1

1
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.1 Introduction
Fluid mechanics is that branch of engineering science, which deals with the
behaviour of fluids (liquids and gases) at rest or in motion. A fluid may be defined
as a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to shear stresses. On
the other hand, hydraulics is the branch of engineering science which deals with
water in motion or at rest. Fluid statics (or hydrostatics) is the study of fluids at
rest. The study of fluids in motion where the pressure forces are ignored (i.e. deals
with velocities, accelerations and patterns of flow only) is termed fluid
kinematics, but if the pressure forces (i.e. velocities, accelerations with the forces
or energy causing them) are considered it is called fluid dynamics.

1.2 Properties of fluids

Among the fluids, water will mostly be dealt with in this book, and has the following
major properties: (i) mass density, (ii) specific weight, (iii) specific gravity, (iv)
compressibility and bulk modulus, (v) surface tension and capillarity, (vi) viscosity, (vii)
cavitation, and (viii) vapour pressure.

1.21 Mass density

Mass density (or density), (ρ) of a substance is defined as the mass per unit
volume (Kg/m3 : ML-3). For water, ρ is 1000 Kg/m3 at 4○C. For practical purposes, this
density is taken as constant, although it decreases slightly with increase in temperature.

1.22 Specific weight

Specific weight (or weight density), (w) of a liquid may be defined as the
weight per unit volume (N/m3 : ML-2T-2) and is influenced by the gravitational pull of
the earth. The specific weight of water is taken as 9.81 kN/m3.
Mathematically, specific weight of water,
w = weight of fluid/volume of fluid
= (mass×acceleration due to gravity)/volume of fluid
mass
= ×g
volume
∴ w = ρg …(1.1)

1.23 Specific gravity

Specific gravity (or relative density), (s) of a liquid may be defined as the ratio
of its specific weight to that of a standard substance at a standard temperature.
Water is taken as the standard substance at 4○C. Thus, specific gravity is dimensionless
(M0L0T0), and for water it is unity.
 2

1.24 Specific volume

Specific volume is defined as the reciprocal of mass density (1/ρ), i.e. it is used to
1 V
mean volume per unit mass (m3/ Kg : M-1L3), so that = .
ρ m

Example 1.1 Determine the specific weight, mass density, specific volume and
specific gravity of 1 litre of a liquid which weighs 7N.

Solution 3

Given: Volume = 1 litre = 1/1000 m

Specific weight, w = weight/volume = 7/(1/1000) =7000

3 3
N/m Density, ρ = w/g = 7000/9.81 =713.5 Kg/m
3
Specific volume=1/ρ=1/713.5 = 0.0140m /Kg
Specific gravity, s = density of liquid/ density of water = 713.5/1000 = 0.7135

1.25 Viscosity
Dynamic viscosity (or viscosity), (µ) is defined as the property of a fluid
which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another
adjacent layer of fluid. Thus it is the measure of a fluid to resist tangential or shear stress.
It is to be observed that a fluid at rest cannot resist shearing forces, but once it is in motion,
shearing forces are set up between the layers of the fluid moving at different velocities. All
real fluids posses’ viscosity at varying degrees.
Newton’s Equation of Viscosity
When two layers of a fluid, a distance dy apart move one layer over the other at
different velocities, say u and u+du as shown in Fig 1.1, the viscosity together with
relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers. The top layer causes
a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer, while the lower layer causes a shear
stress on the adjacent
top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the Upper layer
rate of change of velocity with respect to y, and Lower layer
is defined by τ (tau). u+du Velocity
Mathematically, profile
τ ∝ du/dy dy u

Or τ = µ(du/dy) ...(1.2) du
where µ (mu) is the constant of proportionality, y
Solid boundary
called the coefficient of dynamic viscosity or
simply viscosity, and du/dy represents the rate u
of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or
velocity gradient. Fig 1.1 Velocity variation near a solid boundary
From equation (1.2) we have
 3

τ …(1.3)
µ=
du / dy
Similarly, viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate
of shear strain. Equation (1.2) was first postulated by Newton and is known as
Newton’s equation (or law) of viscosity. This law states that the shear stress (τ)
on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. Fluids
which obey the above equation are known as Newtonian fluids, and those which do not
obey it Non-Newtonian fluids.

Types of Fluids based on viscosity:

These may be classified as follows as illustrated in Fig 1.2;
• Ideal fluid (or perfect fluid) – a fluid which is incompressible and having no
viscosity (imaginary). In the solution of certain problems, water is taken as an
ideal fluid.
• Real fluid- a fluid which possesses viscosity (all fluids are real fluids)
• Newtonian fluids-a real fluid in which shear stress is directly proportional to
the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient).
• Non-Newtonian fluid-a real fluid in which shear stress is not proportional to
the rate of shearing strain (or velocity gradient).
• Ideal plastic fluid- a fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value
and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient).
• Plastic- for which the shear stress must reach a certain minimum value before
flow commences. Thereafter, shear stress increases with the rate of shear according
to the
relationship;
τ = A+B(du/dy)n
where A, B and n are constants. If n =1, the material is known as Bingham
plastic i.e. sewage sludge.

Ideal solid Plastic

Ideal plastic fluid (or Bingham plastic)
Non-Newtonian fluid
Shear Newtonian fluid
stress (τ)
Dilatant
Elastic solid

Ideal fluid
O
Velocity gradient (du/dy)
Fig 1.2 Types of fluids
Units of Viscosity:
τ force / area force /(length)2 force × time 2
µ = du / dy = length 1 = 1 = (length)2 = Ns / m
×
time length time
Viscosity of water at 20○C is 0.001 Ns/m2.
 4

Dimensions of µ:
τ force/area
µ = du/dy =length 1
×
time length
length 2
But force = mass × acceleration = mass × 2 , and area = (length)
(time)
length 2
mass × 2 / (length)
(time) 1 1
∴µ= = mass × × time = mass ×
length 1 2 length × time
× (time) × length

time length
-1 -1
= ML T , which are the dimensions of viscosity.
Variation of viscosity with temperature:
Viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature as increase in temperature
reduces the cohesive forces while simultaneously increasing the rate of molecular
interchange. The viscosity of gases increases with increase of temperature. The relation
between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases (after Poiseuille) are as follows:

Liquids:
1
µ=µ
0
 

1 + αt + βt 2
where µ = viscosity of liquid at t○ in poise, where 1 poise = 1/10 Ns/m-2
µ0 = viscosity of liquid at ○C, in poise.
α, β = constants for the liquid.
For water: µ0 = 1.79 × 10-3 poise, α = 0.03368 and β = 0.000221
Gases:
µ = µ0+ αt-βt2
where for air, µ0 = 0.000017, α = 0.000000056 and β = 0.1189×10-9

Kinematic viscosity
This is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of
fluid i.e. ν= µ/ρ
Units of kinematic viscosity (ν):
2
µ (force × time)/(length) (force × time)
ν= = 3
=
ρ mass/(length) mass/length
But force = mass × acceleration = mass × length
2
(time)
(mass × length × time)
2
mass × length 2

(time) time (length)

∴ν= = =
mass/length mass/length time
Or ν = m2s-1
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Hence, the units of ν are m2s-1 and the dimensions are L2T-1. Typical value
for water, ν =1.14 ×10-6m2/s.

Example 1.2 The velocity distribution over a plate is given by:

(3/2) y-y2
in which u is the velocity in m/s at a distance y metres above the plate. Determine the shear stress
at y=0 and y=0.15m. Take dynamic viscosity of the fluid  as 0.863 Ns/m2.

Task1

Example 1.3 A plate 0.025 mm distance from a fixed plate moves at a velocity of
0.6m/s and requires a force of 1.962 N per unit area to maintain this speed.
Determine the viscosity of the fluid between the plates.

Task 2
1.26 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
Compressibility is the reciprocal (1/K) of bulk modulus of elasticity K. Bulk
Modulus K is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain. It
may also be defined as the property by virtue of which fluids undergo a change in
volume under the action of external pressure. All fluids are compressible under the
application of an external force, and when the force is removed, they expand back to their
original volume exhibiting the property that stress is proportional to volumetric strain.
Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in Fig 1.4
Let V = volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder
P = Pressure of gas when volume is V
Let the pressure be increased to p+dp, the volume of the gas decreasing from V to V-
dV.
Hence, increase in pressure (or change in pressure)=dp, and decrease in volume
=dV.
∴ Volumetric strain = -(dV/V)
(Negative sign indicates decrease in volume with increase of pressure)
Thus, Bulk modulus of elasticity, K = increase of pressure (dp)
volumetric strain (-dV/V) V Piston
dp
∴ Bulk modulus, K = …(1.4) p
-dV/V
Units and dimensions of bulk modulus: (N/m2 : ML-1T-2)
Water with a bulk modulus of 2.1×109 Nm-2 at 20oC is 100
times more compressible than steel, but it is ordinarily considered dV cylinder
incompressible.
The relation between pressure and volume for a gas can
be found from the gas laws:
For all perfect gases, pV=RT, where p=absolute
pressure, V=specific volume=i/w, T= absolute Fig 1.4

temperature, R=gas constant.

If changes occur isothermally (at constant
temperature), pV=constant.
If changes occur adiabatically (without gain or loss of heat), pVγ=constant,
where γ=ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to specific heat at constant
volume.

Example 1.4 Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is

compressed in a cylinder from a volume of 0.0126m3 at a pressure of 75N/cm2 to
a volume of 0.0125m3 at a pressure of 150 N/cm2.
Task
 7

1.27 Surface tension and capillarity

1.27.1 Surface tension

Surface tension, (σ: N/m : MT-2) is defined as the tensile force acting on the
surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible
liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane. It is the force which
enables a drop of water to be held in suspension at a tap, a vessel to be filled with liquid
slightly above the brim and not spill, or for a needle to float on the surface of a liquid. All
these phenomena are due to cohesion between molecules at the surface of the liquid
which adjoins another immiscible liquid or gas. Surface tension for water is 73×10-3N/m2
at 200C.
Cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules of the same
substance, while adhesion is the force between molecules of different
substances. Due to the property of cohesion, liquids can resist small tensile forces at the
interface between liquid and air, known as surface tension. Adhesion of water to glass
is stronger than the cohesion of water, hence spilled water on a clean glass surface wets it
and spreads out in a thin film. On the other hand, the cohesion of mercury is greater than
its adhesion to glass, hence spilled mercury on glass forms small spherical droplets or
larger flattened drops. This phenomena explains about the meniscus of water and that of
mercury when poured into a clean glass. In the case of mercury, forces of cohesion are
greater than forces of adhesion, the angle of contact is larger and the meniscus has a
convex face to the atmosphere. In the case of water, the meniscus of water surface in the
tube is concave upward and is depressed. Surface tension effects are very pronounced in
the case of tubes of small bore open to the atmosphere as the pressure adjacent to the free
surface is greater than atmospheric.

(a) Surface Tension on Water Droplet

Consider a small spherical droplet of diameter ‘d’ as shown in Fig 1.5
Let σ = surface tension of liquid
p = pressure inside droplet, above outside pressure
d = diameter of droplet

σ p

(a) Spherical droplet (b) Surface tension on droplet (c) Pressure on droplet

Fig 1.5 Forces on a liquid droplet

 8

If droplet is cut into two halves, forces acting on one-half will be:
(i) Tensile force [Fig 1.5 (b)] due to surface tension acting around the
circumference of cut portion = circumference= σ×πd ( )
(ii) Pressure force [Fig 1.5(c)] on the area = p× π d 2 ( )
4
The above forces are equal but opposite, hence under equilibrium,
i.e. p × π d 2 = σ × πd, or p = σ × πd
4 πd 2
4
∴ p = 4σ …(1.5)
d
From equation (1.5), it can be seen that if the diameter of the droplet decreases,
pressure intensity increases.

(b) Surface Tension on a Soap (or Hollow) Bubble

A hollow bubble such as a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air,
one on the inside and the other on the outside (Fig 1.6).
σ

d
p

σ
σ

(a) (b) Free body diagram

Fig 1.6 Pressure inside a soap bubble

The two surfaces are thus subjected to surface tension, and the two forces are in
equilibrium.
From the free body diagram, we have
Pressure force inside the bubble ( ) = surface tension outside the bubble ( )
π 2
Or p × d = 2 × (σ × πd)
4
∴ p = 2σπd , or p = 8σ …(1.6)
πd 2 d
4
Since the soap solution has a high value of surface tension σ, even with small
pressure of blowing a soap bubble will tend to grow larger in diameter leading to the
formation of large soap bubbles.

(c) Surface Tension on Liquid Jet

Consider a cylindrical liquid jet of diameter ‘d’ and length ‘l’ as shown in Fig 1.7.

l
σ

d
(a) (b) Semi-jet

Fig 1.7 Forces on liquid jet

 9

Let σ = surface tension of liquid

p = pressure inside the liquid jet above outside pressure
Considering the equilibrium of the semi-jet, we have
(i) Force due to surface tension = σ×2l
(ii) Force due to pressure = p×area of semi-jet = p×(l×d)
The above forces will be in equilibrium, so that
σ × 2l
σ×2l = p×(l×d), or p =
l×d
∴ 2σ …(1.7)
p=
d

Example 1.5 The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20 0 is 0.0715N/m.
If the pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 200N/m2 greater than the outside
pressure, determine the diameter of the water droplet.

Solution
Given : Surface tension σ = 0.0715N/m
Pressure intensity above outside =200N/m2
Let d= diameter of droplet
For a water droplet, pressure,
p = 4σ , or 200 = 4 × 0.0715
d d
∴ d = 0.00143m = 1.43mm

Problem: Determine the surface tension in a soap bubble of 50mm diameter

when the inside pressure is 3N/m2 above atmospheric pressure.

1.27.2 Capillarity
Capillarity is Defined as the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid
 10

Surface in a small tube, relative to adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held
vertically in liquid and is expressed in terms of mm of liquid.
Capillary rise
Consider a glass tube (Fig 1.8) opened at both ends and immersed in a liquid, say
water. Liquid rises in a tube to height ‘h’ and under equilibrium, weight of liquid is
balanced by force at the surface of the liquid in the tube due to surface tension.
Let: d = diameter of capillary tube,
σ = surface tension of liquid, h
= rise of liquid in glass tube σθ σ
θ = angle of contact between liquid and glass tube,
w = weight density (ρg).
glass
Weight of water column in tube (gravity force),
h tube
= area of tube × height × w = πd 2 × h × w …(i)
4 liquid
Vertical component of surface tension
= circumference × σ cosθ = πd ×σ cos θ ...(ii)
Fig 1.8
For equilibrium, equate equations (i) and (ii):
∴πd2 × h × w = πd × σcosθ 4

Or h = πd × 2σcosθ = 4σcosθ
πd wd
×w
4
Value of θ between water and clean glass is approximately equal to zero, hence cos θ is
equal to unity.
∴Capillary rise of water in the glass tube, h = 4σ ...(1.8)
wd

Capillary Fall (or capillary depression)

When glass is dipped in mercury (Fig 1.9), level in mercury tube will be lower than
general level of outside liquid. Two forces act in equilibrium on mercury inside the tube.
If h = height of depression in tube;

Force due to surface tension acts in downward direction

= πd×σcos θ …(i) d
Force due to hydrostatic force acting downward d
Glass tube
Glass
= intensity of pressure at depth h×area tube
= wh × π d 2 ...(ii)
4 θ h
Equating (i) and (ii):
σ σσ
πd × σ cosθ = wh × πd 2 Mercury
4 Fig 1.18
πd × σ cosθ Fig 1.9
∴h= π 2
4 dw
 11

Orh = 4σcosθ ...(1.9)

wd
The value of θ for mercury and glass tube is 128○.
Note : Capillarity effects in manometers and gauges are minimized by
using tubes not less than 10mm diameter.

Points to note on capillarity:

(i) Capillarity rise or depression is greater on smaller diameter tubes.
(ii) Glass tubes used for measuring liquid level in the laboratory should not be
shorter than 8mm.
(iii) Capillary effects are negligible for tubes longer than 12mm.
(iv) The effects of surface tension are negligible in may flow problems except
those involving: capillary rise; formation of drops and bubbles; the break up
of liquid jets; and hydraulic model studies where the model and or flow depth
is small.
(v) Wetting liquid (i.e. water), θ<π/2.
For pure water in contact with clean glass, θ=0. For slightly contaminated
water, θ becomes as high as 250.

For mercury, θ varies between 1300-1500.

Fig 1.10.illustrates the liquid gas interface with a solid surface.

Plan of orifice
Liquid surface
Liquid
Liquid
θ
θ<π/2
Gas

Solid
(a) Wetting liquid (water) Elliptical orifice

Liquid
θ
θ>π/2
Gas

Solid
(b) Non-wetting liquid (mercury)

Fig 1.10: Liquid gas interface with a solid surface Fig 1.11: Capillary inversion of a liquid

Capillary inversion:
Due to surface tension, the liquid passing out of an elliptical orifice tends to assume a
circular or minimum perimeter in cross-section. Transformation of surface energy into
kinetic energy takes place, and the flow pattern varies as the Weber number changes and
the motion continues giving rise to a series of standing waves. This phenomenon is known
as capillary inversion of jet for orifices of non-circular cross section. As shown in Fig
1.11 the jet issuing from a small elliptical orifice can be observed to undergo two
inversion cycles in a given length. The phenomenon of capillary inversion of jets is
significant for industries involving the production and size control of liquid
 12

droplets such as paints, insecticides, and fungicides.

1.28 Cavitation
This occurs in areas of low pressure where local boiling and a cloud of vapour
bubbles forms in a flowing liquid. When these bubbles reach an area of high pressure, they
collapse suddenly, and may result in damage to a solid (or metal) surface. This parameter
is of great importance in hydraulic machinery.

1.29 Vapour pressure of Liquids

When a liquid in a closed container is subjected to the escaping molecules from the
surface; it reaches a stage of equilibrium when this pressure reaches saturation vapour
pressure. Since this depends upon molecular activity, which is a function of temperature,
the vapour pressure of a liquid also depends upon its temperature and increases with it. If
the pressure above a liquid reaches the vapour pressure of the liquid, boiling occurs; for
example if the pressure is reduced sufficiently boiling may occur at room temperature.
The saturated vapour pressure for water at 200C is 2.45 × 103 N/m2.

1.3 Basic Units of Measurements in Fluid Mechanics

These are also referred to as Fundamental Units and are as follows:
Length (L): Metre (m)
Mass (M): Kilogramme (Kg)
Time (T) : Seconds (s or sec)
Electric current: Ampere (A)
Absolute temperature (θ): Kelvin (K)
Luminous intensity: Candela (cd)
Dimensions:
In mechanics, all quantities can be expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions of
mass M, length L, and time T.
Thus, acceleration = distance/(time)2, so that dimensions of acceleration,
= dimension of distance/(dimension of time) 2
= L/T2 = LT-2

= dimension of mass × dimension of acceleration

= M(L/T-2) = MLT-2
 Table1.1 Dimensions of Common Quantities

Quantity Symbol Defining equation Dimensions Units

Geometrical
Length L All linear measurements L m
Area A Length× Length L2 m2
Volume V Area × Length L3 m3
0 0 0
Angle α Arc/Radius (a ratio) M L T -
Strain - Extension /Length (a ratio) L0 -
3 3
First moment of area - Area × Length L m
2 4 4
Second moment of area I Area × Length L m

Kinematic
Time s Time measurements T s
-1
Velocity (linear) v Distance/Time LT m/s
Velocity (angular) ω Angle/Time T-1 rad/s
-2 2
Acceleration (linear) a Linear velocity/Time LT m/s
2
Acceleration (angular) α Angular velocity/Time T-2 rad/s
3
Volume rate of discharge Q Volume/Time L3T-1 m /s, l/s
-2 2
Gravitational acceleration G - LT m/s
2
Kinematic viscosity ν Dynamic viscosity/Mass density L2T -1 m /s
2
Stream function ψ - L2T -1 m /s
2
Circulation - L2T -1 m /s
 14

Dynamic
Mass M Force/Acceleration M kg
-2
Force F Mass×Acceleration MLT N
-2
Weight W Force MLT N
-3 3
Mass density ρ Mass/Volume ML Kg/m
3
Specific weight w Weight/Volume ML-2T -2 N/m
0 0 0
Specific gravity Ss Density/Density of water M L T -
Pressure (intensity) p Force/Area ML-1T -2 N/m2, Pascal
Shear Stress τ Force/Area ML-1T -2 N/m2
2
Elastic modulus K Stress/Strain ML-1T -2 N/m
-1
Impulse momentum I,M Force×Time MLT N-s
-1 N-s
Momentum (linear) - Mass×Linear velocity MLT
Momentum (angular) - Moment of inertia×angular velocity ML2T -1
2 2
Mass moment of inertia - Mass ×Length ML
2 -2 N-m, Joule
Work, Energy W,E Force × Distance ML T
Power P Work/Time ML2T -3 N-m/s, watt
Moment of a force - Force × Distance ML2T -2
2
Dynamic viscosity µ Shear stress/Velocity gradient ML-1T -1 Ns/m
-2
Surface tension σ Energy/Area MT N/m
2 -2 N-m
Torque T ML T
Circulation
Vorticity

Thermodynamic Quantities
Temperature θ θ
Thermal conductivity MLT-3 θ-1
Enthalpy per unit mass L2T-2
Gas constant S L2T-2 θ-1
Entropy MLT-2 θ-1
Internal energy per unit mass
Heat transfer ML2T -3

22.05.11
h.m.m.