KNOWING THE NUMBERS

Sl. Types of
Description
No Numbers
N= {1,2,3,4,5….}
1 Natural Numbers
It is the counting numbers
W= {0,1,2,3,4, 5…}
2 Whole numbers
It is the counting numbers +0
3 Integers Z= {…. -5, -4, -3, -2, -1,0,1,2,3,4, 5……}
4 Positive integers Z+={1,2,3,4,5,6,…..}
5 Negative integers Z-={…..-7,-6,-5,-4,-3,-2,-1}
A number is called rational if it can be expressed in the form p/q where p
6 Rational numbers and q are integers (q>0)
Example: ½, 4/3, 5/7 etc.
A number is called irrational if it cannot be expressed in the form p/q where
7 Irrational number p and q integers (q>0)
Example: √ 3 , √ 2 , √ 5 , π etc.
All rational and all irrational numbers makes the collection of real number.
8 Real numbers
It is denoted by the letter R.

Numbers starting from 1,2,3, 4,. And so on are known as Natural numbers.
A group of digits together form a number where the digits can only be 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 &9.
1. There are two methods of representing a number:
a) Indian system of numeration
b) International system of numeration
2. Place value of a digit in a number =Face value X Position value
3. In case if two numbers have the same digit in unit place, then you start comparing from the left most
digits of two numbers.
4. The smallest 4-digit number mathematically is 1000, since its the next number after the highest 3-
digit number which is 999 in other words the successor of greatest 4 digit number is the smallest 5
digit number 10,000, successor of greatest 3 digit number is the smallest 4 digit number 1000.
5. Predecessor of smallest 4-digit number 1000 is the greatest 3-digit number 999. Predecessor of the
smallest 5-digit number 10,000 is the greatest 4-digit number 9999.
6. If you want to make the smallest number, then you have to start by changing 1 in the left most part
and adding zeroes. The smallest four-digit number is 1000.
7. If you want to make the largest number then you to start by changing 9 in the left most part. For
example, the largest four-digit number is 9999.

8. Quantity Length:
a) 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m) b) 1 milliliter =1 gram(gm)
c) 1 meter (m)=100 centimeter (cm) d) 1000ml = 1000 grams (gm)
e) 1 centimeter (cm)= 10 millimeter (mm) f) 1 liter (l) = 1000 milliliters (ml)

9. Roman numbers
I II V X L C D M
1 2 5 10 50 100 500 1000

10. You can add or subtract the roman numerals by writing the desired quantity in either right or left
respectively such as 21 can be written as XXI and 49 ILIX
 WHOLE NUMBERS
Numbers starting from 0,1,2,3, 4… & so on are known as whole numbers. A number that divides a given
number without leaving any remainder is the factor of that number.
1. A multiple of a number is exactly divisible by the number
2. L C M (Least common multiple) of two numbers a and b is the smallest positive integer which is
divisible by both a and b.
3. H C F (Highest common factor) of two numbers a and b is the largest positive integer that divides
each of these given integers.
4. Euclid’s Division Lemma:
For ‘a’ and ‘b’ any two-positive integer, we can always find unique integer ‘q’ and ‘r’ such that
a=bq+ r ,0 ≤ r <b if r =0 , then ‘b’ is divisor of ‘a’.
HCF of two positive integers can be find using the Euclid’s Division Lemma algorithm.
We know that for any two integers a & b. We can write following expression
a=bq+ r 0 ≤ r <b
If r =0 , then HCF ( a , b )=b
If r ≠ 0 ,then HCF ( a , b )=HCF (b , r)
Again expressing the integer b,r in Euclid’s division Lemma, we get
b= pr+ r 1
HCF ( b ,r )=HCF (r , r 1)
Similarly, successive Euclid’s division can be written until we get the remainder zero, the divisor at
that point is called the HCF of the ‘a’ and ‘b’
5. If HCF(a,b)=1 then ‘a’ and ‘b’ are co primes.
6. Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic: Composite number =Product of primes
7. HCF and LCM by prime factorization method:
HCF=Product of the smallest power of each common prime factor in the numbers.
LCM= Product of the greatest power of each prime factor involved in the number.
HCF ( a ,b ) × LCM ( a , b )=a ×b .
8. Important concept of rational number:
Let ‘x’ be the rational number whose Decimal expansion terminates. Then we can express ‘x’ in the
p
form where ‘p’ and ‘q’ are co prime and the prime factorization of ‘q’ is of the form 2n 5n where n,
q
m are non-negative integers.
9. If a, b & c are the whole numbers, then

Property Implementation
Closure property of addition a+ b
Closure property of multiplication a×b
Associative property of addition ( a+ b ) +c=a+(b +c)
Associative property of multiplication a × ( b ×c )=(a ×b)× c
Distributive of multiplication over addition a × ( b+c )=(a ×b)+(a × c)
Distributive of multiplication over subtraction a × ( b−c ) =( a ×b )−(a ×c )
Existence of additive identity a+ 0=a=0+ a
Existence of multiplicative identity a × 0=0=0 × a
Unit multiplication a ×1=a=1× a
 INTEGERS
The numbers -∞, -3, -2, -1,0,1,2, 3……∞ are considered as integers. Where, 1,2, 3… are positive integers.
and -1, -2, -3… are negative integers.
1. 0 is less than every positive integer and greater than every negative integer.
2. The sum of all positive integers and negative integers is Zero.
3. The absolute value of an integer |a| is the numerical value of an integer without regard to its sign
a) |a|= a, if a is positive
b) |−a|= a, if a is negative
4. The sum of two integers (same sign) results to an integer of the same sign to which the total absolute
value is equal to the sum of the absolute values of two integers.
5. a÷(-b) = (-)a÷b where b≠0
6. (-a) ÷(-b) = a÷b where b≠0
7. a÷0 is not defined and a÷1 =a

RATIONAL NUMBERS:
1. There is a unique real number which can be represented on a number line.
2. If ‘r’ is one such rational number and ‘s’ is an irrational number, then (r+s), (r-s), (rXs) and (r/s) are
irrational.
3. For positive real numbers, the corresponding identities hold together
a. √ ab=√ a × √ b
a √a
b.
√ =
b √b
c. (√ a+ √ b ¿ × ( √ a−√ b ) =a−b
d. ( a+ √ b ) × ( a−√ b )=a2−b
2
e. ( √ a × √b) =a+2 √ ab +b
1 √ a−√ b
4. If you want to rationalize the denominator of , then we have to multiply it by
√ a+ √ b √ a−√ b
where a & b are both integers.

FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS

product of numerator 4 3 4 × 3 12
1. , For example, × = =
product of denominator 5 7 5 ×7 35
2. To multiply a decimal number by 10, 100 or 1000 we have to move the decimal point in the number
to the right by as many places as there are zeroes in the multiplier.
Thus 0.69×10 =6.9, 0.69×100=69, 0.69×1000=690.
For simple decimal numbers
Example: -0.6×0.9 =-0.54
3. Division of a decimal number:
To divide a decimal number by a whole number, we first divide them as whole numbers. Then place
the decimal point in the quotient as in the decimal number.
Example: 12.4 ÷ 4 =3.1
 SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS
Square numbers:
If a natural number m can be expressed as n2 , where ‘n’ is also a natural number, then “m” is a
square number.
Important points:
1. Usually square numbers end with 0,1,4,5,6, or 9 in unit’s place.
2. If a number has 1 or 9 are in the unit’s place, then its square number ends in 1.
3. When a square number ends in 6, then its square root will have either 4 or 6 in unit’s place.
4. None of square number with 2,3,7 or 8 in its unit place.
5. Square of an even is even while square of an odd is odd. There are “2n” non perfect square number
between the squares of the number n and (n+1).
6. If a natural number cannot be expressed as a sum of successive odd natural number starting with 1,
then it is not a perfect square.

Pythagorean triplets:
For any natural number m>1, we have (2 m)2 +( m2 −1)2=(m2+ 1)2 so 2m,m2−1 & m2 +1 forms a
Pythagorean triplet.
Example: 6,8,10, => 62 +8 2=102

Square root:
Square root of a number is the number whose square is given number so we know that m=n2. Square
root of m √ m=n . (square root of m = √ m=n ).
Square root is denoted by expression √

CUBE AND CUBE ROOTS

Cube number:
If a Numbers is multiplied three times with itself then the result of its multiplication is called the
cube of that number. Ex: 1=13 , 8=23 , 27=33
Important points:
1. Usually, a cube number can end with any digit from 0 to 9 unlike square numbers which end with
only 0,1,4,5,6, or 9.
2. Cube numbers of numbers ending in digits 1, 4,5,6, and 9 are ending in same digits.
3. Cubes of all even natural numbers are even while cubes of all odd numbers are odd.
4. There are only ten perfect cubes from 1 to 1000.
5. There are only four perfect cubes from 1 to100.

Prime factorization of cubes:

When we perform the prime factorization of cubes number, we find one special property.
8=2×2×2 (triplet of prime factor 2)
216=(2×2×2)×(3×3×3) (triplet of 2 & 3)
Each prime factor of a cube number appears three times in its prime factorization.
Cube root:
Cube root of a number is the number whose cube is a given number. So we know that 27=33 cube
root of 27 √3 27=3 cube root is denoted by ∛
 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
1. Arithmetic Progression:
An arithmetic progression is a list of numbers in which each term is obtained by adding a fixed
number to the preceding term except the first term.
Examples:
 1,5,9,13,17
 1,2,3,4,5

2. Common difference of the AP:

1. The difference between any successive members is a constant and it is called the common difference
of Arithmetic Progression

a) If a 1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 are the terms of AP then

d=a2−a1=a3 −a2=a4 −a3=a5−a4
b) We can represent the general form of AP in the form
a , a+ d , a+ 2d , a+3 d , a+ 4 d … … …
Where ‘a’ is the first term and ‘d’ is the common difference
2. nth term of Arithmetic Progression:
nth term=a+ ( n−1 ) d
3. Sum of nth term in Arithmetic Progression:
n
Sn= [ 2 a+ ( n−1 ) d ]
2
4. Sum of all terms of the AP when the last term is given.
n
S= (a+ l)
2

TRIGONOMETRY
1. Reciprocal of functions:
The reciprocal of sin A is cosec A; and vice-versa
The reciprocal of cos A is sec A
The reciprocal of tan A is cot A.
These are valid for acute angles.
sin A cos A
We can define tan A= and cot A=
cos A sin A
2. Value of sin and cos is always less than 1.
3. Trigonometric ratios of complementary angles:

sin ( 90 0− A ) =cosA cos ( 900− A )=sinA

sec ( 900− A )=cosecA cosec ( 90 0− A ) =secA

tan ( 900− A )=cotA cot ( 90 0− A ) =tanA

 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF ACUTE ANGLE

Trigonometric Ratios of some standard angles

Degrees Radians Angles 00 300 450 600 900

Ratios π π π π
00 0 0 6 4 3 2
π
300 1 1 √3
6 Sin 0 1
2 √2 2
π
45 0 √3 1 1
4 Cos 1 0
2 √2 2
π
600 1
3 Tan 0 1 √3 ∞
π √3
90 0 2
2 Cosec ∞ 2 √2 1
√3
π 2
150 Sec 1 2 ∞
12 √2
√3
5π 1
750 Cot ∞ √3 1 0
12 √3
1800 π
3π
2700
2
3600 2π
 Basic Identities Alternative Formulae
1 1
sinθ . cosecθ=1 sin θ= Cosecθ=
cosecθ sinθ
1 1
cosθ . secθ=1 cosθ= Secθ=
secθ cosθ
1 1
tanθ . cotθ=1 tanθ= Cotθ=
cotθ tanθ
sinθ
tanθ=
cosθ
cosθ
cotθ=
sinθ
sin 2 θ=1−cos 2 θ cos 2 θ=1−sin 2 θ
sin2 θ+cos 2 θ=1 sinθ=√ 1−cos 2 θ
cosθ= √ 1−sin 2 θ
tan 2 θ−sec 2 θ=−1
sec 2 θ−tan 2 θ=1
2
1+ tan θ=sec θ 2 tan 2 θ=sec 2 θ−1
secθ=√1+ tan 2 θ
tanθ=√ sec 2 θ−1
2 2
cosec 2 θ−cot2 θ=1
1+cot θ=cesec θ cot 2 θ=cosec 2 θ−1 cotθ= √ cosec 2 θ−1

POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSION
A polynomial p(x) denoted for one variable X comprises an algebraic expression in the form

p ( x ) =an x n+ an−1 x n−1 +… ..+a2 x 2+ a1 x +a 0

Where a 0 , a1 , a2 … .. an are constants when a n ≠ 0

Important concepts on Polynomials
1. Any real number: let’s say ‘a’ is considered to be the zero of a polynomial p(x) if p(a)=0. In this
case, a is said to be the mysqladmin of the equation p(x)=0.
2. Every one variable of linear polynomial will contain a unique zero, a real number which is zero of
the zero polynomial and non-zero constant polynomial which does not have any zeroes.
3. Zero’s or root of the polynomial: It is a solution to the polynomial equation S(x)=0 i.e. a number “a”
is said to be a Zero of a polynomial if S(a)=0. If we draw the graph of S(x)=0, the values where the
curve cuts the X-axis are called Zeros of the polynomial.
4. Remainder Theorem: If p(x) has the degree greater than or equal to 1 and p(x) when divided by the
linear polynomial x-a will give the remainder as p(a).
5. Factor Theorem: If x-a will be the factor of the polynomial p(x), then p(a) =0 or if p(a)=0 then x-a is
the factor of the polynomial p(x).
6. A constant polynomial is the polynomial with zero degree, it is a constant value polynomial.
7. A polynomial can be classified by the number of terms with non-Zero co-efficient, so that a one term
polynomial is called a monomial, a two-term polynomial is called a binomial and a three-term
polynomial is called a trinomial.
8. A polynomial of degree 1,2 & 3 is called linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials respectively.

SL Name of the
Y=p(x) Graph obtained Name of the graph
NO equation
y=ax+ b where a and b can Straight line.
be any values (a ≠ 0) It intersects the x-axis at
−b Linear
1 Example y=2 x +3 ( a
,0) polynomial
−3
Example (
2 )
,0
2
y=a x +bx +c where
2
b −4 ac> 0∧a ≠ 0 Parabola
And a>0 It intersects the x-axis at Quadratic
2
Example y=x 2−7 x +12 two points Polynomial
Example (3,0) and (4,0)

y=a x2 +bx +c where

b 2−4 ac> 0∧a ≠ 0 Parabola
And a<0 It intersects the x-axis at Quadratic
3
Example y=x 2 +2 x+ 8 two points. polynomial
Example (-2,0) &(4,0)

y=a x2 +bx +c where

b 2−4 ac=0∧a ≠0 Parabola
a>0. Quadratic
4 It intersects the x-axis at
Example y= ( x −2 )2 polynomial
one point

y=a x2 +bx +c where

b 2−4 ac< 0∧a ≠ 0 Parabola
a>0 It does not intersect the Quadratic
5
Example y=x 2−2 x +6 x-axis polynomial
It has no zero’s
 y=a x2 +bx +c where
b 2−4 ac< 0∧a ≠ 0 Parabola
a<0 It does not intersect the Quadratic
6 Example y=x 2−2 x−6 x-axis polynomial
It has no zero’s

y=a x3 +b x 2 +cx +d It can be of any shape

Where a ≠ 0
It will cut the x-axis at Cubic
7
the most 3 times polynomial

a n x n +an−1 x n−1 + an−2 x n−2 +… ..+ax +a

It can be of any shape
0
Where a n ≠ 0 It will cut the x-axis at Polynomial
8
the most n times of n degree

Geometric Meaning of the Zeroes of the Polynomial

Let’s us assume Y=p(x) where p(x) is the polynomial of any form.
Now we can plot the equation y=p(x) on the Cartesian plane by taking various values of
x and y obtained by putting the values. The plot or graph obtained can be of any shapes

The zeroes of the polynomial are the points where the graph meet x axis in the Cartesian
plane. If the graph does not meet x axis, then the polynomial does not have any zeros.
Let us take some useful polynomial and shapes obtained on the Cartesian plane.

Relationship between zeroes and co-efficient of a polynomial

Sl.n Type of General form Zeros Relationship between zeros and co-
o polynomial efficient
Linear ax +b , −constant term −b
1 1 k= =
polynomial a≠0 co−efficient of x a
−co−efficient of x −b
k 1+ k 2= =
a x 2+ bx+ c , co−efficient of x 2 a
2 quadratic 2 constant term
a≠0 k 1k2= c
2 =
co−efficient of x a
−co−efficient of x2 −b
k 1+ k 2+ k 3= =
co−efficient of x 3 a
−constant term −c
a x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d , k 1 k2 k3 = =
3 cubic 3 co−efficient of x3 a
a≠0
co−efficient of x c
k 1 k 2 + k 2 k 3+ k 3 k 1= =
co−efficient of x 3 a
Formation of Polynomial when the zeroes are given:
Type of
Zero’s Polynomial Formed
polynomial
Linear k =a ( x−a)
Quadratic k 1=a∧k 2=b ( x−a )( x−b )∨x 2−( a+ b ) x+ ab
Or x 2−( ∑ of the zer o ' s ) x + product of the zero ' s
Cubic k 1=a , k 2=b∧k 3=c ( x−a )( x−b ) (x−c )

Division algorithm of Polynomials

Let‘s p(x) and q(x) are any two polynomial with q(x) ≠0 ,then we can find polynomial s(x) and r(x)
such that
P(x)=s(x) q(x) + r(x)
Where r(x)=0 or degree of r(x) < degree of q(x)

Dividend = Quotient X Divisor + Remainder

CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
Whenever you have to locate an object on a plane, you need to divide the plane into two
perpendicular lines, thereby making it a Cartesian plane.
1. The horizontal line is known as the x-axis and the vertical line is called the y-axis.
2. The co-ordinates of a point are in the form of (+, +) is the first quadrant. (-, +) is the second
quadrant. (-, -) is the third quadrant. And (+, -) is the fourth Quadrant; where + and – denotes the
positive and the negative real number respectively.
3. The co-ordinates at the origin are (0,0) and thereby it gets up to move in the positive and negative
numbers.
 We require two perpendicular axes to locate a point in the plane. One of them is horizontal and
other is Vertical.
 The plane is called Cartesian plane and axis are called the coordinates axis
 The horizontal axis is called x-axis and Vertical axis is called Y-axis
 The point of intersection of axis is called origin.
 The distance of a point from y axis is called x –coordinate or abscissa and the distance of the
point from x –axis is called y – coordinate or Ordinate
 The Origin has zero distance from both x-axis and y-axis so that its abscissa and ordinate both
are zero. So, the coordinate of the origin is (0, 0).
 A point on the x –axis has zero distance from x-axis so coordinate of any point on the x-axis
will be (x, 0).
 A point on the y –axis has zero distance from y-axis so coordinate of any point on the y-axis
will be (0, y).
 The axes divide the Cartesian plane in to four parts. These Four parts are called the quadrants.
4. The coordinates of the points in the four quadrants will have sign according to the below table
 Quadrant X Quadrant Y Quadrant

Ist Quadrant + +
IInd Quadrant - +
IIIrd Quadrant - -
IVth Quadrant + -

1. Distance formula:
Distance between the points A(x 1 , y1 )and B( x 2 , y 2 ) is given by D= √( x 2−x1 )2+( y 2− y1 )2
Distance of a point A(x , y) from origin O(0,0) is given by D= √ x 2 + y 2

2. Section Formula:
A point P(x,y) which divides the line segment joining the points A(x 1 , y1 ) and B( x 2 , y 2 ), internally
in the ratio m1:m2 are
m 1 x 2 +m 2 x 1 m 1 y 2 +m2 y 1
( x=
m 1 +m 2
, y=
m 1 +m2 )
3. The mid-point of the line segment joining the points p(x 1 , y 1 ) and q ( x 2 , y 2) is
y +y
(
x 1 + x 2 ¿¿¿ 2 , 1 2
2 )
4. The area of the triangle ABC formed by the points A ( x 1 , y 1 ) , B ( x 2 , y 2 ) , andC( x 3 , y3 ) is the numerical
value of the expression
1
A= [ x1 ( y 2− y 3 ) + x 2 ( y 3− y 1 ) + x 3 ( y 1− y 2 ) ]
2
For point A, B and C to be collinear. The value of A should be Zero.

GEOMETRY
Geometry is the study of different shapes and figures.
1. A line segment corresponds to the shortest distance between two points. The line segment joining points
A and B is denoted by AB ´
2. Two distinct lines meeting at a point are called intersecting lines. Two parallel lines will never intersect
each other.
3. A polygon is a simple closed figure comprising different line segments.
4. A quadrilateral is a four – sided polygon. In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB ´ & DC ´ and AD ´ & BC ´ are pairs
of opposite sides. ^A&C ^ and ^B & ^D are pairs of opposite angles.

Understanding Quadrilaterals

Polygons
A Simple Closed Curve formed by the line segments
is called a polygon

Convex Polygon A polygon is convex polygon if their diagonals are completely

Inside the polygon
We have all the diagonals inside the polygon

Polygon having their diagonals in their exterior part are called

concave polygons
Concave Polygon
Regular and irregular polygons
A regular polygon is both ‘equiangular’ and
‘equilateral’
So, all the sides and angles should be same
 So square is a regular polygon but rectangle is not.
 Equilateral triangle is a regular Polygon

Angle Sum in the Polygons

The sum of the angles in the polygon is given by ¿( n−2)× 1800
For triangle n=3, so total =1800
For quadrilateral, n=4 so total =3600

Classification of Polygons
We classify polygons according to the numbers of sides (or vertices)
Number of Sides Classification
3 Triangle
4 Quadrilateral
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
 9 Nanogon

1. Quadrilateral
A Quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon with four
angles. there are many kinds of quadrilaterals. The five
most common types are Parallelogram, rectangle,
square, trapezoid and rhombus

2. Angle Property of quadrilateral

1) Sum of all the interior angles is3600
2) Sum of all the exterior angles is 3600
3. Parallelogram

A B A quadrilateral which has two pairs of opposite sides

Parallel is called a parallelogram.
C D Its properties are:
 The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal
 The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal
 The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other
 The adjacent angles in a parallelogram are
supplementary.
4. Trapezium
A quadrilateral which has one pair of opposite sides are
parallel sides is called a trapezium.

5. Kite B A quadrilateral which has two pairs of equal adjacent

Sides and unequal opposite sides.
A C Here ABCD is a Kite
AB=BC
AD=CD

6. Rhombus Rhombus is parallelogram in which any pair of

adjacent sides are equal.
Properties of a rhombus:
 All sides of a rhombus are equal
 The opposite angles of a rhombus are equal
 The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right
angles

7. Rectangles A parallelogram which has one of its angles a

 right angle Is called a rectangle.
Properties of a rectangle are:
 The opposite sides of a rectangle are equal.
 Each angle of a rectangle is a right angle
 The diagonals of a rectangle are equal
 The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other.
8. Square
A quadrilateral, whose all sides are equal and all angles
are of whose right angles
Properties of square are:
 All the sides of square are equal
 Each of the angle’s measures 90 0
 The diagonals of a square are equal
 The diagonals of a square bisect each other at right
angles.

Conditions for uniquely drawing the triangle:

We need three measurements for uniquely drawing the triangle.
Three measurement could be (Two sides, one angle), (three sides) and (two angles, one side).
Condition for uniquely drawing the quadrilaterals:
Five measurements can determine a quadrilateral uniquely
Here is some of the measurements which will be help us uniquely to draw the quadrilaterals.
1. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely if the length of its four sides and a diagonal is given.
2. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely if its two diagonals and three sides are known.
3. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely if its two adjacent sides and three angles are known.
4. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely if its three sides and two included angles are given.
5. Some special property can help in uniquely drawing the quadrilaterals. Lines and Angles.

Visualizing solid shapes:

1. A solid shape bounded by polygons is called polyhedron.
2. Polygons forming a polyhedron are known as its faces.
3. Line segments common to intersecting faces of a polyhedron are known as edges.
4. Points of intersection of edges of a polyhedron are known as its vertices.
5. A polyhedron is said to be a regular polyhedron if is faces are made up of regular polygons and the same
number of faces meet at each vertex.
6. If the line segment joining any two points as the surface of a polyhedron entirely lies inside or on the
polyhedron, then it is said to be a convex polyhedron.
7. A prism is a solid, whose side faces are parallelograms and whose ends are congruent parallel polygon.
8. A prism is called a regular prism if ends are regular polygons.
9. A prism is called a right prism if its lateral edges are perpendicular to its ends. Otherwise, it is said to be
an oblique prism.
10. A prism is called a triangular prism if its ends are triangles.
11. A right prism is called right triangular prism if its ends are triangles.
12. A pyramid is a polyhedron whose base is a polygon of any number of sides and whose other faces are
triangles with a common vertex.
13. A pyramid is said to right pyramid if the perpendicular dropped from the vertex on the base meets the
base at its central point, i.e., the center of the inscribed or circumscribed circle. In other words, the vertex
 of the pyramid lies on the perpendicular to the base drawn through its center. Otherwise, the pyramid is
called an oblique prism.
14. A pyramid is said to be regular pyramid if its base is a regular figure i.e., all sides of its base are equal.
15. A pyramid is called a triangular pyramid if its base is a triangle. A triangular pyramid is also called a
tetrahedron.
16. A pyramid is called a quadrilateral pyramid if its base is a quadrilateral.
17. A platonic solid is a polyhedron These are exactly five platonic solids.
18. A parallelogram is a type of quadrilateral which contains parallel opposite sides.
19. Area of parallelogram =Base X Height
1
20. Area of triangle = ×base ×height
2
21. A circle is a closed geometrical figure. All points on the boundary of a circle are equi distance from a
fixed point inside the circle.
πd 2 d
22. Area of the circle (r) = , r= , (d=Diameter) / A= π r 2
4 2
23. The diameter of the circle =2×r
24. Circumference of the circle =2×π×r =πd
25. Sector angle of the circle θ=(180 ×l)/( π ×r )
θ 2
26. Area of the sector = × r where θ is the angle between the two radii.
2
27. Area of the circular ring = π ×( R 2−r 2) where R – radoius of the outer circle. And r – radius of the inner
circle.
28. Heron’s Formula:
Heron’s formula is used to calculate the area of a triangle whose all three sides are known. Let’s suppose
the length of three sides are a, b and c
a+ b+c
Step 1: Calculate the semi perimeter S=
2
Step 2: Area of triangle =√ S ( S−a )( S−b ) ( S−c)
Two Complementary angles: measures upto 900
Two supplementary angles: measures upto 1800
Two adjacent angles: have a common vertex and a common arm but no common interior
Linear pair: adjacent and supplementary
The triangles and its properties
For a triangle ABC.
Sides: AB, BC, CA
Angles: BAC, ABC, BCA
Vertices: A, B, C

1. Congruence
Two geometric figures are said to be congruent if they are exactly same size and shape symbol used is ≅
Two angles are congruent if they are equal. two circles are congruent if they have equal radii. Two
squares are congruent if the sides are equal.
 Triangle Congruence  Two triangles are congruent if three sides and three angles of
one triangle is congruent to the corresponding sides and angles
of the other
 Corresponding sides are equal AB=FD, BC=DE,AC=FE
 Corresponding angles are equal ^ A= ^
F , ^B= ^ ^ ^
D C= E
We write this as
ABC ≅ FDE
The above six equalities are between the corresponding parts
of the two congruent triangles. In short form this is called C.P.C.T
We should keep the letters in correct order on both sides

2. In equalities in triangle
 In a triangle angle opposite to longer side is larger.
 In a triangle side opposite to larger angle is larger.
 The sum of any two sides of the triangle is greater than the third side
In triangle ABC AB+BC>AC
N Criterion Description Figures and Expression
 Two triangles are congruent if the two sides and
included angles of one triangle is equal to the two
1 side angle sides and included angle of the other
side (SAS)  It is an axiom as it cannot be proved so it is an
congruence accepted truth If following condition
 ASS and SSA type two triangles may not be AB=FD, BC=DE
congruent always ^B= ^
D then ABC ≅ FDE

 Two triangles are congruent if the two angles and

2 Angle side
included side of one triangle is equal to the
angle (ASA)
corresponding angles and side of the other If following condition
congruence
 It is a theorem and can be proved BC=DE ^B= ^ D,C ^=^ E
then ABC ≅ FDE

 Two triangles are congruent if the any two pair of

3 Angle angle
angles and any side of one triangle is equal to the
side (AAS)
corresponding angles and side If following condition
congruence
 It is a theorem and can be proved BC=DE ^ A= ^
F,C ^=^ E
then ABC ≅ FDE

4 side-side-side
 Two triangles are congruent if the three sides of one
(SSS)
triangle is equal to the three sides of the another If following condition
congruence
BC=DE, AB=FD,FE=AC
then ABC ≅ FDE

 Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse

5 Right angle-
and a side of the one triangle are equal to
hypotenuse-
corresponding hypotenuse and corresponding side of If following condition
side (RHS)
the other AC=DF, BC=EF,
then ABC ≅ DEF

Some Important Points on Triangle

 Terms Description
Orthocenter Point of intersection of the three altitude of the triangle
Equilateral Triangle whose all sides are equal and all angles are equal to 600
A line Segment joining the corner of the triangle to the midpoint of the opposite
Median
side of the triangle
A line Segment from the corner of the triangle and perpendicular to the opposite
Altitude
side of the triangle
Isosceles A triangle whose two sides are equal
Point of intersection of the three medians of the triangle is called the centroid of
Centroid
the triangle
In Center All the angle bisector of the triangle passes through same point
The perpendicular bisector of the sides of the triangles passes through same
Circumcenter
point
Scalene triangle Triangle having no equal angles and no equal sides
Right Triangle Right triangle has one angle equal to 900
Obtuse Triangle One angle is obtuse angle while other two are acute angles
Acute Triangle All the angles are acute
Similarity of Triangles
1. Two figures having the same shape but not necessarily the same size are called similar figures.
2. All the congruent figures are similar but the converse is not true.
3. If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in distinct points,
then the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
4. If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the third side.

Different Criterion for Similarity of the triangles

No Criterion Description Expression

If following condition
Angle angle A= ^
^ F , ^B= ^
D,C ^=^ E then
 Two triangles are similar if
1 angle (AAA) AB BC AC
corresponding angle are equal = = then ABC
similarity FD DE FE
FDE
If following condition
 Two triangles are similar if the two ^=^
A= ^
^ F , ^B= ^
D thenC E
Angle angle corresponding angles are equal as by
2 AB BC AC
(AA) similarity angle property third angle will be also = = then ABC
FD DE FE
equal
FDE
If following condition
 Two triangles are similar if the sides A= ^
^ F , ^B= ^
D,C ^=^ E then
Side side side
3 of one triangle is proportional to the AB BC AC
(SSS) similarity = = then ABC
sides of other triangle FD DE FE
FDE
 Two triangles are similar if the one If following condition
Side –angle-side angle of a triangle is equal to one AB AC
4 = and ^
A= ^
F then ABC
(SAS) similarity angle of other triangles and sides FD FE
including that angle are proportional FDE
Area of Similar triangles
If the two triangle ABC and FDE are similar
 AB 2 BC 2 AC 2
Area of triangle ABC
ABC FDE Then =
Area of triangle FDE FD
=( ) ( ) ( )
DE
=
FE

Pythagoras Theorem:
1. If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to the hypotenuse,
then the triangles on both sides of the perpendicular are similar to the whole triangle and also to each
other.
2. In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides (Pythagoras theorem (hyp)2=(base)2 +( perp )2
3. If in a triangle, square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides, then the
angle opposite the first side is a right angle.
Circle:
 A circle is a collection of all the points in a plane, which are equidistant from a fixed point in the
plane
 Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) subtend equal angles at the center
 If the angles subtended by two chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) at the center
(corresponding center) are equal then the chords are equal.
 The perpendicular from the center of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
 The line drawn through the center of a circle to bisect a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
 There is one and only one circle passing through three non-collinear points
 Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) are equidistant from the center (or corresponding centers).
 Chords equidistant from the center (or corresponding centers) of a circle (or of congruent circles) are equal
 If two arcs of a circle are congruent, then their corresponding chords are equal and conversely, if two
chords of a circle are equal, then their corresponding arcs (minor, major) are congruent.
 Congruent arcs of a circle subtend equal angles at the center.
 The angle subtended by an arc at the center is double the angle subtended by it at any point on the
remaining part of the circle.
 Angles formed in the same segment of a circle are equal.
 Angle in a semicircle is a right tangle.
 If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other points lying on the same side
of the line containing the line segment, the four points lie on a circle.
 The sum of either pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180°.
 If the sum of a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is 180°, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.

Sl.N Terms Description

o
1 Circumference of a circle 2 πr
2 Area of a circle π r2
Length of the arc of the sector of angle ‘ θ
3 θ= 2 πr
θ' 360
θ
4 Area of the sector of angle π r2
360
Area of the corresponding sector-Area of the
5 Area of segment of a circle
corresponding triangle
Mensuration
1. Perimeter is the distance covered by going along the boundary of a closed figure till you reach the point
from where you started.
a. Perimeter of a rectangle = 2 ×(length + breadth)
b. Perimeter of a square = 4 ×length of its side
c. Perimeter of an equilateral triangle = 3× length of a side.
2. Figures in which all sides and angles are equal are called regular closed figures.
3. The amount of surface enclosed by a closed figure is called its Area.
4. Area of a rectangle = length × breadth.
5. Area of a square = side × Side = ( side )2

Figure Perimeter Area

Parallelogram
P=2(Sum of Adjacent Sides) A=(Base) × (Height)

Circle
p=2 πr
‘r’ is the radius of the circle A=π r 2

Trapezium
A= ( 12 ) h(a+ b)
P=sum of length of all the sides Half the product of the sum of the
lengths of parallel sides and the
perpendicular distance between
them gives the area of trapezium
General Quadrilaterals

P=sum of length of all the sides

A= ( 12 ) d (h +h )
1 2

d= diagonal

Rhombus

p=4 a
A= ( 12 ) ×d ×d
1 2

Where d 1 and d 2 are the diagonals

of the Rhombus.

Important Terms to remember in case of Solid Figures

Surface Area Surface area of a solid is the sum of areas of its faces
Lateral Surface
The faces excluding the top and bottom makes the lateral surface area of the solid
area
Amount of Space occupied by a three-dimensional object (Solid Figure) is called its
volume.
We use square units to find the area of the two-dimensional region. In case of volume
Volume
we will use cubic units to find the volume of solid, as cube is the most convenient
solid shape(just as square is the most convenient shape to measure area of region)
Volume is sometimes refer as capacity also
SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME
Sl.No Term Description
It is a branch of mathematics which is concerned about the measurement of
1 Mensuration
length, area and volume of plane and solid figure
a) The perimeter of plane figure is defined as the length of the boundary
2 Perimeter
b) Its units is same as that of length i.e. m, cm, km
a) The area of the plane figure is the surface enclosed by its boundary
3 Area
b) It unit is square of length unit i.e., m 2 , km2
Volume is the measure of the amount of space inside of a solid figure, like a
4 Volume cube, ball, cylinder or pyramid. Its units are always “cubic”, that is the number
of little element cubes that fit inside the figure.
Volume unit Conversion:
1 cm3 1 ml 1000 mm3
1 litre 1000 ml 1000 cm3
1 m3 106 cm3 1000 L
1 dm 3 1000 cm3 1L Surface

area and volume of cube and cuboid:

Type Measurement
Surface area of cuboid of Length l, Breadth b and Height h 2(LB+ BH + LH )
Lateral surface area of the cuboids 2 ( L+ B ) H
Diagonal of the cuboids √ L2 + B 2 + H 2
Volume of the cuboids LBH
Length of all 12 edges of the cuboids 4 ( L+ B+ H )
Surface Area of cube of side L 6 L2
Lateral surface area of the cube 4 L2
Diagonal of the cube L √3
Volume of the cube L3

Surface Area and volume of right circular cylinder:

Type Measurement
Curved or lateral surface Area of cylinder 2 πrh
Total surface area of cylinder 2 πr ( h+r )
Volume of cylinder π r2 h

Radius: The radius (r) of the circular base is called the radius of the cylinder
Height: The length of the axis of the cylinder is called the height (h) of the cylinder
Lateral surface: The curved surface joining the two base of a right circular cylinder is called Lateral surface.
Surface Area and Volume of right circular cone:
 Type Measurement
Curved or lateral surface Area of cone πrl
Total surface area of cone πr (l+r )
Volume of cone 1 2
πr h
2

Radius: The radius (r) of the circular base is called the radius of the cone
Height: The length of the line segment joining the vertex to the center of base is called the height (h)of the cone
Slant Height: The length of the segment joining the vertex to any point on the circular edge of the base is
called slant height (l)of the cone.
Lateral surface Area: The curved surface joining the base and uppermost point of a right circular cone is
called Lateral Surface.

Surface Area and Volume of sphere and hemisphere:

Type Measurement
2
Surface area of the sphere 4πr
4 3
Volume of sphere πr
3
Curved surface area of hemisphere 2 π r2
Total surface area of hemisphere 3 πr 2
2 3
Volume of hemisphere πr
3
Volume of the spherical shell whose outer and 4
π ( R ¿ ¿ 3−r 3)¿
inner radii and ‘R’ and ‘r’ respectively 3

Sphere: A sphere can also be considered as a solid obtained on rotating a circle about its diameter.
Hemisphere: A plane through the center of the sphere divides the sphere into two equal parts, each of which
is called a hemisphere.
Radius: the radius of the by which it is formed.
Spherical Shell: The difference of two solid concentric spheres is called a spherical.
Lateral surface Area for sphere=total surface area of the sphere
Lateral surface Area of Hemisphere: It is a curved surface area leaving the circular base.

How the surface Area and volume are determined:

Area of circle:
The circumference of a circle is 2 πr. This is the definition of π (pi). Divide the circle into
many triangular segments. The area of the triangles is ½ times the sum of their bases, 2πr (the
1 2
circumference), times their height, r. A= 2 πrr=π r
2
 Surface area of cylinder:
This can be imagined as unwrapping the surface into a rectangle.
Surface area of cone:
This can be achieved by divide the surface of the cone into its triangles, or the surface of the
cone into many thin triangles. The area of the triangles is ½ times the sum of their bases, p, times their
1
height. A= 2 πrs=πrs
2

Surface Area and Volume of frustum of cone:

Type Measurement
1
πh(r 1 + r 22+ r 1 r 2 )
2
Volume of a frustum 2
Slant height of frustum of a cone √ h2 +¿ ¿
Curved surface area of a frustum of a cone πl (r 1 +r 2)
Total surface area of frustum of a cone πl ( r 1+ r 2) + π (r 12+ r 22)

h=vertical height of the frustum

l=slant height of the frustum
r1 and r2 are radii of the two bases (ends) of the frustum

Ratio and Proportion

a
The ratio of any number “a” to another number ‘b” (where b≠0) is basically the fraction . It is written as a:b.
b
1. The ratio of two numbers is always expressed in their simplest form.
2. An equality of two ratios is known as the proportion such that a:b = c: d if and only if ad=bc.
3. If a:b = b:c then a, b and c are its continued proportion.
4. If a, b and c are in continued proportion a:b : : b:c, then b is represented as the mean proportional
between a & c.
value of givennumber of articles
5. Value of an article = (unitary method)
Number of articles
Where more the number of articles, more is the value and vice - versa.

Data Handling
The average of arithmetic mean or mean =
∑ of observations
Number of observations
Statistics:
 Statistics is a broad mathematical discipline which studies ways to collect, summarize and draw
conclusions from data.
1. Data:
A systematic record of facts or different values of a quantity is called data.
Data is of two types – primary data and secondary data.
Primary Data: The data collected by a researcher with a specific purpose in mind is called primary data.
Secondary Data: The data gathered from a source where it already exists is called secondary data.
2. Features of data:
 Statistics deals with collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
 Arrange data in an order to study their salient features is called presentation of data.
 Data arranged in ascending or descending order is called arrayed data or an array
 Range of the data is the difference between the maximum and the minimum values of the
observations
 Table that shows the frequency of different values in the given data is called a frequency
distribution table.
 A frequency distribution table that shows the frequency of each individual value in the given data is
called an ungrouped frequency distribution table.
 A table that shows frequency of groups of values in the given data is called a grouped frequency
distribution table.
 The groupings used to group the values in given data are called classes or class-intervals. The
number of values that each class contains is called the class size or class width. The lower value in a
class is called lower class limit. The higher value in a class is called the upper class limit.
 Class mark of a class is the mid value of the two limits of that class.
 A frequency distribution in which the upper limit of one class differs from the lower limit of the
succeeding class is called an Inclusive or discontinuous Frequency Distribution.
 A frequency distribution in which the upper limit of one class coincides from the lower limit of the
succeeding class is called an exclusive or continuous frequency.
3. Bar graph:
A bar graph is a pictorial representation of a data in which rectangular
bars of uniform width are drawn with equal spacing between them on
one axis, usually the x-axis. The
value of the variable is shown on the other axis that is y-axis

4.Histogram

A histogram is a bar graph that shows data in intervals. It has

adjacent bars over the intervals. A histogram is a set of adjacent
rectangles whose areas are proportional to the frequencies of
a given continuous frequency distribution.
Grouped data can be presented using histogram. Histogram is a
type of bar diagram, where the class intervals are shown on the
horizontal axis and the heights of the bars show the frequency of
the class interval. Also, there is no
gap between the class intervals.
5. Circle graph or pie-chart:
A circle graph shows the relationship between a whole and its part.
6. Line graph:

A line graph displays data that changes continuously over periods of time

7. Linear Graph

A line graph which is a whole

unbroken line is called a linear
graph.

8. Mean:
The mean value of the variable is defined as the sum of all
the values of the variable divided by the number of values.
n
a
a1 +a2 +a 3+ a4 ∑i
a m= =
4 n
9. Median:
The median of a set of data values is the middle value of the data set when it has been arranged in ascending
order. That is, from the smallest value to the highest value
1
Median is calculated as (n+1) where ‘n’ is the odd number of values in the data
2
If the number of values in the data set is even, then the median is the average of the two middle Values.
10. Mode:
Mode of a statistical data is the value of that variable which has the maximum frequency.
11. Mean for Ungroup Frequency table:

Mean is given by M =
∑ f i xi
∑fi
12. Mean for group Frequency table:
In these distributions, it is assumed that frequency of each class interval is centered around its mid-point
i.e. class marks.
upper class limit + Lower class limit
class mark =
2
Mean can be calculated using three method
Direct method Assumed mean method Step deviation Method:

M =a+
∑ f i xi M =a+
∑ f i ui h
∑ f i xi ∑ fi ∑ fi
M= where a=¿ Assumed mean Where a=¿ Assumed
∑ fi d i=¿ x i−a mean
( x i−a )
ui=¿
h
13. Mode for grouped frequency table:
Modal class: The class interval having highest frequency is called the modal class and Mode is obtained
using the modal class.
f i−f o
Mode=l+ ( )
2 f 1−f o−f 2
h

where
l=lower limit of the model class,
h=size of the class interval (assuming all class sizes to be equal)
f 1 =frequency of the modal class,
f 0 =frequency of the class preceding the modal class,
f 2 =frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.
14. Median of a grouped data frequency table:
For the given data, we need to have class interval, frequency distribution and cumulative frequency
distribution.
n
Median is calculated as
Median=l+ ( )
2
−cf
f
h

Where
l= lower limit of median class,
n=number of observations,
cf= cumulative frequency of class preceding the median class,
f=frequency of median class,
h= class size (assuming class size to be equal)
15. Empirical Formula between Mode, Mean and Median :
3 Median=Mode+2 Mean
Category Mathematical formulas
∑x
Mean,X n
X=sum of values; N= number of values
n

Standard Deviation σ σ=
√ ∑ (x¿ ¿i−X )2
i=1
N −1
¿
N= total number of terms, x i=terms given in the data . X
=mean
Range R R= Largest data value – smallest data value

σ 2=
∑ x i− X
Variance ‘σ 2’ N
X=item given in the data. X =mean of the data, n=total
number of items.

SIMPLE EQUATIONS
An equation is a condition on a variable such that two expressions in the variable should have equal values.
Linear Equations in one variable
Important points to Note:
1. All these equations contain the equality (=) sign.
2. The expression on the left of the equality sign is the left-hand side (LHS). The expression on the right of
the equality sign is the right-hand side (RHS)
3. In an equation the values of the expression on the LHS and RHS are equal. This happens to be true only
for certain values of the variables. These values are the solutions of the equation.
4. We assume that the two sides of the equation are balanced, we perform the same mathematical
operations on both sides of the equation, so that the balance is not disturbed. We get the solution after
generally performing few steps.
5. A linear equation in one variable has only one solution.

How to solve Linear equation in one variable

Sl.no Type of method Working of method

1 Solving  Transpose (shifting all constants to either side) the Numbers to the one
Equations which side either to left or to right, We know that the sign of the constant
have Linear changes when we transpose it to other side.
Expressions on  Now you will have an equation in which variable is on one side and
one side and number is on other side. Add/subtract on both the sides to get a single
Numbers on the term.
other side  Now divide or multiply on both the sides to get the value of the variable.
2 Solving 1) Here we Transpose (shifting constants as well as variables) all the terms
Equations having containing variables on one side and all constant terms on the other. Note
the variable on that the signs of the terms will change in shifting them from LHS toRHS
both sides and vice-versa.
2) Now you will have an equation in which variable on one side and number
on other side. Add/subtract on both the side to get single term.
3) Now divide or multiply on both the side to get the value of the variable.
3 Solving
Complex
Equations
1) Take the LCM of the denominator of both the LHS and RHS.
(having number
2) Multiple the LCM on both the sides, this will reduce the number without
in denominator)
denominator and we can solve using the method described above.
having the
variable on both
sides
4 Equations Here the equation is of the form
Reducible to the x+ a c
=
Linear form x+ b d
We can cross multiply the numerator and denominator to reduce it to linear for
( x +a ) d=c( x +b) now it can be solved by above method.

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES:

An equation of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers, such that a and
b both are not zero, is called a linear equation in two variables
Important points to Note:
1. A linear equation in two variable has infinite solutions
2. The graph of every linear equation in two variables is a straight-line
3. x = 0 is the equation of the y-axis and y = 0 is the equation of the x-axis
4. The graph x=a is a line parallel to y-axis.
5. The graph y=b is a line parallel to x-axis
6. An equation of the type y = mx represents a line passing through the origin.
7. Every point on the graph of a linear equation in two variables is a solution of the linear equation.
 Moreover, every solution of the linear equation is a point on the graph
Sl.no Type of equation Mathematical representation Solutions
1 Linear equation in one Variable ax +b=0 , a ≠ 0 One solution.
A and b are real number
2 Linear equation in two Variable ax +by +c=0 , a≠ 0 Infinite solution
And b ≠ 0
a , b and c are real number
3 Linear equation in three Variable ax +by +cz + d=0 , Infinite solution possible
a ≠ 0 , b ≠ 0∧c ≠ 0
a, b, c ,d are real number
Simultaneous pair of Linear equation:
A pair of Linear equation in two variables
a 1 x+ b1 y+ c 1=0
a 2 x+ b2 y+ c 2=0
Graphically it is represented by two straight lines on Cartesian plane.
Simultaneous pair of Algebraic
condition Graphical representation
Linear equation interpretation
a 1 x+ b1 y+ c 1=0 a1 b1 One unique solution
≠ only. Lines are
a 2 x+ b2 y+ c 2=0 a2 b2
Example intersecting.
x-4y+14=0
3x+2y-14=0

a 1 x+ b1 y+ c 1=0 a1 b1 c1 infinite solution Lines

= = are coinciding
a 2 x+ b2 y+ c 2=0 a2 b2 c2
Example
2x+4y=16
3x+6y=24
a 1 x+ b1 y+ c 1=0 a1 b1 c1 Lines are parallel
= ≠
a 2 x+ b2 y+ c 2=0 a2 b2 c2
Example
2x+4y=6
4x+8y=18

The graphical solution can be obtained by drawing the lines on the Cartesian plane

Algebraic solution of Linear equation.

SL.no Type of method Working of method
 Suppose the equation are
a 1 x+ b1 y+ c 1=0
Method of elimination by
1 substitution a 2 x+ b2 y+ c 2=0
 Find the value of variable of either x or y from the first
 equator
 Substitute the value of that variable in second equation
 Now second equation becomes a linear equation in
one variable
 Substitute this value in first equation and get the
second variable

 Suppose the equation are

a 1 x+ b1 y+ c 1=0
a 2 x+ b2 y+ c 2=0
 Find the LCM of a1 and a2 .Let it k.
 Multiple the first equation by the value k/a1
Method of elimination by
2 equating the coefficients  Multiple the first equation by the value k/a2
 Subtract the equation obtained. This way one variable
will be eliminated and we can solve to get the value of
variable y
Substitute this value in first equation and get the second
variable
 Suppose the equation are
a 1 x+ b1 y+ c 1=0
a 2 x+ b2 y+ c 2=0

 This can be written as

x −y 1
= =
b1 c1 a1 c1 a1 b1
Cross Multiplication method b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
3
This can be written as
x −y 1
= =
b1 c 2−b2 c 1 a 1 c 2−a2 c 1 a1 b2−a 2 b 1

 Value of x and y can be find using the

x => first and last expression
y=> second and last expression
Algebraic expressions and Identities:
Algebraic expression is the expression having constants and variable. It can have multiple variable and
multiple power of the variable.
Ex : 11x, 2y-3, 2x+y etc.

Algebraic Identities:
(a+ b)2 a 2+2 ab+ b2
(a−b)2 a 2−2 ab+b2
( a+ b ) (a−b) a 2−b2
( x +a ) ( x +b) x 2+ ( a+b ) x +ab
( x +a ) (x−b) x 2+ ( a−b ) x −ab
( x−a ) ( x+ b) x 2+ ( b−a ) x −ab
( x−a ) ( x−b) x 2−( a+ b ) x + ab
(a+ b)3 a 3+ b3 +3 ab( a+b)
(a−b)3 a 3−b3 −3 ab(a−b)
( x + y + z)2 x 2+ y 2+ z 2 +2 xy+ 2 yz +2 xz
( x + y−z )2 x 2+ y 2+ z 2 +2 xy−2 yz−2 xz
( x− y + z )2 x 2+ y 2+ z 2−2 xy−2 yz +2 xz
( x− y −z)2 x 2+ y 2+ z 2−2 xy +2 yz−2 xz
x 3+ y 3+ z3 −3 xyz ( x + y + z )( x2 + y 2 + z 2−xy− yz −xz)
x 2+ y 2 1
2
[( x + y )2+( x− y )2 ]
3 2
( x +a ) ( x+ b ) ( x +c) x + ( a+b+ c ) x + ( ab+bc +ca ) x +abc
x 3+ y 3 ( x + y ) (x 2−xy + y 2)
x 3− y 3 ( x− y ) (x 2 + xy + y 2)
x 2+ y 2+ z 2−xy − yz−zx 1
[ ( x− y)2 +( y−z)2 +( z−x)2 ]
2

Some important points on Algebraic expressions:

Terms : Terms are added to form expressions.
Factors : Terms themselves can be formed as the product of factors.
Co- efficient : The numerical factor of a term is called its numerical co-efficient or simply co-efficient.
Monomial : Algebraic expressions having one terms is called monomials. Ex: 3x
Binomial : Algebraic expression having two terms is called Binomial. Ex: 3x+y
Trinomial: Algebraic expressions having three terms is called Trinomial. Ex: 3x+y+z
Polynomial : An expression containing one or more terms with non-zer co-efficient is called Polynomial.
Like terms : When the variable part of the terms is same , they are called Like terms.
Un Like terms : When the variable part of the terms is not same, they are called Unlike terms.

Methods of factorization:
 Common factor method:
a. We can look at each of the term in the algebraic expression, factorize each term
b. Then find common factors to factorize the expression.
Example 2x+4=2(x+2)
 Factorization by regrouping terms:
a. First, we see common factor across all the terms
b. We look at grouping the terms and check if we find binomial factor from both the groups.
c. Take the common Binomial factor out Example
2 xy+ 3 x +2 y +3
¿ 2 × x × y+ 3× x+ 2× y+ 3
¿ x × ( 2 y +3 )+1 ×(2 y+ 3)
¿ ( 2 y+ 3 ) ( x+ 1)
 Factorization using identities:
Use the below identities to factories it
(a+ b)2=a2 +2 ab+ b2
(a−b)2=a2−2 ab+b 2
( a+ b ) ( a−b )=a 2−b2
 Factorization of the form ( x +b ) ( x−b ) :
Given x 2+ px +q
a. We find two factors a and b of q (i.e. the constant term) such that ab=q∧a+ b= p
b. Now expression can be written
x 2+ ( a+b ) x +ab or x 2+ ax+ bx+ ab or x ( x +a )+ b( x +a) or ( x +a ) (x +b)which are required
factors.
Example x 2−7 x+ 12
Now 12=3 × 4∧3+ 4=7
¿ x 2−3 x−4 x+12
 ¿ x ( x−3 )−4 ( x−3 )=( x−3 ) ( x−4 )

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS:
Sl.No Terms Descriptions
2
1 Quadratic Polynomial P ( X )=a X +bx+ c where a≠0
2
2 Quadratic equation a x + bx+ c=0 where a≠0
A real number α is called the root or solution of the
Solution or root of the Quadratic
3 quadratic equation if
equation
A ∝2+ b ∝+ c=0
4 Zeroes of the polynomial p(x). The root of the quadratic equation are called zeroes
We know from chapter two that a polynomial of degree can
Maximum roots of quadratic
5 have max two zeroes. So a quadratic equation can have
equations
maximum two roots
A quadratic equation has real roots if b2- 4ac >0
6 Condition for real
Root

How to solve Quadratic equation:

1. Factorization:
This method we factorize the equation by splitting the middle term b In a x 2+ bx+ c=0
Example 6 x 2−x−2=0
a. First we need to multiple the coefficient a and c. In this case ¿ 6 x−2=−12
b. Splitting the middle term so that multiplication is 12 and difference is the coefficient b
6 x 2+ 3 x −4 x−2=0
3 x ( 2 x+ 1 )−2 ( 2 x +1 )=0
( 3 x−2 ) ( 2 x +1 )=0
c. Roots of the equation can be find equating the factors to zero
3
3 x−2=0=¿ x=
2
−1
2 x+1=0=¿ x =
2
2. Square method
In this method we create square on LHS and RHS and then find the value
a x 2+ bx+ c=0
b c
2
a. x + () ()
a
x + =0
a

x+ b 2
b. ( ) −¿
2a
x+ b 2 ( b¿¿ 2−4 ac )
c. ( )
2a
=
4 a2
¿

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
d. x=
2a

Example x 2+ 4 x−5=0
a. ¿
b. ¿
c. Roots of the equation can be find using square root on both the sides
x +2=−3=¿ x=−5 x+ 2=3=¿ x=1
 3. Quadratic method:
For quadratic equation
ax 2 +bx +c=0 ,
Roots are given by
−b+ √ b2 −4 ac −b−√ b2−4 ac
x=¿ , x=
2a 2a
2
For b −4 ac> 0 , quadratic equation has two real roots of different value
For b 2−4 ac=0 , Quadratic equation has one real root are equal.
For b 2−4 ac< 0 no real roots for quadratic equation.

Comparing Quantities
P × R ×T
Simple interest SI = where P=principal, t=Time in years, R= Rate at interest per annum.
100
SI ×100
Rate R=
P ×T
SI ×100
Principal P=
R ×T
SI ×100
Time T =
P×R
Discount = MP-SP
Principal = Amount – simple interest.
past rate of discount
If the rate of discount given by Discount=
100
1. Unitary method:
Unitary method is one of the most useful method to solve ratio, proportion and percentage problems.
In this we first find value of one unit and then find the value of required number of units.
So in short unitary method comprises two following steps.
Step 1=Find the value of one unit.
Step 2= Then find the value of required number of units.
2. Percentages:
Percentages are ways to compare quantities. They are numerators of fractions with denominator 100 or it
basically means per 100 value
Percent is derived from Latin word ‘per centum’ meaning ‘per hundred’
It is denoted by % symbol
1% means 1/100=0.01
We can use either unitary method or we need to convert the fraction to an equivalent fraction with
denominator 100.
3. Discounts:
Discount is a reduction given on the Marked price (MP) of the article.
This is generally given to attract customers to buy goods or to promote sales of the goods, you can find
the discount by subtracting its selling price from its marked price. So, Discount=Marked price –Selling
price

4. Profit and loss:

Cost price: It is the actual price of the item
Overhead charges/expenses: These additional expenses are made while buying or before selling it. These
expenses have to be included in the cost price
Cost price: Actual CP + overhead charges
 Selling price: It is price at which the item is sold to the customer
If S.P>C. P, we make some money from selling the item. This is called profit
Profit =SP-CP

Profit ( P ) %=( CP. P ) ×100

If S. P<C.P, we lose some money from selling the item. This is called Loss.
Loss=C.P-S. P
L
Loss(L)%= ( )
C.P
× 100

5. Sales Tax and VAT:

Sales Tax (ST): This is the amount charged by the government on the sale of an item.
It is collected by the shopkeeper from the customer and givn to the government. This is , therefore, always
on the selling price of an item and is added to the value of
Value added Tax (VAT): This is the again the amount charged by the government on the sale of an item. It
is collected by the shopkeeper from the customer and given to the government. This is , therefore, always
on the selling price of an item and is added to the value of the bill.
Earlier you must have seen sales tax on the bill, now a day, you will mostly see value Added Tax

Calculation
If the tax is x%, then Total price after including tax would be
x
Final price=cost item+ (
cost of item )
× 100

6. Interest:
Interest is the extra money paid by institutions like banks or post offices on money deposited (kept) with
them. Interest is also paid by people when they borrow money.
7. Simple interest:
Principal (P): The original sum of money loaned/deposited. Also known as capital.
Time (T): The duration for which the money is borrowed/ deposited.
Rate of interest (R): The percent of interest that that you pay for money borrowed, or earn for money
deposited.
P × R ×T
Simple interest is calculated as SI =
100
Total amount at the end of time period A=P+ SI
8. Compound interest:
Principal (P): The original sum of money loaned/deposited. Also known as capital.
Time (T): The duration for which the money is borrowed/ deposited.
Rate of interest (R): The percent of interest that that you pay for money borrowed, or earn for money
deposited.
Compound interest is the interest calculated on the previous year’s amount A=P+ I
R n
(
A=P 1+
100 )
Laws of Exponents
Here are the laws of exponents when a and b are non-zero integers and m,n are any integers
1
a−m=
am

am m−n
n
=a
a
 n
( a m ) =amn
a m × bm =( ab )m
am a m
bm b
= ()
a 0=1
a −m b m
() ()
b
=
a

( 1 )n=1 for infinetely many n

(−1 )n=1 for any even integer p

Probability
Probability is the possibility of any event likely to happen. The probability of any event can only be from
0 to 1 with 0 being no chances and 1 being the possibility of that event to happen
Number of favourable outcomes
probability=
Total number of outcomes .

1. Empirical probability:
It is a probability of event which is calculated based on experiments
Noof trails which expected outcome came
Empirical Probability=
Total Number of trials
Example:
A coin is tossed 1000 times; we get 499 times head and 501 times tail,
So empirical or experimental probability of getting head is calculated as
499
P= =0.499
1000
Empirical probability depends on experiment and different will get different values based on the
experiment
2. Important point about events:
If the event A, B, C covers the entire possible outcome in the experiment. Then,
P (A) +P (B) +P(C)=1
3. Impossible event:
The probability of an event (U) which is impossible to occur is 0. Such an event is called an impossible
event P (U)=0
4. Sure, or certain event:
The probability of an event (X) which is sure (or certain) to occur is 1. Such an event is called a sure
event or a certain event P(X) =1
5. Probability of any event:
Probability of any event can be as 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
6. Theoretical Probability:
The theoretical probability or the classical probability of the event is defined as
P ( E )=Number of outcome favourable ¿ E ¿
Number of all possible outcome of the experiment
7. Elementary events:
An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary event. “The sum of the probabilities of all the
elementary events of an experiment is 1.”
I.e., If we three elementary event A, B, C in the experiment, then P(A)+P(B) +P(C)=1

8. Complementary events:
The event Ᾱ, representing ‘not A’, is called the complement of the event
A. We also say that Ᾱ and A are complementary events. Also, P(A) +P(Ᾱ)=1