about the
problem, the administrators or policy-makers who make the decisions or implement programs, the subject
themselves, future researchers, and those who are directly or indirectly affected by the problem. One may
also look in to any contribution of the study to the field of specialization or discipline, any advancement
or new knowledge that the study contributes to the science or the state-of-the-art. In this portion of the
study one may also state the specific sectors who will benefit from the study. This part also justifies the
rationale of the undertaking.

Tips in Writing the Significance of the Study

1. Refer statement of the problem
Your problem statement can guide you in identifying the specific contribution of your
study. You can do this by observing a one-to-one correspondence between the statement
of the problem and the significance of the study.

2. Write from general to specific

Write the significance of the study by looking into the general contribution of your study,
such as its importance to society as a whole, then to individuals which may include
yourself as a researcher.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A theoretical framework can be thought of as a map or travel plan (Sinclair, 2007). In the same
paper, Sinclair (2007) added that at the start of any research study, it is important to consider relevant

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theory underpinning the knowledge base of the phenomenon to be researched. By addressing simple
questions, the researcher can begin to develop a loosely-structured theoretical framework to guide them.
The following questions have been adapted from Slevin and Basford (1999).
1. What do I know about the phenomenon that I want to study?
2. What type of knowledge are available to (empirical, non-empirical, tacit, intuitive, moral,
ethical)?
3. What theory will best guide my teaching practice?
4. Is this theory proven through theory-linked research?
5. What other theories are relevant to this practice?
6. How can I apply these theories and findings in practice?

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The Conceptual Framework is the researcher’s idea on how the the research problem will
have to be explored. This is founded on the theoretical framework which lies on a much broader scale of
resolution. You use graphic organizers to make your conceptual framework.
The theoretical framework dwell on time-tested theories that embody the findings of numerous
investigations on how phenomena occur. The theoretical framework provides a general representation of
relationships between things in a given phenomenon. The conceptual framework, on the other hand,
embodies specific direction by which the research will have to be undertaken.

Lesson 5
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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Literature
It is necessary for you to review information, facts, data available, or theories, that have
some relationship with your hypothesis which you posed in your stated problem or research question. In
fact, even before you were conceptualizing your study, you should already read some volumes of
literature on your topic or subject matter.
The review of related literature and studies involves critiquing and evaluating of what
other researchers have done in relation to the problem to be studied whether these studies affirmed or
negate the subject under study. These can be from books, conference proceedings, referred journals
(printed or online), and other published article.
Literature may be defined as “written works collectively, especially, those of enduring
importance, exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill which are written in a particular period,
language, and subject” (Funk & Wagnalls Dictionary, 1976). In other words, any written materials
published in a book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook, encyclopedia are considered literature.
The relevance of each literature presented to the study is also explained thoroughly. It is unscientific if the
related literature is presented but has no explanation of its relevance to the study.
The format of a review of literature may vary from discipline to discipline and from
assignment to assignment. Some institutions require the researchers to separate the literature and studies.
Others put it together, similar to international published papers. The purpose of a review is to analyze
critically a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison
of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles.

Studies
The review of related studies is equally important to the review of related literature.
Published and unpublished research studies such as thesis, dissertation, and research proceedings are
sources of materials that are included in this section. The research studies which have direct bearing to the
present study are segregated into foreign and local studies.

The presentation of foreign and local studies is similar with related legal bases and related
literature which are arranged in chronological order from recent to past. Each related study has
explanation on its relevance to the present study.

The following are ten simple rules for writing a literature review (Pautasso, 2013):

1. Define the topic and audience

There are so many issues in contemporary science in which you could spend a lifetime of
attending conferences and reading the literature just pondering on what to review. On the other
hand, if the researcher will take several years to choose, several other people may have had the
same ideas in the meantime. Topics must be interesting, important, and current.

2. Search and re-search the literature

After having chosen the topic and the audience, start downloading published articles related to the
topic. Some useful sites are: google scholar, proquest etc. Be sure to properly acknowledge
sources.

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3. Take notes WHILE reading
If you read the papers first, and only afterwards start writing the review, you will need a very
good memory to remember who wrote what and what your impressions and associations were
while reading each single paper.

4. Choose the type of review you wish to write

Some journals are now favoring the publication of rather short reviews focusing on the last few
years, with a limit on the number of words and citations. The choice between different review
types will have to be made on a case-to-case basis, depending not just on the nature of materials
found and the preferences of the target journal(s) but also on the time available to write the
review and the number of co-authors.

5. Keep the review focused, but make it of broad interest

Arranged the readings according to themes. The need to keep a review focused can be
problematic for interdisciplinary reviews, where the aim is to bridge the gap between field.

6. Be critical and consistent

Reviewing the literature is not like arranging hollow blocks. It is very important to have
consistency in your review.

7. Find a logical structure

A good review is worth the reader’s time, timely, systematic, well-written, focused, and critical.
It also needs a good structure. It must be arranged logically so as not to destroy its implications.

8. Make use of feedbacks

As a rule, incorporating feedback from reviewers greatly helps improve a review draft. Having
read the review with a fresh mind, reviewers may spot inaccuracies, inconsistencies and
ambiguities that had not been noticed by the writer due to rereading the typescript too many
times.

9. Include your own relevant research

In may cases, reviewers of the literature will have published studies relevant to the review they
are writing. A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources but it usually has an
organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis.

10. Be up-to-date in your review of literature and studies

Given the progressive acceleration in the publication of scientific papers, today’s review of
literature needs awareness not just of the over-all direction and achievements of a field of inquiry,
but also of the latest studies, so as not to become out-of-date before they have been published.

Types of Literature Reviews

1. Argumentative Review
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply,
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The
purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes opposite perspective. Given the
value-laden nature of some social science research (e.g., educational reform, immigration
control), argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and
important form of discourse.

2. Integrative Review
This is considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative
literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives in the
topic are generated. The body of literature include all studies

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that address related or identical hypotheses research problems. A well-done integrative

review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and
replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

3. Historical Review
The purpose of historical review is to systematically examine past events to give an account
of what has happened in the past. It is not a mere accumulation of facts and dates or even a
description of past events. Historical review is a flowing, dynamic, account of past events
which involves an interpretation of these events in an attempt to recapture the nuances,
personalities, and ideas that influenced these events. The main focus of this is to
communicate an understanding of past events.

4. Methodological Review
A review does not always on what someone said but how they came about (method analysis).
Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding of differing levels
(i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis
techniques), how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from
conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in areas of ontological and
epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling,
interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues
which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

5. Systematic Review
The purpose of systematic review is to attain conclusion regarding the chosen topic. This
form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research
question, which uses pre-specifies and standardized methods to identify and critically
appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from studies that are
included in the review.

6. Theoretical Review
The purpose of this form is to examine the body of theory that has accumulated in regard to
an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish
what theories already exist, the relationship between them, to what degree the existing
knowledge have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this
form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are
inadequate for

explaining new and emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a
theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.
Functions of Review of Literature and Studies

 To provide justification of the study

 To identify gaps, problems, and needs of related studies
 To provide rationale of the study as well as the reasons of conducting the study
 To have basis that will be used to support findings of the study

Characteristics of the Materials Cited

 THE MATERIALS MUST BE AS RECENT AS POSSIBLE, may be 10 years back.

 Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible
 Materials must be relevant to study
 Coherent principle must be observed in writing literature review

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Citation Style Guide

Reference is an important part of a research paper. It must be consistent and easy to read across
different papers. There are predefined styles stating how to set them out – these are called citation styles.
Referencing is a method used to demonstrate to the readers that you have conducted a thorough and
appropriate literature search, and reading.

 APA (American Psychological Association)

APA is an author/date-based style. This means emphasis is placed on the author and the date of a
piece of work to uniquely identify it. Most of the education researches and social science
researches used APA referencing. APA requires that information be cited in two ways – within
the text and in a reference list at the end of the paper. The reference list should be on a new
page, double spaced, and use the hanging indent method (all lines after the first one are
indented).

 MLA (Modern Language Association)

MLA is often applied by the arts and humanities, particularly in the USA. It is arguably the most
well used of all the citation styles.

 Harvard
Harvard is very similar o APA. Where APA is primarily used in the USA, Harvard referencing is
the most well used referencing style in the UK and Australia, and is encouraged for use with the
humanities.

 Vancouver
The Vancouver system is mainly used in medical and scientific papers.

 Chicago and Turabian

These are two separate styles but are very similar, just like Harvard and APA. These are widely
used for history and economics.

As for our course, we will be using the APA Referencing style. Here are examples/guide in using an
APA referencing style.

1. In-text Citation (meaning these are citations inside/within paragraphs)

 Direct quotation – use quotation marks around the quote and include page numbers
Samovar and Porter (1997) point out that “Language involves attaching meaning and symbols”
(p.188).
Or:
“Language involves attaching meaning to symbols” (Samovar & Porter, 1997, p.188)

 Indirect quotation/paraphrasing – no quotation marks

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Attaching meaning to symbols is considered to be the origin of written language (Samovar &
Porter, 1997)

 Citations from a secondary source

As Hall (1977) asserts, “culture also defines boundaries of different groups” (as cited in Samovar
& Porter. 1997, p.14)
Or:
Hall (1977) as cited in Samovar and Porter (1997), ”culture also defines the boundaries of
different groups” (p.14).

2. Bibliography/References – list of references at the end of the paper (after

chapter 5)

 One author
Floro, J. A. (2015). The Colds Virus. Quezon City: GB Press
Gorrez, B. M. (2017). The Philippine Educational System. Manila: Adarna Publishing House
 Two authors
Oropesa, N. C. and Danes J. L. (2017). Coron Islands. Baguio City: KLM Company
 Three authors
Regalaa, C. A., Bautista C. C., and Laya G. F. (2017). The Philippines’ Supreme Court
Justice. Pasay City: ABC Press
 Three or more authors
Bora, E. N. et al. (2016). BIR Regional Offices. Quezon City: Rex Bookstotre
 Anonymous Author
[Candelario, E.]. The Opium Craze. (2016). Nowhere: Nonesuch Press
[Candelario, E.?] The Opium Craze. Nowhere: Nonesuch Press
 Editor, compiler, translator
Parehas, G. F. (2016). ed. Folk’s Lucky Charms. Manila: PH Press
Delarosa, L. F. (2016). comp. Philippine Banking System. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing
House
Anahaw, J. S. (2016). Summer Illness. trans. (Makati City: Rex Press.
With author
Garabillo, G. F. (2016). Science Textbook Writing. Edited by Gina Alano and Chito Fortez.
Manila: PH Press
 Organization, association, or corporation as author
International Monetary Fund, 2008. Survey of Asian Economies. Vol. 6, Malaysia, Thailand,
Indonesia, and Phillipines. New York: International Monetary Fund
 no publication facts
Corona, L. The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire. (n.p., n.d.)
 Popular magazines
Alamares , M. (March 2016). “The French Cuisine.” Panorama, pp. 23-26
Paras, A. (May 8, 2016). “The 2016 ASEAN Conference.” World Mission, p.8
 Newspaper
Tan C.S. “Posh Subdivisions in Pasay City.” (2016). Philippine Daily Inquirer. 7 May
Manila Bulletin. (2017). Editorial, 2 December.
 Interviews
Claro, E. (May 2017). “High School Institutions: interview with Felicitas Almeda” Interview
by Lina Carillo. The DailyTribune
 Theses, dissertation
Parayno, R. D. (2016). “Meta-Cognitive Reading among Basic Learners.” Ph. D diss., U.P.
Diliman.

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Mariano, D. G. (2017). “English Plus Textbooks in College: Discourse Analysis.” M. A.
UST.
 Slides and film’s videocassettes
Prudencio, K. C. (2016). “Urban Planning.” Quezon City: Palmall Press. slides.
 Materials through Computers
1. Signed article in a magazine
Alegre, R. (2014). “Social-media Networks.” Perosnality Growth. Retrieved from
http://www.inter.com/Jol/labor.htm/
2. Unsigned article in a magazine
“Unstructured interview. (August 2016).” Business Trends Magazine. Retrieved from
http://www.BusTRends/trends/ctshoot.htmlz.
3. Article in Journal
“Linguistic Competence. (18 May 2016).”English Forum. Retrieved from
http://www.jhu.edu/EnglishStudiesJournal/vol.83/83.1strenthson.htmlz
4. Article in newspaper
Davalos J. “The Era of Globalization.” (21 December 2016). New Daily Life Star.
Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/26world/28MIDE.htmlz.
5. An editorial
“Politics in the Philippines. (7, July 2016).” Editorial. Philippine Daily Inquirer.
Retrieved from http://a-pinq.com.ed/2016/24/po4.htmlz
6. Online books
Silverman, F. D. (2016). American Pragmatics. Retrieved from
http:AMPRA2etext2014/14w0310txtz.
7. CD-RM/Diskette
Muralla, P. B. (April 2016). “Stem-cell Treatment.” Manila Post News Bank. TI Manila
Post News Bank . CD-ROM. News Bank

Research Ethics

Scientific writing can be a complex and arduous process, for it simultaneously demands
clarity and conciseness; two elements that often clash with each other. Here are some basic principles of
ethical practice:

 Obtained informed consent from participants

Informed consent must be given to the research participant/respondents before they will be
subjected for the research. In the case of minors, parents or guardian must be fully aware of the
said activity. For native speakers, informed consent may be translated in their dialect.

 There should be no pressure on individuals to participate

Incentives to take part should generally not be provided. If an incentive is used it needs to be only
token, and not enough to encourage someone to participate who would really prefer not to take
part.

 Respect individual autonomy

Autonomy means freedom to decide what to do. Even when someone has signed a Consent Form,
they must be made aware that they are free to withdraw from the study any time, without giving
any reason. They must also be able to request that the data they have given be removed from the
study.

 Avoid causing harm

The duty of the researcher is not to cause harm. The researcher must make sure that the principle
of voluntary participation is observed in situations where there is interaction with subjects.

 Maintain anonymity and confidentiality

Making data “anonymous” means removing the contributor’s name. However, you will often
need to take more than this basic step to protect a participant’s identity. Other information can
help to identify people, for example: job, title, age, gender, length of service, membership in

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clubs, and strongly expressed opinions. The more pieces of information that are presented
together, the easier it is to identify someone.

 Take particular care in research with vulnerable with vulnerable groups

Think about vulnerability in its widest sense. Care is clearly needed in research with young
children, and with people with disability, or minors. However, other may be vulnerable in certain
context, for example: students, employees, dependents, or people with particular traits that could
be subjected to prejudice.

Plagiarism

It is the most widely recognized and one of the most serious violations of the contract between
the reader and the writer (Roig, 2002). Plagiarism is the using of someone else’s words or ideas, and
passing them off as your own (University of Leicester, 2010). It can happen accidentally, for example, if
you are careless in your note-taking. This can mean that you get mixed up over what is an exact quote and
what you have written in your own words; or over what was an idea of your own that you jotted down, or
an idea from some text.

Research is a public trust that must be ethically conducted. Being trustworthy and socially
responsible is very important for the results of your research to be valid and reliable. Roig (2002) states
that plagiarism has been traditionally defined as the taking of words, images, ideas, etc. from an author
and presenting them as your own. It is often associated with phrases, such as kidnapping of words/
kidnapping of ideas, fraud, and literary theft. Plagiarism can

manifest itself in a variety of ways and it is not just confined to student papers or published articles or
book.

Plagiarism can take many forms. There are two major types in scholarly writing: plagiarism of
ideas and plagiarism of text. Responsible authorship practices are an important part of research.

Never forget to cite your sources. Always take notes of your references so you will not forget
them. In writing, especially in research, copying others’ work and not citing the author is a crime.
Plagiarism is a crime punishable by law so you have to be careful with your sources.

Protecting the Intellectual Property in the Philippines

The Philippine copyright law is enshrined in the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines,
officially known as Republic Act No. 8293. The law is partly based on United States copyright law and
the principles of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works.
Under Philippine law, original intellectual creations in the literary and artistic domain are
copyrightable. These include books, pamphlets, articles, and other writings, periodicals and newspaper,
lectures, sermons, addresses, dissertations prepared for oral delivery, letters, dramatic or dramatic-musical
compositions, choreographic works or entertainment in dumb shows, musical compositions, drawing,
painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving, lithography, models or designs for work of art; original
ornamental designs or models for articles of manufacture; illustrations, maps, plans, sketches, charts and
three-dimensional work relative to geography, topography, architecture or science; drawing or plastic
works of a scientific or technical character; photographic works including works produce by a process
analogous to photography; lantern slides; audiovisual works and cinematographic works and works
produced by a process analogous to cinematography or any process for making audio-visual recordings;
pictorial illustrations and advertisements.

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Reference:
Boholano, H., Bombita M., Faltado, R., Pogoy, A. (2016) Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research.
Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Quezon City

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