Chapter 1

1. How do ecology and environmentalism differ? In what way does environmentalism depend on the
science of ecology?

-Environmentalism is the movement of concern and protection of the environment. Ecology is

simply the study of the relationship of animals and their environment. Environmentalism depends on
ecology because that is how concerns are gathered via knowing about the relationships. The main
difference between the two is that the latter is a more overarching field that incorporates many
elements of Earth and life sciences to understand various natural processes. Environmentalism is an
attempt to balance relations between humans and the various natural systems on which they depend in
such a way that all the components are accorded a proper degree of sustainability

2. What is the ultimate goal of all living organisms? What role does the ecosystem play in every
organism’s life?

-Living things grow and they reproduce. Growth is a way to generate the materials for
reproduction. Reproduction is a way to make new organisms that can grow. Thus, the apparent "goal" of
every organism is to fill the available world with its offspring, that is, with "self". The ecosystem provides
the vital resources such as food and shelter that the organism needs to survive and to reproduce.

3. How might including the abiotic environment within the framework of the ecosystem help ecologists
achieve the basic goal of understanding the interaction of organisms with their environment?

In an ecosystem, there are natural processes that takes places in which exists a complex interaction
between the biotic (living organisms) and abiotic (chemical and physical) components of the given
ecosystem. Abiotic factors make up much of the variation seen between different ecosystems. By
determining the availability of essential resources such as sunlight, water, oxygen, and minerals, abiotic
factors influence which organisms can survive in a given place.

4. What is the scientific method? Describe the steps involved in it.

The scientific method begins with observation, from which questions emerge. The next step is the
development of a hypothesis— a proposed answer to the question. The hypothesis must be testable
through observation and experiments.

The basic steps of the scientific method are: 1) make an observation that describes a problem, 2) create
a hypothesis, 3) test the hypothesis, and 4) draw conclusions and refine the hypothesis.

5. An ecologist observes that the diet of a bird species consists primarily of large grass seeds (as opposed
to smaller grass seeds or the seeds of other herbaceous plants found in the area). He hypothesizes that
the birds are choosing the larger seeds because they have a higher concentration of nitrogen than do
other types of seeds at the site. To test the hypothesis, the ecologist compares the large grass seeds
with the other types of seeds, and the results clearly show that the large grass seeds do indeed have a
much higher concentration of nitrogen. Did the ecologist prove the hypothesis to be true? Can he
conclude that the birds select the larger grass seeds because of their higher concentration of nitrogen?
Why or why not?
IF the hypothesis solely states that the larger seeds contain more nitrogen then yes his hypothesis is
proven to be true. He could conclude that ONE of the reasons in which the birds select the larger seeds
is due to their increased or superior nitrogen content however this may not be the only reason as to
why they were selected thus for it is not an absolute.

6. What is a model? What is the relationship between hypotheses and models?

Models allow us to predict some behavior or response using a set of explicit assumptions. They are
abstractions and simplifications of natural phenomena. Such simplification is necessary to understand
natural processes. Scientists use the understanding derived from observation and experiments to
develop models. Hypotheses are models, although the term model is typically reserved for
circumstances in which the hypothesis has at least some limited support through observations and
experimental results.

7. Given the importance of ecological research in making political and economic decisions regarding
current environmental issues such as global warming, how do you think scientists should communicate
uncertainties in their results to policy makers and the public?

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 Chapter 2

1. What is net radiation?

Earth intercepts solar energy in the form of shortwave radiation, some of which is reflected back into
space. Earth emits energy back into space in the form of longwave radiation, a portion of which is
absorbed by gases in the atmosphere and radiated back to the surface. The difference between
incoming shortwave and outgoing longwave radiation is the net radiation. Surface temperatures are a
function of net radiation.

2. Explain the greenhouse effect phenomenon. How does our planet maintain an average surface
temperature of 15ºC?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy
reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-
radiated by greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Earth's average surface
temperature is maintained by two large, opposing energy fluxes between the atmosphere and the
ground (right)—the greenhouse effect

3. Why do equatorial regions receive more solar radiation than the polar regions? What is the
consequence to latitudinal patterns of temperature?

Different parts of Earth’s surface receive different amounts of sunlight. The sun’s rays strike Earth’s
surface most directly at the equator. This focuses the rays on a small area. Because the rays hit more
directly, the area is heated more Because of the Earth’s tilt the sun’s rays strike the surface at a slant at
the poles; they are less focused. This spreads the rays over a wide area. Because the sun’s rays hit at a
slant, the area is heated less. The more focused the rays are, the more energy an area receives and the
warmer it is; the less focused the rays are, the less energy an area receives and the cooler it is. The tilt of
the Earth causes different areas to receive different amounts of solar energy. The difference in solar
energy received at different latitudes drives atmospheric circulation. Places that get more solar energy
have more heat. Places that get less solar energy have less heat. The air above the areas receiving more
heat warms up and rises. The air over the areas receiving less heat is cooler and so it sinks. The rising
warm air and sinking cool air create wind which moves air and heat around the planet.

The amount of solar radiation intercepted by Earth varies markedly with latitude. Tropical regions near
the equator receive the greatest amount of solar radiation, and high latitudes receive the least. Because
Earth tilts on its axis, parts of Earth encounter seasonal differences in solar radiation. These differences
give rise to seasonal variations in net radiation and temperature. There is a global gradient in mean
annual temperature; it is warmest in the tropics and declines toward the poles.

4. The 23.5° tilt of Earth on its north–south axis gives rise to the seasons (review Figure 2.7). How would
the pattern of seasons differ if the Earth’s tilt were 90°? How would this influence the diurnal (night–
day) cycle?

If the earth's tilt were to increase and become 90 degrees, the higher latitudes would receive more
direct solar radiation.At the vernal equinox (approximately falling on March 21) and autumnal equinox
(approximately falling on September 22), the sun is directly above the equator. This is because the
north-south axis is vertical. Thus, this region receives intense sunlight, which travels through a thinner
layer of atmosphere at the equator

2.During the summer solstice (approximately falling on June 21),the earth's tilt at 23.5° along the north-
south axis causes the northern hemisphere to receive more sunlight at the Tropic of Cancer.

3.If the earth were to tilt by 90° during the summer solstice, the maximum amount of sunlight falls on
North Pole. The earth's rotation then would be along a horizontal north-south axis. Therefore, there
lower latitudes in the northern hemisphere would receive less radiation than the North Pole. There
would be 24 hours of daylight at the North Pole and in the northern hemisphere. There would be no
sunlight in the southern hemisphere.

4.The North Pole would experience increased day length, and the South Pole would have longer nights.
All places on earth would not receive sunlight each day or have nights each day.

5.The same would occur at the South Pole during the winter solstice. The increased tilt of the earth
would therefore change the seasons, with severe summers and winters at the poles during the solstices.

5. How does the circular water motion function to redistribute heat from the tropics northward and
southward towards the poles?

An ocean gyre is a large system of circular ocean currents formed by global wind patterns and forces
created by Earth's rotation. The movement of the world's major ocean gyres helps drive the “ocean
conveyor belt.” The ocean conveyor belt circulates ocean water around the entire planet. Gyres are
caused by the Coriolis effect; planetary vorticity, horizontal friction and vertical friction determine the
circulatory patterns

6. The air temperature at noon on January 20 was 45°F, and the air temperature at noon on July 20 at
the same location was 85°F. The relative humidity on both days was 75 percent. On which of these two
days was there more water vapor in the air?

In the process of evaporation water gets converted from a liquid to a gaseous state. During this process,
water molecules are exchanged between liquid water and the surrounding air, with the absorption of
energy. As more and more water evaporates, there are more water molecules in a gaseous form, which
begin to exert a pressure. This pressure is known as vapor pressure. The pressure exerted at saturation
is called saturation vapor pressure. Beyond the saturation vapor pressure, where the air around the
water cannot hold any more gas molecules of water, it is said to reach saturation capacity, water vapor
condenses to the liquid form, reducing the vapor pressure. Saturation vapor pressure has the property
of increasing with temperature. Hence air at higher temperatures will have a higher capacity for holding
water vapor. The amount of water vapor in a given volume of air is termed as Humidity or absolute
humidity. Here, the relation between the amounts of water vapor with saturation vapor pressure is
termed as Relative humidity. Hence, the relative humidity at the saturation point is 100 percent. The
relative humidity at the given location is the same, at 75 percent on both days. However the
temperature is higher on July 20. We know that saturation vapor pressure increases with temperature.
Hence the denominator of the equation for relative humidity will increase. If the left hand side remains
constant (at 75 percent), it follows that the numerator on the right hand side must also increase in order
to maintain the equation. Hence current vapor pressure must also increase. This is nothing but the
amount of water vapor in the air. Hence, the amount of water vapor in the air will be more on July 20
than on Jan 20 at the same relative humidity.

E= pRT -> R = E/pT

R = the same for both samples ; T1 = 45 ; T2 = 85

7. Explain how temperature affects the moisture content in air. Why does the tropical region experience
high precipitation?

Earth’s atmosphere contains water in the form of water vapor, ice crystals or precipitation. Relative
humidity represents a percentage of water vapor in the air that changes when the air temperature
changes. As air temperature increases, air can hold more water molecules, and its relative humidity
decreases. When temperatures drop, relative humidity increases. High relative humidity of the air
occurs when the air temperature approaches the dew point value. Temperature therefore directly
relates to the amount of moisture the atmosphere can hold.

High precipitation occurs in zones where there is the continual and rapid ascension of air masses. In the
tropics, there is a convergence of trade winds in the ITCZ which ascend due to low pressure. Also, the
evaporation rates are high. Thus, moist air rises as it cools. On the other hand, warm air is able to
condense and hold more water leading to high precipitation.

8. What is the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and why does it give rise to a distinct pattern of
seasonality in precipitation in the tropical zone?

The ITCZ is a zone of convergence at the thermal equator. It is a low pressure belt, migrating with the
thermal equator. The ITCZ is an area of low atmospheric pressure that forms where the Northeast Trade
Winds meet the Southeast Trade Winds near (actually just north of) the earth's equator. As these winds
converge, moist air is forced upward, forming one portion of the Hadley cell. The air cools and rises (see
image below), causing water vapor to be "squeezed" out as rain, resulting in a band of heavy
precipitation around the globe. Air that rises along the ITCZ moves away from the equator and sinks in
the subtropics at the Horse Latitudes, rounding out the Hadley Circulation. This reliable circulation feeds
the lush rain forests of the tropics.

9. Explain how proximity to the coastline influences climate.

At the continental scale, an important influence on climate is the relationship between land and water.
Land surfaces heat and cool more rapidly than water as a result of differences in their specific heat. As a
result, land areas farther from the coast (or other large bodies of water) experience a greater seasonal
variation in temperature than do coastal areas. Proximity to large water bodies also tends to have a
positive influence on precipitation levels. The interior of continents generally experience less
precipitation than the coastal regions do. As air masses move inland from the coast, water vapor lost
from the atmosphere through precipitation is not recharged (from surface evaporation) as readily as it is
over the open waters of the ocean.

10. How does a mountain affect the patterns of precipitation and subsequently the occurrence of
vegetation on its windward and leeward sides?
Mountains can also affect precipitation. Mountains and mountain ranges can cast a rain shadow. As
winds rise up the windward side of a mountain range, the air cools and precipitation falls. On the other
side of the range, the leeward side, the air is dry, and it sinks. So there is very little precipitation on the
leeward side of a mountain range. More water means more vegetation possible to occur.

11. Spruce Knob (latitude 38.625° N) in eastern West Virginia is named for the spruce trees dominating
the forests at this site. Spruce trees are typically found in the colder forests of the more northern
latitudes (northeastern United States and Canada). What does the presence of spruce trees at Spruce
Knob tell you about this site?

The presence of spruce trees in lower latitudes in Virginia indicates that this region has a colder climate.
This could be due to its elevation and its location at higher altitudes. At higher altitudes, air cools down,
causing precipitation, which favors growth. At 38.625° N latitude, air currents from the equator cool
down and descend. As cool air rises up the slopes of Spruce Knob, they cool further, creating a climate
that is highland and similar to that of Northeast United States and Canada, where spruce trees
originated.
 Chapter 3

1. Define precipitation, interception, and infiltration. What causes surface runoff?

Precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity
from clouds. As water reaches the surface in various forms of precipitation, it is intercepted by plants or
falls directly to the surface. Precipitation that collects on the leaves or stems of plants is known as
interception. Infiltration refers to water that penetrates into the surface of soil. Infiltration is controlled
by soil texture, soil structure, vegetation and soil moisture status. High infiltration rates occur in dry
soils, with infiltration slowing as the soil becomes wet. Runoff occurs when there is more water than
land can absorb. The excess liquid flows across the surface of the land and into nearby creeks, streams,
or ponds. Runoff can come from both natural processes and human activity. Runoff also occurs naturally
as soil is eroded and carried to various bodies of water.

2. Why is there less seasonal variation in temperature in aquatic compared to terrestrial environments
(at the same latitude)?

There is less seasonal variation in temperature in aquatic compared to terrestrial environments in the
same latitude because it requires much more heat to change the temperature of water than it does for
air.

3. What effects do the molecular properties of water (e.g., high specific heat or a lattice arrangement
when frozen) have on the ecology of aquatic habitats?

It is the only natural substance found in all three physical states at the temperatures that naturally occur
on Earth. This means that we see water as a liquid, in rivers and seas, a solid, as snow and ice, and as a
gas, as clouds or steam. If this was not the case the water cycle would be completely different.

Water has a very high melting and boiling point compared to other similar molecules

Ice is less dense than water

This just means that ice floats on water and that lakes freeze from the top down to the bottom. This is
clearly important for animals that live on ice, as their habitats would be greatly reduced or not exist at
all if ice sank. Similarly, fish and other pond-life would be affected if lakes and ponds froze from the
bottom upwards - the layer of frozen water at the top of the pond provides some insulation and
prevents the rest of the water getting cold as quickly. It does this by making a barrier between the cold
air and the water below. This means that large bodies of water don't get cold deeper down as fast as
they might if ice sank and helps wildlife survive in ponds over winter. In fact, water gets more dense at it
is cooled until it reaches 4∘ C (which you can see on the graph), after which it gets less dense again.
Most substances get progressively more dense as they are cooled.

Surface tension. – self explanatory

4. What decides the amount of light reflected from the surface of water?
The amount of light reflected by an object, and how it is reflected, is highly dependent upon the degree
of smoothness or texture of the surface. When surface imperfections are smaller than the wavelength of
the incident light (as in the case of a mirror), virtually all of the light is reflected equally.

How light is reflected by the water surface depends several things including angle of incidence,
polarization and wavelength thus the light must be travelling from a more dense medium into a less
dense medium (ie glass to air) and the angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle

5. What is the thermocline? What causes the development of a thermocline?

A thermocline is a thin but distinct layer in a large body of fluid in which temperature changes more
drastically with depth than it does in the layers above or below. The mixed layer is near the surface
where the temperature is roughly that of surface water. The mixed layer warms the fastest due to the
high sun angle and warm air interacting with the water. During periods of light to calm winds, the water
remains warm near the surface. Once the wind increases over the lake causing wave action, the warmer
mixed layer at the surface starts to mingle with the deep water which results in a fluctuation of the
depth of the thermocline.

6. Explain why seasonal stratification of temperature and oxygen takes place in deep ponds and lakes.

The thermal stratification of lakes refers to a change in the temperature at different depths in the lake,
and is due to the change in water's density with temperature. Cold water is denser than warm water
and the epilimnion generally consists of water that is not as dense as the water in the hypolimnion.

7. What is pH? Why is it important in the aquatic environment?

pH is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. The range goes from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pHs of
less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base. pH is an important quantity
that reflects the chemical conditions of a solution. The pH can control the availability of nutrients,
biological functions, microbial activity, and the behavior of chemicals. he pH of water determines the
solubility (amount that can be dissolved in the water) and biological availability (amount that can be
utilized by aquatic life) of chemical constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon)
and heavy metals (lead, copper, cadmium, etc.). For example, in addition to affecting how much and
what form of phosphorus is most abundant in the water, pH also determines whether aquatic life can
use it. In the case of heavy metals, the degree to which they are soluble determines their toxicity.
Metals tend to be more toxic at lower pH because they are more soluble. (Source: A Citizen's Guide to
Understanding and Monitoring Lakes and Streams)

8. The concentration of which element is used to define the salinity of water?

Salinity is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water, called saline water (see also soil
salinity). This is usually measured in [g salt / kg sea water]. Salinity is an important factor in determining
many aspects of the chemistry of natural waters and of biological processes within it, and is a
thermodynamic state variable that, along with temperature and pressure, governs physical
characteristics like the density and heat capacity of the water.
A particular element does not define the salinity of a solution but the salt contained within it. In
chemistry, a salt is a chemical compound consisting of an ionic assembly of cations and anions. Salts are
composed of related numbers of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral.

9. What causes the upwelling of deeper, cold waters in the equatorial zone of the oceans?

Upwelling is a process in which currents bring deep, cold water to the surface of the ocean. Upwelling is
a result of winds and the rotation of the Earth. The Earth rotates on its axis from west to east. Because
of this rotation, winds tend to veer right in the northern hemisphere and left in the southern
hemisphere otherwise known as the Coriolis effect and is largely responsible for upwelling in coastal
regions. The Coriolis effect also causes upwelling in the open ocean near the Equator. Trade winds at the
Equator blow surface water both north and south, allowing upwelling of deeper water. The wind
patterns generated during slow-moving cyclones can also blow surface water aside, causing upwelling
directly beneath the eye of the cyclone. The colder water eventually helps to weaken the cyclone.

10. Distinguish between spring tides and neap tides.

Spring tides have higher high tides and lower low tides whereas neap tides have lower high tides and
higher low tides. Hence, the range (difference in water level between high and low tide) is much larger
in a spring tide than in a low tide.
 Chapter 4

1. What is natural selection? What conditions are necessary for natural selection to occur?

Four conditions are needed for natural selection to occur: reproduction, heredity, variation in fitness or
organisms, variation in individual characters among members of the population. If they are met, natural
selection automatically results.

Firstly, Reproduction must be possible: the act or process of producing offspring. It is a condition
necessary for evolution to occur so that a parent produces more offspring than can normally survive.

Secondly, Heredity or the mechanism of transmission of specific characters or traits from parent to
offspring must be possible. A condition necessary for evolution to occur is that the traits of the "fittest"
phenotypes that survive are inherited by the successful progeny. The offspring must tend to resemble
their parents. Molecular genetics and biochemistry provide significant information about how this
process occurs.

Thirdly, Genetic variation. Genetic variation is an important force in evolution as it allows natural
selection to increase or decrease frequency of alleles already in the population. Genetic variation is
advantageous to a population because it enables some individuals to adapt to the environment while
maintaining the survival of the population.

2. What is the genotype of an individual?

The pair of alleles present at a given locus defines the genotype. A genotype is an organism’s set of
heritable genes that can be passed down from parents to offspring. The genes take part in determining
the characteristics that are observable in an organism.

3. Define the phenotype of an organism. What factors influence phenotypic variation?

The term "phenotype" refers to the observable physical properties of an organism; these include the
organism's appearance, development, and behavior. An organism's phenotype is determined by its
genotype, which is the set of genes the organism carries, as well as by environmental influences upon
these genes.

Phenotypic variation can be caused by genes, environmental factors, or both. Environmental factors are
things in an organism's surroundings or lifestyle that can influence it in various ways. Genotype controls
phenotype because genes direct the production of proteins . Proteins, in turn, dictate virtually every
reaction in the cell and thus are directly responsible for observable characteristics.

4. If the phenotype trait of an Aa heterozygous individual is the same as that of an AA homozygous

individual, which allele is recessive?

A is the recessive allele since it is being masked by the dominant A allele.

5. Why are small populations more prone to variations in allele frequency from generation to generation
as a result of genetic drift than are large populations?

Smaller populations are more likely to be affected by chance events, since there are not as many alleles
to “balance out” random changes in allele frequencies.
6. How might genetic drift and inbreeding be important processes in the conservation of endangered
species?

Genetic drift, unlike natural selection, does not take into account an allele’s benefit (or harm) to the
individual that carries it. Genetic drift can result in the loss of rare alleles, and can decrease the size of
the gene pool. Genetic drift may only help the conservation of endangered species if the allele it will get
rid of is beneficial to the given organism. Genetic drift can also cause a new population to be genetically
distinct from its original population, which then leads to more genetic variability. More genetic
variability entails better survivability of a given species.

Moreover, unlike genetic drift, by inbreeding, individuals are further decreasing genetic variation by
increasing homozygosity in the genomes of their offspring.

7. Why is natural selection the only process that can result in adaptation?

Natural selection is the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change while
An adaptation is a characteristic that enhances the survival or reproduction of organisms that bear it,
relative to alternative character states (especially the ancestral condition in the population in which the
adaptation evolved). Natural selection is the only mechanism known to cause the evolution of
adaptations since adaptation is a process in which the members of a population become better suited to
some feature of their environment through change in a characteristic that affects their survival or
reproduction. The complexity and evident function of organisms’ adaptations cannot conceivably arise
from the random action of physical forces but through natural selection.

8. What is meant by gene pool?

A gene pool is the collection of different genes within an interbreeding population. The concept of a
gene pool usually refers to the sum of all the alleles at all of the loci within the genes of a population of a
single species. It includes both genes that are expressed, and those that are not.

9. What is an ecotype?

An ecotype is a variant in which the phenotypic differences are too few or too subtle to warrant being
classified as a subspecies. These different variants can occur in the same geographic region where
distinct habitats such as meadow, forest, swamp, and sand dunes provide ecological niches.

10. Researchers studying populations of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum in the coastal waters of the
Gulf of Mexico observed that the average leaf width in populations occupying the deeper waters
offshore was significantly greater than for populations in the shallower nearshore waters. How might
the researchers experimentally test whether these observed differences are a result of genetic
differences between the populations (genetic differentiation) or a result of phenotypic plasticity? The
nearshore waters are warmer and have higher values of PAR (light availability) than the deeper waters
offshore.

11. David Reznick, an ecologist at the University of California at Riverside, studied the process of natural
selection in populations of guppies (small freshwater fish) on the island of Trinidad. Reznick found that
populations at lower elevations face the assault of predatory fish, whereas the populations at higher
elevations live in peace because few predators can move upstream past the waterfalls. The average size
of individuals in the higherelevation waters is larger than the average size of guppies in the lower-
elevation populations. Reznick hypothesized that the smaller size of individuals in the lower-elevation
populations was a result of increased rates of predation on larger individuals; in effect, predation was
selecting for smaller individuals in the population. To test this hypothesis, Reznick moved individuals
from the lower elevations to unoccupied pools upstream, where predation was not a factor. Eleven
years in these conditions produced a population of individuals that were on average larger than the
individuals of the downstream populations. Is the study by Reznick an example of natural selection (does
it meet the necessary conditions)? If so, what type of selection does it represent (directional, stabilizing,
or disruptive)? Can you think of any alternative hypotheses to explain why the average size of individuals
may have shifted through time as a result of moving the population to the upstream (higherelevation)
environment?

12. Does the example of variation in body size of guppies from upstream and downstream populations
presented in Question 11 represent a trade-off similar to that of variation in beak size of medium ground
finches presented in Section 5.6? What is the selective agent in the example in Question 11?

13. What is the fundamental difference between selective breeding (artificial selection) and genetic
engineering?

Both genetic engineering and artificial selection allow humans to change a species so that its members
are better suited for human needs. However, the mechanism for change is different. Artificial selection
selects for traits already present in a species, whereas genetic engineering creates new traits.

In artificial selection, scientists breed only individuals that have desirable traits. For example, scientists
may breed (cross pollinate, in this case) only the highest yielding crops with one another for many
generations. The result is a population of plants that all produce a higher yield (e.g., abundant fruit
production) than other members of the species. Through selective breeding, scientists are able to
change the traits in the population. Evolution has occurred.

In genetic engineering, scientists use tools of DNA technology to directly manipulate a genome. One way
to change the genome is to insert genes from other organisms. For example, some cotton plants have a
gene encoding a bacterial toxin in their genome. The cotton plant therefore becomes toxic to pests like
moth caterpillars that typically eat the plant's leaves. Toxic cotton plants are different from their un-
engineered ancestors. Evolution has occurred.

14. What might be some of the environmental concerns regarding genetically modified (transgenic)
organisms?

In the field of agriculture, the use of transgenes to confer disease resistance to crops represents another
possible ecological risk. If genes that code for viral resistance are transferred to crops, there is a
potential for transfer to wild plants, creating the potential for the natural development of new plant
viruses of increased severity.
 Chapter 6

1. In plants, the availability of light (PAR) to the leaf triggers photosynthesis. How would an increase in
the amount of PAR affect the rate of photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis refers to the reaction between carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light to
produce carbohydrates and oxygen. The rate of this process is highly dependent on the light quantity;
the photosynthesis rate is higher as the Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR) increases. More light
generally equates to higher levels of photosynthesis. However as the light intensity increases, the
photosynthetic rate eventually reaches a maximum point. This point where the light intensity does not
increase the photosynthesis rate is called the light saturation point. Light saturation point is the point at
which the carbon dioxide output is maximized and at which additional light does not lead to increased
photosynthesis.

2. How would an increase in the rate of cellular respiration influence the rate of net photosynthesis?

The consumption of oxygen by the plant due to cellular respiration is equal to the rate at which oxygen
is produced by photosynthesis thus an increase in cellular respiration would also mean an increase in
the rate of net photosynthesis.

3. What are the light compensation and light saturation points?

The (light) compensation point is the light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis
exactly matches the rate of cellular respiration. Light saturation point point where the light intensity
does not increase the photosynthesis rate is called the light saturation point. Light saturation point is the
point at which the carbon dioxide output is maximized and at which additional light does not lead to
increased photosynthesis.

4. In the relationship between net photosynthesis and available light (PAR) shown in Figure 6.2, there is
a net loss of CO2 by the leaf at levels of light below the light compensation point (LCP). Why does this
occur? Based on this relationship, how do you think net photosynthesis varies over the course of the
day?

At light levels below the compensation point, the rate of carbon loss due to respiration exceeds the rate
of uptake in the process of photosynthesis. It goes up and down so photosynthesis and respiration can
balance.

5. How do plants regulate the trade-off between CO2 uptake and water loss during photosynthesis?

For photosynthesis to take place within the mesophyll cells, CO2 must move from the outside
atmosphere into the leaf. In terrestrial (land) plants, CO2 enters the leaf through openings on its surface
called stomata through the process of diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of a substance from areas of
higher to lower concentration. CO2 diffuses from areas of higher concentration (the air) to areas of
lower concentration (the interior of the leaf). When the concentrations are equal, an equilibrium is
achieved and there is no further net exchange.

Furthermore, two factors control the diffusion of CO2 into the leaf: the diffusion gradient and stomatal
conductance. The diffusion gradient is defined as the difference between the concentration of CO2 in air
adjacent to the leaf and the concentration of CO2 in the leaf interior. While, stomatal conductance is the
flow rate of CO2 through the stomata and has two components: the number of stoma per unit leaf
surface area (stomatal density) and aperture (the size of the stomatal openings). Stomatal aperture is
under plant control, and stomata open and close in response to a variety of environmental and
biochemical factors.

6. How does the availability of CO2 in water limit the photosynthetic rate in aquatic autotrophs?

Just as true for terrestrial plants, in aquatic plants, if the concentration of carbon dioxide is increased,
the rate of photosynthesis will therefore increase and if the concentration of carbon dioxide is
decreased, the rate of photosynthesis will therefore decrease.

7. What is the advantage of the C4 photosynthetic pathway as compared to the conventional C3

pathway? How might these advantages influence where these plant species are found?

In hot and dry environments C4 photosynthesis is more efficient than C3 photosynthesis. This is due to
two reasons. The first one is that the system does not undergo photorespiration, a process that runs
counter to photosynthesis (see below). The second one is that plants can keep their pores shut longer
periods of time, thus avoiding water loss. Because of this, C4 plants dominate nearly all grasslands in the
tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate zones.

8. What is the advantage of a lower LCP for plant species adapted to low-light environments? What is
the cost of maintaining a low LCP?

A lower LCP allows for a lower rate of respiration, which, in turn, lowers the rate of photosynthesis, and
the amount of light required. The disadvantage of a lower LCP is that it limits the maximum rate of
photosynthesis when there is abundant light available.

9. How do plants growing in shaded environments respond developmentally (through phenotypic

plasticity) to increase their photosynthetic surface area?

Plants growing in low light environments are larger in surface area and thinner. This allows for an
increase in light capture.

10. How does a decrease in soil water availability influence the allocation of carbon (photosynthates) to
the production of roots?

As water availability decreases, plants allocate more carbon to producing roots than producing leaves.
This increases water uptake through roots and decreases water loss from leaves.

11. What is the basis for the relationship between leaf nitrogen concentration and rate of net
photosynthesis shown in Figure 6.23c?

Nitrogen is a limiting resource in plant growth. Low nitrogen concentrations limit the maximum rate of
photosynthesis and growth.

12. How could increased leaf longevity (longer-lived leaves) function as an adaptation to low-nutrient
environments?

Leaf growth requires a lot of nutrients. Having long-lived leaves requires less nutrients in the long run.
Having longer-lived leaves means that the plant may not have to allocate its already scarce resources in
making more leaves.
13. For a given stomatal conductance, how will an increase in atmospheric concentrations of CO2
possibly influence the rate of photosynthesis? How might this affect the wateruse efficiency of the
plant?

In higher CO2 environments, the stomata will have to open for a smaller amount of time to diffuse the
same amount of CO2, this allows for less water loss from transpiration. High CO2 environments allow for
a higher rate of carbon gain in photosynthesis compared to carbon lost in respiration. High CO2 will
speed up photosynthesis to a point but too much CO2 will cause photosynthesis to slow.
 Chapter 7

1. What constraints are imposed by a diet of plants as compared to one of animal tissues?

Unlike herbivores, carnivores are not faced with problems relating to digesting cellulose or to the quality
of food. Because the chemical composition of the flesh of prey and the flesh of predators is quite similar,
carnivores encounter no problem in digesting and assimilating nutrients from their prey. Their major
problem is obtaining enough food. Among the carnivores, quantity is more important than quality.
Carnivores rarely have a dietary problem because they consume animals that have resynthesized and
stored protein and other nutrients from plants in their tissues. Because plants and animals have
different chemical compositions, the problem facing herbivores is how to convert plant tissue to animal
tissue. Animals are high in fat and proteins, which they use as structural building blocks. Plants are low
in proteins and high in carbohydrates—many of them in the form of cellulose and lignin in cell walls,
which have a complex structure and are difficult to break down. Nitrogen is a major constituent of
protein. In plants, the ratio of carbon to nitrogen is about 50:1. In animals, the ratio is about 10:1.

Ecosystem must provide abundant plants to sustain herbivores, and many of them spend the majority of
their lives eating to stay alive. If plant availability declines, herbivores may not have enough to eat. This
could cause a decline in herbivore numbers, which would also impact carnivores. Herbivores usually
have special biological systems to digest a variety of different plants.

2. How do organisms cope with variations in the external environment?

When an animal is confronted with changes in its environment, it can respond in one of two ways:
conformity or regulation. In some species, changes in external environmental conditions induce internal
changes in the body that parallel the external conditions. These animals are called conformers.
Conformers are unable to maintain consistent internal conditions such as body fluid salinity or levels of
tissue oxygen. The degree to which conformers can survive in changing environments depends largely
on the tolerance of their body tissues to internal changes brought about by the changes in the external
environment.

While regulators use a variety of biochemical, physiological, morphological, and behavioral mechanisms
to regulate their internal environments over a broad range of external environmental conditions. In
contrast to conformity, regulation may require substantial and energetically expensive changes in
biochemistry, physiology, morphology, and behavior.

3. What is homeostasis?

Homeostasis is the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living
systems. This is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism and includes many variables, such
as body temperature and fluid balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits

4. Describe the mechanism of homeostasis in regulating an organism’s internal environment.

Whatever the processes involved in regulating an organism’s internal environment, homeostasis

depends on negative feedback—meaning that when a system deviates from the normal or desired state,
referred to as the set point, mechanisms function to restore the system to that state. All feedback
systems consist of a parameter or variable that is the focus of regulation and three components:
receptor, integrator, and effector. The receptor measures the internal environment for the variable and
transfers the information to the integrator. The integrator evaluates the information from the receptor
(compares to set point) and determines whether action must be taken by the effector. The effector
functions to modify the internal environment (the variable being regulated).

5. Describe the adaptations of animals (terrestrial and aquatic mammals, amphibians, insects, and fish)
in meeting their demand for oxygen.

All mammals breathe through their lungs. Most amphibians breathe through lungs and their skin. Their
skin has to stay wet in order for them to absorb oxygen so they secrete mucous to keep their skin moist.
In insects, Oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are exchanged through a network of tubes called tracheae
and instead of nostrils, insects breathe through openings in the thorax and abdomen called spiracles.
While for Fishes, they must get their oxygen from the water. This process requires large volumes of
water to pass through absorption surfaces to get enough oxygen into their bodies using their mouths
and gills. These body parts work like a pump to keep water moving over the gas absorption surfaces of
the gills.

6. How do terrestrial animals that inhabit arid regions avoid the effects of drought?

The most universal behavioral adaptation used by small mammals, reptiles, and insects to deal with high
temperatures is staying in the shadow (shade) of plants or rocks, thus avoiding the direct rays of the
Sun. These animals also seek shelter by burrowing into the ground. Another behavioral adaptation used
by desert animals is to remain inactive during the hot daylight hours. They hunt at night when
temperatures are cool and when there is less risk of losing precious body water. Some animals have
developed salt glands, a physical adaptation that allows the secretion of salt without the loss of water.
The absence of sweat glands, and the concentration of urine are other physical adaptations made by
desert animals. Because fat intensifies heat, a unique physical adaptation of some desert animals is the
storage of fat in humps or tails, rather than throughout the entire body.

7. How does the size and shape of an animal’s body influence its ability to exchange heat with the
surrounding environment?

Larger animals have a lower surface area to volume ratio than smaller animals, so they radiate less body
heat per unit of mass, and therefore stay warmer in cold climates.

8. In Figure 7.21, why does mass-specific metabolic rate (metabolic rate per unit weight) of mammals
increase with decreasing body mass?

The smaller the organism, the larger the SA:V ratio, therefore, the greater the relative heat loss to the
surrounding environment. For homeotherms, it is the body mass (or volume) that produces heat
through respiration, while heat is lost to the surrounding environment across the body surface To
maintain a constant body temperature, the heat loss must be offset by increased metabolic activity
(respiration). Thus, small homeotherms have a higher mass-specific metabolic rate and consume more
food energy per unit of body weight than do large ones. Therefore, smaller animals must spend most of
their time seeking and eating food.

9. Why are the largest species of poikilotherms found in the tropical and subtropical regions?

The body temperatures of poikilotherms are entirely dependent on environmental temperature, which
thereby controls their metabolic rates. This means that poikilotherms can only be active when
environmental temperature is moderate, which means that they can do better in these places where
climates are more moderate.

10. How might you expect the average size of mammal species to vary from the tropics to the polar
regions? Why?

It is to be expected that larger animals in the polar regions and smaller ones in the tropics because
smaller animals tend to lose more heat because of their increases surface areas. Larger animals are
therefore more able to conserve heat.

11. Why might it be easier to capture a snake in the early morning rather than the afternoon?

Temperatures are cooler in the morning which lowers the snake's metabolic rate. These temperatures
may be below the snake's operative temperature range, meaning the snake's metabolism is not high
enough for the snake to be active.

12. List the ways in which homeotherms regulate their body heat.

 Circulatory mechanisms, such as altering blood flow patterns

 Insulation, such as fur, fat, or feathers
 Evaporative mechanisms, such as panting and sweating

13. What behaviors help poikilotherms maintain a fairly constant body temperature during their season
of activity?

Poikilotherms can find microclimates to heat or cool themselves, or move into water. They can also
change their conductivity by raising or lowering their bodies to decrease or increase surface area.

14. How does supercooling enable some insects, amphibians, and fish to survive freezing conditions?

Supercooling involves having certain solutes in the body that greatly lower the freezing temperature of
bodily fluids. This means that these animals can shut down their metabolic rates in extreme cold
conditions and still not freeze to death.

15. How do heterothermic insects warm up before flight, and why?

Temperature is crucial to the flight of insects. Most cannot fly if the temperature of the body muscles is
less than 30°C, nor can they fly if muscle temperature is higher than 44°C. This constraint means that an
insect must warm up to take off, and it must get rid of excess heat in flight. With wings beating up to
200 times per second, flying insects can produce a prodigious amount of heat. Some insects, such as
butterflies and dragonflies, warm up by orienting their bodies and spreading their wings to the sun.
Most warm up by shivering their flight muscles in the thorax.Moths and butterflies vibrate their wings to
raise thoracic temperatures above ambient temperatures. Bumblebees pump their abdomens without
any external wing movements. They do not maintain any physiological set point, and they cool down to
ambient temperatures when not in flight.

16. Distinguish between hibernation and torpor.

Torpor involves physiological changes related especially to body temperature, metabolism, and water
balance. Hibernation is when an organism spends the winter in a state of dormancy; it is long-term
multiday torpor for survival of cold condition.

17. Consider a population of fish living below a power plant that is discharging heated water. The plant
shuts down for three days in the winter. How would that affect the fish?

The said fishes will employ supercooling by increasing solutes, notably glycerol, in body fluids. Glycerol
protects against freezing damage, increasing the degree of supercooling. Supercooling of body fluids
takes place when the body temperature falls below the freezing point without actually freezing. The
presence of certain solutes in the body that function to lower the freezing point of water influences the
amount of supercooling that can take place
 Chapter 8

1. How does asexual reproduction make it difficult to define what constitutes an individual within a
population?

Some animal populations are modular. As in plants, for example, these populations may consist of
sexually produced parent plants and asexually produced stems arising from roots. A similar population
structure occurs in animal species that exhibit modular growth. Technically, to study populations of
modular organisms, we must recognize two levels of population structure: the module (ramet) and the
individual (genet). As such, characterizing the population structure of a modular species presents special
problems. For practical purposes, ramets are often counted as—and function as—individual members of
the population. Modern genetic techniques, however, have allowed ecologists to determine the
structure of these populations in terms of genets and ramets, quantifying the patterns of genetic
diversity.

2. (a) What is an endemic species?

Endemic species are plants and animals that exist only in one geographic region. Species can be endemic
to large or small areas of the earth: some are endemic to a particular continent, some to part of a
continent, and others to a single island.

(b) Why are individuals not distributed equally within the geographic range of a population?

Within the geographic range of a population, individuals are not distributed equally. Individuals occupy
only those areas that can meet their requirements (suitable habitat). Because organisms respond to a
variety of environmental factors, they can inhabit only those locations where all factors fall within their
range of tolerance. As a result of environmental heterogeneity, most populations are divided into
subpopulations, each occupying suitable habitat patches of various shapes and sizes within the larger
landscape of unsuitable habitat.

(c) What are the different types of spatial patterns by which individuals within a population may be
distributed?

Patterns of the spatial distribution for individuals within a population: random, uniform, and clumped.
Examples include (a) random, flowering plants in meadow; (b) uniform, nesting shorebirds; and (c)
clumped, school of marine fish.

Individuals may be distributed randomly if each individual’s position is independent of those of the
others.

A uniform distribution usually results from some form of negative interaction among individuals, such as
competition, which functions to maintain some minimum distance among members of the population

Clumping results from a variety of factors. For example, suitable habitat or other resources may be
distributed as patches on the larger landscape

(d) What is ecological density?

Because landscapes are not homogeneous, not all of the area is suitable habitat. The number of
organisms in available living space is the true or ecological density. Ecological density is the number of
individuals per unit of available living space.

3. The age structure of a population can provide insight into whether the population is growing or
declining. The presence of a large number of individuals in the young age classes relative to the older
age classes often indicates a growing population. In contrast, a large proportion of individuals in the
older age classes relative to the young age classes suggests a population in decline (see Figure 8.18).
What factors might invalidate this interpretation? When might a large number of individuals in the
young age classes relative to the older age classes not indicate a growing population?

A large number of individuals in the young age classes relative to the older age classes might not
indicate a growing population when the mortality rate of these individuals far exceeds the natality rate
that they can produce.

4. Modern humans are a highly mobile species. Think of three locations in your local community that
might be used as areas for estimating the population density. How might the daily movement pattern of
people in your community change the estimate of density at these locations during the course of the
day?
 Chapter 9

1. What is the difference between a discrete (ΔN/Δt) and continuous (dN/dt) model of population
growth? What is the difference between geometric and exponential growth?

Discrete model represents that the species may breed only at a specific time usually at a particular time
of the year. Whereas, continuous model exhibits how individuals of a population show a continuous
breeding season.

Geometric population growth is when the data is described over discrete time intervals. Exponential
growth is the growth over continuous generations.

Exponential (or geometric) growth is characteristic of populations inhabiting favorable environments at

low population densities, such as during the process of colonization and establishment in new
environments

2. What is a life table? What is the purpose of constructing such tables?

Life Tables Provide a Schedule of Age-Specific Mortality and Survival. Life tables are used to examine
systematic patterns of mortality and survivorship within animal and plant populations. Furthermore, life
tables are used to measure mortality, survivorship, and the life expectancy of a population at varying
ages.

3. What is crude birthrate, and how can this estimate be improved?

Crude birthrate is a standard convention in demography (the study of populations) which expresses
birthrates as births per 1000 individuals of a population per unit of time. This figure is obtained by
dividing the number of births that occurred during some period of time (typically a year) by the
estimated population size at the beginning of the time period and multiplying the resulting number by
1000.

This estimate of birthrate can be improved by taking two important factors into account. First, in a
sexually dimorphic population (separate male and female individuals), only females within the
population give birth. Second, the birthrate of females generally varies with age. Therefore, a better way
of expressing birthrate is the number of births per female of age x.

4. In what way does the net reproductive rate help to evaluate the fitness and the population
consequences of specific life history characteristics?

Birthrate and Survivorship Determine Net Reproductive Rate. Because the value of R0 (net reproductive
rate) is a function of the age-specific patterns of birth and survivorship, it is a product of the life history
characteristics: the allocation of resources to reproduction, the timing of reproduction, the trade-off
between the size and number of offspring produced, and the degree of parental care. The net
reproductive rate (R0), therefore, provides a means of evaluating both the individual (fitness) and the
population consequences of specific life history characteristics.

5. To use a life table to project population growth, what assumption must be made regarding the age-
specific rates of survival (sx)?

construct current ASDRs by sex, using population denominators??

6. What is the purpose of calculating a population projection table?

The population projection table provides future estimates of both population density and age structure.
The population projection table demonstrates two important concepts of population growth:

(1) the rate of population growth, is a function of the age-specific rates of survival (sx) and birth (bx),
and

(2) the constant rate of increase of the population from year to year and the stable age distribution are
results of survival and birthrates for each age class that are constant through time.

7. How can the finite growth multiplier be used to predict future values of population density, N(t)?

8. What environmental factors might result in random yearly variations in the rates of survival and birth
within a population?

inter and intra specific competitions, availability of food, space, natural disasters and of the like.

9. Identify two factors that could possibly cause a population to decline to extinction. How might
population size influence the impact of these factors?

Extreme environmental events, such as droughts, floods, or extreme temperatures (heat waves or
frosts), can increase mortality rates and reduce population size. Should the environmental conditions
exceed the bounds of tolerance for the species, the event could well lead to extinction. A severe
shortage of resources, caused by either environ mental extremes (as discussed previously) or
overexploitation, could result in a sharp population decline and possible extinction should the resource
base not recover in time to al low. The introduction of a novel predator, competitor, or parasite
(disease) can increase mortality rates, having a devastating effect on the target population and causing
population decline or even extinction. for adequate reproduction by survivors.

10. Why are small populations more susceptible to extinction

Small populations are more susceptible to extinction because (1) all populations fluctuate in size from
time to time, under the influence deterministic and stochastic factors; and (2) small populations, unlike
big ones, stand a good chance of fluctuation to zero, since it is nearing to zero (number of an extinct
population). Small populations also tend to have a more limited genetic variability as compared to larger
populations.
 Chapter 10

1. What are some of the costs associated with reproduction, and how might they function to limit future
reproduction by the individual?

Higher investment in current reproduction hinders growth and survivorship and reduces future
reproduction, while investments in growth will pay off with higher fecundity (number of offspring
produced) and reproductive episodes in the future; allocating too many resources to reproduction
causes short lifespans; over-investment in current reproduction lowers residual reproductive value

2. (a) What are hermaphrodites? Distinguish between simultaneous hermaphrodites and sequential
hermaphrodites.

A hermaphrodite is an organism that has complete or partial reproductive organs and produces gametes
normally associated with both male and female sexes. Simultaneous hermaphroditism is when the same
organism has both the male and female sex organs and produces both types of gametes. Sequential
hermaphroditism means that an organism switches from its inborn sex to the opposite sex, a
development observed primarily in certain fish and gastropods.

(b) Distinguish between fecundity and reproductive effort.

Fecundity is a measure of the number of offspring produced by an organism over time. It is also called
the reproductive rate of an organism. Fecundity is measured by the number of offspring that are created
successfully.

Reproductive effort is defined as that proportion of the total energy budget of an organism that is
devoted to reproductive processes. Reproductive effort at a given age within a species will be selected
to maximize reproductive value at that age.

3. What is the trade-off between the number and size of offspring produced for a given reproductive
effort? How is this influenced by the level of parental care?

investing more per offspring results in fewer but larger offspring . organisms that tend to produce a high
number of offspring would give a much more minimal effort in as compared to a relatively lesser
number of offspring. minimal parental care also tend to have shorter lifespan

4. What is reproductive success, and how can it be calculated for plants producing seeds of a given size
in both wet and dry environments?

Reproductive success is defined as an individual's production of offspring per breeding event or lifetime.
This is not limited by the number of offspring produced by one individual, but also the reproductive
success of these offspring themselves. Reproductive success is different from fitness in that individual
success is not necessarily a determinant for adaptive strength of a genotype since the effects of chance
and the environment have no influence on those specific genes

Reproductive success can be computed for plants producing seeds of different size in two different
weather environments by determining which seed size has the most success at a particular
environment.

5. What conditions favor semelparity over iteroparity?

Semelparity and iteroparity are two contrasting reproductive strategies available to living organisms. A
species is considered semelparous if it is characterized by a single reproductive episode before death,
and iteroparous if it is characterized by multiple reproductive cycles over the course of its lifetime.

Conditions favor semelparity when the cost of surviving between broods is very high and there is a large
tradeoff between fecundity and survivorship;

Conditions favor iteroparity when infant morality is high, when parents are not present to raise their
young, and established individuals have higher rates of surviving

6. Describe how engaging in extra-pair relationships helps the fitness of a female monogamous bird?

Among many species of monogamous birds, the female or male may “cheat” by engaging in extra-pair
copulations while maintaining the reproductive relationship with the primary mate and caring for the
young. By engaging in extrapair relationships, the female may increase her fitness by rearing young sired
by two or more males. Having two sires means the young are well taken care of that the parents procure
less energy finding for food. Moreover, the male increases his fitness by producing offspring with several
females.

7. How might female preference for a male trait (sexual selection), such as coloration or body size, drive
selection in a direction counter to that of natural selection?

In the process of intersexual selection, the targets of selection are characteristics in males such as bright
or elaborate plumage, vocalizations used in sexual displays, and the elaboration of some of the same
characteristics related to intrasexual selection (such as horns and antlers). It is a form of assortative
mating in which the female selects a mate based on specific phenotypic characteristics. There is intense
rivalry among males for female attention. In the end, the female determines the winner, selecting an
individual as a mate. The result is an increase in relative fitness for those males that are chosen, shifting
the distribution of male phenotypes in favor of the characteristics on which female choice is based.

8. Contrast intrasexual selection and intersexual selection.

Intrasexual selection involves male-to-male (or in some cases, female-to-female) competition for the
opportunity to mate. It leads to exaggerated secondary sexual characteristics such as large size,
aggressiveness, and organs of threat, such as antlers and horns (Figure 10.21), that aid in competition
for access to mates.

Whereas, In the process of intersexual selection, the targets of selection are characteristics in males
such as bright or elaborate plumage, vocalizations used in sexual displays, and the elaboration of some
of the same characteristics related to intrasexual selection (such as horns and antlers). It is a form of
assortative mating in which the female selects a mate based on specific phenotypic characteristics.
There is intense rivalry among males for female attention. In the end, the female determines the winner,
selecting an individual as a mate. The result is an increase in relative fitness for those males that are
chosen, shifting the distribution of male phenotypes in favor of the characteristics on which female
choice is based.
9. What is the difference between r-selected and K-selected organisms? Which strategy would you
expect to be more prevalent in unpredictable environments (high stochastic variation in conditions)?

r-selected species are defined as those present in fluctuating environments that have large numbers of
offspring and do not provide long-term care after birth. K-selected species possess relatively stable
populations fluctuating near the carrying capacity of the environment. These species are characterized
by having only a few offspring but investing high amounts of parental care.

In an more unpredictable environment, r-selected species are better suited.

10. How have patterns of birthrates and death rates for the human population changed over the past
two centuries, and how have these changes influenced patterns of population growth?